Educ 104 Reviewer 1

The following definitions apply to the 13 categories of exceptionality as defined by IDEA (listed in
alphabetical
order):
1) Autism - a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and
social
interaction, generally evident before age 3 that adversely affects a child's educational performance.
Other
characteristics often associated with autism are engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped
movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to
sensory
experiences. The term does not apply if a child's educational performance is adversely affected primarily
because the child has an emotional disturbance.
2) Deaf-blindness – a concomitant hearing and visual impairments, the combination of which causes
such
severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be
accommodated in
special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness.
3) Deafness - a hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is impaired in processing linguistic
information through hearing; with or without amplification that adversely affects a child's educational
performance.
4) Emotional disturbance - a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a
long
period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child's educational performance:
a) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.
b) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.
c) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.
d) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
e) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems. The
term includes schizophrenia. The term does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it
is determined that they have an emotional disturbance.

5) Hearing impairment - an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely
affects a
child's educational performance but that is not included under the definition of deafness in this section.
6) Mental retardation -a significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently

with
deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the developmental period, that adversely affects a
child's educational performance.
7) Multiple disabilities - a concomitant impairments (such as mental retardation-blindness, mental

retardationorthopedic impairment, etc.), the combination of which causes such severe educational
needs that they
cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for one of the impairments. The term
does not
include deaf-blindness.
8) Orthopedic impairment - a severe orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a child's educational
performance. The term includes impairments caused by congenital anomaly (e.g., clubfoot, absence of
some
member, etc.), impairments caused by disease (e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis, etc.), and
impairments
from other causes (e.g., cerebral palsy, amputations, and fractures or burns that cause contractures).
9) Other health impairment - having limited strength, vitality or alertness, including a heightened
alertness to
environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment,
thata) Is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning,
leukemia,
nephritis, rheumatic fever, and sickle cell anemia;
b) and Adversely affects a child's educational performance.
10) Specific learning disability - a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved
in
understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to
listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as
perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia.
a) Disorders not included: The term does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of
visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of
environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.
11) Speech or language impairment - a communication disorder, such as stuttering, impaired

articulation,
language impairment, or a voice impairment, that adversely affects a child's educational performance.
12) Traumatic brain injury - an acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force,
resulting in
total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or both, that adversely affects a child's
educational performance. The term applies to open or closed head injuries resulting in impairments in
one or
more areas, such as cognition; language; memory; attention; reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment;
problem-solving; sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities; psychosocial behavior; physical functions;
information processing; and speech. The term does not apply to brain injuries that are congenital or
degenerative, or to brain injuries induced by birth trauma.
13) Visual impairment including blindness - an impairment in vision that, even with correction,
adversely affects
a child's educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and blindness.
Special education services are provided according to the primary educational needs of the child, not the
category of disability. The types of services available are (1) learning support, for students who primarily
need
assistance with the acquisition of academic skills; (2) life skills support, for students who primarily need
assistance with development of skills for independent living; (3) emotional support, for students who
primarily
need assistance with social or emotional development; (4) deaf or hearing impaired support, for
students who
primarily need assistance with deafness; (5) blind or visually impaired support, for students who
primarily need
assistance with blindness: (6) physical support, for students who primarily require physical assistance in
the
learning environment; (7) autistic support, for students who primarily need assistance in the areas
affected by
autism spectrum disorders; and (8) multiple disabilities support, for students who primarily need
assistance in
multiple areas affected by their disabilities.
Related services are designed to enable the child to participate in or access his or her program of special
education. Examples of related services are speech and language therapy, occupational therapy,
physical
therapy, nursing services, audiologist services, counseling, and family training.
Legal Bases of Special Education in the US
A beautiful part of being human is that we are all unique. Some individuals are exceptional. Individuals
with exceptionalities deviate from the norm to such an extent that special educational services are
required. From 1827 to 1975, a total of 175 federal laws (US) addressing individuals with disabilities
were enacted; 61 of these laws were passed between March 1970 and March 1975. Since then, there
have been a few landmark legislations that have greatly affected the opportunities of individuals with
disabilities and exceptionalities.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
- Originally called the Education of All Handicapped Act, was passed by President Gerald Ford in
1975.
- make sure all handicapped children had a free appropriate public education available to them
which would meet each of their individual needs
- assure the right of handicapped children and their parent(s)/guardian(s) are protected
- assist states and localities to provide for the education of all handicapped children
- assess and assure the effectiveness of efforts to educate handicapped children
There are 6 major components to this legislation:
1.) Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE)
In order to receive federal funds, states must develop and implement policies the assure FAPE to all
children with disabilities. All children, regardless of disability, must be provided with an education
appropriate to their unique needs at no cost to the parent(s)/guardian(s). Children are also to receive
any related services needed in order to benefit from special education. Some examples of related
services are physical and occupational therapy, psychological services, mobility services, speech-
language pathology services, and many more.
2.) Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)

Putting a child in the least restrictive environment simply means he or she should be placed in a setting
that is as closely equal to a general education classroom as possible and still meet the special needs of
the child. This is based on each individual child. A regular classroom with modifications and supported
service available is the least restrictive environment and is available for children with disabilities that are
not too severe. A regular classroom plus special resource room or a full-time special class is the least
restrictive environment for children with disabilities that are more severe. Hospitals and treatment
centers are for children with the most severe disabilities.
3.) Individualized Education Program (IEP)
Every child, who receives special services, must have an IEP. It is an educational program designed to
meet the child’s individual needs. An IEP meeting must be held within 30 days after it is determined that
the child has a disability listed within IDEA. It is developed by an IEP team which includes key school
staff members and the child's parents. The IEP includes how the child id currently doing in school and
how the child's disability affects his or her involvement and understanding of the general curriculum,
learning goals for the child, to which degree the child will be able to participate in general education
programs, how much of the day will the child be separated from the activities of children without
disabilities, what special services will be provided to the child, and how or if the child will participate in
state and district wide assessment.
4.) Procedural Due Process
These are safeguards in relation to the child's education. It requires for the child's records to be
confidential. It also enables parents to be allowed to access the child's records at any time, states
parents are to receive notice of any changes made in the educational plan for their child, and gives
parents the right to obtain independent evaluation if they are not pleased with the school. Parents can
also obtain an impartial hearing when disagreements occur between them and the school;
furthermore, they also have the right to representation by legal counsel.
5.) Non-discriminatory Assessment
Before a child can be placed, he or she must be tested for a disability. Tests cannot be racially,
culturally, or linguistically biased. Assessments can include tests, observations, medical information, or
interviews.
6.) Parental Participation
Parents are require to participate in the decision-making process that affects their child's education.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act
This was signed by George W. Bush on December 3, 2004. It requires that special education be aligned
with national school improvement efforts. Changes were once again made to IEP. Short term objectives
or benchmarks are no longer required, except for students evaluated with alternative assessment with
alternative achievement standards. Some IEP team members could be excused from a meeting if
parents and school district members agreed the person’s attendance was not necessary. However, each
member must submit written input for IEP before a meeting. Parents now also have alternatives to be at
meetings, such as video conferencing or conference phone calls. Parents, along with the school districts
consent, are also able to choose multiyear IEP re-evaluations for their child. This means a child's IEP plan
can last up to 3 years without revision. ITP changed once again from age 14 to when a student's first IEP
is established after age 16. ITPs must also be updated yearly. Also, requirements for postsecondary goals
must now be addressed.
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act
The Rehabilitation Act of 1973, is a civil rights law. Section 504 of this enactment was the first public law
specifically aimed at protecting children and adults against discrimination due to a disability. It states
that no individual can be excluded from any program or activity that receives federal funding
assistance. Unlike IDEA, which is a categorical model, 504 has a more functional model for determining a
disability. Individuals are eligible for services if they:
1.) have a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more life activities
The life activities this covers are broad but include the following: hearing, seeing, walking, working, and
learning. Schools are required to make reasonable accommodations for students with a disability. The
accommodations may include the following: modifications of the general education program,
assignment of aide, behavior management plans, or the provision of special study areas.
2.) have a record of such an impairment
3.) are regarded as having such an impairment by others.
Instead of developing an IEP for students, 504 develops the "504 plan". A "504 plan" includes a
statement on the student’s strengths and weaknesses, a list of necessary accommodations for the
student, and the individuals responsible for ensuring the plan is executed. A "504 plan" also covers the
person’s life span. An IEP only covers ages 3 to 21.
Americans with Disabilities Act
The Americans with Disabilities Act was passed by President George H. W. Bush on July 26, 1990. Its
purpose is to "provide clear, strong, consistent, and enforceable standards prohibiting discrimination
against individuals with disabilities without respect for their age, nature, or extent of disability". ADA
even embraces those with AIDS, individuals who have successfully completed a substance abuse
program, and people with cosmetic disfigurements. Really, this act covers any person with an
impairment that affects major life activity. Thanks to ADA, requirements have been made which make
places more accessible to individuals with disabilities. This legislation includes the following:
- Employers of fifteen or more workers must make "reasonable accommodations" so that an

otherwise qualified individual with a disability is not discriminated against.
- Mass transit systems must be accessible to citizens with disabilities.
- Hotels, fast food restaurants, theatres, hospitals, early childhood centers, banks, dentists'
offices, retail stores, and the like may not discriminate against individuals with disabilities. These
facilities must be accessible, or alternative means for providing services must be available.
- Companies that provide telephone service must offer relay services to individuals with hearing
or speech impairments.
Comparisons of IDEA, 504, and ADA
IDEA 504 ADA
Provides a free appropriate Prohibits discrimination against Extends the coverage of Section
public education and keeps individuals with disabilities in 504 to employment, public and
children in the least restrictive programs and activities that private schools, transportation
environment receive federal financial services, and
assistance telecommunications whether or
not they receive federal funding
Disabilities are categorized in to Uses a more functional model Lines up with 504, but it also
13 different categories. Special instead of a categorical model. extends its coverage to people
services are granted to any Defines a person with a disability who do not necessarily have a
student with a disability that fitsas 1. a person with a physical or disability but are associated with
into one of the categories. mental impairment that limits a a disability. It covers those with
major life activity 2. has record HIV and cosmetic
of such impairment or 3. is disfigurements.
regarded as having an
Covers ages 3-21 impairment
Covers life span
Offers services available to all Covers life span
children but also services that It eliminates barriers as 504
meet the child's specific need as Eliminates any barriers that does. It also ensures the not only
listed on the child's IEP would keep a child from schools but many other facilities
participating in any general make accommodations for those
education programs or activities with disabilities
Autism
Autism, as defined by Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), refers to “a developmental
disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally
evident before age three, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.” This federal
definition then proceeds to name traits commonly related to the condition: “Other characteristics often
associated with autism are engaging in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to
environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences. The
term autism does not apply if the child’s educational performance is adversely affected primarily
because the child has an emotional disturbance, as defined in [IDEA].”
IDEA rounds out its definition by noting that a child who shows the characteristics of autism after age
three could be diagnosed as having autism if the criteria above are satisfied. This enables a child to
receive special education services under this classification if he or she develops signs of autism after his
or her third birthday. Typically a psychiatrist, clinical psychologist, physician or other highly qualified
professional makes the diagnosis. It would not be uncommon for the evaluation team to suspect Autism,
then ask the parent to see a psychiatrist, clinical psychologist or appropriately trained pediatrician.
Common Traits
Before getting into common traits associated with autism, understanding a little background is helpful.
The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY) acknowledges that the phrase
“autism spectrum disorder” is gaining momentum because it better captures the similarities between
autism and other conditions that fall under this category. This term applies to five subcategories: autism,
Asperger syndrome, Rett syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder and Pervasive Developmental
Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (PDDNOS).
NICHCY explains that a particular case’s traits determine the exact diagnosis. These characteristics fall
into three major areas: social interaction, behavior and communication. Such characteristics might
include the following.
 Unusual fixation (for instance, only playing with round toys)
 Inability to focus without first completing a routine
 Disruptive behavior when ordinary schedule is interrupted
 Unusual communication habits (from not talking at all to repeating certain phrases)
 Difficulty understanding social interactions
Educational Challenges
Due to the aforementioned traits, educating a student with a condition that falls within the autism
spectrum proves challenging. Students with autism often face academic barriers such as:
 Trouble following directions
 Hampered ability to communicate
 Disinterest
 Disruptive behavioral problems
Tips for Teachers and Parents
Multiple dynamics factor into effectively educating children with autism. Both NICHCY and Oklahoma’s
State Department of Education advise giving directions one step at a time, utilizing various cues to
reiterate instructions. For example, give directions on how to fold a piece of paper by verbalizing the
steps while demonstrating how to do so; do each step individually, followed by the student imitating
each step; do not integrate all the steps until each is mastered.
Assistive technology can reduce communication issues. Teachers, to combat disinterest, learn what
intrigues your student so that you can grab his or her attention. For instance, if a student is heavily
fixated on airplanes but uninterested in math, write word problems that incorporate situations relating
to airplanes.
Teachers, getting to know a student can help you avoid disruptive behavior. Find out what calms your
student and what riles up him or her. Parents you can assist here by providing such knowledge to your
kid’s teachers. After all, who is better suited to help teachers to learn about your child?
Deaf-blindness
Deaf-blindness refers to a child with both hearing and visual disabilities. The Individual with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) officially defines the term as “concomitant [simultaneous] hearing and visual
impairments, the combination of which causes such severe communication and other developmental
and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for
children with deafness or children with blindness.”
According to National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (abbreviated as NICHCY), deaf-
blindness does not necessarily mean complete losses. NICHCY’s fact sheet on this disability category
states, “the word ‘deaf-blindness’ may seem as if a person cannot hear or see at all. The term actually
describes a person who has some degree of loss in both vision and hearing. The amount of loss in either
vision or hearing will vary from person to person.”
Common Traits
The American Association of the Deaf-Blind notes that about half of individuals with deaf-blindness in
the United States have a genetic condition called Usher Syndrome. In these cases a child may be born
deaf, hard of hearing or with normal hearing; eventually, however, he or she loses both vision and
hearing.
Aside from genetic conditions, causes for deaf-blindness include birth trauma, illness and injury. Possible
illnesses and injuries which may lead to deaf-blindness include stroke, meningitis and head trauma.
The educational challenges related to deaf-blindness vary based upon a student’s individual needs. Two
main areas of education affected by deaf-blindness are reading and communicating, creating the
following potential issues:
 Understanding classroom lectures
 Participating in class discussions
 Presenting oral reports
 Fulfilling reading assignments
Teachers, overcoming the aforementioned educational challenges entails knowing your student’s
individual abilities. Does your student possess enough vision to use American Sign Language or read
lips? Will large-print textbooks work or does the student read using braille? Get the answers to these
questions!
Parents, Oklahoma’s State Department of Education emphasizes the power of touch. Through touch an
individual can learn and gain perspective on different objects, and you can use touch cues to enhance
your child’s academic pursuits. Touch cues involve touching your child in a consistent way to effectively
communicate; for instance, a pat on the shoulder lets your son or daughter know, “Good job.” Sharing
such cues with your child’s teacher should assist in improving communication in the classroom.
Deafness
An inability to comprehend verbal language due to an inability to hear characterizes deafness. The
official definition of deafness from the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is “a hearing
impairment that is so severe that the child is impaired in processing linguistic information through
hearing, with or without amplification.” The phrase “with or without amplification” is significant as
it indicates that a hearing aid will not provide sufficient accommodation so that the student can succeed
in the classroom.
Common Traits
Hearing loss varies in severity; however, as IDEA’s definition specifies, deafness entails the most severe
cases. Impairments can affect the ability to hear intensity (loudness, measured in decibels),
pitch (frequency, measured in hertz) or both. Typically hearing loss above 90 decibels is considered
deafness, according to National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY).
Students who are deaf face several educational barriers, which can make the following tasks difficult:
 Learning by lectures
 Participating in classroom discussions
 Giving oral presentations
 Taking oral exams
 Note taking
 Watching educational films
Additionally, NICHCY identifies language arts as a potentially problematic subject, specifically in topics
such as vocabulary, grammar and word order.
Armed with the right accommodations, students can overcome every educational challenge listed
above. For instance, NICHCY notes that a child who is deaf could receive assistance from a note taker so
that he or she can focus on lip reading during lectures, and that arranging priority seating at the front of
the classroom can enable a child to lip read more effectively. A sign language interpreter can also assist
by translating spoken lectures. Teachers, using PowerPoint presentations to accompany your lectures
can help as well.
A sign language interpreter can also be of assistance during classroom discussions. The same goes with
lip reading, although that may prove more difficult depending on the proximity of the classmate
speaking. Text-to-speech assistive technology offers a deaf student the ability to share comments with
the class if he or she does not use a sign language interpreter.
The same text-to-speech assistive technology can enable a student to give oral presentations and take
oral exams. See 7 Apps to Use as Assistive Technology for text-to-speech iPad apps to consider. When
watching educational films, enabling captions and ensuring that the child who needs to read them is
seated where he or she can see them can solve potential problems. Finally, extra classroom time
focused on English or the help of an English tutor can counteract the challenges this subject presents for
deaf students.
Emotional Disturbance
In the special education realm, conditions which generate behavioral issues fall under the category
emotional disturbance. Several disorders receive this classification, as the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act’s (IDEA) definition suggests. This lengthy definition reads:
A condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a
marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational performance:
(A) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.
(B) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.
(C) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.
(D) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
(E) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.
The term includes schizophrenia. The term does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted,
unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance.
Overwhelmed? A simpler way to understand emotional disturbances is to remember that, when it

comes to special education, the term “emotional disturbance” is associated with mental health or
severe behavior issues.
Common Traits
The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (often referred to as NICHCY) lists six
types of emotional disturbances: anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, conduct disorders, eating disorders,
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and psychotic disorders; however, they note that this list isn’t all-
inclusive. To learn about the precise characteristics connected to a child’s emotional disturbance, look
into the specific subcategory that affects that child.
Given the behavioral issues related to the disability category at hand, educating students diagnosed with
emotional disturbances can prove challenging. The challenge often stems from potential classroom
disruptions; for instance, imagine the trouble created when a student begins crying uncontrollably or
starts throwing a wild temper tantrum.
Preventive measures are often the best solution to disruptions linked to emotional disturbances.
The Arizona Department of Education’s Parent Information Network mentions functional behavioral
assessments (FBAs) as a preventative strategy. An FBA identifies what leads a student to act out so that
an effective behavioral intervention plan (BIP) can be developed.
Avoiding disruptive behavior may entail behavior modification. Behavior modification can involve
strategies such as positive reinforcement and incentives to help students learn behaviors that are less
disruptive and more socially acceptable.
One final tip is likely to benefit both parents and teachers. Collaborate with other professionals who
work with your child or student (psychotherapist, behavioral therapist, etc.) to determine specific ways
to effectively educate the individual.
Hearing Impairment
Hearing impairment as a disability category is similar to the category of deafness, but it is not the
same. The official definition of a hearing impairment by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA) is “an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s
educational performance but is not included under the definition of ‘deafness.'” Thus, knowing the
definition of deafness is necessary to understand what sort of disabilities are considered hearing
impairments. A hearing loss above 90 decibels is generally considered deafness, which means that a
hearing loss below 90 decibels is classified as a hearing impairment.
Common Traits
The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY) explains that hearing loss falls
into four subcategories: conductive, sensorineural, mixed and central. These identify the location in the
body in which the hearing impairment occurs. Hearing aids and other sound amplifying assistive
technologies (AT) often work for students with conductive hearing loss, as their impairments stem from
the outer or middle ear. Such does not hold true with sensorineural, mixed and central hearing losses, as
these impairments stem from the inner ear, the central nervous system or a combination of the
two. Typically, hearing loss is categorized as slight, mild, moderate, severe or profound, depending on
how well an individual can hear the frequencies that are commonly associated with speech.
Educational obstacles related to hearing impairments stem around communication. A student with a
hearing impairment may experience difficulty in:
 the subjects of grammar, spelling and vocabulary
 taking notes while listening to lectures
 participating in classroom discussions
 watching educational videos
 presenting oral reports
Underscoring the difficulty that students with hearing impairments may have in presenting oral reports
are the potential language development problems linked to hearing impairments. Arizona’s Department
of Education’s Parent Information Network notes that, “Since children with hearing impairments are
unable to receive some sounds accurately, they often cannot articulate words clearly.”
The National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD) strongly endorses early
intervention. This can limit communication hurdles. Typically, both oral (speech, lip reading and use of
residual hearing) and manual (sign language) communication are used with and taught to children with
hearing impairments. Voice and articulation training is often recommended to help students learn to
form the sounds which they cannot hear.
Designating a note taker can allow a student with a hearing impairment to concentrate fully on listening
to a lecture. A combination of traditional communication, lip reading, sign language and assistive
technology can compensate for issues which make listening to lectures and participating in class
discussions challenging. Children who read lips often need to sit close to the teacher, while those who
use sign language may use an interpreter. Turning on captions during a video can reiterate what a
student may pick up from his or her amplifying device.
Finally, it’s important that parents and teachers don’t underestimate a child’s intelligence based on a
hearing impairment. Arizona’s Department of Education’s Parent Information Network warns, “For most
children with hearing impairments, language acquisition and language development are significantly
delayed. As a result, some may incorrectly estimate the child’s intelligence as low.” Avoid this mistake!
Intellectual Disability
Intellectual disability, formerly labeled “mental retardation,” is defined by the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) as “significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning, existing
concurrently [at the same time] with deficits in adaptive behavior and manifested during the
developmental period, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.” There are two key
components within this definition: a student’s IQ and his or her capability to function
independently, usually referred to as adaptive behavior.
You may find that your state still uses the term “mental retardation.” In 2012, the federal government
enacted legislation changing the term mental retardation to intellectual disabilities in all federal law.
Despite being encouraged to quickly replace all references to mental retardation and its derivatives,
some state offices have still not made the changes to the less offensive term in their legislation and
documents.
Common Traits
An IQ below 70 to 75 indicates an intellectual disability, according to the National Dissemination Center

for Children with Disabilities (called NICHCY). The deficits in “adaptive behavior” cited by IDEA prove
trickier to evaluate. Factors considered include the ability to comprehend and participate in a
conversation, to understand and follow social norms and to perform activities such as getting dressed
and using the restroom. NICHCY explains that the causes of intellectual disabilities vary from pregnancy
issues and complications at birth to genetic conditions (such as Down syndrome and fragile X
syndrome) and health problems early in life, including diseases like measles and contact with poisonous
substances such as lead and mercury.
A number of traits can point to an intellectual disability. The National Institute of Child Health
and Human Development (NICHD) lists the following among early indicators:
 Delay in reaching developmental milestones such as sitting up and talking
 Difficulty remembering things
 Trouble comprehending accepted social behaviors and/or understanding the consequences to

actions
 Poor problem-solving skills
Time to take a deep breath. Parents, you may experience doubt about your child’s educational path and
long-term future. Teachers, you can certainly see that educating students with intellectual disabilities
involves numerous challenges. Still, NICHCY emphasizes, “They will learn, but it will take them longer.”
Obviously, an intellectual disability creates many educational challenges that must be overcome. These
include:
 Trouble understanding new concepts
 Inappropriate behavior
 Limited vocabulary
 Difficulty accomplishing complex tasks
Educating individuals with intellectual disabilities requires awareness and much patience. Awareness
involves a conscious effort to choose activities and words wisely. For instance, if a student demonstrates
artistic talent, encourage him or her by providing assignments geared towards this skill set. Parents can
help by suggesting related activities that their children can pursue as hobbies. In addition, carefully
picking your words will reduce potential problems caused by students’ limited vocabularies.
Patience is an integral component in addressing the aforementioned educational challenges. You will
likely need to go over lessons or correct a student’s inappropriate behavior multiple times. One way to
make repetition more effective is to accompany verbal instruction with additional cues; for example,
show pictures to reiterate spoken directions.
To combat difficulty in completing complex tasks, NICHCY advises dividing these tasks into small
steps. The organization also recommends giving immediate feedback to help a child learn when he or
she is performing a step correctly.
One final tip does not necessarily correspond to any particular academic obstacle, but rather addresses
educational focus as a whole, at least at high school level. Analyze the student’s skill set to decide how
to proceed with transitioning into adulthood. For instance, does a student have the capabilities that will
enable that student to live on his or her own? If so, later years in school should focus on enhancing
the skills that will allow him or her to live independently.
Multiple Disabilities
According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act’s (IDEA), multiple disabilities refers to
“concomitant [simultaneous] impairments (such as intellectual disability-blindness, intellectual
disability-orthopedic impairment, etc.), the combination of which causes such severe educational needs
that they cannot be accommodated in a special education program solely for one of the impairments.
The term does not include deaf-blindness.”
In other words, a student whose special needs are categorized under multiple disabilities requires
coinciding adaptions for more than one disability. The exception is the combination deafness and
blindness, as this pair of impairments has its own classification under IDEA.
Common Traits
Given the numerous disability category combinations possible, the designation multiple disabilities
encompasses a broad range of traits. However, the National Dissemination Center for Children with
Disabilities (usually referred to as NICHCY) lists several common characteristics, including hampered
speech and communication skills, challenges with mobility and a need for assistance in performing
everyday activities. It’s also worth noting that medical conditions such as seizures and “water on the
brain” (hydrocephalus) can accompany multiple disabilities.
Without a doubt, the aforementioned traits can create numerous educational challenges. For instance, a
student prone to seizures raises safety concerns inside a classroom. Other common educational
challenges revolve around the following issues:
 Finding a setting suitable to the child’s intelligence level
 A child’s ability to effectively communicate with teachers, support staff and peers
 A student’s capability to function in the classroom
 Assessing and compensating for visual or hearing impairments
Triumphing over the educational challenges associated with multiple disabilities is a complex task
headed by the student’s individualized education program (IEP) team. Project IDEAL, a project of the
Texas Council of Developmental Disabilities, advises, “Of course, at the center of the planning process
should be the student, and the strengths and desires of the student should guide the entire process.”
Staying mindful about medical conditions can assist with classroom placement, as can being aware of a
student’s intelligence level. Assistive technology (AT) and alternative communication methods, including
text-to-speech technologies, hearing aids and sign language, can neutralize communication problems.
Physical therapy and occupational therapy can ease physical challenges, and in turn, they can improve a
student’s ability to function inside the classroom. Assistive technology and special education aids can be
helpful here as well. Meanwhile, an assigned aid can provide assistance in cases in which functioning
independently is difficult or impossible.
Finally, solutions ranging from priority seating to alternative textbooks (braille, audio, etc.) to hearing
aids and sign language can compensate for visual and hearing impairments. A closer look at the specific
disability categories which comprise a student’s multiple disabilities can supply further suggestions for
overcoming educational challenges.
Orthopedic Impairment
An orthopedic impairment is defined by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) as “a
severe orthopedic impairment that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.” IDEA specifies
that this term “includes impairments caused by a congenital anomaly [birth defects], impairments
caused by disease (e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis), and impairments from other causes (e.g.,
cerebral palsy, amputations, and fractures or burns that cause contractures).” Put directly, orthopedic
impairments involve physical disabilities which could affect the academic process.
Common Traits
As IDEA’s definition demonstrates, orthopedic impairments can stem from various causes. While most of
the causes listed are fairly self-explanatory, “burns that cause contractures” warrants further
explanation. The National Institutes of Health’s Medline Plus Medical dictionary defines “contracture” as
“a permanent shortening (as of muscle, tendon, or scar tissue) producing deformity or distortion.”
An evaluation is required for a disability to be classified as an orthopedic impairment. While the

exact requirements for such an evaluation vary by location, this process generally includes a medical
assessment performed by a doctor, detecting how the impairment may impact a child’s academic
performance and observing the child in his or her educational atmosphere.
Considering the diversity in conditions that are embodied by the orthopedic impairments category,
educational challenges will differ case by case, and the strategies used in each case should focus on a
student’s unique needs. Possible academic barriers include:
 Non-accessible transportation
 Trouble maneuvering around the classroom
 Difficulty navigating school hallways
 Earning mandated physical education credit
 Communicating effectively
Parents, know your child’s rights! For instance, IDEA requires schools to provide accessible
transportation to and from school, as well as within and in between school buildings. Teachers, you will
want to keep in mind mobility devices (such as wheelchairs, walkers, crutches and canes) when
arranging classroom furniture and assigning seats. For example, placing a student who uses a walker
close to your room’s entrance is usually more practical than placing him or her in the middle of the
classroom.
Navigating school hallways is an especially prevalent issue for junior high and high school students
because they move from class to class throughout the day. However, an individualized education
program (IEP) can indicate that a student’s schedule should be arranged to eliminate excessive walking
back and forth. In addition, students can be granted access to the school’s elevator to allow them to
travel safely between floors.
Solutions to the physical education requirement should correspond to the student’s particular physical
abilities. A student with a more mild orthopedic impairment may be able to participate in gym
class, while a doctor’s note can excuse a student with a severe limitation from participating.
Finally, the same strategies that are used to address communication difficulties in students with a range
of disabilities can be helpful for students with orthopedic impairments. These include communication-
based assistive technology and speech therapy.
Other Health Impairment
An umbrella term, “other health impairment” (OHI) encompasses a range of conditions. The Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) names several such disorders in OHI’s official definition: “having
limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that
results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that— (a) is due to chronic or
acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis [a kidney
disorder], rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette syndrome; and (b) adversely affects a child’s
educational performance.”
The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (abbreviated NICHCY) labels “such as”
as key words within IDEA’s definition. These two words acknowledge that conditions not directly named
in the definition can still meet the qualifications needed to fall within the OHI category.
Common Traits
Compiling a list containing common traits among OHIs is an overbearing task given the wide range of
impairments that the term covers. After all, Tourette syndrome differs from attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (AD/HD) the same way that diabetes differs from epilepsy. Researching the
traits of a specific condition within the classification of OHI will allow you to gain a better understanding
of the common traits of that condition—an understanding that is much more practical than knowing the
traits of the category as a whole.
The vast net cast by the other health impairment category broadens the range of educational challenges
that an OHI can create. For example, compare epilepsy and AD/HD. MedlinePlus mentions that
the educational challenges presented by epilepsy revolve around safety issues linked with seizures; in
contrast, the academic barriers related to AD/HD involve trouble concentrating and difficulty sitting
still. The vast majority of students served in the OHI category have AD/HD. Since that disorder was
included in this category, the number of students labeled OHI has grown significantly.
Successfully educating students with OHIs begins with individualized education programs (IEPs). An IEP
should list all of a student’s special needs. Parents, whether your child gets access to medicine, has
specific nutritional needs or receives other appropriate accommodations, reiterate these needs to your
son’s or daughter’s educators to ensure that they are aware. In cases in which the school nurse plays a
vital role in managing an OHI, both teachers and parents should communicate regularly with the nurse.
Specific Learning Disability
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) defines a specific learning disability as “a disorder
in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language,
spoken or written, that may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write,
spell, or to do mathematical calculations.” This disability category includes such conditions as perceptual
disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia and developmental aphasia (a type of
language disorder).
However, as IDEA’s definition notes, “Specific Learning Disability does not include learning problems
that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; of intellectual disability; of
emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.” This clause helps to
distinguish learning disabilities from the other disability categories specified by IDEA. Specific Learning
Disabilities (SLD) is by far the largest category of disability within the Individuals for Disabilities
Education Act. Nearly half of all disabled children are labeled in the category of SLD.
Common Traits
According to the National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (known as NICHCY),
specific learning disabilities commonly affect skills in the areas of:
 Reading (called dyslexia)
 Writing (called dysgraphia)
 Listening
 Speaking
 Reasoning
 Math (called dyscalculia)
Signs that a child might have a learning disability tend to appear in elementary school. For example,
difficulty learning the alphabet, problems with following directions, trouble transforming thoughts into
written words and misreading math problems are all possible indicators of a specific learning disability.
It’s clear from reading the above traits that students with learning disabilities can face a number
of educational challenges. Oklahoma’s State Department of Education alludes to several of these
challenges in their online fact sheet on specific learning disabilities; they include:
 Difficulty reading out loud
 Poor reading comprehension
 Struggling to write papers and essays
 Trouble understanding lectures
 Difficulty holding a pencil
Don’t let the term “learning disabilities” mislead you, teachers and parents. Rooted within this term is a
common assumption that children with learning disabilities can’t learn. NICHCY proposes otherwise,
stating, “Children with learning disabilities are not ‘dumb’ or ‘lazy.’ In fact, they usually have average or
above average intelligence. Their brains just process information differently.”
Indeed, the more politically-correct phrase “learning differences” offers a more accurate snapshot
that captures the essence of learning disabilities. Supplied with the appropriate special education
services, students with learning disabilities can flourish academically. Take a student with dysgraphia for
example. He or she may have A-worthy ideas for a paper inside his or her head, but without
accommodations those ideas will probably not earn the grade they deserve. One potential
accommodation for such a scenario entails using speech-to-text technology to write papers.
Overall, the best educational accommodations for students with specific learning disabilities stem from
assessing a child’s particular case and identifying his or her strengths and weaknesses. This evaluation is
worked into the individualized education program (IEP) process.
Parents, are you concerned that your youngster might possess a learning disability? NICHCY notes you
can ask your school to evaluate your son or daughter to diagnosis any learning disabilities. If your child
has a specific learning disability, the IEP process will begin to unfold.
Speech and Language Impairment
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) officially defines speech and language
impairments as “a communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language
impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.” Each point
within this official definition represents a speech and language subcategory. “A communication disorder
such as stuttering” provides an example of a fluency disorder; other fluency issues include unusual word
repetition and hesitant speech. “Impaired articulation” indicates impairments in which a child
experiences challenges in pronouncing specific sounds. “A language impairment” can entail difficulty
comprehending words properly, expressing oneself and listening to others. Finally, “a voice impairment”
involves difficulty voicing words; for instance, throat issues may cause an abnormally soft voice.
Common Traits
Speech and language impairments tend to emerge at a young age, and the earlier a child is diagnosed
and receives services accordingly, the more likely that child can outgrow the disability. Speech-language
pathologists work with children with speech and language impairments, as well as with parents and
teachers. For example, a speech-language pathologist might work with a child with impaired articulation
to help him or her learn to pronounce “s” and “z” sounds correctly.
If a child fails to meet the speech and language milestones set by American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association (ASHA), he or she might have a speech and language impairment.The National
Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, commonly referred to as NICHCY, notes that parents
are usually the first to suspect that a child might possess such an impairment. However, it’s important to
note that hearing issues, autism and a number of other disabilities can masquerade as speech and
language impairments, and a child with a suspected impairment should be evaluated by a speech-
language pathologist to avoid misdiagnosis.
The obstacles created by speech and language impairments vary by the specific case, but because
communication is at the core of education, these impairments can impact a student’s entire educational
experience. Some of these challenges might involve:
 Communicating effectively with classmates and teachers

 Understanding and/or giving oral presentations
 Participating in classroom discussions
 Attaining normalcy within a group
NICHCY recognizes early intervention as a helpful tool for children with speech and language
impairments, and working with a speech-language pathologist during the preschool years can be a game
changer. Addressing issues, such as stuttering and articulation impairments, early can lessen potential
communication difficulties later in a child’s educational career.
It’s worth mentioning that speech and language impairments requiring long-term attention generally
remain manageable. A school’s speech-language pathologist should work with both teachers and
parents to discuss a child’s needs and how to best meet them.
Bullying is an issue for some children with speech and language impairments; for instance, peers might
mock a stutter or a lisp. Bullying often becomes more than a social issue as it can distract the student
who is the target from his or her classwork. Taking class time to teach about bullying can help prevent to
prevent this.
Traumatic Brain Injury
A student with a brain injury may qualify for special education services under the disability category
traumatic brain injury (TBI). The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) outlines the conditions
that fall within this classification, formally defining TBI as “an acquired injury to the brain caused by an
external physical force, resulting in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment, or
both, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance.”
The definition continues to specify, “Traumatic brain injury applies to open or closed head injuries
resulting in impairments in one or more areas, such as cognition; language; memory; attention;
reasoning; abstract thinking; judgment; problem-solving; sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities;
psycho-social behavior; physical functions; information processing; and speech. The term does not apply
to brain injuries that are congenital or degenerative, or to brain injuries induced by birth trauma.”
Please note the last sentence. It indicates that hereditary brain injuries, conditions that worsen over
time and brain injuries caused by birth complications do not fall under TBI.
Common Traits
A wide range of traits are associated with traumatic brain injury, according to the National
Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (commonly called NICHCY). These include mental,
physical and emotional issues such as:
 Memory difficulties, both short-term and long-term
 Problems concentrating
 Trouble maneuvering, maybe even paralysis
 Struggles with relating to peers

The above issues lead to some unique educational challenges, such as those listed below.
 Difficulty taking tests and exams
 Problems with following complex directions
 Difficulty learning new skills
Teachers, Oklahoma’s State Department of Education advises giving students with TBIs extra time to
complete tests, as well as breaking down complex directions into smaller steps, providing directions in
writing and teaching a student to use a day planner. Using a day planner to keep track of assignments
and schedules can help the student stay organized and avoid confusion.
Perhaps the most important tip for teachers and parents to consider is to take the time to get to know
each child as an individual. Parents, TBI assessment offers an ideal opportunity for such a process.
Before your son or daughter returns to the classroom after a traumatic brain injury he or she should go
through an evaluation process to create an individualized education plan (IEP) and identify which special
education services might prove beneficial. To learn more about IEPs read The IEP Process Explained.
Visual Impairment
As the term indicates, a visual impairment involves an issue with sight which interferes with a student’s
academic pursuits. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) officially defines the category as
“an impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child’s educational performance.
The term includes both partial sight and blindness.”
Common Traits
Several conditions can cause visual impairments, and these disabilities can take a number of
forms. The National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (known as NICHCY) names a
range of examples, including common conditions such as near-sightedness and far-sightedness, as well
as more complex conditions like congenital cataracts and strabismus. While the causes vary, there are
several common signs which may indicate that a child has a visual impairment. These include:
 Irregular eye movements (for instance, eyes that don’t move together or that appear
unfocused)
 Unusual habits (such as covering one eye or frequently rubbing eyes)
 Sitting abnormally close to a television or holding a book close to the face
Intelligence does not require sight; therefore, overcoming educational challenges is vital to enabling a
student with a visual impairment to reach his or her full academic potential. Such challenges may entail:
 Safely maneuvering around the classroom

 Conceptualizing objects
 Reading
 Operating standard educational tools such as calculators and word processing software
Early intervention can help a child strengthen his or her vision. This means that as a parent, you
should waste no time if you suspect that your child possesses a visual impairment. If this is the case,
IDEA mandates that your child can receive a free evaluation to test for such a condition. NICHCY
recommends contacting your public school system to start the process.
Regarding the previously mentioned educational challenges, Arizona’s Department of Education’s

Parent Information Network advises orientation and mobility training to allow a student with a visual
impairment to safely move around a classroom. Teachers, you might consider reaching out to the
appropriate parties to learn if you can arrange classroom furniture a certain way to reduce possible
dangers.
Challenges in conceptualizing objects occur because the student lacks the vision to process objects the
way that his or her classmates do. Sensory learning works well as a solution, according to NICHCY. This
strategy helps students with visual impairments conceptualize by allowing them to use their other
senses to understand an object. NICHCY notes than parents can aid in sensory learning by
using comments that teach a child to form a complete picture of an object from sensing the details. For
example, you could say in reference to a stuffed animal “Wow! Your new stuffed bunny is fluffy! Feel his
round tail.”
Finally, assistive technology can address issues related to reading and the use of educational tools. To
identify some beneficial educational iPad apps for students with visual impairments read 7 Apps to Use
as Assistive Technology. Resources such as large print books and braille books can also be helpful.
Developmental delays may be caused by short-lived issues, such as a speech delay being caused by
hearing loss from ear infections or a physical delay being caused by a long hospitalization. Delays may
also be early signs of learning and attention issues. While it’s not always clear what is causing the delay,
early intervention can often help kids catch up. Some kids still have delays in skills when they reach
school age. In that case, they may be eligible to receive special education services.
If a child isn’t catching up as quickly as expected, a specialist may suggest doing an evaluation to get a
better sense of what’s going on. It could also help guide the types of services and supports that would
meet his needs.
Five Areas of Skill Development and Possible Delay
A developmental delay can occur in just one area or in a few. A global developmental delay is when kids
have delays in at least two areas.
Kids develop skills in five main areas of development:
1. Cognitive (or thinking) skills: This is the ability to think, learn and solve problems. In babies, this
looks like curiosity. It’s how your child explores the world around him with his eyes, ears and
hands. In toddlers, it also includes things like learning to count, naming colors and learning new
words.
2. Social and emotional skills: This is the ability to relate to other people. That includes being able
to express and control emotions. In babies, it means smiling at others and making sounds to
communicate. In toddlers and preschoolers, it means being able to ask for help, show and
express feelings and get along with others.
3. Speech and language skills: This is the ability to use and understand language. For babies, this
includes cooing and babbling. In older children, it includes understanding what’s said and using
words correctly and in ways that others can understand.
4. Fine and gross motor skills: This is the ability to use small muscles (fine motor), particularly in
the hands, and large muscles (gross motor) in the body. Babies use fine motor skills to grasp
objects. Toddlers and preschoolers use them to do things like hold utensils, work with objects
and draw. Babies use gross motor skills to sit up, roll over and begin to walk. Older children use
them to do things like jump, run and climb stairs.
5. Activities of daily living: This is the ability to handle everyday tasks. For children, that includes
eating, dressing and bathing themselves.
There is no one cause of developmental delays, but some risk factors include:
 Complications at birth: Being born too early (prematurely); low birth weight; not getting enough
oxygen at birth.
 Environmental issues: Lead poisoning; poor nutrition; exposure to alcohol or drugs before birth;
difficult family situations; trauma.
 Other medical conditions: Chronic ear infections; vision problems; illnesses, conditions, or
injuries that have a significant and long-term effect on a child’s day-to-day activities.
DIVERSITY OF LEARNERS
 Learner Diversity is the group and individual differences that we see in students
(Pearson,2010).
We are living in a society in which we are all learning from a diverse group of people. Every student
comes from a different background and has a different way of thinking. Teachers today are faced with a
great deal of variations of diversity in schools. In order for a teacher to successfully reach the students,
he/she must have the knowledge and understanding of issues with gender, ethnicity, culture, language,
socioeconomic status, ability, religion and much more. These differences influence learning in the
classroom.
 One important concept that we must all accept is that “All Children Are Different,” and all
have an equal right to education, no matter what their background or ability.
UNESCO Office Bangkok and Regional Bureau for Education in Asia and the Pacific (2004)
Many of our schools and educational systems are moving towards “inclusive education” where children
with diverse backgrounds and abilities are sought out and encouraged to attend ordinary schools. On
the one hand, attending school increases their opportunities to learn because they are able to interact
with other children. Improving their learning also promotes their participation in family and community
life.
 “Philippines has always been a tolerant and inclusive society with various races and faiths
living in harmony.”
Education Secretary Leonor Briones, Global Education Meeting (GEM) in Brussels, Belgium (2018).
 We must stop treating all students as if they are the same, even when the intention is to
ensure equality.
The End of Average: How We Succeed in a World That Values Sameness (2016)
While equality admirably aims for fairness, it only works if everyone starts at the same place and has the
same needs going forward. A more productive path to fairness is equity, which we define as providing
every learner what he or she needs to be successful.
Where do we want to be?
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTIONS
 Differentiation is making sure the right students get the right learning tasks.
 Differentiation is tied to the match—the match of the curriculum and learning experiences to
learners.
From Teacher’s Survival Guide: Differentiating Instruction in the Elementary Classroom by Julia L.
Roberts, Ed.D., & Tracy F. Inman, Ed.D. © 2013, Prufrock Press Sample reproduced with the permission of
Prufrock Press Inc. (http://www.prufrock.com).
A teacher who differentiates effectively matches the content (basic to complex), the level of the
thinking processes, the sophistication and choice of the product, and/or the assessment to the student
or cluster of students. Differentiation is not a strategy but rather a way of teaching that accommodates
differences among children so that all are learning on an ongoing basis.
 The most basic reason to differentiate is that children differ.
From Teacher’s Survival Guide: Differentiating Instruction in the Elementary Classroom by Julia L.
Roberts, Ed.D., & Tracy F. Inman, Ed.D. © 2013, Prufrock Press Sample reproduced with the permission of
Prufrock Press Inc. (http://www.prufrock.com).
Because children are different in their readiness to learn specific content and skills, it is necessary to
respond accordingly. Children of the same age who are in the same grade have a range of reading
abilities, varied interests and experiences with the content being studied, and different levels of skills for
thinking critically and creatively as well as in communicating via writing and speaking.
As Figure 1 suggests, it is fiction or a fairy tale to assume that all children in a class are at the same level
such that a one-size-fits-all lesson will allow all of them to make continuous progress. One lesson for all
children will likely be too difficult for a few and not challenging enough to hold the interest of or
challenge others.
How can we get there?
THE BASIC STEPS IN DIFFERENTIATION
There are three basic steps in differentiation: planning, pre-assessing, and differentiating the learning
experience. Questions guide each of the three steps (Roberts & Inman, 2009b):
1. Planning Question: What do I want students to know, understand, and be able to do?
2. Pre-assessment Question: Who already knows, understands, and/or can use the content or
demonstrate the skills? Who needs additional support in order to know, understand, and/or
demonstrate the skills?
3. Differentiation Question: What can I do for him, her, or them so they can make continuous
progress and extend their learning?
THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
 This theory suggests that traditional psychometric views of intelligence are too limited.
Gardner first outlined his theory in his 1983 book "Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple
Intelligences,".
Where he suggested that all people have different kinds of "intelligences." Gardner proposed that there
are eight intelligences, and has suggested the possible addition of a ninth known as "existentialist
intelligence."
In order to capture the full range of abilities and talents that people possess, Gardner theorizes that
people do not have just an intellectual capacity, but have many kinds of intelligence, including musical,
interpersonal, spatial-visual, and linguistic intelligences.
1. VISUAL-SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE
Strengths: Visual and spatial judgment
People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing things. These individuals are
often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures.
Characteristics
Characteristics of visual-spatial intelligence include:
 Enjoys reading and writing
 Good at putting puzzles together
 Good at interpreting pictures, graphs, and charts
 Enjoys drawing, painting, and the visual arts
 Recognizes patterns easily
Potential Career Choices
If you're strong in visual-spatial intelligence, good career choices for you are:
 Architect
 Artist
 Engineer
2. LINGUISTIC-VERBAL INTELLIGENCE
Strengths: Words, language, and writing
People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well, both when writing and
speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing stories, memorizing information, and
reading.
Characteristics
Characteristics of linguistic-verbal intelligence include:
 Good at remembering written and spoken information
 Enjoys reading and writing
 Good at debating or giving persuasive speeches
 Able to explain things well
 Often uses humor when telling stories
If you're strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence, good career choices for you are:
 Writer/journalist
 Lawyer
 Teacher
3. LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE
Strengths: Analyzing problems and mathematical operations
People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning, recognizing patterns,
and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think conceptually about numbers,
relationships, and patterns.
Characteristics
Characteristics of logical-mathematical intelligence include:
 Excellent problem-solving skills
 Enjoys thinking about abstract ideas
 Likes conducting scientific experiments

 Good at solving complex computations
If you're strong in logical-mathematical intelligence, good career choices for you are:
 Scientist
 Mathematician
 Computer programmer
 Engineer
 Accountant
4. BODILY-KINESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE
Strengths: Physical movement, motor control
Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body movement, performing
actions, and physical control. People who are strong in this area tend to have excellent hand-eye
coordination and dexterity.
Characteristics
Characteristics of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence include:
 Good at dancing and sports
 Enjoys creating things with his or her hands
 Excellent physical coordination
 Tends to remember by doing, rather than hearing or seeing
If you're strong in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, good career choices for you are:
 Dancer
 Builder
 Sculptor
 Actor
5. MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE
Strengths: Rhythm and music
People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and sounds. They
have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition and performance.
Characteristics
Characteristics of musical intelligence include:
 Enjoys singing and playing musical instruments
 Recognizes musical patterns and tones easily
 Good at remembering songs and melodies
 Rich understanding of musical structure, rhythm, and notes
If you're strong in musical intelligence, good career choices for you are:
 Musician
 Composer
 Singer
 Music teacher
 Conductor
6. INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE
Strengths: Understanding and relating to other people
Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at understanding and interacting with other
people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations, desires, and intentions of
those around them.
Characteristics
Characteristics of interpersonal intelligence include:
 Good at communicating verbally
 Skilled at nonverbal communication
 Sees situations from different perspectives
 Creates positive relationships with others
 Good at resolving conflict in groups

If you're strong in interpersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are:
 Psychologist
 Philosopher
 Counselor
 Salesperson
 Politician
7. INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE
Strengths: Introspection and self-reflection
Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of their own emotional
states, feelings, and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis, including daydreaming,
exploring relationships with others, and assessing their personal strengths.
Characteristics
Characteristics of intrapersonal intelligence include:
 Good at analyzing his or her strengths and weaknesses
 Enjoys analyzing theories and ideas
 Excellent self-awareness
 Clearly understands the basis for his or her own motivations and feelings
If you're strong in intrapersonal intelligence, good career choices for you are:
 Philosopher
 Writer
 Theorist
 Scientist
8. NATURALISTIC INTELLIGENCE
Strengths: Finding patterns and relationships to nature

Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory and has been met with more resistance than
his original seven intelligences. According to Gardner, individuals who are high in this type of
intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often interested in nurturing, exploring the
environment, and learning about other species. These individuals are said to be highly aware of even
subtle changes to their environments.
Characteristics
Characteristics of naturalistic intelligence include:
 Interested in subjects such as botany, biology, and zoology
 Good at categorizing and cataloging information easily
 May enjoy camping, gardening, hiking, and exploring the outdoors
 Doesn’t enjoy learning unfamiliar topics that have no connection to nature
If you're strong in naturalistic intelligence, good career choices for you are:
 Biologist
 Conservationist
 Gardener
 Farmer
DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
 CHORAL RESPONSE: Choral response is a very simple technique in which the teacher asks
questions to the class as a whole and the students answer in unison. This is a good way of
assessing the class’s overall understanding without singling students out.
 FIST OF FIVE: Students use their fingers as a scale of one to five to express understanding.
 FOUR CORNERS: Teacher can choose basically anything to label the four corners of the
classroom. For example, the teacher may ask an opinionated question and can label each
corner with a different answer. The students go to the corner they agree with.
 EXIT CARDS: You can do anything with these really. The teacher can ask a question before they
leave and have them write the answer, have the students reflect on what they learned today.
One of my teachers had us write one thing we learned and one question we have.
 PASS THE BALL: The teacher asks a question and then throws a ball to a student who has the
answer to the question. If the student answers the question correctly, he/she gets to shoot a
basket. If the student answers incorrectly, they pass the ball to a teammate for assistance.

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The following definitions apply to the 13 categories of exceptionality as defined by IDEA (listed in

because the child has an emotional disturbance.

a) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.

c) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.

d) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.

is determined that they have an emotional disturbance.

6) Mental retardation -a significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning, existing concurrently

child's educational performance.

7) Multiple disabilities - a concomitant impairments (such as mental retardation-blindness, mental

nephritis, rheumatic fever, and sickle cell anemia;

b) and Adversely affects a child's educational performance.

visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of

environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.

11) Speech or language impairment - a communication disorder, such as stuttering, impaired

degenerative, or to brain injuries induced by birth trauma.

multiple areas affected by their disabilities.

therapy, nursing services, audiologist services, counseling, and family training.

Legal Bases of Special Education in the US

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

- assess and assure the effectiveness of efforts to educate handicapped children

There are 6 major components to this legislation:

1.) Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE)

2.) Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)

3.) Individualized Education Program (IEP)

4.) Procedural Due Process

5.) Non-discriminatory Assessment

6.) Parental Participation

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act

2.) have a record of such an impairment

3.) are regarded as having such an impairment by others.

Americans with Disabilities Act

- Employers of fifteen or more workers must make "reasonable accommodations" so that an

- Mass transit systems must be accessible to citizens with disabilities.

Comparisons of IDEA, 504, and ADA

IDEA 504 ADA

 Unusual fixation (for instance, only playing with round toys)

 Inability to focus without first completing a routine

 Disruptive behavior when ordinary schedule is interrupted

 Difficulty understanding social interactions

 Trouble following directions

 Hampered ability to communicate

 Disruptive behavioral problems

Tips for Teachers and Parents

 Understanding classroom lectures

 Participating in class discussions

 Presenting oral reports

 Fulfilling reading assignments

Tips for Teachers and Parents

 Participating in classroom discussions

 Giving oral presentations

 Taking oral exams

 Watching educational films

Tips for Teachers and Parents

Overwhelmed? A simpler way to understand emotional disturbances is to remember that, when it

Tips for Teachers and Parents

 the subjects of grammar, spelling and vocabulary

 taking notes while listening to lectures

 participating in classroom discussions

 watching educational videos

 presenting oral reports

Tips for Teachers and Parents

An IQ below 70 to 75 indicates an intellectual disability, according to the National Dissemination Center

 Delay in reaching developmental milestones such as sitting up and talking