11 Answers to end-of-chapter questions

Multiple choice questions

1 D [1]
2 B [1]
3 C [1]
4 A [1]
5 B [1]
6 C [1]
7 B [1]
8 D [1]
9 B [1]
10 C [1]

Structured questions
11 a i • First line of defence against invading organisms to
eliminate them and prevent infection
• Antigen-nonspecific defence mechanisms that a host
uses immediately on exposure to antigen/response is
same for all pathogens
• There is no memory or lasting protective
immunity/resistance to disease is unchanged after
infection 2–3 points [1]

ii • Physical barriers – epidermis of skin, mucous

membranes
• Chemical factors – lysozyme, complement proteins,
histamines
• Phagocytic cells – neutrophils, monocytes and
macrophages
• Cells that release inflammatory compounds – basophils,
mast cells and eosinophils Each example [1]
• Any valid point Max [2]

b i Histamine [1]

ii • Causes cells of capillary wall to pull away from each

other/capillaries become ‘leaky’/diapedesis [1]
• Relaxes the smooth muscles of arterioles causing
increased blood flow to area [1]

iii Cell 1 – neutrophil

Cell 2 – monocyte 2–3 correct [2]
Cell 3 – macrophage 1 point [1]

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 iv • Attract the phagocytes (neutrophil, monocyte,
macrophage) to the site of infection by a process called
chemotaxis
• Destroys bacteria by making holes in them/lysis
• Coat/tags the bacteria so phagocytosis can take
place/opsonisation Each example [1]
• Causes local vasodilation Max [3]

v • Second line of defence against invading organisms to

eliminate them and prevent infection
• Antigen-specific defence mechanism which involves
humoral and cell mediated immunity
• Involves the formation of antibodies and cytokines
secreted by B- and T-lymphocytes
• There is lasting protective immunity/resistance to
disease improves after infection Point 2 + any other [1]

vi • Ingests pathogen and digests it

• Pieces of antigen are displayed on the cell surface of
macrophage in grooves within MHC proteins
• Acts as antigen presenting cells (APC)
• The displayed antigens on the APCs are shown to T-
helper cells
• Appropriate T-helper cells selected 5–6 points [3]
• T-helper activates appropriate B-cells – clone selected 3–4 points [2]
which produce antibodies 1–2 points [1]

12 a Plasma/effector cells [1]

b See Figure 11.9 in Biology Unit 2 for CAPE® Examinations 6–7 correct labels [3]
4–5 correct labels [2]
2–3 points [1]

c • Hinge region: gives molecule flexibility/allows molecule to

bind to more than one epitope/antigen/pathogen [1]
• Disulphide bonds: hold two heavy chains together/hold
heavy and light chains together/maintain the quaternary
structure of the molecule/maintain the shape of the
molecule [1]

d • To bind to different antigens

• Specific to antigen/complementary shape/lock and key Well explained [1]

e i • Any substance that when introduced into the blood or

tissue induces the production of antibodies
• Foreign substance which stimulates an immune
response/production of antibodies Any point [1]

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 ii Living:
• Antibody response/primary response would be greater
• More memory cells produced/lifelong protection [1]

Attenuated:
• Would not cause disease/no harm/lack of symptoms of
disease [1]

f i • No memory cells to detect antigen

• Time taken for degradation and presentation of antigen
by APC to T- and B-cells
• Time taken for specific clone to be selected
• Time taken for clonal expansion
• Time taken for the plasma cells to differentiate 3–4 points [2]
• And produce antibodies 1–2 points [1]

ii • Primary response is slower than secondary response

• Primary response is smaller than secondary response
• Secondary response remains higher after 40 days Any 2 points [2]

iii • Secondary response is faster because of many memory

cells present
• Memory cells have to go through fewer differentiations
to form plasma cells
• More antibodies produced because many memory cells Each example [1]
were present to stimulate many plasma cells production Max [2]

13 a i • Natural: acquired through disease/illness [1]

• Artificial: achieved through injections/given
intentionally [1]

ii With active immunity, the antigen enters body and

antibody production is stimulated. In passive immunity,
antibodies are supplied directly to the body. [2]

b
Example Type of immunity
Baby feeding on breast milk Natural passive
Child exposed to a friend with chicken pox Natural active
Receiving the MMR vaccine as a child Artificial active
Receiving the H1N1 vaccine as an adult Artificial active
Getting an emergency tetanus injection after Artificial passive Each point [1]
stepping on a rusty nail Max [5]

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 c • Vaccine contains antigen
• Antigen activates the immune response
• Memory cells (both T and B) would be made, which
remain in circulation in body Each point [1]
• When infected again, secondary response would be faster Max [4]

d • Given an anti-venom/specific antibodies to toxin

• Through injection 2–3 points [2]
• Provides immediate protection 1 point [1]

Essay questions

14 a • Amoeboid cells that circulate in the blood

• Squeeze through the gaps in capillary walls
• Move rapidly to the site of infection
• By chemotaxis
• Engulf antigen <250 nm in a vesicle
• Lysosomes fuse to vesicles
• Kills and digest pathogens
• Enzymes/hydrolases/hydrogen peroxide digest pathogens 5–6 points [3]
• Some form a network of cells which are concentrated in 3–4 points [2]
organs such as liver, lung, spleen, kidney 1–2 points [1]

b • Defence reaction which recognises the intrusion of foreign

material/antigen/non-self [1]
• Mobilises cells and cell products to remove the foreign
material with great speed and effectiveness [1]

c i • Form in bone marrow from stem cells by mitosis

• Migrate to thymus to develop
• Variant genes code for specific surface receptor
• Each T-cell has specific receptor/wide range of T-cells
• T-cells are presented to body’s own antigen in MHC
proteins
• If they bind to the MHC-antigen complex, they are 3–4 points [2]
killed 1–2 points [1]
• Those that survive can have CD4 or CD8 receptors

ii • APC presents antigen/epitope to T-helper cells

• Epitope and specific T-cell receptor are complementary
• Clonal selection 5 points [3]
• Followed clonal expansion/mitosis of specific T-cell 3–4 points [2]
• T-cells secrete cytokines 1–2 points [1]

d i • APC cells present antigen to B-cells

• Clonal selection
• Clonal expansion
• T-helper cells secrete cytokines
• B-cells stimulated to divide by mitosis and differentiate
into plasma and memory cells 6–7 points [3]
• Antibodies secreted into blood 4–5 points [2]
• Memory cells remain and circulate in blood 2–3 points [1]

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 ii • Produced during first exposure to antigen
• Remain in circulation for a long time/long-term
protection
• During second exposure to antigen, differentiate
quickly to form plasma cells and more memory cells
• Cause faster production and greater concentration of 3–4 points [2]
antibodies 1–2 points [1]

15 a i Molecule that is produced in response to a specific

pathogen [1]

ii See Figure 11.9 in Biology Unit 2 for CAPE®

Examinations

Annotations for drawing:

• Hinge region: gives molecule flexibility/allows
molecule to bind to more than one epitope
• Disulphide bonds: hold two heavy chains together/hold
heavy and light chains together
• Binding site: formed from heavy and light
chains/attaches to antigen/complementary to antigen
• Constant region: contains site for binding to
phagocyte/amino acid sequence same in all antibodies
• Variable region: different amino sequence in each
antibody Diagram [2]
• Heavy chain: made up of polypeptide/runs the length of 3–4 annotations [2]
antibody No annotations but
• Light chain: shorter than heavy chain 4 correct labels [1]

iii • Variable region of antibody attaches to epitope of

bacteria/complementary binding
• Can immobilise bacteria by attaching to the flagella
• Agglutinate bacteria by sticking them together in
clumps
• Opsonisation: tagging bacteria for
neutrophils/phagocytes
• Lysis – make membrane channels, allowing water into
bacteria Point 1 [1]
• Prevent entry into cells Any other 2 points [1]
• Neutralise toxins released Max [2]

b i • Single pure antibody/produced single clone of B-cells [1]

• Which combines to a specific epitope [1]

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 ii Diagnosis:
• Detection of HCG/pregnancy
• Diseases such as Chlamydia, streptococcal throat
infections, Herpes virus 1 and Herpes virus 2
• Blood typing for transfusions
• Tissue typing
• Identification and location of some types of cancers
(colon, rectum, ovary)
• Any valid point 2 points [1]

Treatment:
• Treat B-cell lymphoma
• Colorectal cancers
• Any valid point 2 points [1]

iii • Detects HCG in urine

• Newly pregnant woman produces HCG
• HCG is excreted in urine
• B-cells specific for making antibodies for HCG are
cloned
• Antibodies immobilised on a strip of paper
• Pregnant woman urinates on the paper
• If pregnant, antibody-antigen would bind
• Coloured lines would be produced if test is positive Any 4 points [4]

16 a
Humoral Cell-mediated
• Involves B-cells • Involves T-cells
• Antibodies secreted into blood • Different types of T-cells
involved/whole cell interaction
• Any valid point • Any valid point [3]

Biology Unit 2 for CAPE® Examinations Original material © Cambridge University Press 2011 6
 b

7 points in
sequence [7]
6 points [6]
5 points [5]
4 points [4]
3 points [3]
2 points [2]
1 point [1]

c Clonal selection:
• Each B-cell has a specific receptor on its surface
• Each T-helper cell has a specific receptor on its surface
• When T-helper cell is presented with antigen by APC, only
T-helper cell with complementary receptor to antigen is
selected
• Similar for B-cell
• Any correct answer: antigen can be in its native form or in
APC for B-cell 3 points [3]

Clonal expansion:
• When specific B- or T-cells are selected, under mitosis
• To form clones 2 points [2]

Biology Unit 2 for CAPE® Examinations Original material © Cambridge University Press 2011 7