Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
to accompa""y
Fifth Edition
DAVID HALLIDAY
University of Pittsburgh
ROBERT RESNICK
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
KENNETH KRANE
Prepared by
J. Richard Christman
United States Coast Guard Academy
Walter Eppenstein
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
(ii)
ISBN 0-471-20405-6
10987 65432
This manual contains material we hope will be useful in the designof an introductory physics course
based on the text PHYSICS by David Hal1iday, Robert Resnick, and Kenneth Krane. It may be
used with either the extended or regular versions. We include material to help instructors choose
topics. We also provide lecture notes, outlining the important topics of each chapter, and suggest
demonstration experiments, laboratory and computer exercises,films, and video cassettes. Separate
sections contain answersto end-of-chapter multiple-choice questions, exercises,and problems.
The principal author is grateful to Stanley Williams, who co-authored an early edition of the
instructor manual for Pundamentals of Physics. Some of his material has been ret&ned in this
manual. He is also grateful to Walter Eppenstein, who helped with demonstration and laboratory
experiments. Aliza Atik and Rosa Bryant of Wiley handled the production of this manual and took
care of a myriad of details. Many thanks to them. Special thanks go to Mary Ellen Christman who
provided unfailing support and encouragementthrough many editions.
J. Richard Christman
U .S. Coast Guard Academy
New London, Connecticut 06320
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section One
General Considerations 1
Sectian Twa
Lecture N ates 10
Section Three
Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions
Section Four
Answers to Exercises
Section Five
Answers to Problems
SECTION ONE
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
TOPICS
The sequenceof topics in Physícs, fifth edition, depaxts from the traditional sequencefound in
most introductory courses. The most significant differencesoccur in the mechanics section. They
axe:
Rather than devote a whole chapter to vectors, a shortened discussionof vector addition is given as
part of Chapter 2, on motion in one dimension. This allows physical quantities for one-dimensional
motion, such as velocity and acceleration, to be treated as what they are, components of vectors,
and removesthe confusion that axiseswhen a symbol, such as v or a, is used eaxly on as a component
of a vector and later as the magnitude of a vector, without explaining the switch. Vector and scalax
products are discussedwhen they axe needed, in the sections on torque and work. An appendix
gives a more complete summary of vector mathematics. If the needsof the class dictate, instructors
may include this appendix as a paxt of the course and use it much as they used Chapter 3 of the
fifth edition.
Energy topics axe covered after linear momentum and rotational motion. Thus emphasis is placed
on the role of momentum conservation in collisions and the kinetic energiesof rotation and rolling
axe included in the discussion of energy, rather than as paxt of the discussion of rotation. The
distinction between elastic and inelastic collisions is made by considering changes in individual
momenta as measured in the center-of-massframe.
The chapter on one-dimensionaldynamics immediately follows the chapter on one-dimensionalkine-
matics, then multi-dimensional kinematics and dynamics are discussedtogether. Thus Newton's
laws of motion are introduced in the context of motion along a line. fu addition, projectile and
uniform circulax motions axe coveredfrom the standpoint of the forces on the object. The emphasis
here is that the motion is directly related to the net force.
The chapter on oscillations has been moved to just before the first chapter on mechanical waves
and acts as a naturallead-in to that chapter.
The chapter on the second law of thermodynamics (Chapter 24) has been revised to make the
concept of entropy central. Entropy is defined at the outset and the law is given in terms of
entropy. Heat engines and refrigerators axe included as applications of the law but the law itself is
not formulated in terms of them.
The most significant change in the electromagnetism portion of the text is the use of the
magnetic frield of a single point chaxgeto introduce the sourcesof magnetic fields. The fields of
current distributions follow.
Most of the other changesto the electromagnetism potion are in the nature of a reorganization
of material from the previous edition. Material on conductors and insulators have been combined
into a new chapter (Chapter 29, The Electrical Properties of Materials). Discussion of magnetic
dipoles has been delayed until Chapter 35 (Magnetic Properties of Materials ) .Chapter 38 now
includes discussionsof both Maxerll's equations and their application to electromagnetic waves.
Reflection and refraction axenow coveredin Chapter 39 as paxt of the discussion of the properties
of electromagnetic waves. Image formation is in Chapter 40.
The most significant change in the modern physics section of the text is the inclusion of a
discussion of coincidence experiments that unambiguously provide evidence of photons. fu addi-
tion, the Schrodinger equation is introduced in Chapter 46 (The Nture of Matter) along with its
application to paxticles in potential wells and the electron in a hydrogen atom.
General Considerations 1
Every chapter now includes a collection of multiple-choce questions that test the students'
understanding of the important concepts of the chapter. There are also exercises,which are keyed
to sectionsof the chapter, and problems, which are somewhat more difficult than the exercisesand
require the students to combine concepts from different sections of the chapter and, on occasion,
draw on material from previous chapters.
FLEXIBILITY
The text is extremely Hexible with regard to both the range of topics and the depth of coverage.In
many instances sections that discussftmdamental principIes and give applications are followed by
other sections that go deeper into the physics. Some instructors prefer to cover fewer topics than
others but treat the topics they do cover in great depth. Others prefer to cover more topics with
less depth. Courses of both types can easily be accommodated by selecting appropriate sections
of the text. The text can be used with many of the innovative courses that are presently being
designedand taught.
By carefully choosing sections of the text to be included, your course might be a two-term,
in-depth study of the ftmdamentals of classicalmechanicsand electromagnetism. With the addition
of another term you might include more applications and the thermodynamics and optics chapters.
In a three-term course, you might also forgo thermodynamics and optics but include Chapter 20
(The Special Theory of Relativity) and some of the quantum mechanics chapters added in the
extended version.
When designing the course, some care must be taken in the selection of topics becausemany
discussionsin later chapters presume coverageof prior material. Please consult the following notes
and the Lecture Notes section of this manual.
Mechanics. The central concepts of classical mechanics are covered in Chapters 1 through 13.
Some sections that might be omitted or covered only cursorily by stating results to shorten the
courseare Sections4-4 (Drag Forces), 5-5 (Time-Dependent Forces), 5-6 (Noninertial Fl-amesand
Pseudoforces),5-7 (Limitations of Newton's Laws), 6-5 (Two-Body Collisions), 7-6 (Systems of
Variable Mass), 8-6 (Vector Relationships Between Linear and Angular Variables), 9-3 (Rota-
tional Inertia of Solid Bodies), 9-5 (Equilibrium Applications of Newton's Laws for Rotation), 9-7
(Combined Rotational and Translational Motion), 10-5 (The Spinning Top), 11-5 (Work Done by
a Variable Force: Two-dimensional Case), 12-6 (Three-Dimensional Conservative Systems), and
13-6 (Reactions and Decays).
Chapters 14 through 18 apply the fundamental principIes of the first 13 chapters to special
systemsand, in many cases,lay the groundwork for what is to come. Many coursesomit one or more
of Chapters 14 (Gravitation), 15 (Fluid Statics), 16 (Fluid Dynamics) and 19 (Sound Waves). There
is someperil in these omissions,however. Chapter 14, for example, is pedagogically important. The
central idea of the chapter is a force law and the discussionsof many of its ramifications show by
example how physics works. Since the chapter brings together many previously discussedideas it
can be used as a review. In addition, Newton's law of gravity is used later to introduce Coulomb's
law and the proof that the electrostatic force is conservative relies on the analogy. The basis of
Gauss' law is laid in Chapter 14 and inclusion of this chapter makes teaching of the law easier.
The concepts of pressure and density are explained in Chapter 15 and are used again in Chap-
ter 19 (Sound Waves) and in the thermodynamics chapters. The idea of a velocity field is first
discussedin Chapter 16 and is used to introduce electric Hux in Chapter 27 (Gauss' Law). Ifthese
chapters are omitted, you should be prepared to make up for the loss of material by presenting
definitions and discussionsof velocity field, pressure, and density when they are first used in your
course.
Chapters 17 (Oscillations) and 18 (Wave Motion) are important parts ofan introductory course
and should be covered except when time constraints are severe. Chapter 17 is required for Chap-
2 General Considerations
ter 18 and both are required for Chapter 19 (Sound Waves). Chapter 17 is also required for
Chapters 36 (Inductance) and 37 (A1ternating Current Circuits) and parts of Chapter 18 are re-
quired for Chapters 38 (Maxwell's Equations and Electromagnetic Waves), 39 (Light Waves), 41
(Interference), 42 (Diffraction), 43 (Gratings and Spectra), 44 (Polarization), 45 (The Nature of
Light), and 46 (The Nature of Matter). Chapters 17 and 18 may be coveredin the mechanicspart
of the courseor may be delayed until electromagnetic waves are covered.
Sectionsof Chapters 14 through 19 that can be used to adjust the length of the courseare 14-7
(The Motions of Planets and Satellites), 14-8 (The Gravitational Field), 14-9 (Modern Develop-
ments in Gravitation), 15-5 (Measurement of Pressure), 15-6 (Surface Tension), 16-5 (Fields of
Flow), 16-6 (Viscosity, Turbulence, and Chaotic Flow), 17-5 (Applications of Simple Harmonic Mo-
tion), 17-6 Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular Motion), 17-9 (Two-Body Oscillations),
18-5 (The Wave Equation), and 19-7 (Vibrating Systems and Sourcesof Sound).
Special Relativity. Chapter 20 deals with the Special Theory of Relativity. It may be used as a
capstoneto the mechanicssection of the courseor as an introduction to the modern physics section.
There are a few problems in the electricity and magnetism section of the coursethat rely on concepts
from the relativity chapter but these may be avoided if that chapter has not yet been covered. Some
results from the chapter are important for understanding the modern physics chapters, particularly
the relationships between mass and energy and between energy and momentum. If you do not
wish to cover Chapter 20 in detail you can describe these results as they are needed. However,
it is probably more satisfying to present a more complete and logically connected descriptiop. of
relativity theory. If you plan to cover some of the modern physics chapters you should consider
including Chapter 20.
Thermodynalnics. Chapters 21 through 24 cover the ideas of thermodynamics. Most two-term
coursesand some three-term coursesomit these chapters entirely. If they are covered,they can be
placed as a unit almost anywhere after the mechanicschapters. The idea of temperature is used in
Chapter 29 (The Electrical Properties of Materials) and in some of the modern physics chapters,
as well as in the other thermodynamics chapters. If Chapter 21 is not coveredprior to Chapter 29,
you should plan to discussthe idea of temperature in connection with that chapter or else omit the
section that deals with the temperature dependenceof resistivity.
Two sections that can be omitted or shortened in coverageare 21-4 (Thermal Expansion) and
22-7 (The Intermolecular Forces).
Electromagnetism. The fundamentals of electricity and magnetism are covered in Chapters 25
through 38. Chapter 39 (Light Waves) may be considered a capstone to the electromagnetism
chapters or as an introduction to the optics chapters. Sections that might be omitted to adjust
the length of the course are 26-8 (The Nuclear Model of the Atom), 27-7 (Experimental Tests
of Gauss' Law and Coulomb's Law), 28-10 (The Electrostatic Accelerator), 29-5 (Ohm's Law: A
Microscopic View), 31-4 (Electric Fields in Circuits), 32-4 (The Hall Effect), 33-6 (Electromag-
netism and Frames of Reference), 34-5 (Generators and 1'Aotors),34-7 (Induction and Relative
Motion), 35-3 (Atomic and Nuclear Magnetism), 35-4 (Magnetization), 35-5 (Magnetic Materi-
als) , 35-6 (The Magnetism of the Planets), 36-5 (Electromagnetic Oscillations: Qualitative) , 35-6
(Electromagnetic Oscillations: Quantitative), 36-7 (Damped and Forced Oscillations), and 37-5
(The Transformer).
Sections 29-6 (An Insulator in an Electric Field) and 30-6 (Capacitor with Dielectric) should
be included in an in-depth course but may be omitted in other. courses to make room for other
topics. Similarly, coverageof Chapters 31 (DC Circuits) and 37 (Alternating Current Circuits) may
be adjusted considerably or even omitted, depending on the extent to which the courseemphasizes
practical applications. If Chapter 37 is included you should also include sections 36-5 (Electro-
magnetic Oscillations: Qualitative) and 36-6 (Electromagnetic Oscillations: Quantitative).
General Considerations 3
Section 35-7 contains a discussion of Gauss' law for magnetism, one of Maxwell's equations,
and should be included in every course. Sections35-1 through 35-6 deal with magnetic properties
of materials and some of ramifications of those properties. They are listed above as sections that
might be omitted or passed over swiftly to gain time for other sections. However, they nicely
complement the previous sections on dielectrics and they should be included if you intend to
emphasizeproperties of materials.
Optics. Chapters 39 through 44 are the optics chapters. You might wish to precede them with
Chapter 38 (Maxwell's Equations and Electromagnetic Waves) or you might wish to replace Chap-
ter 38 with a short qualitative discussion. You can be somewhat selective in your coverage.of
Chapter 40 (Mirrors and Lenses). It can be as shallow or as deep as desired. Much of the material
in this chapter can be covered in laboratory exercises. Section 39-4 (Reflection and Refraction of
Light Waves) must be included in the course if Chapter 40 is covered.
Chapters 41 (Interference) and 42 (Diffraction) are important in their own right and are quite
useful for the discussion of photons and matter waves in Chapters 45 and 46. Chapter 42 cannot
be included without Chapter 41 but coverageof both chapters can be reduced somewhat to make
room for other topics. The fundamentals of interference and diffraction are contained in Sections
41-1 through 41-4 and 42-1 through 42-3. Other sections of these chapters can be included or
excluded, as desired or as neededfor subsequentmaterial.
Chapters 43 (Gratings and Spectra) and 44 (Polarization) may safely be omitted from the
course although at least the qualitative parts of Chapter 43 are valuable if the modern physics
sections on electromagnetic transitions are covered (Chapter 47). Chapters 41 and 42 form the
basis for Chapter 43 and must be coveredif Chapter 43 is included in the course. The structure of
an electromagnetic plane wave, in Chapter 38, must be covered prior to Chapter 44.
Individual sectionsof the optics chapters that might be omitted in the interest of time are 39-6
(The Doppler Effect for Light) , 40--6 ( Optical Instruments) , 41-5 Interference from Thin Films ) ,
41-6 (Michelson's Interferometer), 42-4 Diffraction at a Circular Aperture), 43-3 (Dispersion and
Resolving Power), 43-4 (X-Ray Diffraction), 43-5 (Holography), 44-4 (Double Refraction), and
44-5 (Circular Polarization). If you include Section 44-5 you should also include Section 44-4 since
it contains a discussionof quarter-wave plates.
Section 42-5 (Double-Slit Interference and Diffraction Combined) might also be abbreviated
or omitted but only if time constraints are severesince it nicely ties together Chapters 41 and 42.
Modern Physics. The fundamentals of the quantum theory are presented in Chapters 45 (The
Nature of Light) and 46 (The Nature of Matter). This material should be treated as a unit and
must follow in the order written. If you include these chapters, be sure earlier parts of the course
include discussionsof uniform circular motion, angular momentum, Coulomb's law, electrostatic
potential energy, electromagnetic waves, and diffraction. E = mc2 and E2 = (Pc)2 + (mc2)2, from
relativity theory, are used in discussionsof the Compton effect.
The introductory modern physics chapters are followed by application chapters: Chapters 47
(Electrons in Potential Wells), 48 (Atomic Structure), 49 (Conduction of Electricity in Solids), 50
(Nuclear Physics), 51 (Energy from the Nucleus), and 52 (Particle Physics and Cosmology). You
may chooseto end the course with Chapter 46 or you may chooseto include one or more of the
application chapters.
The ideas of temperature and the Kelvin scale are used in several places in the modern physics
chapters: Sections 45-2 (Thermal Radiation), 45-7 (Slowing Down Atoms by Photon Bombard-
ment) , 48-9 (Lasers and Laser Light) , 49-3 (Filling the Allowed States), 49-6 ( Conductors, fusu-
lators, and Semiconductors), 49-11 (Superconductors), 51-6 (Thermonuclear Fusion), 51-8 (Con-
trolled Thermonuclear Fusion), and 52-5 (Big Bang Cosmology). With a little supplementary
material, these sections can be coveredeven if Chapter 21 is not.
4 General Considerations
Chapter 51 (Energy from the Nucleus) requires Chapter 50 (Nuclear Physics) for background
material, but Chapter 50 need not be followed by Chapter 51. E = mc2 and E2 = (Pc)2+ (mc2)2
from relativity theory are also used. The discussionof thermonuclear fusion usessomeof the ideasof
kinetic theory, chiefly the distribution of molecular speeds.Either Chapter 22 (particularly Sections
22-4 and 22-5) should be coveredfirst or you should be prepared to supply a little supplementary
material here.
Chapter 52 includes an introduction to high energy particle physics and tells how the ideas
of physics are applied to cosmology. Both these topics fascinate many students. In addition, the
chapter provides a nice overview of physics. Someknowledge of the Pauli exclusion principle (from
Chapter 48) and spin angular momentum (from Chapter 47) is required. Knowledge of the strong
nuclear force (discussedin Chapters 50 and 51) is also required. In addition, beta decay (discussed
in Chapter 50) is used several times as an illustrative example. Nevertheless, the chapter can be
made to stand alone with the addition of only a small amount of supplementary material.
RESOURCES
Pedagogy Two excellent books that deal with teaching the introductory calculus-based course
are
Teaching Introductory Physics; Arnold B. Arons; John Wiley (1997).
Teaching Introductory Physics (A' Sourcebook); Clifford E. Swartz and Thomas Miner;
Springer-Verlag (1998).
Both of these provide well thought-out explanations of some of the concepts that perplex students
and give help with teaching those concepts. They are also excellent sourcesof demonstration and
laboratory experiments that illuminate the important ideas of the introductory physics course.
Over the past ten years or so the field of physics education research has grown tremendously.
Many researchprojects focus on the troubles students have in learning physics and analyze proposed
remedies. Lillian McDermot and Edward Redish have compiled an extensive resource letter that
lists books and journal articles in the field. It appearedin the September 1999issueof the American
Journal of Physics and is highly recommendedas a sourceof material for improvement of the course.
In addition, the journal Physics Education Research,a supplement to the American Journal of
Physics, publishes papers dealing with researchinto students' understanding of physics. Resource
Letter EPGA-l: The education of physics graduate assistants (AJP 68, 502; June, 2000) by E.
Leonard Jossem contains referencesto a host of books and articles that offer help and ideas to
physics instructors at alllevels.
The following books provide tutorials and exercises that take into account the findings of
physics education research:
Thtorials in Introductory Physics; Lillian C. McDermott and Peter S. Shaffer; Prentice
Hall, 215 pages, 1998.
Thtorials in Introductory Physics (homework volume); Lillian C. McDermott and Peter S.
Shaffer; Prentice Hall, 147 pages, 1998.
Ranking Task Exercises in Physics; Thomas L. O'Kuma, David P. Maloney, and Curtis J.
Hieggelke; Prentice Hall, 218 pages, 2000.
Video. All of the video cassette and video disk items listed in the SUGGESTIONS sections are
short, well done, and highly pertinent to the chapter. It is not possible to review all available
material and there are undoubtedly many other fine video cassettesand disks that are not listed.
Video might be incorporated into the lectures, shown during laboratory periods, or set up in a
special room for more informal viewing.
General Considerations 5
An excellent set of video cassettesand disks, THE MECHANICAL UNIVERSE, can be ob-
tained from The Annenberg CPB Collection, PO Box 2345, South Burlington, VT 05407-2345. The
set consistsof 52 half-hour segmentsdealing with nearly all the important conceptsof introductory
physics. Historical information and animated graphics are used to present the conceptsin an imag-
inative and engaging fashion. Somephysics departments run appropriate segmentsthroughout the
course in special viewing rooms. Accompanying textbooks, teacher manuals, and study guides are
also available.
Many time-tested fihns originally from Encyclopaedia Britannica, PSSC, Project Physics, and
elsewherehave been transferred to video disk by the AAPT Instructional Media Center and are
available under the title Physics: Cinema Classics from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768, Lexington,
KY 40577-1768. The films cover a host of topics in mechanics, thermodynamics, electricity and
magnetism, optics, and modern physics. Other short fihns that have been transferred to video are
the AAPT Collections 1 and 2 and the Miller Collection. These and many other video tapes and
disks are referencedin the SUGGESTIONS sections of the Lecture Notes.
Computer Software. Computers have made significant contributions to the teaching of physics.
They are widely used in lectures to provide animated illustrations, with parameters under the
control of the lecturer; they also provide tutorials and drills that students can work through on
their own. Specialized programs are listed in appropriate SUGGESTION sections of the Lecture
Notes in this manual. In addition, several available software packagescover large portions of an
introductory course. Four of them are:
Core Conceptsin Physics; CD-ROM; Apple, Windows; Saunders College Publishing, The
Public Ledger Building, Suite 1250, 150 South Independence Mall West, Philadelphia,
PA 19106-3412. A great many animations and live videos, laboratory demonstrations,
and graphics. Most are interactive. Many step-by-step solutions are given to example
problems. Covers a large portion of the introductory calculus-basedcourse.
Interactive Journey Through Physics; CD-Rom; Apple, Windows; Cindy Schwartz and
Bob Beicher; Prentice-Hall, 240 Frisch Ct., Paramus, NJ 07652-5240. A large number of
animations and simulations, many with audio descriptions. Self-check quizzes are associ-
ated with the simulations. Over fifty narrated video segments. Covers most of the topics
of the introductory course.
Multimedia Enhanced Physics Instruction; CD ROMj Apple, Windows; Maha Ashour-
Abdallaj McGraw-Hill, P.O. Box 182604, Columbus, OH 43272-303143004. Extensive
illustrated concepts sections, which give the important ideas of the introductory course,
along with applications and examples, often by way of video. Numerous problems with
interactive help. Each concept module also has a self-checkquiz.
Interactive Physics; Apple, Windows; Knowledge Revolution, 15 Bush Pl., San Francisco,
CA 94103). Animations and graphs for a wide variety ofmechanical phenomena. The user
can set up "experiments" with massive objects, strings, springs, dampers, and constant
forces. Parameters can easily be changed. For Apple and Windows computers. Reviewed
in The Physics Teacher, September 1991.
You might consider setting aside a room or portion of a lab, equip it with several computers,
and make tutorial, drill, and simulation programs available to students. If you have sufficient
hardware (and software), you might base some assignmentson computer materials.
Computers and top-of-the line graphing calculators might also be used by students to perform
calculations. Properly selectedcomputer projects can add greatly to the students' understanding of
physics. Projects involving the investigation of some physical system of interest might be assigned
to individuals or might be carried out by a laboratory class. Somecomputer problems are included
6 General Considerations
at the ends of chapters of the text. A large number of suitable problems and projects can also be
found in the book Introduction to Computational Physics by Marvin L. De Jong (Addison-Wesley,
1991).
Commercial spreadsheetprograms can facilitate problem solving. PSI-Plot (Windowsj Poly
Software International, P.O. Box 1457, Sandy, UT 84091) and f(g) Scholar (Apple, Windows; Fu-
tme Graph, Inc., 75 JamesWay, Southampton, PA 18966) are high-end spreadsheetprograms that
incorporate many scienceand engineering problem-solving and graphing capabilities. Commercial
problem-solving programs such as MathCAD (Windowsj MathSoft, Inc., 101 Main Street, Cam-
bridge, MA 02142-1521), DERIVE (Windows; Soft Warehouse; 3660 Waialae Avenue, Suite 304,
Honolulu, m 96815), MAPLE (Apple, Windows; Waterloo Maple, 57 Erb Street W., Waterloo,
Ontario, Canada N2L 6C2), Pro Solve (Apple, Windows; Problem Solving Concepts, Inc., 1980E.
116th Street, Ste 220, Carmel, IN 46032), and Mathematica (Apple, Windows; Wolfram Research,
Inc., 100 Trade Center Drive, Champaign, IL 61820-7237) can easily be used by students to solve
problems and graph results. All these programs allow students to set up a problem generically,
then view solutions for various values of input parameters. For example, the range or maximum
height of a projectile can be found as a function of initial speedor firing angle, even if air resistance
is taken into account.
A number of computer programs allow you to view digitized video on a computer monitor and
mark the position of an object in eachframe. The coordinates of the object can be listed and plotted.
They can then be used to find the velocity and acceleration of the object, either within the program
itself or by exporting the data to a spreadsheet. Three of these are: Videopoint (Windows, CD-
ROM; Pasco Scientific, 10101 Foothills Blvd., Roseville, CA 95678), VideoGmph (Apple; Physics
Academic Software, Box 8202, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-8202), and
World in Motion (Windows; Physics Cmriculum and Instruction, 22585Woodhill Drive, Lakeville,
MN 55044). All of these come with an assortment of video clips. Home-made videos can also be
used. The capabilities of the programs are different. Check carefully before pmchasing.
Demonstrations. Notes for most of the chapters are developed around demonstration experi-
ments. Generally speaking, these use relatively inexpensive, readily available equipment, yet clearly
demonstrate the main ideas of the chapter. The choice of demonstrations, however, is highly per-
sonal and you may wish to substitute others for those suggestedhere or you may wish to present
the same ideas using chalkboard diagrams. Several excellent books give many other examples of
demonstration experiments. The following are available from the American Association of Physics
Teachers,One Physics Ellipse, College Park MD 20740-3845:
A Demonstmtion Handbookfor Physics, G.D. Freier and F.J. Anderson, 320 pages (1981).
Contains over 800 demonstrations, including znany that use everyday materials and that
can be constructed with minimal expense. Line drawings are used to illustrate the demon-
strations.
String and Sticky Tape Experiments, Ronald Edge, 448 pages (1987). Contains a large
number of illuminating experiments that can be constructed from inexpensive, readily
available materials.
Apparatus for Teaching Physics, edited by Karl C. Mamola. A collection of articles from
The Physics Teacher that describe laboratory and demonstration apparatus.
How Things Work, H. Richard Crane, 114 pages, 1992. A collection of 20 articles from
The Physics Teacher.
The following is cmrently out of print but is available in many collegelibraries and physics depart-
ments:
Physics Demonstration Experiments, H.F. Meiners, ed. An excellent source of ideas, in-
formation, and construction details on a large number of experiments, with over 2000
General Considerations 7
line drawings and photographs. It also contains some excellent articles on the philosoph-
ical aspects of lecture demonstrations, the use of shadow projectors, TV, filIns, overhead
projectors, and stroboscopes.
Appropriate demonstrations describedin Freier and Anderson are listed in the SUGGESTIONS
sectionsof the notes. This book doesnot give any construction det&Is, but more information about
most demonstrations can be obtained from the book edited by Meiners.
The Physics InfoMall CD-ROM (The Learning Team, 84 Business Park Drive, Armonk, NY
10504), a searchabledatabase of over 1000 demonstrations, is another excellent source. There are
both Windows and Apple versions. The CD also contains articles and abstracts, problems with
solutions, whole reference books, and a physics calendar.The following three books, all available
from the AAPT, are also sourcesof ideas for demonstrations and examples:
Physics of sportsj edited by C. Frohlich. Contains reprints and a resource letter .
Amusement Park Physicsj edited by Carole Escobar.In workbook form. The activities
described are perhaps more appropriate for a high school class but some can be used in
collegelevellectures as examples.
Potpourri of Physics TeachingIdeasj edited by Donna Berry; reprints of articles on appa-
ratus from The Physics Teacher.
A computer can also be used for data acquisition during demonstrations. Photogate timers,
temperature probes, strain gauges,voltage probes, and other devicescan be input directly into the
computer and results can be displayed as tables or graphs. The screencan be shown to a large class
by using a large monitor, a TV projection system, or an overhead projector adapter. Inexpensive
software and hardware can be purchased from Vernier Software (8565 SW Beaverton-Hillsdale
Hwy., Portland, OR 97225-2429). PASCO Scientific (PO Box 619011, 10101 Foothills Boulevard,
Roseville, CA 95661-9011)has data acquisition hardware and an extensivevariety ofprobes for both
Apple and Windows computers. If more sophisticated software is desired, consider the commercial
packageLabview (National Instruments Corporation, 11500N. Mopac Expwy., Austin, TX 78759-
3504). The monograph Photodetectors by Jon W. McWane, J. Edward Neighbor, and Robert F.
Tinker (available from the AAPT) is a good source of technical information about photodetectors.
Laboratories. Hands-on experiencewith actual equipmentis an extremely important element of
an introductory physics course. There are many different views as to the objectives of the physics
laboratory and the final decision on the types of experiments to be used has to be made by the
individual instructor or department. This decision is usually based on financial and personnel
considerations as well as on the pedagogical objectives of the laboratory.
Existing laboratories vary widely. Some use strictly cookbook type experiments while others
allow the students to experiment freely, with practically no instructions. The equipment ranges
from very simple apparatus to rather complex and sophisticated equipment. Physical phenomena
may be observed directly or simulated on a computer. Data may be taken by the students or fed
into a computer.
The equipment described above can be used for data acquisition in a student lab. Even if data
acquisition software is not used, consider having students use computers and spreadsheetprograms
to analyze and graph data.
Many physics departments have written their own notes or laboratory manuals and relatively
few physics laboratory texts are on the market. Two such books, both available from John Wiley
& Sons,are
Laboratory Physics, second edition, H.F. Meiners, W. Eppenstein, R.A. Oliva, and T .
Shannon. (1987).
8 General Considerations
Laboratory Experiments in College Physics, seventh edition, C.H. Bernard and C.D. Epp.
(1994).
Experiments from these books are listed in the SUGGESTIONS section of the Lecture Notes.
Meiners is used to designate the Meiners, Eppenstein, Oliva, and Shannon book while Bernard is
used to designate the Bernard and Epp book. Both books contain excellent introductory sections
explaining laboratory procedures to students. Meiners also contains a large amount of material on
the use of microprocessorsin the lab.
Instructor aids. In addition to this Instructor Manual Wiley provides several other aids for
instructors:
Inst1'Uctor's Solution Manual Contains fu11yworked solutions to all the end-of-chapter
exercisesand problems.
Test Bank. Contains over 2800 multiple choice questions (with answers)for use on exams
and quizzes. Both quantitative and qualitative questions are included. In each chapter,
some of the questions are modeled after the end-of-chapter questions, as well as after the
end-of-chapter problems and exercises.
Inst1'Uctor'sResourceCD. A CD ROM for Windows and Apple. Contains the Instructor's
Solution Manual (in both La1F)Cand PDF forms), reproductions of illustrations from the
text (suitable for classroom projection and printing), and the Test Bank, with full editing
features to help you customize exams.
Physics Simulations. A CD with 50 interactive simulations covering major topics in the
course. They can be used as lecture demonstrations or as on-line student assignments.
Wiley eGrade. A powerful on-line homework management system that instructors can
use to assign and grade homework using the internet.
Student supplements. Several supplements, all available from Wiley, might be recommendedto
the students:
Study Guide. Contains an array of study aids and problem-solving help.
Student Solutions Manual. Contains fully worked solutions to about twenty-five percent
of the end-of-chapter problems and exercises.
General Considerations 9
SECTION TWO
LECTURE NOTES
Lecture notes for each chapter of the text are categorized under the headings BASIC TOPICS
and SUGGESTIONS.
BASIC TOPICS contains main points of the chapter in outline form. In addition, one or two
demonstrations are recommendedto show the main theme of the chapter. You may wish to pattern
your lectures after the notes, suitably modified, or simply use them as a check on the completeness
of your own notes.
The SUGGESTIONS sections recommend end-of-chapter questions, exercises, and problems,
fihns, film loops, video cassettes,alternate demonstrations, and other material that might be usefu1
for the course.
Chapter 1 MEASUREMENT
BASIC TOPICS
I. Base and derived units.
A. Explain that standards are associatedwith base unitsand that measillement of a physical
quantity takes place by means of comparison with a standard. Discuss qua1itatively the
SI standards for time, length, and mass. Show a 1 kg mass and a meter stick. Show the
simple well-known procedure for measuring length with a meter stick.
B. Explain that derived units are combinations of base units. Emphasize that the speed of
light is now a defined unit and the meter is a derived unit. Discuss an experiment in which
the time taken for light to travel a certain distance is measilled. Example: the reflection
of a light signal from the moon. U se a clock and a meter stick to find your walking speed
in meters per second.
C. This is a good place to review area, volume, and mass density. Use simple geometric figures
(circle, rectangle, triangle, cube, sphere, cylinder, etc.) as examples.
II. Systemsof units.
A. Explain what a system of units is. Give the 1971 SI base units (Table 1-1). Stress that
the first three (meter, second,kilogram) will be used extensively.
B. Point out the SI prefixes (Table 1-2). The important ones for this course are mega, kilo,
centi, milli, micro, nano, and pico. Stress the simplicity of the powers of ten notation.
C. Most of the students' experience is with the British system. Relate the inch to the cen-
timeter and the slug to the kilogram. Discuss unit conversion. Use speed as an example:
convert 50mi/h and 3 mi/h to kilometers per hour and to meters per second. Point out
the conversion tables in Appendix G.
m .Properties of standards.
A. Discuss the desired properties of a standard: accessibility, invariance, ease of making com-
parisons, etc.
B. Discuss secondary standards such as the meter stick used earlier.
IV .Measurements.
A. Stress the wide range of magnitudes measured. See Tables 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, and 1-6. Ex-
plain the unified atomic mass unit. One atom of 12C has a mass of exactly 12u. 1 u
is approximately 1.661 x 10-27 kg. Explain how the relationship between atomic and SI
SUGGESTIONS
1. AssigDments
a. Properties of standards and base UIÚtS:questions 2,8,20,21, and 26.
b. Length measurements: questions 17, 18, and 19.
c. Time measurements: question 10; exercises10 and 11.
d. Mass measurements: exercise24.
e. Unit conversion: exercises3, 6, 12, 13, 18, 20, and 21.
f. Significant digits: exercise30.
g. Dimensional analysis: exercises32 and 33.
h. Area, volume, and density: exercises15, 16, 17, and 26.
i. Many of the problems deal with two or more measurement concepts. To include the
relationship of arc length and angle consider problems 2 and 3. Solution of Problems 7 and
8 depend on a knowledge of geometry. Problem 9 also makes use of the concept of mass
density.
2. Demonstrations
Examples of "standards" and measuring instruments: Freier and Anderson Mal -3.
3. Books and Monographs
a. Prequencyand Time M easurements,edited by Christine Hackman and Donald B. Sullivan;
available from AAPT, One Physics Ellipse, College Park MD 20740-3845.
b. SI: The International System of Units; edited by Robert A. Nelson; available from AAPT
(seeabove for address).
c. Connecting Time and Space;edited by Harry E. Bates; available from AAPT (see above
for address) .Reprints that discussmeasurementsof the speedof light and the redefinition
of the meter. Students will not be able to understand much of this material at this stage
of the course but it is neverthelessuseful for background.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Time and Place, Measuring Short Distances; Side A: Mechanics (I) of Cinema Classics;
video disk; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Powers of Ten from the Films of Charles and Ray Eames; video disk; available from Ztek
Co. (see above for address).
5. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 7-1: Measurement of Length, Area, and Volume. Gives students
experienceusing the vernier caliper, micrometer, and polar planimeter. Good introduction
to the determination of error limits (random and least count) and calculation of errors in
derived quantities (volume and area).
BASIC TOPICS
I. Vectors.
A. This chapter starts with a discussion of vectors, although the full machinery of vector
addition and subtraction is not utilized until the next chapter. This presentation enables
you to discussthe ideas of displacement,velocity and acceleration as componentsof vectors.
The notation Vx and ax, for example, are used.
B. Explain that vectors have magnitude and direction, and that they obey certain rules of
addition. Compare vectors with scalars and present a list of each. Go over vector notation
and insist that students use it to identify vectors clearly. Use a position vector as an
example.
C. Demonstrate vector addition by walking along two sides of the room. Point out the two
displacementsand their sum. Note that the distance traveled is not the magnitude of the
displacement. Go back to your original position and point out that the displacement is
now zero.
D. Demonstrate vector addition by the graphical method. Draw two vectors tail to head, draw
the resultant and point out its direction. Explain how the magnitude of the resultant can
be measuredwith a ruler and the orientation can be measuredwith a protractor. Explain
how a scale is used to draw the original vectors and find the magnitude of the resultant.
Show that vector addition is both commutative and associative.
E. Define the negative of a vector and define vector subtraction as a- b = a+ ( -b). Graph-
--
ically show that if a + b = c then a = c -b.
F. Derive expressionsfor the components of a vector, given its magnitude and the angles
it makes with the coordinate axes. In preparation for the analysis of forces, find the x
component of a vector in the xy plane in terms of the angles it makes with the positive
and negative x axis and also in terms of the anglesit makes with the positive and negative
y axis. Overlays are useful to show vector components. Point out that the components
depend on the choice of coordinate system and compare the behavior of vector components
with the behavior of a scalar when the orientation of the coordinate system is changed.
Find the components of a vector using two differently oriented coordinate systems. Point
out that it is possible to orient the coordinate system so that only one component of a
given vector is not zero. Remark that a pure translation of a vector (or coordinate system)
does not changethe components.
G. Define the unit vectors along the coordinate axes. Give the form used to write a vector~
L
they can be used to write any vector quantity.
H. Give the expressionsfor the components of the re-
sultant of two vectors in terms of the components
of the addends.
graphical Demonstrate
and analytic theofequivalence
methods of the
finding a vector y ~- c b :
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Vectors: questions 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5; exercises1, 3, 4, 9 and 10; problem 4.
b. Position, velocity, and acceleration in two-dimensional motion: exercises11 and 17; prob-
lems 1 and 3.
c. Velocity and acceleration in one-dimensional motion: questions 6, 7, 10, 12, 17 and 18;
exercises26 and 30; problems 5, 6, 9 and 11. Consider exercises21 and 22 for examples
that deal with different time zones.
d. Graphs for one-dimensional motion: multiple-choice question 7; exercises31, 34, 35 or 36,
and 37; problems 10 and 12.
e. Motion in one dimension with constant acceleration: multiple-choice question 8; question
19; exercises40,47,48, and 50; problems 13, 14, 16, and 17.
f. Free fall: multiple-choice questions 9, 10, and 11; exercises52, 53, and 61; problems 19,
22, and 25.
g. Fa1lingwith air resistance: questions 29 and 31.
2. Demonstrations
a. Vector addition: Freier and Anderson Mb2, 3.
b. Uniform velocity and acceleration, velocity as a limiting process: Freier and Anderson
Mb10 -13, 15, 18, 21, 22.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Vector Addition -Velocity of a Boat; from AAPT collection 1 of single-concept fi1ms;
video tape; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Vectors; Side A: Mechanics (I) of Cinema Classics;video disk; available from Ztek Co. (see
above for address).
c. Vector Addition; Physics Demonstrations in Mechanics, Part III; VHS video tape or video
disk; ~3 min; Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville, MN
55044.
d. Acceleration due to Gravity; from AAPT collection 1 of single-concept films; video tape;
available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
e. One Dimensional Motion; Distance, Time & Speed;One Dimensional Acceleration; Con-
stant Velocity & Uniform Accelemtion; from AAPT collection 2 of single-concept fi1ms;
video tape; available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
f. Uniform Motion, Free Fall; Side A: Mechanics (I) of Cinema Classics;video disk; available
from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
5.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Overview
A. Explain that objects may interact with eacl1other and as a result their velocities cl1ange.
State that the strength of an interaction depends on properties of the objects and their
relative positions. Gravitational mass is responsible for gravitational interactions, electric
cl1argeis responsible for electric and magnetic interactions, for example.
B. Explain that we split the problem into two parts and say that eacl1body exerts a force on
the other and that the net force on a body cl1angesits velocity. Remark that an equation
that gives the force in terms of the properties of the objects and their positions is called
a force law. Force laws are discussedthroughout the course. The dominant theme of this
cl1apter,however, is the relationship between any force and the acceleration it produces.
II. Newton's first law.
A. State the law: if an object does not interact with any other objects, its acceleration is zero.
B. Point out that the acceleration depends on the reference frame used to measure it and
that the first law can be true for only a select set of frames. Define an inertial frame. Tell
students that an inertial frame can be constructed, in principle, by finding an object that
is not interacting with other objects, then attaching a reference frame to it. Any frame
that moveswith constant velocity relative to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame, but
one that is accelerating relative to an inertial frame is not.
C. Explain that we may take a referenceframe attacl1ed to Earth as an inertial frame for the
description of most laboratory phenomenabut we cannot for the description of ocean and
wind currents, spaceprobes, and astronomical phenomena.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Newton's first Iaw: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2j question 9.
b. Definition of force: multiple-choice questions 3 and 4.
c. Definition of mass, mass and weight compared: multiple-choice questions 5, 12, and 13j
questions 4, 24, and 31; exercises9, 12, and 14 or 15.
d. Newton's secondIaw: multiple-choice questions 7 and 8; questions 8, 10, and 28; exercises
2, 4, and 10.
e. Newton's third Iaw: multiple-choice questions 9 and 10 or 11; questions 12, 13, and 14.
f. Applications of Newton's Iaws: multiple-choice question 14; questions 32 and 34; exercises
20, 22, 23, 26, and 27; problems 2, 5, 6, 7, and 11.
2. Demonstrations
a. Inertia: Freier and Anderson Mcl -5, Mel.
b. F = ma: Freier and Anderson Md2, MIl.
c. Third-Iaw pairs: Freier and Anderson Mdl, 3,4.
d. Mass and weight: Freier and Anderson Mf1, 2.
e. Tension in a string: Freier and Anderson Ml1.
3. Books and Monographs
Resource Letters, Book Four; American Association of Physics Teachers, One Physics
Ellipse, College Park, MD 2074~3845. Contains a resource Ietter on mechanics.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Frames of Reference Videodiscj video disk; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lex-
ington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Human Mass Measurement from Skylab Physics Videodisc; video diskj available from Ztek
Co. (see above for address).
c. Newton's First and SecondLaws; Newton's Third Lawj Inertial Forces; Translational Ac-
celeration; from AAPT collection 2 of single-conceptfilmsj video tapej available from Ztek
Co. (see above for address).
d. Inertial Forces-Translational Acceleration; from AAPT Miller collection of single-concept
films; video tape; available from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).
e. Forces, Newton's Laws; Side A: Mechanics (I) of Cinema Classics; video disk; available
from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).
BASIC TOPICS
I. Three-dimensional motion with constant acceleration.
A. Write down the kinematic equations for r(t) and v(t). Stress that these form three sets
of one dimensional equations, linked by the common variable t and are to be solved si-
multaneously. Note that ax affects only Vx, not Vy or Vz. Make similar statements about
the other components. Throw a ball vertically, then catch it. Repeat while walking with
constant velocity acrossthe room. Ask students to observe the motion of the ball relative
to the chalkboard and to describe its motion relative to your hand.
B. Remark that sometimes the magnitude and direction of the acceleration are given, rather
than its components. Remind students how to find the components if such is the case.
II. Newton's laws in vector form.
A. Although the laws were covered previously in one-dimensional form, the extension to a
greater number of dimensions requires some discussion. Explain that force is a vector and
that mass is a scalar. Explain that experiments must be done to show that force obeys the
rules of vector addition and give an example: compare the accelerations produced by two
forces acting simultaneously with the acceleration produced by the resultant, acting as a
single force.
B. Write N ewton' s second law in the form E F = ma and explain that the sum is a vector
sum. Review vector addition using the component method and say that the vector law is
shorthand for three component equations. Write the equations.
C. Write Newton's third law in the form F AB = -FBA, where F AB is the force that object B
exerts on object A and F BA is the force that object A exerts on object B. Remind students
that the negative of a vector is another vector with the same magnitude and opposite
direction. Also remind students that the two forces in a third law pair act on different
objects.
III. Projectile motion.
A. Demonstrate projectile motion by using a spring gun to fire a ball onto a surface at the
firing height. Use various firing angles, including 45°, and point out that the maximum
range occurs for a firing angle of 45°. Remark on the symmetry of the range as a function
of firing angle. Demonstrate that the maximum range occurs for a different angle when
the ball is fired onto a surface at a different height.
B. Explain that the magnitude of the force of gravity acting on an object near the surface of
the Earth is given by F = mg, where m is the mass of the object and 9 is the magnitude
of the local acceleration due to gravity, and that the force is directed downward, toward
the center of the Earth.
C. Show that if the force of gravity is the only force acting on the object then Newton's
secondlaw tells us that the acceleration of the object is g, downward, and that this value
is constant and independent of the mass.
D. Draw the initial velocity vector on the trajectory diagram and derive its components in
terms of the initial speed and firing angle.
E. Write down the kinematic equations for x(t), y(t), vx(t), and Vy(t). At first, include both
ax and ay but then specialize to ax = O and ay = -g for positive y up. Point out that the
acceleration is the same at all points of the trajectory, even the highest point. Also point
out that the horizontal component of the velocity is constant. Explain that these equations
are valid only while the projectile is in flight. They are not valid after it hits the ground
or other target. Remind students how to find the components of the initial velocity, given
the initial speed and firing angle.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Somespecial forces.
A. Remind students that weight is the gravitational force on an object and point out that its
magnitude is mg, where 9 is the local acceleration due to gravity and m is the massof the
object. It is directed toward the center of Earth.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Tension forces: multiple-choice questions 1, 5, and 6; question 1; exercises1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, and 8; problems 1 and 2.
b. Normal forces: multiple-choice questions 3 and 4.
c. Basis for friction: question 2.
d. Static friction: multiple-choice question 11; questions 3, 6, 7, and 8; exercises9, 11, 13, 15,
16,17,26, and 27; problems 4,6,7,9, and 15.
e. Kinetic friction: multiple-choice questions 7 and 9; questions 4 and 9; exercises12, 19, 21,
28, and 30; problems 10 and 12.
f. Both static and kinetic friction: multiple-choice questions 8 and 10; exercises 14, 18, 20,
22, 23, 25, 29, and 31; problem 5.
g. Ulliform circular motion: multiple-choice questions 12 and 13; questions 13, 14, 17, 18, 19,
and 20; exercises34, 38, 42, 44, and 47; problems 16 and 19.
h. Collical pendulum: question 15; exercise35.
i. Relative motion, pseudoforces:questions 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26.
j. Time-dependent forces: exercises48 and 49; problem 20.
2. Demonstrations
a. Friction: Freier and Anderson Mk.
b. Inclined plane: Freier and Anderson Mj2.
c. Centripetal acceleration: Freier and Anderson Mb29, 31, Mml, 2, 4- 8, Ms5.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Tt-ajectories; from AAPT collection 2 of single-concept films; video tape; available from
Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Inertial Forces -Centripetal Acceleration; from AAPT Miller collection of single-concept
films; video tape; available from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).
c. Uniform Circular Motion; Demonstrations of Physics: Motion; VHS video tape (5:57);
Media Design Associates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
d. Circular Motion; VHS video tape (10 min); Fihns for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box
2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
e. Terminal Velocity; Physics Demonstrations in Mechanics, Part n; VHS video tape; ~3
min; Physics CurriculUm & InStruction, 22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville, MN 55044.
4. Computer Software
a. Dynamic Analyzer. SeeChapter 2 SUGGESTIONS.
b. Motion; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky Avenue,
PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains sections on second law problems, including
projectiles, friction, and uniform circular motion.
5. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 7-6: Coefficient of Priction -The Inclined Plane. Students deter-
mine the coefficients of static and sliding friction for three blocks on an inclined plane.
They devise their own experimental procedures.
Chapter 6 MOMENTUM
BASIC TOPICS
I. Properties of Collisions
A. Set up a collision between two carts on an air track. Point out the interaction interval, the
intervals before and after the interaction.
B. Explain that for the collisions considered two bodies interact with each other over a short
period of time and that the times before and after the collision are well defined. The force of
interaction is great enough that external forces can be ignored duÍ"ing the interaction time.
Explain that the identities of the bodies that exit the interaction may be different from
those that enter: decaysof fundamental particles and nuclei can be included in discussions
of collisions.
II. The linear momentum of a particle.
A. Define linear momentum for a single particle: p = mv.
--
B. Show that Newton's second law can be written EF = dp/dt for a particle. Emphasize
that the mass of the particle is constant and that this form of the law does not imply that
a new term vdm/dt has been added to E F = ma.
III. Impulse and the impulse-momentum theorem.--
A. Define the impulse associatedwith a force F in the time interval from ti to t f as the integral
of the force with respect to time:
J= t¡ Fdt. 1
t.
t
B. Integrate Newton's second law in the form F = dp/dt from time ti to time t¡ and show
that J = P¡ -pi. Explain that here J is the total impulse acting on the object since F
must be the total force.
C. Explain that it is not only the total force that counts in producing a changein momentum
but also the time over which the total force acts. Draw a graph of a force as function of
time, such as is shown in Fig. 6-6, and explain that the magnitude oí the impulse is the
area under the curve.
D. Define the averageforce over the interval from ti to t¡ as
Fav=
-..I ¡ t¡ -..
t¡-t. Fdt
t t.
t
and use the impulse-momentum theorem to show that in any interval the cl1ange in the
-..
momentum of a particle is given by ~p = F av~t, where ~t is the duration of the interval.
Remark that when the cl1angein momentum and the duration of the interaction can be
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Definition of momentum: multiple-choice questions 2, 3, and 4; exercises1 and 3.
b. Definition of impUlse, impulse-momentum theorem, average force: multiple-choice ques-
tions 5, 6, and 7; questions 3, 4, and 6; exercises 5, 8, 9, 10, and 13; problems 2 and
3.
c. Streams ofparticles: question 8; exercise 14; problems 1,5, and 7.
d. Conservation of momentum: multiple-choice question 11; question 10; exercises16 and 18;
problems 8 and 10.
e. Collisions: multiple-choice question 12; questions 11, 12, 14, and 15; exercises19, 20, 25,
26, 28, 31, 32, 33, and 35; problems 11, 12, and 15.
2. Demonstrations
a. Conservation of momentum: Freier and Anderson Mg4, 5, Mi2.
b. Collisions: Freier and Anderson Mgl -3, Mil, 3,4, Mw3, 4.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Finding the Speedof a Rifte Bullet; from AAPT collection 1 of single-concept films; video
tape; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Conservation of Linear/ Angular Momentum, Conservation of Momentum; from AAPT
collection 2 of single-concept films; video tape; available from Ztek Co. (see above for
address).
c. Linear Momentum; Side E: Conservation Laws of Cinema Classics; video disk; available
from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).
d. Momentum; VHS video tape (9 min); Films for theHumanities & Sciences,PO Box 2053,
Princeton, N J 08543-2053.
e. Human Momenta, No Initial Motion, Human Momenta, Initial Translation from Skylab
Physics Videodisc; video disk; available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
f. Impulse and Momentum; Conservation of Momentum; Physics Demonstrations in Mechan-
ics, Part V; VHS video tape or video disk; ~3 min; Physics Curriculum & Instruction,
22585Woodhill Drive, Lakeville, MN 55044.
g. One-Dimensional Collisions, Two-Dimensional Collisions, Scattering of a Cluster of Ob-
jects, Dynamics of a Billiard Ball, Inelastic One-Dimensional Collisions, Inelastic Two-
Dimensional Collisions, and Colliding Preight Cars; from AAPT collection 1 of single-
concept films; video tape; available from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).
BASIC TOPICS
I. Center of mass.
A. Explain what is meant by a system of particles. Explain that for a crate sliding on a rough
floor we might, for example, take the system to be the collection of particles in the crate
or the collection of particles in the crate and floor. Explain that particles in the system
might interact with each other and with particles outside the system.
B. Spin an eraser as you toss it. Point out that, if the influence of air can be neglected,
one point (the center of mass) follows the parabolic trajectory of a projectile although the
motions of other points are more complicated.
C. Define the center of mass by giving its coordinates in terms of the coordinates of the
individual particles in the system. As an example, consider a system consisting of three
discrete particles and calculate the coordinates of the center of mass, given the massesand
coordinates of the particles. Point out that no particle need be at the center of mass.
D. Extend the definition to include a continuous mass distribution. Note that if the object
has a point, line, or plane of symmetry, the center of mass must be at that point, on that
line, or in that plane. Examples: a uniform sphere or spherical shell, a uniform cylinder,
a uniform square, a rectangular plate, and a triangular plate. Show how to compute the
coordinates of the center of mass of a complex object comprised of a several simple parts,
a table for example. Each part is replaced by a particle with massequal to the massof the
part, positioned at the center of mass of the part. The center of mass of the replacement
particles is then found.
E. Explain that the general motion of a rigid body may be described by giving the motion of
the center of mass and the motion of the object around the center of mass.
F. Derive expressionsfor the velocity and acceleration of the center of mass in terms of the
velocities and
-- accelerations of the particles in the system.
G. Derive E F ext = M8cm, where the sum is over all external forces acting on objects of the
system. As an example, consider a two-particle system with external forces acting on both
particles and each particle interacting with the other. Invoke Newton's third law to show
that the internal forces cancel when all forces are summed.
H. Show that the total momentum of a system of particles equals the total massof the system
times the velocity ofits center ofmass. Then show that Newton's secondlaw for the center
of mass can be written E F ext = dP / dt, where p is the total momentum of the system.
Stress that this equation is valid only if the mass of the system is constant.
I. Show that if the velocities of the particles in a system are measured relative to the center
of mass, then the total momentum is zero. Refer back to the relevant portions of Chapter
-Vrel m
vi
Explain that the relative velocity is taken to be a constant and that the velocity of the
rocket itself is not constant.
D. To demonstrate, screw severalhook eyesinto a toy CO2 propelled rocket, run a line through
the eyesand stri~g the line acrossthe lecture hall. Start the rocket from rest and have the
students observe its acceleration as it crossesthe hall.
E. As a secondexample of a variable mass system, consider the loading of sand on a conveyor
belt and calculate the force required to keep the belt moving at constant velocity.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Rotation about a fixed axis.
A. Spin an irregular object on a fixed axis. A bicycle wheel or spinning platform with the
object attached can be used. Draw a rough diagram, looking along the axis. Explain that
each point in the body has a circular orbit and that, for any selectedpoint, the radius of
the orbit is the perpendicular distance from the point to the axis. Contrast to a body that
is simultaneously rotating and translating. SeeFigs. 8-1 and 8-2.
B. Draw a referenceline on the diagram, perpendicular to the rotation axis, and say that the
line rotates with the object. Define angular position ~ (in radians and revolutions) as the
angle between the referenceline and a line that is fixed in space. Note that ~ is positive for
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Ideas of rotational motion: multiple-cl1oice questions 1, 2, and 3j questions 1, 2, 3j exercise
1.
b. Angular variables: questions 5, 6, and 14; exercises 2, 3, 5, 7, and 9j problems 1 and 2.
c. Vector nature of rotational variables: multiple-cl1oice question 4; questions 7, 8, 10, and
llj exercises 10 and 11.
d. Rotation with constant angular acceleration: multiple-cl1oice question 5j question 4j exer-
cises 12, 14, 15, 17, and 19; problems 4 and 5.
e. Relationships between linear and angular variables: multiple-cl1oice question 6; questions
12, 13, 16, 17, and 18; exercises 18, 23, 26, 28, 29, and 31; problems 6, 8, 10, and 11.
f. Vector relationships between linear and angular variables: multiple-cl1oice questions 7 and
8j exercises 33 and 34; problems 12, 13.
2. Audio/visual
Non-Commutivity of Angular Displacementsj Bruce Marsh; available from the American
Association ofPhysics Teachers, 5112 Berwyn Road, College Park, MD 20740-4100. Slides
showing the results of several rotations performed in different order .
3. Computer Software
a. Motion. See Chapter 2 SUGGESTIONS.
b. Circular Motion; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Torque.
A. Define torque for a force acting on a single particle: T = r x F, where r is a vector from the
origin to the point of application of the force. State that the magnitude of T is given by
-+
T = r F sin t/J,where t/Jis the angle between r and F when they are drawn with their tails
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Torque: multiple-choice questions 1,2, and 3; exercise 2 or 4.
b. Vector product: exercises5, 6, 7, and 8.
c. Rotational inertia: multiple-cl1oice question 4; exercises 12, 13, 17, and 19; problems 12
and 15.
d. Radius of gyration: exercise20.
e. Center of gravity: questions 4 and 5.
f. Newton's secondlaw for rotation: multiple-cl1oicequestion 8; questions 22 and 23; exercises
11, 15, 34, 38, and 40; problems 17 and 19.
g. Equilibrium: multiple-cl1oice questions 5 and 6; questions 7, 8, 9, 11, and 12; exercises23,
24, 26, 28, 29, and 30; problems 1, 4, and 8.
h. Combined rotation and translation, rolling: multiple-cl1oice questions 9 and 10; questions
1, 2, 3, 29, 30, 32, 33, and 35j exercises41 and 43; problems 21, 22, and 25.
2. Demonstrations
a. Rotational dynarriics: Freier and Anderson Ms7, Mt 5, 6, Mo5.
Equilibrium: Freier and Anderson Mol, 2, 4, 6 -9, Mp4 -6, 9, 11, 14, 15, Mql, 2.
b. Rolling: Freier and Anderson Mb4, 7,30, Mo3, Mp3, Mrl, 4, Msl, 3,4,6.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Newton's Second Law for Rotational Motion; Demonstrations of Physics: Motion; VHS
video tape (8:35); Media Design Associates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
b. Rotational Dynamics; Physics Demonstrations in Mecl1anics,Part VI; VHS video tape or
video diskj ~3 rriin; Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville,
MN 55044.
c. Equilibrium ofForcesj VHS video tape (30 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO
Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
4. Computer Software
Statics; Apple, Windowsj Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky Avenue, PO Box
1536, Ruston, LA 71270.
5. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 7-14: Rotational Inertia. The rotational inertia of a disk is measured
dynamically by applying a torque ( a falling mass on a string wrapped around a flange on
BASIC TOPICS
I. Angular momentum and torque.
A. Define angular momentum for a single particle using vector notation: .t-= r x p. Review
the vector product and give the right-hand rule for finding the direction.
B. Derive the relationship between the magnitudes of the angular momentum and angular
velocity for a particle moving on a circle centered at the origin: t' = mr2(,¡)(= I(,¡)). Also find
the angular momentum if the origin is on a line through the circle center, perpendicular to
the circle, but not at the center. Explain that the component along the axis is independent
of the position of the origin along the line and that the component perpendicular to the
axis rotates with the particle.
C. To show that a particle may have angular momentum even if it is not moving in a circle,
calculate the angular momentum of a particle moving with constant velocity along a line
not through the origin. Point out that the angular momentum depends on the choice of
origin. In preparation for E below you might- want to find the time rate of changeof l
D. Use Newton's secondlaw to derive ¿T = d.t/dt for a particle. Consider a particle moving
in a circle, subjected to both centripetal and tangential forces. Take the origin to be at
-
the center of the circle and show that ¿ T = d.tl dt reduces to ¿ FT = m~ , as expected.
Take the origin be on the line through the center, perpendicular to the circle, but not at
the center. Show that the torque associated with the centripetal force produces the change
--
in.t expected from ¿T = dL/dt.
E. Show that the magnitude of the torque about the origin exerted by gravity on a falling
massis mgd, where d is the perpendicular distance from the line of fall to the origin. Write
down the velocity as a function of time and show that the angular momentum is mgtd.
Remark that ¿T = dt'/dt by inspection. SeeSample Problem 10--1.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Properties of angular momentum: question 1.
b. Angular momentum of a single particle: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, and 3; exercises1
and 5; problem 1.
c. Angular momentum of a system of particles: multiple-choice questions 4 and 5; exercise6;
problem 2.
d. Relationship between angular momentum and angular velocity: multiple-choice questions
6 and 7; questions 2, 3, and 4; exercises8 and 11.
e. Newton's second law for angular momentum: questions 8 and 9; exercises8, 9, 10, 13, 14,
and 15; problems 4, 5, and 7.
f. Conservation of angulár momentum: multiple-choice questions 9 and 10; questions 5, 6, 7,
14, 16, 17, and 18; exercises17, 18,20,21, and 24 or 25; problems 8, 11, and 12.
g. Gyroscopesand precession: multiple-choice question 11; question 25; exercise 26 or 27.
2. Demonstrations
a. Conservation of angular momentum: Freier and Anderson Mtl -4, 7, 8, Mul.
b. Gyroscopes: Freier and Anderson Mu2 -18.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Human Momenta, Initial Translation and Rotation from Skylab Physics Videodisc; video
disk; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Conservation of Linear/ Angular Momentum; from AAPT collection 2 of single-concept
fihns; video tape; available from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).
c. Angular Momentum; Side F: Angular Momentum and Modern Physics of Cinema Classics;
video disk; available from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).
d. Conservation of Angular Momentum; Demonstrations of Physics: Energy and Momentum;
VHS video tape (5:52); Media Design Associates,Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
e. Why a Spinning Top Doesn't Fall; Demonstrations of Physics: Energy and Momentum;
VHS video tape (4:24); Media Design Associates,Inc. (seeabove for address).
f. Conservation Laws in Zero-G; Skylab Demonstrations; VHS video tape (18 min); Media
Design Associates, Inc. (seeabove for address).
g. Conservation of Angular Momentum; Center of Percussion; Physics Demonstrations in
Mechanics, Part II; VHS video tape; ~3 min; Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585
Woodhill Drive, Lakeville, MN 55044.
4. Computer Software
Conservation Laws; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Includes a section on conservation of angular
momentum.
5. Laboratory
Meiners Experiment 8-9: Conservation of Angular Momentum. Uses the Pasco rotational
dynamics apparatus. A ball rolls down a ramp and becomes coupled to the rim of a
disk that is free to rotate on a vertical axis. Students measure the velocity of the ball
before impact and the angular velocity of the disk-ball system after impact, then checkfor
conservation of angular momentum.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Work done by aconstant force.
A. Write down W = F-- .s = Fs cos<fJand point out <fJon a diagram. Explain that this is the
work done on a particle by the constant force F as the particle undergoes a displacement
s. You may need to define the scalar product of two vectors in terms of the magnitudes of
the vectors and the angle between them when they are drawn with their tails at the same
point. Explain that the scalar product can be interpreted as the product of the magnitude
of the either of the vectors and the component of the other vector along the axis defined
by the first vector .
B. Explain that work can be calculated for each individual force and that the total work
done on the particle is the work done by the resultant force. Point out that work is a
scalar quantity. Also point out that work is zero for a force that is perpendicular to the
displacement and that, in general, only the component of F tangent to the path contributes
to the work. The force does no work if the displacement is zero. Emphasize that work can
be positive or negative, depending on the relative orientation of F and s. For a constant
force the work depends only on the displacement, not on details of the path. Units: joule,
erg, ft.lb, eV. Give the conversionfrom electron volts to joules.
C. Calculate the work done by the force of gravity as a mass falls a distance h and as it rises
a distance h. Emphasize the sign. Calculate the work done by a non-horizontal force used
to pull a box across a horizontal floor. Point out that the work done by the normal force
and the work done by the force of gravity are zero. Consider both an accelerating box and
one moving with constant velocity. Repeat the calculation for a crate being pulled up an
incline by a force applied parallel to the incline. Show the work done by gravity is -mgh,
where h is the changein the height of the crate. Point out that it is no longer zero.
II. Work done by a variable force.
A. For motion in one dimension, discussthe integral form for work as the limit of a sum over
infinitesimal path segments. Explain that the sum can be carried out by a computer even
if the integral cannot be evaluated analytically.
B. Examples: derive expressionsfor the work done by an ideal spring and a force of the form
k / x2.If you have not yet discussedthe force of an ideal spring, do so now as a preface to
the calculation of work. Explain how the force constant can be found by hanging a mass
from the spring and measuring the extension. Demonstrate changesin the spring length
during which the spring does positive work and during which the spring does negative
work.
C. For motion in more than one dimension, write down the expression for the work in the
form Jif F .ds and explain its interpretation as the limit of a sum over infinitesimal path
segments. Explain that this is the general definition of work. Calculate the work done by
the applied force, the force of gravity, and the tension in the string as a simple pendulum
is pulled along its arc until it is displaced vertically through a height h by a horizontal
applied force F .
III. Power.
A. Introduce the topic by saying that in someinstances the rate with which a force doeswork
is just as important as the amount of work. A motor that raises an elevator in a hotel does
the same amount of work if the trip takes two days as it does if the trip takes two minutes.
B. Define power as p = dW/dt. Units: watt, horsepower.
--
C. Show that p = F .v. Explain that the work done over a time interval is given by J p dt.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Work done by a constant force: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, and 3; questions 3, 8, and
11; exercises1, 4, and 6; problems 2, 3, and 4.
b. Scalar product: exercises7, 8, 9, and 10.
c. Force of an ideal spring: questions 13 and 14; exercise 23
d. Work done by a variable force: multiple-choice questions 2 and 8; exercises21 or 22 and
24; problems 11, 12, and 13.
e. Power: multiple-choice questions5 and 8; question 10; exercises11, 12, 14, and 18; problems
6,7, and 8.
f. Kinetic energy and the work-energy theorem: multiple-choice questions 9, 10, and 11;
questions 15, 16, 17, 19, and 20; exercises31 and 33; proQlems 16 and 20.
g. Rotational energy: multiple-choice questions 13 and 15; exercises35, 36, and 38; problems
23, 24, 25, and 27.
h. Energy in collisions: multiple-choice question 16; questions 22 and 25; exercises40,41, and
42; problems 32 and 33.
i. Referenceframe considerations: problems 34 and 35.
2. Demonstrations
a. Work: Freier and Anderson Mvl.
b. Rotational work and energy: Freier and Anderson Mv2, Mr5, Ms2.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Work and Energy; Side E: Conservation Laws of Cinema Classics; video disk; available
from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Energy and Force: Part 2; VHS video tape (25 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,
PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
c. Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities
& Sciences(seeabove for address).
d. Work and Energy; Physics Demonstrations in Mechanics, Part VI; VHS video tape or
video disk; ~3 min; Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville,
MN 55044.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Conservative and non-conservativeforces
A. Definitions. Explain that a force is conservative if either of the following hold:
1. the work done by the force on every round trip is zero.
2. the work done by the force is independent of the path.
Show that the two definitions are equivalent. Stress the importance of the word "every"
in the first definition.
B. Discuss the force of gravity and the force of an ideal spring as examples. For either or
both of these show that the work done depends only on the end points and not on the
path between, then argue that the work vanishesfor a round trip. Point out that on some
parts of the path the force does positive work while on other parts it does negative work.
Demonstrate that the work done by a spring is independent of path by considering two
different motions with the sameend points. For the first motion have the mass go directly
from the initial point to the final pointj for the secondhave it first go away from the final
point before going to the final point .
C. Use a force of friction with constant magnitude as an example of a non-conservativeforce.
Argue that the work done by the force cannot vanish over a round trip since it is negative
for each segment. Consider a casefor which friction is the only force that does work, such
as an object moving around a circle on a horizontal surface. Argue that the object returns
to its initial position with less kinetic energy than it had when it started.
D. Use a cart on a linear air track to demonstrate these ideas. Couple each end of the cart, via
a spring, to a support at the corresponding end of the air track. Explain the equivalence
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Definition of a conservative force: multiple-cl1oice question 1 or 2; question 1 or 2.
b. Potential energy: multiple-cl1oice question 4; question 6; exercise 1; problem 1.
c. Conservation of mecl1anical energy: multiple-cl1oice question 5j questions 9, 10, and 12;
e:Xercises6, 7, 9, 11, 15, 17, and i9j problems 2, 3, 5, 6, and 11.
d. Conservation of energy, including rotational energy: multiple-cl1oice questions 6, 8, and 9;
question 15; exercises 23, 24, and 27; problem 13.
e. Potential energy curves: exercise 29; problem 16.
f. Two- and three-dimensional conservative systems: exercises 31 or 32 and 33.
2. Demonstrations
a. Conservation of energy: Freier and Anderson Mnl -3, 6.
b. Nonconservative forces: Freier and Anderson Mwl.
3. Books and Monographs
The Bicycle by Phillip DiLavore; available from AAPT, One Physics Ellipse, College Park
MD 20740-3845. Deals chiefly with energy.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Gravitational Potential Ener:YYj Conservation of Energy -Pole Vault and Aircraft Take-
off ; from AAPT collection 1 of single-concept filmSj video tapej available from Ztek Co.,
PO Box 11768, Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Energy Conservation; Side E: Conservation Laws of Cinema Classics; video diskj available
from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
c. Conservation of Energyj Work and Conservation of Energy; Physics Demonstrations in
Mecl1anics, Part I; VHS video tape; ~3 min eacl1j Physics Curriculum & Instruction,
22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville, MN 55044.
5. Computer Software
Conservation Laws; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Includes a section on conservation of energy.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Systemsof particles.
A. Remind students what is meant by a system of objects, external forces, and external work.
B. Explain that we may think of the energy of a system as composedof three parts and give
examples:
1. the macroscopickinetic energy K, associatedwith the motion of the system as a whole
or with its macroscopic parts (the kinetic energy of a crate sliding across the fioor or
the pistons of an engine).
2. the macroscopic potential energy U, associated with the interaction of macroscopic
parts of the system with eachother (the potential energy associatedwith the elongation
or compressionof a spring in the system, the gravitational potential energy associated
with the interaction of Earth and a ball, both in the system).
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. External work: multiple-choice questions 1 and 3j exercises 2, 3, 4.
b. Internal energy: multiple-choice question 4j questions 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9j exercise 5.
c. &ictional work: multiple-choice question 7j question 10j exercises 6, 8, 11, and 12.
d. Conservation of energy: multiple-choice question 8j questions 1, 2, 15, 16, 18, and 25j
exercises 13 and 15j problems 1, 3,4, and 7.
e. Center-of-mass energy: multiple-choice questions 9j question 24j exercises 17, 18, 19.
f. Reactions and decays: multiple-choice question 12j exercise 21.
Chapter 14 GRAVITATION
BASIC TOPICS
I. Newton's law of gravity.
A. This is an important cl1apter. It reviews the concepts of potential energy, angular mo-
mentum, and centripetal acceleration in the context of some important applications. It
also introduces the idea of a field. In addition, the discussion of the gravitational fields of
continuous mass distributions is a precursor to Gauss' law.
B. Write down Newton's equation for the magnitude ofthe force of one point masson another.
Explain that the force is one of mutual attraction and lies along the line joining the masses.
Give the value of G (6.67 x 10-11N.m2/kg2) and explain that it is a universal constant
determined by experiment. If you have a Cavendish balance, show it but do not take
the time to demonstrate it. As a thought experiment dealing with the magnitude of G,
consider a pair of 100-kg spheresfalling from a height of 100m, initially separated by a bit
more then their radii. As they fall, their mutual attraction pulls them only slightly closer
together. Air resistance has more influence.
C. Explain that the samemathematical form holds for bodies with spherically symmetric mass
distributions (this was tacitly assumed in B) if r is now the separation of their centers.
Explain that the force on a point mass anywhere inside a uniform spherical shell is zero.
(Optional: use integration to prove that this follows from Newton's law for point masses.)
Use this to derive an expressionfor the force on a point massinside a spherically symmetric
mass distribution. See Sample Problem 14-4.
D. Point out the assumedequivalenceof gravitational and inertial mass.
E. Use Newton's law of gravity to calculate the acceleration due to gravity go for objects near
the surface of the earth and justify the use of a constant acceleration due to gravity in
previous cl1apters. Remark that the acceleration due to gravity is independent of the mass
of the body.
F. Optional: Discuss factors that influence the free-fall acceleration 9 and apparent weight.
II. Gravitational potential energy.
A. Use integration to show that the gravitational potential energy of two point massesis given
by U = -GMm/r if the zero is cl1osenat r 4 00. Demonstrate that this result obeys
F = -dU/dr.
B. Argue that the work neededto bring two massesto positions r apart is independent of the
path. Divide an arbitrary path into segments,some along lines of gravitational force and
others perpendicular to the gravitational force.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Newton's law of gravitation: multiple-choice question 1 or 2; questions 10, 13, and 33j
exercises2 and 3j problems 1,3, 5, and 16.
b. Gravitation near Earth's surface: multiple-choice question 5; question 9; exercises7 and 8.
c. Apparent weight: questions 8 and 40j problem 6.
d. The shell theorems: multiple-choice question 6 and 7; exercises 10 and llj problems 9 or
11, 12, and 13.
e. Gravitational potential energy: multiple-choice question 8; exercises13, 15, 16, 19, and 21j
problem 20.
f. Planetary motion: multiple-choice questions 9 and 10; questions 2, 18, 30, 42, 43, and 47;
exercises22, 23, 24, 28, 29, 33, and 36; problems 26 and 29.
2. Books and Monographs
Measurementsof Newtonian Gravitation, edited by George T. Gillies. A collection of jour-
nal articles covering the measurement of G and the measurement of gravitational effects.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Retrogmde Motion -Heliocentric Model and Geocentric Model; Kepler's Laws; Jupiter
Satellite Orbitsj from AAPT collection 1 of single-conceptfilms; video tapej available from
Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Measurement of "G" -The Cavendish Experimentj from AAPT collection 2 of single-
concept films; video tape; available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
c. Planetary Motion; Side B: Mechanics(II) and Heat of Cinema Classicsjvideo diskj available
from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
d. Zero-G; Skylab Demonstrations; VHS video tape (15 min); Media Design Associates,Inc.,
Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
e. The Determination of the Newtonian Constant of Gmvitation; VHS video tape (15 min)j
Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
f. Newton's Law of Universal Gmvitation; Physics Demonstrations in Mechanics, Part IVj
VHS video tape or video diskj ~3 min; Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585Woodhill
Drive, Lakeville, MN 55044.
4. Computer Software
a. Orbits; James B. Harold, Kenneth Hennacy, and Edward Redishj Windows; available from
Physics Academic Software, North Carolina State University, PO Box 8202, Raleigh, NC
27690-0739. Calculates and plots the trajectories of up to seven bodies. Two can be
massive and infiuence the motions of the others. The rest are light. The user can change
the value of the gravitational constant and can shift the view to various referenceframes.
b. Orbital Maneuvers; Windowsj Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky Avenue,
PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270.
c. Orbits; Vernier Software, 8565 S.W. Beaverton-Hil1sideHwy., Portland OR, 97225-2429.
The student can place a satellite in orbit and changethe orbit with thruster rockets. The
motion is plotted and the position and speed of the satellite are continuously displayed.
d. Objects in Motion. SeeChapter 2 SUGGESTIONS.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Pressureand density.
A. Introduce the subject by giving a few examples of fiuids, including both liquids and gases.
Remark that fluids cannot support shear.
B. Explain that fluid in any selectedvolume exerts a force on the material acrossthe boundary
of the volume. The boundary may be a mathematical construct and the material on the
other side may be more of the same fluid. The boundary may also be a container wall or
an interface with another fluid or another portion of the same fluid. Explain that, for a
small segment of surface area, the force exerted by the fluid is normal to the surface and
is proportional to the area. The pressure is the force per unit area and F = pA, where
the magnitude of A is the area and the direction of A is outward, normal to the surface.
Units: Pa (= N/m2), atmosphere, bar, torr, mm of Hg. Give the conversion or point out
Appendix G of the text.
C. Define density as the mass per unit volume in a region of the fluid. Point out that the
limit is a macroscopic limit: the limiting volume still contains many atoms. The density
is a scalar and is a function of position in the fluid.
D. Show that in equilibrium with y measured positive above some reference height dp/dy =
-pg, where p is the fluid density. Then note that P2 -Pl = -J pg dy, where the integral
limits are yl and y2. Point out that the difference in pressure arises becausea fluid surface
is supporting the fluid above it. Finally, point out that if the fluid is incompressible and
homogeneous,then p is a constant. If y2 -yl is sufficiently small that 9 is also'constant,
P2 -Pl = -pg(y2 -Yl ) .Point out that if Po is the surface pressure, then the pressure a
distance d below the surface is p = Po + pgd. Note that the pressure is the same at all
points at the same depth in the fluid. Explain that Po is atmospheric pressureif the surface
is open to the air and is zero if the fluid is in a tube with the region above the surface
evacuated.
E. For contrast, assumethe density is proportional to the pressureand derive Eq. 15-13 for the
variation of pressure in a gas. Remark that the result is applicable to Earth's atmosphere.
F. Connect a length of rubber tubing to one arm of a U-tube partially filled with colored
water. Blow into the tube, then suck on it. In each case note the change in water level.
Insert the U-tube into a deep beaker of water, with the free end of the tubing out of the
water. As the open end is lowered, the changein the level of the colored water will indicate
the increasein pressure. Go over Sample Problem 15-1 to show the equilibrium positions
of two immiscible liquids of different densities. Point out that the pressure is the same
at the fluid surfacesin the two branches of the U-tube and that the pressure is the same
at the two points labelled C in the text diagram. Explain that the pressure is always the
same at two points which are at the same height and can be joined by a line along which
neither p nor 9 vary. Explain that the pressure is not the same for two points above C in
different branches.
II. Pascal's and Archimedes' principles.
A. State Pascal's principle. Start with p = Po + pgh, consider a change in Po, and show
~p = ~PO if the fluid is incompressible. You can demonstrate the transmission of pressure
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
Surface tension. Submerge a steel needle in water and observe that the buoyant force is not
great enough to float the needle. Point out that the density of steel is greater than the density
of water. Dry the needle or use an identical needle. Gently place it on the surface and observe
that it floats. Explain how surface tension can be measured and point out that the force is
not elastic but rather is proportional to the length of the line along which it is applied. Define
surface tension as force per unit length. Discuss the microscopic theory and explain that a
surface stretches by the addition of more fluid from the interior and that this mechanism gives
rise to the dependenceof the force on the line length and to its independencefrom the amount
of stretching. Finally explain how the needle depressesthe surface, thereby stretching it. Since
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Pressure and density: multiple-choice questions 2 and 3; question 1; exercises 2 and 3;
problems 1 and 4.
b. Variation of pressure with depth: multiple-choice question 4; question 7; exercises8, 11,
12, and 14; problems 8 and 9.
c. Pascal's principle: exercise 18.
d. Archimedes' principle: multiple-choice questions 5, 8, and 9; questions 8, 13, 19, 21, and
25; exercises19, 24, and 26; problems 14 and 16.
e. Measurement of pressure: exercise33.
f. Surface tension: question 38; exercise35; problem 19.
2. Demonstrations
a. Force and pressure: Freier and Anderson Fa, Fb, Fc, Fd, Fe, Ff, Fh.
b. Archimedes' principle: Freier and Anderson Fg.
3. Books and Monographs
Hydraulic Devices;by Malcolm Goldber, John P. Ouderkirk, and Bruce B. Marsh ; available
from AAPT, One Physics Ellipse, College Park MD 20740-3845.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Why Divers Exhale While Surfacing; Demonstrations of Physics: Liquids and Gases;VHS
video tape (2:25); Media Design Associates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
b. Archimedes' Principle for Gases; Demonstrations of Physics: Liquids and Gases; VHS
video tape (3:18); Media Design Associates, Inc. (seeabove for address).
c. The Cartesian Diver; Demonstrations of Physics: Liquids and Gases; VHS video tape
(6:27); Media Design Associates, Inc. (see above for address).
d. Fluids in Weightlessness;Skylab Demonstrations; VHS video tape (15 min); Media Design
Associates, Inc. (see above for address).
e. Pressure; VHS video tape (30 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box 2053,
Princeton, N J 08543-2053.
f. Atmospheric Pressure; VHS video tape (9 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see
above for address).
g. Fluid Pressure; VHS video tape (9 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see above
for address).
h. Liquid Drops, Water Bridges, Soap and Water from AAPT Skylab videotape; American
Association of Physics Teachers,One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740-3845.
5. Computer Software
Fluids; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc.; 508 E. Kentucky Avenue, PO
Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270.
6. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 7-7: Radial Acceleration (Problem II only). Students measure the
orbit radii of various samples floating on the surface of water in a spinning globe and
analyze the forces on the samples. This experiment is an application of buoyancy forces to
rotational motion.
b. Bernard Experiment 16: Buoyancy of Liquids and Specific Gravity. Archimedes' principle is
checkedby weighing the water displaced by various cylinders. Buoyant forces are measured
BASIC TOPICS
I. Velocity and density fields
A. Describe what is meant by a velocity field. Draw a diagram showing a meandering stream
and mark several points with velocity vectors. Remark that the field gives the velocity of
the fluid at each point and each instant of time rather than the velocity of any particle
as a f1lllction of time. Explain that the field can be described by giving a vector f1lllction
v(x, y, z, t) of position and time.
B. Describe what is meant by a density field. On the diagram label several points with
numbers indicating the density. Remark that this field tells us the mass per unit volume at
each point. Also remark that as particles move into and out of the region near any point,
the density there may change. Explain that the field can be described by giving a scalar
f1lllction p(x, y, z, t) of position and time.
C. Describe:
1. Steady and non-steady flow. Emphasize that the velocity and density fields are inde-
pendent of time if the flow is steady. They may depend on position, however.
2. Compressible and incompressible flow. Emphasize that the density is independent of
both position and time if the flow is incompressible.
3. Rotational and irrotational flow.
4. Viscous and nonviscous flow.
D. Describe streamlines for steady flow and point out that streamlines are tangent to the fluid
velocity and that no two streamlines cross. Remark that the velocity is not necessarily
constant along a streamline. Describe a tube of flow as a bundle of streamlines. Sketch a
tube of flow with streamlines far apart at one end and closetogether at the other. Explain
that since streamlines do not cross the boundaries of a tube of flow they are closetogether
where the tube is narrow and far apart where the tube is wide. Remark that particles do
not cross the boundaries of a tube of flow.
II. Equation of continuity
A. Define volume flow rate (volume flux) and mass flow rate (mass flux). Consider a tube of
flow with cross sectional area A at one point and give the physical significance of Apv and
Av. Remark that the first can be measuredin kg/s and the secondin m3/s. Show how to
convert m3/sto gal/ S and li/ s.
B. State the equation of continuity: Apv = constant along a streamline if there are no sources
or sinks of fluid and if the flow is steady. Argue that if the equation were not true there
would be a build up or depletion of fluid in someregions and the flow would not be steady.
C. Discussthe special caseof an incompressiblefluid and explain that the fluid speedis great
where the tube of flow is narrow and vice versa. Point out that the fluid velocity is great
where the streamlines are close together and small where they are far apart. Use the
diagram of section ID above as an example.
m .Bernoulli's equation.
A. Apply the work-energy theorem to a tube of flow to show that for steady, nonviscous,
incompressible flow p + ~pv2 + pgy = constant along a streamline. Point out that this
equation also gives the pressurevariation in a static fluid (v = O everywhere).
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Fluid flow: question 2; exercise 1
b. Continuity equation: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2; question 3; exercises 2, 3, and 5
c. Bernoulli's equation: multiple-choice questions 4, 5, and 7; questions 12, 15, and 18;
exercises 6, 7, 9, 10, 13, 15, and 18; problems 2, 3, 4, 6
d. Applications: questions 19 and 32; exercises 22, 23, and 25; problem 9.
2. Demonstrations
Bernoulli's principle: Freier and Anderson Fj, Fl1.
3. Audio/Visual
Bernoulli's Equation and Streamlines; Demonstrations ofPhysics: Liquids and Gases; VHS
video tape (5:33); Media Design Associates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Oscillatory motion.
A. Set up an air track and a cart with two springs, one attached to each end. Mark the
equilibrium point, then pull the cart aside and release it. Point out the regularity of the
motion and show where the speedis the greatest and where it is the least. By referenceto
the cart define the terms periodic motion, equilibrium point, period, frequency, cycle, and
amplitude.
B. Explain that x(t) = XmCOS(wt+ <t»describes the coordinate of the cart as a function of
time if x = O is taken to be the equilibrium point, where the force of the springs on the
cart vanishes. State that this type motion is called simple harmonic. Show where x = Ois
on the air track, then show what is meant by positive and negative x. Sketch a mass on
the end of a single spring and explain that the mass also moves in simple harmonic motion
if friction and drag forces are negligible.
C. Discuss the equation for x(t).
1. Explain that Xm is the maximum excursion of the mass from the equilibrium point
and that the spring is compressedby Xm at one point in a cycle. Xm is called the
amplitude of the oscillation. Explain that the amplitude depends on initial conditions.
Draw several x(t) curves, identical except for amplitude. mustrate with the air track
apparatus.
2. Note that w is called the angular frequency of the oscillation and is given in radians/s.
Define the frequency by f = w/27r and the period by T = 1/ f .Show that T = 27r/w
is in fact the period by direct substitution into x(t)j that is, show x(t) = x(t + T).
Explain that the angular frequency does not depend on the initial conditions. For the
cart on the track, use a timer to show that the period, and hence W, is independent
of initial conditions. Draw several x(t) curves, for oscillations with different periods.
Replace the original springs with stiffer springs and note the change in period. A1so
replace the cart with a more massive cart and note the changein period.
3. Define the phase of the motion and explain that the phase constant <t> is determined
by initial conditions. Draw several x(t) curves, identical except for <t>,and point out
the different conditions at t = O. Remark that the curves are shifted copies of each
other. mustrate various initial conditions with the air track apparatus.
D. Derive expressionsfor the velocity and acceleration as functions oftime for simple harmonic
motion. Show that the speed is a maximum at the equilibrium point and is zero when
x = Xm. Also show that the magnitude of the acceleration is a maximum when x = :i:xm
and is zero at the equilibrium point.
E. Show that the initial conditions are given by Xo = XmCOs<t>and Vo = -XmW sin <t>.Solve
for Xm and <t>:x~ = x5 + v~/w2 and tan<t>= -vo/wxo. Calculate Xm and <t>for a few
special cases: Xo = 0 and Vo positive, Xo = 0 and Vo negative, Xo positive and Vo = 0, Xo
negative and Vo= 0. Tell students how to test the result given by a calculator for <t> to see
if 7r should be added to it.
II. The force law.
A. Remark that the potential energy for a spring-masssystem in simple harmonic motion has
the form U(x) = ~kx2, where k is the force constant of the spring. Remind students it is
an intrinsic property of the spring.
B. By differentiating U(x) with respect to x show that the force on the mass is given by
F = -kx and point out that the minus sign is necessaryfor the force to be a restoring force.
Hang identical masseson springs with different force constants, measure the elongations
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
To introduce a modern topic into the course discussvibrations oí a diatomic molecule.
BASIC TOPICS
I. General properties of waves.
A. .Explain that wave motion is the mechanism by which a disturbance created at one place
travels to another. Use the example of a pulse on a taut string and point out that the
displaced string causesneighboring portions of the string to be displaced. Stress that the
individual particles have limited motion (perhaps perpendicular to the direction of wave
travel), whereas the pulse travels the length of the string. Demonstrate by striking a taut
string stretched across the room. Point out that energy is transported by the wave from
one place to another. Ask the students to read the introductory section of the chapter for
other examples of waves.
B. Point out that a wave on a string travels in one dimension, water waves produced by
dropping a pebble travel in two, and sound wavesemitted by a point sourcetravel in three.
C. Explain the terms longitudinal and transverse. Demonstrate longitudinal waves with a
slinky.
D. State that waves on a taut string of uniform density travel with constant speed and that
this course deals chiefly with idealized waves that do not change shape. Take the string
to lie along the x axis and draw a distortion in the shape of a pulse, perhaps a sketch of
exp[-a(x -XO)2]. Remark that the initial displacement of the string can be described by
giving a function f(x). Now supposethe pulse moves in the positive x direction and draw
the string at a later time. Point out that the maximum has moved from Xo to Xo + vt,
where v is the wave speed. Remark that the displacement can be calculated by substituting
x -vt for x in the function f(x). Substantiate the remark by showing that x -vt = Xo
if x is the coordinate of the maximum at time t. Explain that x + vt is substituted if the
pulse travels in the negative x direction.
II. Sinusoidal traveling waves.
A. Write f(x) = Y1nsin(kx) for the initial displacement of the string and sketch the function.
Microphone
Oscilloscope
v. Standing waves.
A. Use a vibrating tuning fork (driven, if possible) to set up a standing wave pattern on a
string. Otherwise, draw the pattern. Point out nodes and antinodes. Explain that all
parts of the string vibrate either in phase or 180° out of phase and that the amplitude
depends on position along the string. The disturbance does not travel. If possible, use a
stroboscopeto show the standing wave pattern. CAUTION: students with epilepsy should
not watch this demonstration.
B. Explain that a standing wave can be constructed from two sinusoidal traveling wavesof the
same frequency and amplitude, traveling with the same speed in opposite directions. Use
a trigonometric identity to show that Yl + y2 = 2ym sin(kx) cos(wt) if the phase constant
for both wavesis 0. Find the coordinates of the nodes and show they are half a wavelength
apart. Also find the coordinates of the antinodes and show they lie halfway between nodes.
C. Point out that standing wavescan be created by a wave and its reflection from a boundary.
By means of a diagram show how the incident and reflected waves cancel at the fixed end
of a string.
D. Remark that for a string fixed at both ends, each end must be a node. Derive expressions
for the standing wave frequencies of such a string. Draw diagrams showing the string at
maximum displacement for the lowest 3 or 4 frequencies. Explain that if a standing wave
is generated in a string by moving one end in simple harmonic motion, the driven end is
very nearly a node.
E. Place two speakers,driven by the same signal generator and amplifier, well apart on the
lecture table, facing the class. Standing waves are created throughout the room. Have
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
Fourier series. State that any function of x with period ). can be expanded as the (perhaps
infinite) sum of the form
f(x) = Ao + Al sin(kx) + A2 sin(2kx) + A3 sin(3kx) + ...
+ B1 cos(kx) + B2 cos(2kx) + B3 cos(3kx) + ...,
where k = 27r/ ).. Demonstrate with a ramp or sawtooth function. Substitute x -vt to obtain
a wave that moves without change of shape in the positive x direction and observe that the
various component waves have different angular frequencies but all are multiples of w = kv.
Remark that in a dispersive medium the various component waves have different speeds and the
waveform changes as it moves. Some data analysis programs for computers, such as Labview,
allow you to show the result of summing a finite Fourier series. If one of these is available to
you use it to show students the sum after 1 term, 2 terms, 3 terms, etc. They can watch the
construction of the function as a Fourier series.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Traveling waves: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, and 3; question 8j exercises 3 and 4;
problem 2.
b. Wave speed: multiple-choice question 4; exercises 6, 9, 10, and 12; problems 3, 4, and 8.
c. Wave equation: multiple-choice question 7; exercise 14.
d. Energy in waves: multiple-choice questions 8 and 9; questions 1 and 5; exercises 15 and 17.
e. Interference: multiple-choice questions 10 and 11; questions 11 and 12j exercises 19 and
20; problem 13.
f. Standing waves: multiple-choice questions 12, 14, and 15; questions 14 and 16; exercises
26, 28, 29, and 31j problems 11, 16, 21, and 22.
2. Demonstrations
a. Traveling waves: Freier and Anderson Sa3, 4, 5, 6, 12, 13.
b. Reflection: Freier and Anderson Sa7, 12, 14.
c. Standing waves: Freier and Anderson Sa8, 9.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Superposition; Vibrations of a Wire; Vibrations of a Drumj from AAPT collection 1 of
single-concept films; video tape; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768, Lexington, KY
40577-1768.
b. Nonrecurrent Wavefronts; from AAPT Miller collection of single-concept films; video tape;
available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
c. Wave Propagation, Periodic Waves, Superposition, Standing Waves; Side C: Chapter 10
of Cinema Classicsj video diskj available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
BASIC TOPICS
I. Qualitative description of sound waves.
A. Explain that the disturbance that is propagated is a deviation from the ambient density
and pressure of the material in which the wave exists. This comes about through the
motion of particles. If Chapter 15 was not covered, you should digress to discuss density
and pressure briefly. Point out that sound wavesin solids can be longitudinal or transverse
but sound waves in fluids are longitudinal: the particles move along the line of wave
propagation. Waves in crystalline solids moving in low symmetry directions are examples
that are neither transverse nor longitudinal. Use a slinky to show a longitudinal wave and
point out the direction of motion of the particles. State that sound can be propagated in
all materials.
B. Draw a diagram, similar to Fig. 19-1, to show a compressionalpulse. Point out regions of
high, low, and ambient density. Also show the pulse at a later time.
C. Similarly, diagram a sinusoidal sound wave in one dimension and draw a rough graph of
the pressure as a function of position for a given time. Give the rough frequency limits of
audible sound and mention ultrasonic and infrasonic waves.
D. Discuss the idea that the wave velocity depends on an elastic property of the medium
(bulk modulus) and on an inertia property (ambient density). Recall the definition of
bulk modulus (or introduce it) and show by dimensional analysis that v is proportional
to fi7p. Assert that the constant of proportionality is 1. Point out the wide range of
speedsreported in Table 19-1.
II. Mathematical description of one-dimensional sound waves.
A. If desired, derive v = fi7P as it is done in the text.
B. Write s = Smcos(kx -wt) for the displacement of the material at x. Show how to
calculate the pressure as a function of position and time. Relate the pressure ampli-
tude to the displacement amplitude. ExpJain that the text deals chiefly with pressure
waves and that a sinusoidal pressure wave traveling in the positive x direction is written
A.p(x, t) = A.pmsin(kx -wt). Remind students that A.p is the deviation of the pressure
from its ambient value. Also remind students that k = 27r/ )., f = w/27r, and ).f = v.
C. Remark that power is transmitted by a sound wave because each element of fluid does
work on neighboring elements. State that the power is given by the product of the force
AA.p on an element and the velocity 8s/8t of the element. Derive Eq. 19-16 of the text.
Define intensity as the averagepower crossing a unit area perpendicular to the direction
of propagation and show that the intensity is given by I = ~(A.pm)2/ pV.
D. Show a scale of the range of human hearing in terms of intensity. Introduce the idea of
sound level and define the bel and decibel. Discussboth absolute (relative to 10-12W /m2)
and relative intensities. Remark that an increase in intensity by a factor of 10 means
an increase in sound level by 10db. If you have a sound level meter, use an oscillator ,
amplifier, and speaker to demonstrate the changeof a few db in sound level.
III. Standing longitudinal waves and sourcesof sound.
A. Use a stringed instrument or a simple taut string to demonstrate a source of sound. Point
out that the wave pattern on the string is very nearly a standing wave, produced by a
combination of wavesreflected from the ends. If the string is vibrating in a single standing
wave pattern then sound waves of the same frequency are produced in the surrounding
medium. Demonstrate the same idea by striking a partially filled bottle, then blowing
acrossits mouth. Also blow acrossthe open end of a ball point pen case. If you have them,
demonstrate CWadni plates.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Traveling sound waves: multiple-choice question 1; exercises1 and 2; problem 3.
b. Speedof sound: multiple-choice question 2; question 5; exercises5, 7, and 8; problem 2.
c. Power and intensity: multiple-choice question 5; question 21; exercises12, 13, 15, 17, and
22; problems 7 and 8.
d. Interference: multiple-choice question 6; exercises25 and 26; problems 6
e. Standing sound waves: multiple-choice question 7; questions 9 and 25; exercises28, 29,
and 31; problems 11 and 12.
f. Sourcesof sound: multiple-choice question 9; exercises33 and 36.
g. Beats: multiple-choice question 10; exercises37 and 39.
h. Doppler effect: multiple-choice question 12; questions 35, 36, and 42; exercises40, 42, 44,
and 48; problems 16 and 22.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Introduction
A. Consider a wave on a string and remind students that its speed relative to the string is
given by Vw = ~, where F is the tension and J.tis the linear mass density. Explain
that, according to non-relativistic mechanics, an observer running with speed Vo with the
wave measuresa wave speedof Vw-Vo and an observer running against the wave measures
a wave speed of Vw+ vo. Remark that these results are not valid for light (or fast moving
waves and particles). The speed of light in a vacuum is found to be the same regardlessof
the speed of the observer (or the speed of the source).
B. Remark that this fact has causedus to revise drastically our idea of time. If, for example,
two observers moving at high speed with respect to each other both time the interval
between two events they obtain different results.
C. Explain that special relativity is a theory which relates measurements taken by two ob-
servers who are moving with respect to each other. Although it sometimes seems to
.contradict everyday experience,it is extremely well supported by experiment.
D. State the postulates: the laws ofphysics are the samefor observersin all inertial frames; the
speedof light in a vacuum is the samefor all directions and in all inertial frames. Remind
students what an inertial frame is. Explain that the laws of physics are relationships
between measured quantities, not the quantities themselves. Newton's laws and Maxwell's
equations are examples. State that relativity has forced us to revise Newton's secondlaw
but not Maxwell's equations.
II. Time measurements.
A. Explain the term event and note that three spacecoordinates and one time coordinate are
associatedwith each event. Explain that each observer may think of a coordinate system
with clocks at all placeswhere eventsof interest occur and that the clocks are synchronized.
Outline the synchronization processinvolving light. State that the coordinate system and
clock used by an observer are at rest with respect to the observer and may be moving from
the viewpoint of another observer.
B. Explain the light fiasher used to measure time, in principle. See Figs. 20-4 and 20-5.
Consider a fiasher at rest in one frame, take two events to be a fiash and the subsequent
reception of refiected light back at the instrument, then remark that the time interval is
6.to = 2Lo/ c, where Lo is the separation of the mirror from the fiash bulb. Consider the
events as viewed in another frame, moving with speed u perpendicularly to the light ray,
and show the interval is 6.t = 2Lo/c.yi1-u2/c2 = 6.to/.yi1- u2/c2. This is also written
6.t = 'Y6.to, where 'Y (= 1/.yi1-u2/c2) is called the Lorentz factor. State that u/c < 1
and 'Y > 1.
C. Remark that 6.to is the proper time interval and that both events occur at the same coor-
dinate in the frame in which it is measured. Point out that 6.t is larger than 6.to. Explain
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Postulates of special relativity: questions 4, 5, 6, and 7.
b. Time and length measurements: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2; questions 13 and 15;
exercises2, 4, and 5; problems 1 and 3.
c. Lorentz transformation: multiple-choice questions 5,6, and 7; exercises12, 13,23,24, and
26; problems 4 and 8.
d. Transformation of velocities: multiple-choice question 4; question 18; exercises6, 9, 15, 17,
and 19; problem 2.
e. Relativistic momentum and energy: multiple-choice questions 8, 9, and 10j questions 19
and 21; exercises29, 31, 34, 37, 41, and 42; problems 13, 15, and 17 or 18.
2. Computer Software
a. RelLab; Paul Horwitz, Edwin F; Taylor, and Kerry Shetlinej Apple; available from Physics
Academic Software, North Carolina State University, PO Box 8202, Raleigh, NC 27690-
0739. Show the coordinates and times of events, as measured in user-selectedreference
Chapter 21 TEMPERATURE
BASIC TOPICS
I. The zeroth law of thermodynamics.
A. Explain that if two bodies, not in thermal equilibrium, are allowed to exchange energy
then they will do so and one or more of their macroscopicproperties will change. When no
further changestake place the bodies are in thermal equilibrium. Explain that two bodies
in thermal equilibrium are said to have the same temperature.
B. For gases the properties of interest include pressure, volume, internal energy, and the
quantity of matter. Other properties may be included in the list for other materials. The
quantity of matter may be given as the number of particles or as the number of moles.
C. Explain what is meant by diathermal and adiabatic walls and remark that diathermal walls
are used to obtain thermal contact without an exchangeof particles. Adiabatic walls are
used to thermally isolate a system.
D. State the zeroth law: ifbody A and body B are each in thermal equilibrium with body C,
then A is in thermal equilibrium with B. Discuss the significance of the zeroth law. State
that it is the basis for considering the temperature to be a property of an object. If it were
not true then, at best, an object might have a large number of temperatures, depending
on what other objects were in thermal equilibrium with it.
E. Explain that the temperature of a body is measured by measuring some property of a
thermometer in thermal equilibrium with it. mustrate by reminding students that the
length of the mercury column in an ordinary household thermometer is a measure of the
temperature. Explain that the zeroth law guarantees that the same temperature will be
obtained for two substancesin thermal equilibrium with each other .
II. Temperature measurements.
A. Define the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales. Give the relationships between the degreesizes
and the zero points. Give equations for conversionfrom one scale to another and give the
temperature value for the ice and steam points in each system. Use Fig. 21-3.
B. Define the Kelvin scaleand explain the Kelvin as a unit of temperature. Give the relation-
ship between the Celsius and Kelvin scales. Give the ice and steam points on the Kelvin
scale.
C. Mention that the value of the temperature obtained dependson the substanceused for the
thermometer and on the property measuredbut that several techniques exist that allow us
to define temperature independently of the thermometric substance and property.
D. Describe a constant-volume gas thermometer. If one is available, demonstrate its use. The
gas is placed in thermal contact with the substancewhose temperature is to be measured
and the pressure is adjusted so that the volume has some standard value (for that ther-
mometer).After corrections are made, the temperature is taken to be proportional to the
pressure: T = ap, where a is the constant of proportionality.
E. Describe the triple point of water and explain that water at the triple point is assignedthe
temperature T = 273.16K. Solve for a and show that T = 273.16(P/ptr).
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Temperature and temperature scales: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2; questions 8, 10,
and 19; exercises1, 7, and 11; problem 4.
b. Newton's law of cooling: problems 1 and 2.
c. Thermal expansion: multiple-choice questions 5, 7, and 8; questions 22, 24, 28, and 31;
exercises13, 14, 17,21,23,27,28, and 31; problems 6,7,8, and 13.
d. Ideal gas: multiple-choice questions 11 and 12; question 39; exercises36, 37, 43, and 44;
problems 16 and 18.
2. Demonstrations
a. Thermometers: Freier and Anderson Hal -4.
b. Thermal expansion: Freier and Anderson Ha5 -12.
3. Books and Monographs
ResourceLetters, Book Five; American Association of Physics Teachers, One Physics El-
lipse, College Pal"k, MD 20740-3845. Contains a resource letter on heat and thermody-
namics.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Heat and Temperature; Side B: Mechanics (n) and Heat of Cinema Classics; video disk;
available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Expansion Due to Heating; Demonstrations of Physics: Thermal Effects; VHS video tape
(7:26); Media Design Associates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
c. Temperature; VHS video tape (30 min); Fi1ms for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box
2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
d. The Thermal Expansion of Metals; VHS video tape (20 min); Fi1ms for the Humanities &
Sciences(seeabove for address).
5. Computer Softwal"e
a. Thermodynamics; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Softwal"e, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270.
b. ThermodynamicsLecture Demonstrations; Kurt Wick and Philip Johnson; Windows; avail-
able from Physics Academic Softwal"e, North Cal"olina State University, PO Box 8202,
Raleigh, NC 2769Q-{)739.Simulations of ten thermodynamic processes,including isochoric,
adiabatic, and isothermal processes,the Carnot cycle, and the Otto and diesel engines. The
processesal"ealso diagramed on p- V and T -S diagrams.
6. Laboratory
Meiners Experiment 9-3: Linear Expansionand Bernard Experiment 18: Linear Coefficient
of Expansion of Metals. The length of a metal rod is measured at room temperature and
at loo°C (in a steam jacket), then the data is used to compute the coefficient of thermal
expansion. The experiment can be repeated for several different metals and the results
compared.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Molecular description of an ideal gas.
A. Explain that kinetic theory treats the same type problems as thermodynamics but from
a microscopic viewpoint. It uses averagesover the motions of individual particles to find
macroscopic properties. Here it is used to clarify the microscopic basis of pressure and
temperature.
B. Go over the assumptions of kinetic theory for an ideal gas, as given in Section 2. Consider
a gas of molecules with only translational degreesof freedom. Assume the molecules are
small and are free except for collisions of negligible duration. Also assume collisions with
other molecules and with walls of the container are elastic. At the walls the moleculesare
specularly reflected.
C. Discuss a gas in a cubic container and explain that the pressure at the walls is due to
the force of molecules as they bounce off. By considering the change in momentum at the
wall per unit time, show that the pressure is given by p = iPv~ms. Define the rms speed.
Use Table 22-1 to give some numerical examples of v~msand calculate the corresponding
pressure. For many students the rms value of a quantity needs clarification. Consider a
system of 5 or so moleculesand select numerical values for their speeds,then calculate v~ms
numerically.
D. Substitute p = ipv~msinto the ideal gas equation of state and show that ~Mv~ms= ~RT,
where M is the molar mass. Show this can be written ~mv~ms= ~kT, where m is the
mass of a molecule. Remark that the left side is the mean kinetic energy of a molecule and
point out that the temperature is proportional to the mean kinetic energy.
E. Explain that the internal energy of an ideal gas is the sum of the kinetic energiesof the
molecules and write Eint = ~Nmv:ms = ~NkT = ~nRT. For an ideal gas the internal
energy is a nmction of temperature alone. This is an approximation for a real gas.
II. Mean free path.
A. This section will be important for the discussionof fusion reactors and you should cover it
if you intend to include the chapter on energy from the nucleus. It is also a good example
of the techniques of kinetic theory.
B. Define the mean free path as the averagedistance traveled by a molecule between collisions.
C. Consider the changedI in intensity of a beam of molecules as it passesthrough a thickness
dr of the system and argue that the exiting intensity is proportional to the incident intensity
and to the thickness: dI = -cI dr, where c is a constant. Integrate to find I = Ioe-cr. This
is a plausibility argument that f(r) dr = Ce-cr dr gives the probability that the distance
a molecule in the system travels between collisions is in the range from r to r + dr. C is
another constant and can be determined by requiring that Jooof(r) dr = 1. The mean free
path is given by A = Jooorf(r) dr = l/c. Show a plot of f(r) = Ce-r/A.
D. Supposeall the moleculesofa gasare identical and have diameter d. Take the concentration
of molecules to be Pn. Consider a molecule traveling with speed v and show that in time t
it will have collisions with 7rd2vtpnother molecules, if they are stationary. Argue that the
mean free path is A = 1/7r~ Pn. Explain that if the other molecules are moving the mean
free path is l/J27r~Pn.
E. Mention the values of the mean free path for various gases.For air at sealevel the mean free
path is about 0.1 J.Lm.At 100km it is about 16cm. In a fairly good laboratory "vacuum"
it is about 1 km.
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
futermolecular forces. The potential energy of interaction for two molecules is used to discuss
intermolecular forces. This helps distinguish between a solid, liquid, and gas and shows how
the ideal gas assumptions come about at low density. Use this section to broaden the courseif
there is time.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Molecular description of an ideal gas: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, and 3; questions 2, 4,
and 14; exercises2, 5, 6, and 7; problems 1, 2, and 3.
b. Mean free path: multiple-choice questions 5 and 6; questions 17 and 21; exercises9 and
13; problems 5 and 6.
c. Distribution of molecular speeds: multiple..choice questions 9, 10, and 11; questions 6 and
24; exercises15, 16, 23, and 27; problem 9.
d. Distribution of molecular energies: exercises29 and 30.
2. Demonstrations
Kinetic theory models: Freier and Anderson In11, 2,4, 5.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Boyle's Law, Equipartition of Energy, Maxwellian SpeedDistribution, Random Walk and
Brownian Motion, Diffusion, Gas DijJusion Rates; from AAPT collection 2 of single..
concept films; video tape; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768, Lexington, KY 40577-
1768.
b. Gas Laws; Side B: Mechanics (II) and Heat of Cinema Classics;video disk; available from
.Ztek Co. (see above for address).
c. Temperature and Kinetic Theory; Physics Experiments; VHS video tape (15 min); Films
for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
4. Computer Software
a. Thermodynamics Lecture Demonstrations. See Chapter 19 SUGGESTIONS.
b. Thermodynamics; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270.
5. Laboratory
a. Bernard Experiment 17: Pressure and Volume Relations for a Gas. The volume of gas in a
tube is adjusted by changing the amount ofmercury in the tube and a U-tube manometer is
used to measurepressure. A logarithmic plot is used to determine the relationship between
pressure and volume.
b. Meiners Experiment 9-8: Kinetic Theory Model. The Fisher kinetic theory apparatus,
consisting of a large piston-fitted tube of small plastic balls, is used to investigate relation-
ships between pressure, temperature, and volume for a gas. A variable-speed impeller at
the base allows changesin the averagekinetic energy of the balls; the piston can be loaded
to changethe pressure. A variety of experiments can be performed.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Heat.
A. Explain that when thermal contact is made between two bodies at different temperat1ll'es,
a net flow of energy takes place from the higher temperature body to the lower temperat1ll'e
body. The temperat1ll'e of the hotter body decreases,the temperat1ll'e of the cooler body
increases, and the net flow continues until the temperat1ll'es are the same. Energy also
flows from warmer to cooler regions of the same body. State that heat is energy that is
transferred because of a temperat1ll'e difference. Distinguish between heat and internal
energy. Emphasize that the idea of a body having heat content is not. meaningfu1. A1so
emphasize that heat is not a new form of energy. The energy transferred may be the
kinetic energy of moleculesor the energy in an electromagnetic wave. Examples: a bunsen
burner flame, radiation across a vacuum. State that heat is usually meas1ll'edin Joules
but calories and British thermal units are also used. 1 kcal = 3.969Btu = 4187J. Remark
that the unit used in nutrition, a Calorie (capitalized) is 1 kcal.
B. Remind students ofthe energy equation studied in Chapter 13: t1K +t1U +t1Eint = W +Q.
Tell them that for the systems consideredhere there are no changesin macroscopickinetic
or potential energy. Processesconsidered change only the internal energy. Write t1Eint =
W + Q. Remind students that t1Eint is the change in mechanical energy (kinetic and
potential energy) of all the particles that make up the system.
C. Stress the sign convention for heat absorbed and work done as the system goes from one
thermodynamic state to another. Each is positive if energy is absorbed by the system.
D. Stress that heat and work are alternate means of
transferring energy and explain that, for exam-
,J
ple, temperat1ll'e changes can be brought about tube
by both heat and mechanical work. To demon-
strate this, connect a brass tube, fitted with a o
rubber stopper, to a motor as shown. Make a
wooden brake or clamp which fits tightly around
the tube. Put a few drops of water into the tube, I Lr\ I clam -
start the motor, and exert pressure on the tube I~ I b kp
with the clamp. Soon the stopper will fly off. ra e
Note that mechanical work was done and steam
was produced.
II .Transfer of heat.
A. Explain that steady state heat flow can be obtained if both ends of a slab are held at
different temperat1ll'es. Define the thermal conductivity k of the material using H =
-kAdT/dx for a slab ofuniform crosssection A. Here H is the rateofheat flow. Emphasize
that the negative sign appearsbecauseheat flows from hot to cold. Stressthat H and T are
constant in time in the steady state. Explain that H = kA(TH -TG) / L for a uniform bar
oflength L, with the cold end held at temperat1ll'eTG and the hot end held at temperat1ll'e
TH.
B. A demonstration that shows both thermal conductivity and heat capacity can be con-
structed from three rods of the same size, one made of aluminum, one made of iron, and
one made of glass. Use red wax to attach small ball bearings at regular intervals along
each rod. Clamp the rods so that each has one end just over a bunsen b1ll'ner. The rate
at which the wax melts and the ball bearings drop off is mostly dictated by the thermal
conductivity of the rods, but it is influenced a bit by the specific heats.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments.
a. Heat transfer: multiple-choice questions 1,2, and 3; questions 10 and 39; exercises2, 5, 7,
and 8; problems 3 and 5.
b. First law of thermodynamics: multiple-choice question 4; questions 4 and 30; exercises10
and 11.
c. Heat capacity, specific heat, and heats of transformation: multiple-choice questions 6 and
7; exercises14, 15, 18, and 22; problems 6, 8, and 9.
d. Work: multiple-choice questions 8 and 9; exercises25, 26, and 29.
e. Internal energy: multiple-choice question 10; question 2; exercises33 and 34; problem 16.
f. Ideal gas heat capacities: multiple-choice question 11; question 24; exercises36, 37, and
39.
g. Applications of the first law: multiple-choice question 13; question 42; exercises40, 41, 42,
45, and 48; problems 18, 19, and 20.
2. Demonstrations.
a. Heat capacity and calorimetry: Freier and Anderson Hbl, 2.
b. Work and heat: Freier and Anderson Hel -6.
c. Heat transfer: Freier and Anderson Hc, Hdl -7, Hf.
d. p- V relations: Freier and Anderson Hgl -3.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Heat of FUsion; Demonstrations ofPhysics: Thermal Effects; VHS video tape (6:14); Media
Design Associates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
b. Heat; VHS video tape (30 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box 2053,
Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Entropy.
A. Distinguish between reversible and irreversible processes.Remark that reversible processes
are quasi-static but not all quasi-static processesare reversible ( i. e. quasi-static processes
involving friction) .Also mention that íor a gas the path oí a reversible process can be
plotted on a p- V diagram. As examples consider reversible and irreversible compressions
oí an ideal gas.
B. Define the entropy difference between two infinitesimally close equilibrium states as dS =
dQ/T and between any two equilibrium states as ~S = J dQ /T .Explain that the integral
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Definition of entropy: multiple-cl1oice question 2; questions 3 and 8; exercises 1, 2, 3, and
4; problems 1 and 4 or 5.
b. Entropy cl1anges for irreversible processes: multiple-cl1oice question 3; exercises 8 and 9;
problems 2 and 6.
c. Second law of thermodynamics: multiple-cl1oice question 4; questions 21, 23, and 26;
exercises 10 and 11.
d. Heat engines: multiple-cl1oice question 5; exercises 13, 17, and 18; problem 9.
e. Refrigerators: multiple-cl1oice question 6; question 9; exercises 23, 25, 27, 30, and 33.
f. Efficiencies of engines: multiple-choice questions 7 and 8; questions 16 and 17; exercises 22
and 23; problem 10.
g. Statistical view of entropy: multiple-cl1oice questions 10 and 11; exercise 35.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Charge.
A. Explain that there are two kinds of charge, called positive and negative, and that like
charges repel each other, lllllike charges attract each other. Give the SI unit (coulomb)
and explain that it is defined in terms of current, to be discussedlater. Optional: explain
that current is the flow of charge and is measured in amperes. One coulomb of charge
passesa cross section each secondin a wire carrying a steady current of 1 A.
B. Carry out the following sequenceof demonstrations. They work best in dry weather.
1. Suspend a pith ball by a string. Charge a rubber rod by rubbing it with fur , then
hold the rod near the pith ball. The ball is attracted, touches the rod, then flies away
after a short time. Use the rod to push the ball around without touching it. Explain
that the rod and ball carry the same type charge. Hold the fur near the pith ball and
explain that they are oppositely charged.
2. Repeat using a secondpith ball and a wooden rod charged by rubbing it on a plastic
sheet (this replacesthe traditional glassrod -silk combination and works much better).
Place the two pith balls near each other and explain they are oppositely charged.
3. Suspend a charged rubber rod by a string. Use another charged rubber rod to push
it around without touching it. Similarly, pull it with the charged wooden rod. Also
show that only the rubbed end of the rubber rod is charged.
II. Quantization of charge.
A. State that all measured charge is an integer multiple of the elementary charge e: q = ne.
Give the value of e: 1.60 x 10-19 C. State that the charge on the proton is +e, the charge
on the electron is -e, and the neutron is neutral.
B. Remark that macroscopic objects are normally neutral; they have the same number of
protons as electrons. Stress that the word "neutral" describes the algebraic sum of the
charges and does not indicate the absenceof charged particles. Remark that when an
object is charged the charge imbalance is usually slight but significant. Go over Sample
Problem 25-1.
III. Conductors and insulators.
A. Explain the difference between a conductor and an insulator as far as the conduction
of charge is concerned. Explain that excess charge on a conductor is free to move and
generally does so when influenced by the electric force of other charges. Under static
conditions, excesscharge on a conductor is distributed so the net force on any of it is zero.
On the other hand, any excesscharge on an insulator does not move far from the place
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Electric charge: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2; questions 1, 2, and 5; exercise 1.
b. Conductors and insulators: multiple-choice questions 5, 6, and 7; questions 13 and 14.
c. Coulomb's law: multiple-choice questions 8 and 10; question 24; exercises4, 5, 6, and 8;
problems 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, and 11.
d. .Continuous charge distributions: multiple-choice question 12; exercises16 and 19.
e. Conservation of charge: multiple-choice question 14; exercises21,26, and 31.
2. Demonstrations
a. Charging, electroscopes:Freier and Anderson Eal, 2, 11.
b. Electric force: Freier and Anderson Ea5, 6, 8, 12, 15, 17, Eb3, 4, 9, 10, 12, Ec4 -6.
c. Induction: Freier and Anderson Ea12, 13, 14.
3. Books and Monographs
Teaching about Electrostatics; by Robert A. Morse; available from AAPT, One Physics
Ellipse, College Park MD 20740-3845. Describes reliable and inexpensive apparatus for
demonstrations and student activities.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Electrostatics; Side D: Waves (II} & Electricity and Magnetism of Cinema Classics;video
disk; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Static Electricity; Demonstrations of Physics: Electricity and Magnetism; VHS video tape
(7:12); Media Design Associates,Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
c. Electrostatic Generators; Demonstrations of Physics: Electricity and Magnetism; VHS
video tape (10:54); Media Design Associates, Inc. (see above for address).
d. Electrostatics 1; VHS video tape (21 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box
2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
e. Electrostatics 2; VHS video tape (21 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(seeabove
for address).
f. Conductors and Insulators; Electricity; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities
& Sciences(see above for address).
BASIC TOPICS
I. The electric field.
A. Use a fluid to introduce the idea of a field. The temperature of the fluid T(x, y, z, t) is an
example of a scalar field and the velocity v(x, y, z, t) is an example of a vector field. Point
out that these functions give the temperature and velocity at the place and time specified
by the dependent variables.
B. Explain that chargesmay be thought to create an electric field at all points in space and
that the field exerts a force on another charge, if present. The important questions to be
answered are: given the charge distribution what is the field? given the field what is the
force on a charge?
C. Consider two point chargesand remark that each creates a field and that the field of either
one exerts a force on the other. Explain that the two together produce a field that is the
superposition of the individual fields and that this field exerts a force on a third charge,if
present.
D. Define the field at any point as the force per unit charge on a positive test charge at the
point, in the limit of a vanishingly small test charge. Mention that the limiting process
eliminates the influence of the test charge on the charge creating the field. SI units: N/C.
E. Use Coulomb's law to obtain the expression for the field of a point charge. Explain that
the field of a collection of chargesis the vector sum of the individual fields.
II. Calculation of the electric field.
A. Remind the students of the field of a point charge. Include the unit vector radially outward
from the charge. Also remind them that the total field is the vector sum of the individual
fields of the charge being considered.
B. Derive an expressionfor the field of an electric dipole by considering the field of two charges
with equal magnitudes and opposite signs. Consider a field point on a lin~ perpendicular
to the dipole moment, on a line along the dipole moment, or a general point. Evaluate the
expression in the limit of vanishingly small separation and finite dipole moment. Define
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. The electric field: exercise4.
b. The electric field of a point charge: multiple-choice questions 2 and 3; questions 10 and 12;
exercises7 and 8; problem 2.
c. The electric field of a continuous charge distribution: multiple-choice question 5; exercises
16 and 18; problems 3 and 6.
d. Electric field lines: multiple-choice questions 6 and 7; questions 5 and 5; exercises20 and
22.
e. A point charge in an electric field: multiple-choice questions 8 and 9; exercises28 and 30;
problems 10 and 12.
When the surface or line is closed the program gives the charge or current enclosed. A
game asks the user to find hidden charge or current .
d. Chargedparticles; Vernier Software, 8565 S.W. Beaverton-Hillside Hwy., Portland, OR
97225-2429. A simulation program that shows the motion of chargesin an electric field.
e. Dynamic Analyzer. SeeChapter 2 SUGGESTIONS.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Electric flux.
A. Start by discussing some of the important concepts in a general way. Define a vector
surface element. Define the flux of a vector field through a surface. Distinguish between
open and closed surfacesand explain that for the latter the surface normal is taken to be
outward. Interpret the surface integral for the flux as a sum over surface elements. If you
covered Chapter 16 use the velocity field of a fluid as an example.
B. Define electric flux. Point out that it is the normal component of the field that enters. Also
point out that the si~"' of the contribution of any surface element depends on the choice
for the direction of dA.
C. Interpret electric flux as a quantity that is proportional to the net number of field lines
penetrating the surface. Remind students that the number of lines through a small area
perpendicular to the field is taken to be proportional to the magnitude of the field. By
considering surfaceswith the samearea but different orientations, show that the net number
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
Experimental verification of Gauss' law. Explain that Gauss' law depends sensitively on the
1/r2 nature ofCoulomb's law and can be used toverify that law. Explain somethe experiments.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. The flux of the electric field: multiple-choice questions 2 and 3; exercise 1.
b. Gauss' law: multiple-choice questions 4, 5, 6, and 7; questions 4, 5, and 10; exercises4, 8
and 9; problem 2.
c. Applications of Gauss' law: multiple-choice questions 8, 9, and 11; questions 13, 14, and
19; exercises13, 15, 18, and 20j problem 3.
d. Gauss' law and conductors: multiple-choice questions 12, 13, and 14; exercise27; problems
4,13, and 17.
2. Demonstrations
Charges on conductors: Freier and Anderson Ea7, 18, 23, Eb7.
3. Audio/Visual
Charge Distribution -Famday Ice Pail Experimentj from AAPT collection 2 of single-
concept filinsj video tape; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768, Lexington, KY 40577-
1768.
4. Computer Software
a. EM Field. See Chapter 26 SUGGESTIONS.
b. Electricity & Magnetism; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Ken-
tucky Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains a section on Gauss' law.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Electrostatic potential energy.
A. If you coveredChapter 14, use the similarity of Coulomb's law and Newton's law of gravity
to argue that the electrostatic force is conservative, the work is independent of path, and
potential energy can be defined. If you did not cover Chapter 14, either derive or state
these results.
F. Give some examples of calculations of the potential from the electric field. Start with a
uniform electric field, like that outside a uniform plane distribution of charge, and show
that potential is given by -Ex+C, where C is a constant. Since the distribution is infinite
the point at infinity cannot be picked as the zero of potential.
G. Remark that when a charge Q moves from point a to point b the potential energy of the
system changesby Q(Vb -Va) , where V is the potential due to the other charges. When
charge Q is brought into position from infinity (where the potential is zero), the potential
energy changesby QV, where V is the potential at the final position of Q due to charge
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPICS
The electrostatic generator. Explain how it works. This might be done in lab ir they are used
there. Spend some time explaining sarety precautions.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Electric potential energy: exercise 2j problem 3.
b. Electric potential: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2; questions 1 and 5; exercises 6, 8, 10,
and 12.
c. Calculating the potential from the field: multiple-choice question 4; questions 15 and 16j
exercise 13j problems 4 and 12.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Conductors, insulators, semiconductors, and superconductors.
A. Explain qualitatively the differences between these types of materials. Emphasize the
free-electron concentrations in conductors, insulators, and semiconductors. State that
normal conductors have electrical resistanceat all temperatures except the absolute zero of
temperature and that electrical resistanceis a result of the scattering of electrons by moving
atoms, impurities, and crystal defects. State that superconductors have zero electrical
resistance at nonzero temperatures.
B. Explain that the electrical properties of conductors and semiconductors stem from the free
electrons and that the electrical properties of insulators stem from slight distortions of the
electron orbits in an applied electric field.
C. Discuss a conductor in an applied electric field under static conditions. Remind students
that the electric field is zero inside the conductor and that just outside the surface the field
is perpendicular to the surface and if the surface charge density is O"at some point on the
surface then the magnitude ofthe field there is given by E = o"/EO.Use the result for the
electric field produced by a sheet of charge to argue that the charge in a small region of
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assigmnents
a. A conductor in an electric field: static conditions: multiple-choice question 1.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Capacitance.
A. Describe a generalized capacitor. Draw a diagram showing two separated, insulated con-
ductors. Assume they carry charge q and -q respectively, draw representative field lines,
and point out that all field lines start on one conductor and terminate on the other. Ex-
plain that there is a potential difference V between the conductors. Point out that the
positively charged conductor is at the higher potential. Define capacitance as C = q/V.
Explain that V is proportional to q and that C is independent of q and V. C does depend
on the shapes, relative positions, and orientations of the conductors and on the medium
between them. Unit: 1farad = 1 C/V.
B. Show a radio tuning capacitor and some commercial fixed capacitors. Mention that one
usually encounters p,F and pF capacitors. Capacitors on the order of 1 F have been devel-
oped for the electronics industry.
C. Remark that in circuit drawings a capacitor is denoted by -1 f--.
D. Remark that a battery can be used to charge a capacitor. The battery transfers charge
from one plate to the other until the potential difference of the plates is the same as
the terminal potential difference of the battery. Calculate the charge given the battery
potential difference and the capacitance.
E. Show how to calculate capacitance in principle. Put charge q on one conductor, -q on the
other, and calculate the electric field due to the charge, then the potential difference be-
tween the conductors. Except for highly symmetric situations, the charge is not uniformly
distributed over the surfacesof the conductors and fairly sophisticated means must be used
to calculate V.
F. Examples: derive expressionsfor the capacitance of two parallel plates (neglect fringing)
and two coaxial cylinders or two concentric spherical shells. Use the expressionspreviously
developedfor the electric field. SeeChapter 26. Then evaluate the integral for the potential
difference. Emphasize that the field is due to the charge on the plates.
G. Large demonstration parallel plate capacitors with variable plate separation are available
commercially. You can also make one using two ~ 1-ft diameter circular plates of 1/8 inch
aluminum sheet. Attach an insulating rod to the center of one and a metal rod to the
center of the other. By sliding the two conductors closer together, you can show the effect
of changing d while holding q constant. An electroscopeservesas a voltmeter .
H. Explain how the equivalent capacitanceof a device can be measured. Consider a black box
with two terminals. State that a potential difference V is applied and the total charge q
deposited is measured. The capacitance is q/V.
I. Derive l/Ceq = 1/C1 + 1/C2 for the effective capacitance of two capacitors in series and
Ceq= C1 + C2 for the effective capacitance of two capacitors in parallel. Emphasize that
two capacitors in parallel have the same potential difference and two in series have the
same charge. Explain the usefulnessof these equations for circuit.analysis.
II. Energy storage.
A. Derive the expression W = ~q2/C for the work required to charge & capacitor. Explain
that, as an increment of chargeis transferred, work is done by an external agent (a battery,
for example) against the electric field of the charge already on the plates. Show that this
expressionis equivalent to W = ~CV2. Interpret the result as the potential energy stored
in the charge system and explain that it can be recoveredwhen the capacitor is discha;rged.
B. Rema;rkthat if two capacitors are in parallel the la;rger stores the greáter energy. If two
capacitors are in seriesthe smaller stores the greater energy.
SUGGEST¡ONS
1. Assignments
a. Capacitors: multiple-choice question lj questions 1 and 4.
b. Capacitance: multiple-choice question 2; questions 6 and 12; exercise 2.
c. Calculating the capacitance: multiple-choice question 4; exercises 6 and 7; problems 2 and
5.
d. Capacitors in series and parallel: multiple-choice questions 7, 8, and 9; exercises 9, 11, 13,
14, 16, and 18; problems 7, 8, and 9.
e. Energy in an electric field: multiple-choice questions 10 and 11; exercises 22 and 23j prob-
lems 14, 15, and 16.
Chapter 31 DC CIRCUITS
BASIC TOPICS
I. Sourcesof emf.
A. Explain that a sourceof emf movespositive chargefrom its negative to its positive terminal
or negative chargein the opposite direction and maintains the potential difference between
its terminals. Sourcesof emf are used to drive currents in circuits. Example: a battery
contains a source of emf in series with an internal resistance. Note the symbol ~ 1- used
in circuit diagrams.
B. Explain that a direction is associatedwith an emf and that it is from the negative to the
positive terminal, inside the source. This is the direction current would flow if the source
acted alone in a completed circuit. Point out that when current has this direction the
source does positive work on the charge and define the emf as the work per unit positive
charge: e = dW / dq. Also point out that the positive terminal of an ideal sourceis e higher
in potential than the negative terminal, regardless of the direction of the current. Unit:
volt.
II. Single loop circuits.
A. State the loop rule (Kirchhoff's secondrule).
B. Consider a circuit containing a single source of emf and a single resistor. Derive the loop
equation by picking a point on the circuit, selecting the potential to be zero there, then
traversing the circuit and writing down expressionsfor the potential at points between
the elements until the zero potential point is reached again. Tell the students that if the
current is not known a direction must be chosenfor it and used to determine the sign of
the potential difference across the resistor. When the circuit equation is solved for i, a
negative result will be obtained if the wrong direction was chosen. As you carry out the
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assiglllnents
a. Electric current: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2 or 3.
b. Emf: questions 1,6, and 9; exercise 2.
c. Analysis of circuits: multiple-choice questions 6 and 7; question 12; exercises6, 9, 11, 13,
and 14; problems 1, 3, 5, 8, 10, and 12.
d. Resistors in series and parallel: multiple-choice questions 8 and 9; question 14j exercises
17, 19, and 23.
e. Energy in an electric circuit: multiple-choice questions 12 and 13; questions 8 and 28j
exercises32, 33, and 38; problem 17.
f. RC circuits: multiple-choice questions 14 and 15j questions 22 and 23; exercises42, 44,
and 47j problem 18.
2. Demonstrations
a. Sourcesof emf: Freier and Anderson Ee2, 3, 4.
b. Measurement of emf: Freier and Anderson Eg7.
c. Resistive circuits: Freier and Anderson Ehl, 2,4, Eo2 -8.
3. Audio/Visual
Series and Pamllel Circuits; Demonstrations of Physics: Electricity and Magnetism; VHS
video tape (5:16); Media Design Associates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Definition of the field and force on a moving cl1arge.
A. Explain that moving cl1argescreate magnetic fields and that a magnetic field exerts a force
on a moving cl1arge. Both the field of a moving cl1argeand the force exerted by a field
depend on the velocity of the cl1argeinvolved. The latter property distinguishes it from
an electric field.
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
Motion of a chaJ:gein a nonuniform magnetic field. The text derives equations for the com-
ponents of the acceleration. Use this section to broaden the course for mathematically adept
students or as the basis for numerical calculations with a computer.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Magnetic force on a moving charge: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, 5, 6, and 7j questions
1, 9, and 12j exercises 1 and 3j problem 2.
b. Circulating charges: multiple-choice question 9j exercises 10, 12, 16, and 21j problems 5
and 9.
c. The Hall effect: multiple-choice question llj question 18j exercises 25 and 26.
d. Magnetic force on a current-carrying wire: multiple-choice questions 12 and 13j exercises
29, 31, and 32j problem 15.
e. Torque on a current loop: multiple-choice questions 15 and 16j exercise 36j problem 19.
2. Books and Monographs
Teaching about magnetismj by Robert J. Reilandj available from AAPT, One Physics
Ellipse, College Park MD 20740-3845. A PTRA workshop manual. Contains a collection
of demonstrations and student activities.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Magnetic field of a moving charge.
A. Write the expression for the magnetic field of a moving charge. Explain the vectors and
remind students of the right-hand ru1eto determine the direction of a vector product.
B. Draw a diagram to show the field lines and explain that they are circles in planes that are
perpendicular to the velocity of the charge and are centered on the line through the charge
and parallel to the velocity. State that if the thumb of the right hand is in the direction
of travel of the charge, then the fingers curl in the direction of the field lines for a positive
charge and in the direction opposite the field lines for a negative cl1arge. State that the
magnitude of the field is constant on a field line.
C. Work an example. Consider a proton traveling at about 105m/s and calculate the field
at various distances. Point out the direction at representative points. Replace the proton
with an electron and point out the direction of the field at the same points.
II. Magnetic field of a current.
A. Place a magnetic compassnear a wire. Turn the current on and off, reverse the current.
Note the deflection ofthe compassneedleand remark that the current produces a magnetic
field and that the field reverseswhen the current reverses.
B. Use the expressionfor the magnetic field of a moving charge to derive the Biot-Savart law
for the field produced by an infinitesimal segment of a current-carrying wire. Give the
value for ..Uo.Draw a diagram to show the direction of the current, the displacement vector
from the segment to the field point, and the direction of the field. Explain that dB... is in
the direction of dS x r. Point out the angle between r and dS. Mention that the integral
for the field of a finite segmentmust be evaluated one component at a time. Point out that
the angle between dB and a coordinate axis must be used to find the component of dB.
C. Example: Show how to calculate the magnetic field of a straight finite wire segment. See
the text, but use finite limits of integration. State that magnetic fields obey a superposition
principle and point out that the result of the calculation can be used to find the field of
a circuit composed of straight segments. Specialize the result to an infinite straight wire.
...
Demonstrate the right-hand rule for finding the direction of B due to a long straight wire.
D. Explain that the field lines around a straight wire are circles in planes perpendicular to
the wire, centered on the wire. Drawa diagram to illustrate. Give the right-hand ru1efor
finding the direction of the field. Use symmetry to argue that the magnitude of the field is
uniform on a field line. Point out that for other current configurations B is not necessarily
uniform on a field line.
E. Show how to find the force per unit length of one long straight wire on another. Treat
currents in the same and opposite directions. Lay two long automobile starter cables on
the table. Connect them in parallel to an auto battery, with a 0.5 n, 500w resistor and
an "anti-theft" switch or starter relay in each circuit. Close one switch and note that
the wires do not move. Close the other switch and note the motion. Show parallel and
antiparallel situations. It is better to reconnect the wires or rearrange them rather than
to use a reversing switch.
F. Give the definition of the ampere and remind students of the definition of the coulomb.
G. Use the Biot-Savart law to derive an expressionfor the field of a circular current loop at
...
a point on its axis. Stress the resolution of dB into components. Take the limit as the
radius becomesmuch smaller than the distance to the field point and remark that the field
is proportional to 1/r2, like the electric field of an electric dipole. Explain that the loop is
a magnetic dipole and will be discussedin detaillater .
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
Referenceframes. Consider the electric and magnetic forces on a charge that is stationary in
the laboratory frame outside a current-carrying wire, from the point of view of the laboratory
referenceframe and from the point of view of a frame that is moving with the chargesin the
current. Explain that what is found to be a magnetic force in one frame is found to be an
electric force in another.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Magnetic field of a moving charge: mu1tiple-choice question lj question 5; exercise 1.
b. Magnetic field of a current: mu1tiple-choice questions 3 and 4j question 3j exercises 4, 6,
8, 11, 13, 14, and 18; problems 1, 7, and 8.
c. Two parallel currents: mu1tiple-choice questions 5 and 6 or 7; questions 12, 13, and 14j
exercises 23 and 24.
d. Magnetic field of a solenoid: mu1tiple-choice question 9j question 24j exercise 28.
e. Ampere's law: mu1tiple-choice question 13; question 23j exercises 31, 32, 33, and 35j
problems 10, 11, 13, and 14.
BASIC TOPICS
I. The law of induction.
A. Connect a coil (50 to 100 turns) to a sensitive galvanometer and move a bar magnet in
and out of the coil. Note that a current is induced only when the magnet is moving. Show
all possibilities: the north pole entering and exiting the coil, the south pole entering and
exiting the coil. In each casepoint out the direction of the induced current. With a little
practice you might also demonstrate effectively that the deflection of the galvanometer
dependson the speedof the magnet.
B: To show the current produced by changing the orientation of a loop, align the loop axis
with the earth's magnetic field and rapidly rotate the loop once through 180°. Note the
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPICS
Section 34- 7 of the text gives details of the transfer of energy from an external agent to the
moving chargesof the current when the current is associatedwith a motional emf. The section
also explains that in the rest frame of the moving circuit element the magnetic field is changing
and the emf is attributed to an electric field. Emphasize the interdependence of electric and
magnetic fields. What one observer calls an electric force another might call a magnetic force
and vice versa. Consider covering this section for the better students.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Law of induction: multiple-choice questions 2 and 4; questions 3 and 5; exercise 2; problem
2.
b. Lenz's law: multiple-choice questions 6, 9, and 10; questions 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18;
exercises 4, 6, 10, 11, and 13.
c. Motional emf: multiple-choice question 11; questions 21 and 22; exercises 16, 17, 18, 21,
and 23; problems 6, 8, 9, and 10.
d. Generators and motors: multiple-choice questions 12 and 13; exercise 26.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Magnetic dipoles in matter .
A. State that the magnetic dipole is the most fundamental source of magnetism and that
current loops and bar magnets produce magnetic fields which, for points far away, are
dipole fields. Review the expressionsfor the magnetic field of a dipole and for the dipole
moment of a loop in terms of the current and area. Place a bar magnet under a piece of
State or briefly derive U = -mu .B for the potential energy of a magnetic dipole in an
...
external field B .
C. Explain that electrons in atoms create magnetic fields by virtue of their orbital motions.
Derive Eq. 35-10, which gives the relationship between orbital angular momentum and
dipole moment. Explain that orbital angular momentum is quantized in units of h/27r
and show that the Bohr magneton (J.LB= eh/47rm) is the natural unit for atomic dipole
moments. Give its value (9.27 x 10-24 J/T).
D. Explain that the electron and many other fundamental particles have intrinsic dipole mo-
ments, related to their intrinsic spin angular momentum. Give the magnitude of the
electron's intrinsic dipole moment: 9.27 X 10-24 J/T .
E. Remark that it is chiefly the orbital and spin dipole moments of electrons that are respon-
sible for the magnetic properties of materials. Explain how to calculate the dipole moment
of an atom: jl = ( -e/2m)L + ( -e/m)S, where L is the total orbital angular momentum
...
and S is the total spin angular momentum of the electrons of the atom.
F. Explain that protons and neutrons also have intrinsic dipole moments but that these are
much smaller than that of an electron becausethe massesare so much larger. Remark that
nuclear magnetism has found medical applications.
II. Magnetization
A. Define magnetization as the dipole moment per unit volume. Although only uniformly
magnetized objects are considered in the text you may wish to state the definition as the
limiting value as the volume shrinks to zero.
B. State that a magnetized object produces a magnetic field both in its exterior and interior
and write B = Bo + B M for the total field. Here Bo is the applied field and B M is the
field due to dipoles in the material.
C. Draw a diagram of a long cylindrical sample of magnetic material. State that if the
material is uniformly magnetized with the magnetization vector along the axis then the
field produced by the dipoles is given by B M = J.LoMin the interior. For this special case
it is zero in the exterior .
III. Paramagnetism and diamagnetism.
A. Give a qualitative discussion of paramagnetism. Explain that paramagnetic substances
are composed of atoms with net dipole moments and, in the absenceof an external field,
the moments have random orientations, so that they produce no net magnetic field. An
external field tends to align the moments and the material produces its own field. Since
the moments, on average, are aligned with the external field, the total field is stronger
than the external field alone. Alignment is opposed by thermal agitation and both the net
magnetic moment and magnetic field decreaseas the temperature increases.
B. Give the Curie law for small applied fields. Point out that M is proportional to B and
inversely proportional to T. Describe saturation and explain that there is an upper limit to
the magnetization. The limit occurs when all atomic dipoles are aligned. Use a teslameter
or flip coil to measure the magnetic field just outside the end of a large, high current coil.
Put a large quantity of manganesein the coil and again measure the field.
C. Consider an ideal cylindrical solenoid filled with paramagnetic material. State that if the
applied field is sufficiently weak the total field in the interior is given by B = K,mBo,where
K,mis the permeability constant of the sample. Show that BM = (K,m-l)Bo and that the
magnetization is proportional to the applied field. Remark that for paramagnetic materials
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
Plan~tary magnetism. Section 35-6 describesthe magnetic fields of the earth and other planets.
The shape, cause, and some of the ramifications of the earth's field are important topics and
should be covered if you have the time. If not, you might intersperse some of the information
in your other lectures. With the great interest in exploration of the solar system, the sections
on planetary magnetism can be used to motivate students.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assi~ments
a. Magnetic dipole: multiple-cl1oice questions 1 and 2; question 5; exercises4 and 8; problem
2.
b. Force on a magnetic dipole: multiple-cl1oice questions 3 and 4j questions 1 and 15.
c. Atomic and nuclear magnetism: multiple-cl1oice question 5; exercise 11.
d. Magnetization: exercises12 and 14; problem 6.
e. Magnetic materials: multiple-cl1oice question 8j questions 7, 22, and 34; exercises15, 16,
18, and 21.
f. Planetary magnetism: multiple-cl1oice question 10; question 28; exercises22 and 23; prob-
lem 9.
g. Gauss' law for magnetism: multiple-cl1oice question 12; exercise 28.
2. Demonstrations
a. Field of a magnet: Freier and Anderson Er4
b. Gauss' law: Freier and Anderson Er12
c. Paramagnetism: Freier and Anderson Es3, 4
d. Ferromagnetism: Freier and Anderson Esl, 2, 6 -10.
e. Levitation: Freier and Anderson Er10, 11
3. Books and Monographs
magnetic Monopoles; edited by Alfred S. Goldhaber and W. Peter Trowerj available from
AAPT, One Physics Ellipse, College Park MD 20740-3845. Reprint collection, with a
resourceletter .
4. Audio/Visual
a. Ferromagnetic Domain Wall Motion; Paramagnetism of Liquid Oxygen; from AAPT Miller
collection of single-concept fihns; video tape; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,
..Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Magnetic Effects in Space;Skylab Demonstrations; VHS video tape (14 min); Media Design
Associates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
c. Magnetism in Spacej Skylab Demonstrations; VHS video tape (19 min)j Media Design
Associates, Inc. (see above for address).
d. Earth 's Magnetic Fieldj VHS video tape (10 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sciences,
PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
e. Domain Theoryj Electromagnetism; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities
& Sciences(see above for address).
f. Magnetism and Static Electricityj VHS video tape (30 min); Films for the Humanities &
Sciences(seeabove for address).
5. Computer Software
Electricity f1 Magnetism; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Ken-
tucky Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains a section on ferromagnetic
domains.
Chapter 36 INDUCTANCE
BASIC TOPICS
I. Definition of inductance.
A. Connect a light bulb and choke.coil in parallel across a switchable DC supply. Close the
switch and note that the lamp is initially brighter than when steady state is reached. Open
the switch and note that the light brightens before going off. Remark that this behavior
is due to the changing magnetic fiux through the coil and that the fiux is created by the
current in the coil itself.
B. Point out that when current fiows in a loop it generates a magnetic field and the loop
contains magnetic fiux due to its own current. If the current changesso does the fiux and
an emf is generated around the loop. The total emf, due to all sources, determines the
current. Remark that the self fiux is proportional to the current and the induced emf is
proportional to the rate of change of the current.
C. Define the inductance by &L = Ldi/dt, where &L is the emf generated by the changing
magnetic fiux. Consider a tightly wound coil and show that if the fiux is the samethrough
every turn of the coil then L = NcI>B/i, where cI>Bis the fiux through any one turn. Unit:
1 henry = 1 V.s/ A.
D. Inductors are denoted by -0-0-0-0-0-in circuit diagrams. Point out that if the circuit element
looks like a ~ b' then Vb-Va = -Ldi/dt is algebraically correct no matter what the
sign of di/dt. As an example usei(t) = im sin(Y)t). Note that i is positive when it is directed
from a to b and negative when it is directed from b to a. Compute Va-Vb = LimY)COS(Y)t).
Graph i and the potential difference as functions of time to show the phase relationship.
Remark that a real inductor can be regarded as a pure inductance in series with a pure
resistance.
E. Show how to calculate the inductance of an ideal solenoid. Use the current to calculate
the field, then the fiux, and finally equate NcI>Bto Li and solve for L. Point out that L is
independent of i but dependson geometric factors such as the cross-sectionalarea, length,
and the number of turns per unit length.
F. Optional: Show how to calculate the inductance of a toroid.
II. An LR circuit.
A. Derive the loop equation for a single loop containing a sourceof emf, resistor, and inductor
in series: & -iR -L di / dt = O,where the current is positive if it leavesthe positive terminal
of the emf source. Use the prototypes developed earlier:
a b a-l
lb ~b
~ i o---+t:
~ -Va = -iR
~-va=t:
Remark that these are correct no matter whether the current is positive or negative or
whether it is increasing or decreasing.Write down the solution for the current as a function
121
oftime for the case i(O) = O: i = (&/R)[l- e-Rt/L]. Show that the expression satisfies
the loop equation and meets the initial conditions. Show a graph of i( t ) ; point out the
asymptotic limit i = &/ R and the time constant TL = L / R. Remark that if L / R is large
the current approachesits limit more slowly than if L/ R is small.
B. Explain the qualitative physics involved. When the battery is turned on and the current
increases,the emf of the coil opposesthe increase and the current approachesits steady
state value more slowly than if there were no inductance. At long times the current is
nearly constant so di / dt and the induced emf are small. The current is nearly the sameas
it would be in the absenceof an inductor.
C. Repeat the calculation for a circuit with an inductor and resistor, but no battery. Take
the initial current to be io and show that i(t) = ioe-t/TL. Graph the solution and show
the position of TL on the time axis. Point out that the emf of the coil opposesthe decrease
in current.
D. Demonstrate the two circuits by connecting a resistor and coil in series to a square wave
generator. Observe the current by placing oscilloscopeleads across the resistor. Observe
the voltage drop acrossthe coil. Vary the time constant by varying the resistance.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Calculating inductance: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, and 5; questions 4 and 6; exercises
2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, and 10; problem 3.
b. LR circuits: multiple-choice question 7; questions 10 and 13; exercises 12, 15, and 21;
problem 6.
c. Magnetic energy: exercises 23, 24, 28, and 32; problems 10 and 11.
d. Electromagnetic oscillations: multiple-choice questions 10, 11, 13, and 14; questions 26,
29, and 34; exercises 34,37,41,44,48, and 49; problem 12.
e. Damped and forced oscillations: exercises 52 and 54; problem 15.
2. Demonstrations
a. Self-inductance: Freier and Anderson Eql -3.
b. LR circuit: Freier and Anderson Eoll, En5- 7.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Elements of circuit analysis.
A. Consider a sinusoidally varying current in a resistor and state that the potential difference
acrossthe resistor is in phasewith the current and the amplitudes are related by (iR)max =
(VR)max/R. Emphasize that VR(t) gives the potential ofone end ofthe resistor relative to
the other. Draw a phasor diagram: two arrows along the sameline with length proportional
to (iR)max and (VR)maxrespectively. Both make the angle wt with the horizontal axis and
rotate in the counterclockwise direction. Point out that the vertical projections represent
iR(t) and VR(t) and these vary in proportion to sin(wt) as the arrows rotate.
B. Consider sinusoidally varying current in a circuit branch containing a capacitor. Start with
ic = dq/dt = CdVc/dt, then show that Vc lags ic by 90° and that the amplitudes are
related by (ic)max = (VC)max/XC, where Xc = l/wC is the capacitive reactance. Drawa
phasor diagram to show the relationship. Mention that the unit of reactance is the ohm.
C. Consider a sinusoidally varying current in a circuit branch containing an inductor. Start
with VL = LdiL/dt, then show that VL leads iL by 90° and that the amplitudes are
related by (iL)max = (VL)max/XL, where XL = wL is the inductive reactance. Drawa
phasor diagram to show the relationship.
D. Wire a small resistor in series with a capacitor and a signal generator. Use a dual trace
oscilloscopewith one set of leads acrossthe resistor and the other set acrossthe capacitor.
Remind students that the potential difference across the resistor is proportional to the
current, so the scope shows ic and Vc. Point out the difference in phase. Repeat with an
inductor in place of the capacitor.
II. An LCR series circuit.
A. Draw the circuit. Assume the generator emf is given by E(t) = Emsin(wt) and the current
is given by i(t) = im sin(wt -r/J). Pick consistent directions for positive emf and positive
current. Construct a phasor diagram step by step (see Fig. 37-5). First draw the current
and resistor voltage phasors, in phase. Remind students that the current is the same in
every element of the circuit so voltage phasors for the other elements can be drawn using
the phase relations between voltage and current developed earlier. Draw the capacitor
voltage phasor lagging by 90° and the inductor voltage phasor leading by 90°. Make
(VL)max> (VC)max.Their lengths are imXc and imXL respectively. Draw the projections
of the phasors on the vertical axis and remark that the algebraic sum must be E(t).
B. Draw the impressedemfphasor. Remark that its projection on the inductance phasor must
be [(VL)max-(VC )max]and that its projection on the resistance phasor must be (VR)max.
Make the analogy to a vector sum.
C. Use the phasor diagram to derive the expression for the current amplitude: im = Em/Z,
where Z = V R2 + (XL -Xc )2 is the impedance of the circuit. Show that the impedance
is frequency dependent by substituting the expressionsfor the reactances. A1soshow that
im is greatest for Xc = XL or w = l/VW and remark that this is the resonancecondition
discussedin the last chapter.
D. Use the phasor diagram to derive the expression for the phase angle of i relative to E:
tan r/J= (XL -XC) / R. Point out that the phase angle vanishes at resonanceand E leads
i if XL > XC, but E lags i if XL < XC. For later use show that cosr/J= R/Z.
nr .Power considerations.
A. Discuss averagevalues over a cycle. Show that the averageof sin2(wt + r/J)is ~ and that
the averageof sin(wt) cos(wt) is 0. Define the rms value of a sinusoidal quantity. Point out
that AC meters are usually calibrated in terms of rms values.
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
The transformer. Use Faraday's law to show how the potential difference acrossthe secondary
is related to the potential difference acrossthe primary. Explain what step-up and step-down
transformers are. A dual trace oscilloscopecan be used to demonstrate transformer voltages.
Assume a purely resistive load and show how to find the primary and secondary currents. Show
that, as far as the primary current is concerned,the transformer and secondary circuit can be
replaced by a resistor with ~q = (Np/N8)2R, where Np is the number ofturns in the primary
coil, N 8 is the number of turns in the secondary coil, and R is the load resistance. Explain
impedance matching.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Circuit elements: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, and 4; question 6; exercises 3 and 4;
problem 1.
b. RLC circuits: multiple-choice questions 5, 6, and 8; questions 8, 14, 15, and 25; exercises
6, 9, 11, and 15; problems 6 and 10.
c. Power: multiple-choice question 9; questions 2, 20, and 24; exercises17, 20, 23, 24, and 26;
problems 5 and 8.
d. Transformers: questions 32 and 33; exercises29 and 32.
2. Demonstrations
a. LCR series circuit: Freier and Anderson En12, Eo13.
b. Measurementsof reactance and impedance: Freier and Anderson Eo9.
c. Transformers: Freier and Anderson Ek7, Eml, 2,4,5,7,8,10.
3. Audio/Visual
Direct Current and Alternating Current; VHS video tape (14 min); Films for the Human-
ities & Sciences,PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
4. Computer Software
Electricity & Magnetism; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Ken-
tucky Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains a section on RLC circuits.
5. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 10-11: A.C. Series Circuits. Students use an oscilloscope and ac
meters to investigate voltage amplitudes, phases, and power in RC and RLC circuits.
Voltage amplitudes and phases are plotted as functions of the driving frequency to show
resonance. Reactancesand impedances are calculated from the data.
b. Bernard Experiment 37: A Study of Alternating Current Circuits. An ac voltmeter is used
to investigate the voltages acrosscircuit elementsin R, RC, RL, and RLC circuits, all with
60Hz sources. Reactancesand impedancesare computed. If possible, oscilloscopesshould
be used. A section labelled optional describestheir use. This experiment is pedagogically
BASIC TOPICS
I. The Ampere-Maxwelllaw .
A. Compare Faraday's and Ampere's laws and note the absenceof any counterpart to Fara-
day's law, i.e. the creation of magnetic fields by changing electric fiux. Tell students it
should be there and you will now discussits form.
B. Consider the charging of a parallel plate capacitor. Remind students that in Ampere's law
dS and dA are related by a right-hand rule and the surface integral is over any surface
bounded by the closed contour .
In the diagram, surfaces A, B, and
C are all bounded by the contour which -
forms the left end of the figure. If we 1- \ I-~
choosesurface A or C then Ampere's law I I
-. I I
as we have taken it gives .f B .ds = J1oi, --t , -¿
but if we choosesurface B, it gives .f B . i A I 'B I 'G ~
~~ ,-~ ,-"
dS = o. Since the integral on the left side
is exactly the samein all cases,something
is wrong.
C. Note that the situation discussedand the lack of symmetry in the electromagnetic equations
suggeststhat Ampere's law as used so far must be changed. Experiment confirms this
conjecture.
D. Explain that if the electric fiux through an open surface changes with time then there
is a magnetic field and the magnetic field has a tangential component at points on the
boundary. Write down the Ampere-Maxwelllaw: .fB .dS = J1oi+ J1oEodCPE/dt, where
CPEis the electric fiux through the surface. Compare to Faraday's law and point out the
interchange of B and E, the change in sign, and the appearanceof the factor J10EO.
E. Give the right-hand rule that relates the normal to the surface used to calculate cPE and
the direction of integration around its boundary. State that the surface may be a purely
mathematical construction and that the law holds for any surface.
II .Displacement current .
A. Define the displacement current id = EOdCPE/dt. Explain that it does not represent the
fiow of charge and is not a true current, but that it enters the Ampere-Maxwelllaw in the
same way as a true current. Discuss the direction of id. Consider a region in which the
electric field is uniform and is changing. Find the direction for both an increasing and a
decreasingfield.
B. Refer to the Ampere-Maxwelllaw. Explain that there are no changing electric fields in
the examples of Chapter 33 so only true currents were considered. Explain that in the
region between the plates of a charging capacitor there is no true current but there is a
displacement current.
C. Consider a parallel plate capacitor with circular plates, for which dE / dt is given. Show that
the total displacement current in the interior of the capacitor equals the true current into
the capacitor. Explain that the sum of the true and displacement currents is continuous.
Optional: discuss a leaky capacitor.
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
Cavity oscillations. Draw a diagram of a cylindrical resonant cavity and remark that the ends
act as a capacitor. Say that a sinusoidal source of emf is attached to the ends and remark that
both electric and magnetic fields are present and both are sinusoidal. Show Fig. 4 and explain
that energy oscillates between electric and magnetic forms. Apply Ampere's and Faraday's
laws to find expressions for the fields. Show that each field is zero when the other is at a
maximum.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Induced magnetic fields and displacement currents: multiple-choice question 2; questions
2 and 6; exercises2, 5, 6, 7, and 9; problems 1,3, and 4.
b. Maxwell's equations: exercises11 and 13.
c. Generation of electromagnetic waves: multiple-choice question 6; questions 15 and 17.
d. Traveling electromagnetic waves: multiple-choice question 7; exercises16 and 18.
e. Energy transport: multiple-choice questions 8, 9, and 10; exercises 20, 24, 26, and 28;
problems 5, 9, 11, and 12 or 14.
f. Radiation pressure: multiple-choice question 11; question 26; exercises33,34, 38, and 40;
problem 13.
2. Demonstrations
Radiation: Freier and Anderson Ep4, 5.
BASIC TOPICS
I. The human eye as a light detector .
A. Remind students that the visible spectrum extends from just over 400nm to just under
700nm. Remark that while color is largely subjective, violet is at the short wavelength end
while red is at the high wavelength end. Show a diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum
(Fig. 39-1 or a large colored wall chart) .U se a prism to display the spectrum.
B. Show Fig. 39-6 of the text and remark that human eyes are most sensitive in the green-
yellow portion of the spectrum and that sensitivity falls off rather rapidly on either side.
II. Sourcesof visible light.
A. Explain that electromagnetic radiation is produced when excited electrons jump to lower
energy states. Say that electrons can be excited thermally, electrically, and chemically.
B. Explain the terms "thermal radiation" and "incandescent".
C. State that cool objects may also emit light and explain the term "luminescence".Dis-
tinguish between fluorescent and phosphorescentemitters. Also say that luminescent ma-
terials can be categorized according to the source of the excitation and define the terms
"chemiluminescence", "bioluminescence", and "triboluminescence" .
III. The speed of light.
A. Describe some of the experiments that have been done to measure the speed of light:
Roemer's and Fizeau's experiments, modern experiments using lasers. The results ofmany
measurementsare given in Table 39-1.
B. Remark that the speed of light is now defined and give its value: 299,792, 458m/s. The
second is also a base SI unit and the experiments essentially determine the length of a
meter. Say that a meter is the distance light travels in 3.335641x 10-9 s.
C. Explain that light traveling in a material medium has a speedthat is less than the speedin
vacuum and that for linear materials the speed depends on the dielectric constant K,eand
the relative permeability constant Km. Write v = c/ ~. Explain that most optical
materials are non-magnetic and K,mcan be taken to be 1. Also explain that K,edepends
on the wavelength of the light, so the speed in matter is different for light of different
wavelengths.
D. Give a qualitative explanation. Argue that oscillating dipoles constitute a current and
that the sum of the displacement and polarization currents is K,eEO d<I>E/dt. Remark this
is proportional to K,e. Suppose the frequency is fixed. Then a large value of K,emeans
the change in the magnetic field with position is great and the wavelength is small. Since
~ v = ).v this means the wave speed is small.
IV. Wave and geometrical optics
A. Explain that optical phenomena outside the quantum realm can be understood in terms
of Maxwell 's equations and that the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation must be
taken into account to explain many important phenomena. State that some of these will
be discussedlater .
B. Explain that if the wavelength of the light is much smaller than any obstacles it meets or
any slits through which it passes,then the important property is the direction of motion,
not details of the wave nature. This is the realm of geometrical optics.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. The electromagnetic spectrum: question 4; exercise3.
b. Visible light: multiple-choice questions; exercise6.
c. The speed of light: multiple-choice question 2j question 16; exercise 8; problem 1.
d. Reflection and refraction: multiple-choice questions 6, 8, 9, and 10; questions 19, 23, and
26; exercises11, 13, 14, 19, 23, 25, and 29j problems 5 and 10.
e. Total internal reflection: multiple-choice question 11; exercises32, 35, and 38; problem 11.
f. Doppler effect for light: multiple-choice question 15; exercises41, 46, and 51; problem 15.
2. Demonstrations
a. Refraction at a plane surface: Freier and Anderson Odl -7
b. Prisms: Freier and Anderson Of1 -4.
c. Total internal reflection: Freier and Anderson Oel -7.
3. Books and Monographs
a. ResourceLetters, Book Four and ResourceLetters, Book Five; American Association of
Physics Teachers, One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740-3845. Contain resource
letters on light.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Plane mirrors
A. Remind students of the law of refiection. Note that the angles of incidence and refiection
are measuredwith respect to the normal to the surface.
B. Consider a point source in front a plane mirror and draw a few rays. Draw both incident
and refiected rays and show that the refiected rays appear to come from a point behind
the mirror. Show that the object and image lie on the same normal to the mirror and that
they are the same distance from the mirror. Remark that no light comesfrom the image
and that the image is said to be virtual.
C. Define the object distance o and image distance i and explain that the latter is taken to
be negative for virtual images. The law of equal distance is written o = -i.
D. Explain how to find the image of an extended object by drawing rays from its ends. Show
that the image of an upright object is upright. Optional: explain "left-right reversal."
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Plane mirrors: multiple-cl1oice questions 2 and 3; question 5; exercises 1, 3, 4, 7, and 9;
problem 1.
b. Spherical mirrors: multiple-cl1oice questions 4, 5, and 7; questions 10, 13, and 14; exercises
13 and 15; problems 2 and 3.
c. Spherical refracting surfaces: multiple-cl1oice question 9; exercises17 and 18.
d. Thin lenses: multiple-cl1oicequestions 11, 12, and 14; questions 15, 16, 18, and 23; exercises
21, 22, 24, 28, and 31; problems 5 and 7.
e. Optical instruments: multiple-cl1oice questions 15 and 16; exercises35 and 38.
2. Demonstrations
Plane mirrors: Freier and Anderson Obl -6, Ob8.
3. Books and Monographs
a. ResourceLetters, Book Four and ResourceLetters, Book Five; American Association of
Physics Teacl1ers,One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740-3845. Contain resource
letters on optics.
b. The Camem; by Bill G. Aldridge, Gary S. Waldman, and John Yoder III.; available from
AAPT (seeabove for address).Concepts important for understanding cameras.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Optics; VHS video tape (30 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box 2053,
Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
b. The Image; VHS video tape (8 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see above for
address).
c. Lenses; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see above for
address).
Chapter 41 INTERFERENCE
BASIC TOPICS
I. Two-slit interference
A. Shinemonocbxomatic light through a double slit and project the pattern on the wall. Either
use a laser or place a single slit between the source and the double slit. Use a diagram
to explain the setup. Point out the appearanceof light in the geometric shadow and the
occurrence of dark and bright bands. You can make acceptable double slits by coating a
microscope slide with lamp black or even black paint. Tape a pair of razor blades together
and draw them across the slide. By inserting various thicknessesof paper or shim stock
between the blades you can obtain various slit spacings.
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
The Michelson interferometer. This is an excellent example of an application of interference
effects. Set up a hallway demonstration and give a brief explanation.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Doub1e-slit interference: multip1e-cl1oice questions 2, 3, 4, and 9; question 3; exercises 2, 5,
6, 7, 10, and 14; prob1ems 2, 5, and 7.
b. Coherence: multip1e-cl1oice question 12; questions 2, 11, and 13; exercise 14.
c. Intensity in doub1e-s1it interference: multip1e-cl1oice question 12; exercises 15 and 19.
d. Thin-film interference: multip1e-cl1oice question 13; questions 19, 23, 27, and 30; exercises
21, 23, 27, 29, 32, and 36; prob1em 10.
e. Micl1elson interferometer: question 34.
2. Demonstrations
a. Doub1e slit interference: Freier and Anderson 014, 5, 9.
b. Thin film interference: Freier and Anderson Oll5 -18.
c. Micl1elson interferometer: Freier and Anderson Oll9.
Chapter 42 DIFFRACTION
BASIC TOPICS
I. Qualitative discussionof single-slit diffraction.
A. Shine coherent monochromatic light on a single slit and project the pattern on the wall.
Point out the broad central bright region and the narrower, less bright regions on either
side, with dark regions between. Also point out that light is diffracted into the geometric
shadow.
B. Remark that diffraction can be discussedin terms of Huygen wavelets emanating from
points in the slit. Explain that they not only spread into the shadow region but that
they arrive at any selectedpoint with a distribution of phasesand interfere to produce the
pattern. Explain that for quantitative work this cl1apterdeals with Fraunhofer diffraction,
with the screenfar from the slit.
C. Draw a single slit with a plane wave incident normal to it. Also draw parallel rays from
equally spacedpoints within the slit, all making the sameangle () with the forward direction.
Point out that all wavelets are in phase at the slit. The first minimum can be located by
selecting () so that, at the observation point, the ray from the top of the slit is 180° out of
phasewith the ray from midslit. All wavelets then cancel in pairs. Show that this leads to
a sin () = )., where a is the slit width. Point out that this value of () determines the width
of the central bright region and that this region gets wider as the slit width narrows. Use
sin () ~ tan () ~ () (in radians) to show that the linear width of the central region on a screen
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Diffraction and wave theory: question 2.
b. Single-slit diffraction: multiple-choice questions 2, 4, and 5; questions 15, 17, and 21;
exercises3, 5,and 9; problem 1 and 3.
c. Intensity in single-slit diffraction: multiple-choice questions 7, 8, and 9; exercises11 and
13.
d. Diffraction by a circular aperture: exercises14 and 17; problems 2, 4, and 5.
e. Double-slit interference and diffraction combined: multiple-choice question 12; question
29; exercises25, 27, and 29; problem 7.
2. Demonstrations
a. Single slit diffraction: Freier and Anderson 012, 3, 6, 7.
b. Multiple slit diffraction: Freier and Anderson 0110, 13.
c. Diffraction by circular and other objects: Freier and Anderson 0121 -23.
3. Audio/Visual
The Diffraction of Light; VHS video tape; Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box
2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
4. Laboratory
Meiners Experiment 13-4: 1nterference and Diffraction. See Chapter 41 notes.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Multiple-slit patterns.
A. Make or purchase a set of multiple-slit barriers with 3, 4, and 5 slits, all with the sameslit
width and spacing. Multiple slits can be made using razor blades and a lamp blackened
microscope slide. Use a laser to show the patterns in order of increasing number of slits.
Finish with a commercial grating.
B. Qualitatively describe the pattern produced as the number of slits is increased. Point out
the principIe maxima and, if possible, the secondary maxima. Remark that the principIe
maxirna narrow and that the number of secondarymaxima increasesas the number of slits
increases. For each barrier sketch a graph of the intensity as a f1mction of angle. Explain
that the single-slit difIraction pattern forms an envelopefor the pattern.
C. Remark that you will assumethe slits are so narrow that the patterns you will consider
lie well within the central maximum of the single-slit difIraction pattern and you need to
consider only one wave from each slit. Explain that principIe maxima occur whenever the
path difIerence for rays from two adjacent slits is an integer multiple of the wavelength:
d sin (} = mA. Remark that m is called the order of the maximum. AIso remark that the
SUGGESTIONS
1.
a. Multiple slits: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2; exercises1, 4, and 5; problems 1 and 3.
b. Diffraction gratings: question 7; exercises7, 12, and 14.
c. Dispersion and resolving power: multiple-choice questions 6 and 8; questions 11, 12, and
15; exercises17,21, and 23; problem 6.
d. .X-ray diffraction: multiple-choice question 9; question 19; exercises 26, 31, 32, and 33;
problem 7.
2. Demonstrations
a. Multiple-slit diffraction: Freier and Anderson 0110, 13
b. .Diffraction by crystals: Freier and Anderson 0114.
3. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 13-5; Diffraction Gratings. Wavelengths of the helium spectrum are
found using a grating spectrometer and the influence of the number of grating rulings is
investigated.
b. Bernard Experiment 44; The Wavelength of Light. Wavelengths of the sodium spectrum
are found using a grating spectrometer. The wavelength of a laser is also found.
c. Bernard Experiment 45; A Study of Spectra with the Gmting Spectrometer. Sourcesused
are a sodium lamp, an incandescent bulb, a mercury lamp, and a lamp containing an
unknown element. The limits of the visible spectrum are determined and the unknown
element is identified.
Chapter 44 POLARIZATION
BASIC TOPICS
I. Polarization.
A. Remind students that a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave is one for which the electric
field is everywhere parallel to the same line. As the wave passesby any point the field
oscillates along the line of polarization.
B. Explain that a linearly polarized wave can be resolved into two other linearly polarized
waves with mutually orthogonal polarization directions. Take the original polarization
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Polarization of electromagnetic waves: question 4; exercise 1.
b. Polarizing sheets: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, 3, and 4; question 8j exercises 3, 8, and
9j problems 2 and 4.
c. Polarization by reflection: multiple-choice question 7j exercise 12j problem 1.
d. Double refraction: questions 19 and 21j exercise 14j problem 6.
e. Circular polarization: multiple-choice question 9j questions 24 and 27j exercises 15 and 16.
2. Audio/Visual
a. Color, Scattering, Polarizationj Side D: Waves (II) & Electricity and Magnetism of Cinema
Classics; video disk; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768, Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Polarized Lightj VHS video tape (10 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box
2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Introduction.
A. Explain that this cl1apterdealswith someof the fundamental results of quantum mecl1anics,
as applied to electromagnetic radiation. Thefirst few sections describe experimental results
that can be understood only if light is regarded as made up of particles. Remark that
interference and diffraction phenomenarequire wavesfor their explanation. Reconciliation
of these opposing views is discussedlater in the cl1apter.
B. Explain that the energy of a photon is related to the frequency of the wave through E = hf
and the momentum of a photon is related to the wavelength of the wave through p = h/ )..
Show these equations predict p = E / c, the classical relationship. Also explain that the
energy density is nhf, where n is the photon concentration, and that the intensity is Rhf ,
where R is the rate per unit area with whicl1 photons cross a plane perpendicular to their
direction of motion. Recall the discussion of the Poynting vector in Chapter 38. Explain
that the Planck constant is a constant of nature and pervades quantum mecl1anics. Give
its value (6.63 x 10-34 J.s) and calculate the photon energy and momentum for visible light,
radio waves, and x-rays.
II. Cavity radiation and the quantization of energy.
A. Describe a radiation cavity as a hollow block of material with a small hole to the outside.
The material is kept at a uniform constant temperature and the electromagnetic radiation
in the cavity is studied by observing some that leaks out of the hole. Explain that the
interior walls absorb and emit radiation and that the distribution of energy among the
various wavelengths depends on the temperature but is independent of the material, the
size of the cavity, and the shape of the cavity. Write down the Stefan-Boltzmann law for
the radiant intensity: I(T) = uT4 and give the value of the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
(5.670 x 10-8W /m2 .K4). Remind students of the absolute temperature scale.
B. The quantity of interest is the spectral radiancy R().), defined so that R().) d). is the
radiation rate per unit area for electromagnetic energy in the wavelength range from ). to
). + d).. Remark that I(T) = JoooR().) d).. Explain that the electromagnetic energy in the
cavity is in thermal equilibrium with the material and the spectral distribution should be
predicted when thermodynamics is applied to the radiation. Show Fig. 45-1, whicl1 shows
some experimental results. Point out that the experimental curve reaches a peak in the
infrared or red and falls off on either side. As the temperature increasesthe peak becomes
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignm.ents
a. Properties of photons: multiple-choice questions; questions; exercises 1, 3, and 6. The
result of exercise 1 is useful for other exercises.
b. Cavity radiation: multiple-choice questions 2 and 3; questions 4 and 7; exercises11 and
13; problems 3 and 6.
c. Photoelectric effect: multiple-choice questions 4, 5, and 6; questions 15, 18, and 22; exer-
cises 17, 20, 22, and 24; problem 9.
d. Compton effect: multiple-choice questions 7, 9, and 10; questions 31, 32, and 34; exercises
30 and 32; problems 8 an 11.
BASIC TOPICS
I. Matter waves.
A. Explain that electrons and all other particles have waves associated with them, just as
photons have electromagnetic waves associated with them. State that the waves exhibit
interference and diffraction effects. Draw a diagram of a single-slit barrier with a beam
of monoenergetic electrons incident on it and a fluorescent screen or other mechanism for
detecting electrons behind it. Explain that an intense central maximum is obtained and
that many electrons arrive in this region. Secondarymaxima are also obtained.
B. State that the width of the central maximum depends on the speed of the electrons and
narrows if the speedis increased. The maximum also narrows if more massiveparticles are
used, at the samespeed. Remind students that when they studied the single-slit diffraction
of electromagnetic waves they found the width of the central maximum narrowed as the
wavelength decreased. Conclude that the momentum of the particle is related to the
wavelength of the wave and that one is proportional to the reciprocal of the other .
C. State that the particle energy and the wave frequency are related by E = hf and that the
particle momentum and the wavelength are related by p = h/ ).. Calculate the wavelengths
of a 1-eV electron and a 35-m/s baseball. By way of example, state that crystals diffract
electrons of appropriate wavelength (~ 10-10 m) and the angular positions ofthe scattering
maxima can be found using Bragg's law, just as for x rays.
II. The wave function and the Schrodinger equation.
A. State that a matter wave is denoted by \If(r, t) and that 1\If12gives the probability density
for finding the particle near r at time t. In the limit of a large number of particles 1\If12is
proportional to the particle concentration. Explain that, at the atomic and particle level,
physics deals with probabilities. What can be analyzed is the probability for finding a
particle, not its certain position.
B. Say that a matter wave is often complex. As an example give the function for a free particle
in one dimension: \If(x, t) = 'l/Joei(kx-ú)t)
, where i is the unit imaginary number yCI. Show
how to compute the magnitude squared.
E'I/J(x)
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Matter waves: multiple-choice questions 1 or 2,3,4, and 5j exercises 2,5,8,15, and 17.
b. Uncertainty principle: multiple-choice questions 8 and 9j exercises 21,23, and 25j problem
1.
c. Barrier tunneling: multiple-choice questions 11 and 12j exercises 29 and 30j problem 4.
2. Audio/Visual
a. Electrons and Particles and Waves; Side F: Angular Momentum and Modern Physics
of Cinema Classicsj video disk; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768, Lexington, KY
40577-1768.
BASIC TOPICS
I. One-dimensional potential wells.
A. Explain that if a particle is bound ( and t4erefore localized) its energy is quantized. That
is, it can have any one of a set of discrete values and no other value. Use an energy level
diagram to illustrate.
B. Explain that, for a particle confined by infuúte potential energy barriers to the region
between -L/2 and L/2 on the x axis, possible wave functions are given by 'l/Jn(x) =
'l/JoddCOS(n7rx/L),where n is a positive odd integer, and by 'l/Jn(x) = 'l/Jevemsin(n7rx/L),
where n is a positive even integer. Show that these satisfy the Schrodinger equation
~dx2 + ~E.I.=O
h2 'f"
inside the trap and that they go to zero goes at the boundaries. Explain that a condition
for the given function to be a solution is that the energy of the particle must be En =
n2h2/8mL2. You might want to include the time dependenceby writing 'l' = 'I/J(x)fn(t)
and explaining that fn(t) is a function of time with magnitude 1.
C. Explain that confinement of the particle leads to energy quantization and that energy is
quantized for any bound particle. Plot the allowed values of the energy, as in Fig. 47-3:
Point out that the particle has kinetic energy even in the ground state and mention that
this energy is called its zero-point energy.
D. Tell students that 1'1/J(x)12dx gives the probability the particle is between x and x + dx
when the particle is in the state with the given wave function. Plot the probability density
Pn = l'I/JI2for a few low values of n and for at least one large value. See Figs. 47-4 and
47-5. Note that the probability density is zero at the boundaries and, for n/neO, at places
in the interior. State the correspondanceprinciple: as n gets larger quantum predictions
become closer to classical predictions. Remark that this is true quite generally.
E. Expl~ that the particle can certainly be found between x = -L/2 and x = L/2, so
J~f~21'I/JnI2dx = 1. The wave function is said to be normalized if it obeys this condition.
Show that the normalization condition leads to A = ..¡2TL.
F. Explain that experimentally the probability can be found, in principle, by performing a
large number of position measurementsand calculating the fraction for which the particle
is found in the designated segment of the x axis. Since a position measurement changes
the state of the particle, it must be restarted in the same state each time.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Particlesin infinite potential wells: multiple-choice questions 2 and 3; questions 4, 6, and
7; exercises3, 6, and 7j problems 2 and 3.
b. Particles in finite potential wells: multiple-choice question 4.
c. The Schrodinger equation: problem 5.
d. Bohr atom: multiple-choice questions 5 and 17; exercises20 and 28; problem 7.
e. Optical transitions: questions 9, 11, and 12; exercises12, 15, 18, 22, 24, 26, and 27.
.f. Angular momentum of electrons in atoms: multiple-choice questions 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10;
question 21; exercises37 and 38.
g. States of hydrogen: multiple-choice questions 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16; questions 27 and
28; exercises33, 34, 35,41,42,43,45,46, and 50; problems 10, 12, and 13.
2. Demonstrations
Thompson and Bohr models of the atom.
3. Audio/Visual
a. The Bohr Modelj VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities & SciencesInc., Box
2053, Princeton, NJ 08543.
b. Spectra; Demonstrations of Physics: Light; VHS video tape (6:02); Media Design Asso-
ciates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
c. Absorption Spectra; from AAPT Miller collection of single-concept films; video tapej avail-
able from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
d. Spectra; Demonstrations of Physics: Light; VHS video tape (6:02); Media Design Asso-
ciates (see above for address).
e. The Quantum Idea; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see
above for address).
f. The Wave-MechanicalModelj VHS video tape (10 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sci-
ences( seeabove for address).
g. Electron Distribution in the Hydrogen Atom; A.F. Burr and Robert Fisher; American
Association of Physics Teachersslide set; Publications Sales,AAPT Executive Office, 5112
Berwyn Road, College Park, MD 20740-4100.Probability distributions for n =1 to n = 6.
h. Atoms, Molecules, and Models; Side F: Angular Momentum and Modern Physics ofCinema
Classicsjvideo disk; available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
4. Computer Software
a. Atomic Physics; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Apple. Contains sections on particles and
waves, on the Schrodinger equation, and on the hydrogen atom.
BASIC TOPICS
I. X rays and the numbering of the elements.
A. Explain that x. rays are produced by firing energetic electrons into a solid target. Show
Fig. 48-1 and point out the continuous part of the spectrum and the peaks. Also point
out that there is a sharply defined minimum wavelength to the x-ray spectrum. Explain
that the continuous spectrum results becausethe electrons lose some or all of their kinetic
energy in close ( decelerating) encounterswith nuclei. This energy appears as photons and
t1K = hv. Explain that a photon of minimum wavelength is produced when an electron
loses all its kinetic energy in a single emission. Derive the expression for the minimum
wavelength in terms of the original accelerating potential and point out it is independent
of the target material.
B. Explain that the line spectrum in Fig. 48-1 appearsbecauseincident electrons interact with
atomic electrons and knock some of the deep-lying electrons out of the atoms. Electrons
in higher levels drop to fill the holes, emitting photons with energy equal to the difference
in energy of the initial and final atomic levels. The Ka line is produced when electroDS
drop from the L (n = 2) shell to the K (n = 1) shell and the KfJ line is produced when
electrons drop from the M (n = 3) shell to the K shell. Show Fig. 48-3.
C. Show Fig. 48-4 and state that when the square root of the frequency for any given line
is plotted as a function of the atomic number of the target atom, the result is nearly a
straight line. Argue that the innermost electrons have an energy level schemecloseto that
of hydrogen but with an effective nuclear cl1argeof ( Z -b )e, where b accounts for screening
by electrons close to the nucleus. Z is the number of protons in the nucleus, the atomic
number. Use the expressionfor hydrogen energy levels and for Ka put n = 2 for the initial
state and n = 1 for the final state, then show that ~ is proportional to (Z- b).
D. Remark that this relationship was used to position the chemical elements in the periodic
table independently of their chemicalproperties. This technique was particularly important
for positioning elementsin the long rows of the periodic table; they contain many elements
with similar chemical properties. Today the technique is used to identify trace amounts of
impurities in materials.
II. Atom building and the periodic table.
A. Give the "rules" for atom building.
1. The foui quantum numbers n, .e,mi, m8 can be used to label states. They have the
same restrictions on their values as for hydrogen. Remark that wave functions and
energiesare different for electrons with the same quantum numbers in different atoms.
Also remark that the energy depends on .e.
2. No more than one electron can have any given set of values of the 4 quantum numbers.
This is a general principIe of quantum mechanics, called the Pauli exclusion principIe.
State that this principIe holds for electrons, protons, neutrons, and many other parti-
cles but not for all particles and give the photon as an example of a particle for whicl1
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. X-ray spectra: multiple-choice question lj exercises4, 5, 9, 10, and 14.
b. Moseley plots: multiple-choice questions 2 and 3; questions 8 and 11; exercise 14; problems
1 and 5.
c. Atomic structure: multiple-choice questions 5 and 6.
d. Periodic table: multiple-choice questions 7 and 9j questions 15 and 18; exercises15 and 20.
e. Atomic magnetism: multiple-choice question 10; questions 33, 34, and 38.
f. Stern-Gerlach experiment: multiple-choice question 11; exercises22 and 24.
g. Magnetism and radiation: multiple-choice question 12; exercise 26.
h. Lasers: questions 47 and 48; exercises27, 31, 32, and 33; problem 8.
2. Demonstrations
Zeemaneffect: Freier and Anderson MPcl.
3. Books and Monographs
ResourceLetters, Book Fivej American Association of Physics Teachers, One Physics El-
lipse, College Park, MD 20740-3845. Contains a resource letter on atomic physics.
4. Audio/Visual
a. The Atom revealed; VHS video tape (50 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO
Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
b. Applications of Lasers; VHS video tape (58 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sciences
(seeabove for address).
BASIC TOPICS
I. Metallic conduction.
A. Write down Eq. 49-1 for the resistivity and remark that n is the concentration of conduction
electrons and T is the mean time between collisions of electrons with atoms. Ask students
to review Sections 29-4 and 29-5. Remark that a low resistivity results if the electron
concentration is large or the mean free time is long. In a rough way, if there are few
collisions per unit time then the mean free time is long and the electrons are accelerated
by the electric field for a long time before colliding, so the drift velocity is large. Remark
that quantum mecl1anicsmust be used to determine n and T.
B. Write down the Fermi-Dirac probability function p(E), given by Eq. 49-6, and state that
it gives the thermodynamic probability that a state with energy E is occupied. Show that
for T = OK, p(E) = 1 for E < EF andp(E) = O for E > EF. Remark that it is consistent
with the Pauli exclusion principle. To give a numerical example, calculate the probabilities
of occupation for states 0.1 and 1eV above the Fermi energy, then 0.1 and 1 eV below,
at room temperature. Graph E vs. p(E) for T = ,0 and for T > 0. See Fig. 49-2. A1so
show the graph for a still higher temperature and point out that the central region (from
p.= 0.9 to p = 0.1, say) widens. This quantitatively describes the thermal excitation of
electrons to higher energy states. Remark that the Fermi-Dirac probability function is
valid for any large collection of electrons, including the collections in metals, insulators,
and semiconductors.
C. Define the density of available states function n(E) and the density of occupied states
function no(E). Explain that no(E) = n(E)p(E) and that the total electron concentration
in a metal is given by n = Jn(E)p(E) dE. In principle, this equation can be solved for
the Fermi energy as a function of temperature. State that for nearly free electrons in a
metal n(E) is given by Eq. 49-2 and that the Fermi level is given by Eq. 49-5. Evaluate
the expression for copper and show that EF is about 7eV above the lowest free electron
energy.
D. Explain that the electric current is zero when no electric field is present becausestates for
whicl1 the velocities are +v and -v, for example, have the same energy. If one is occupied
the;n so is the other. Thus the averagevelocity of the electrons vanishes. A current arises
in an electric field becausethe electrons accelerate: they tend to make transitions within
their band to other states sucl1that the changesin their velocities are opposite to the field.
E. Explain that the acceleration caused by an electric field does not continue indefinitely
becausethe electrons are scattered by atoms of the solid. As a result, the electron distri-
bution distorts only slightly. Somestates with energy slightly greater than EF and velocity
opposite the field becomeoccupied while somestates with energy slightly lessthan EF and
velocity in the direction of the field becomevacant. Electrons with energy EF have speeds
VF given by EF = ~mv~ but the average speed (the drift speed) is considerably less be-
BASIC TOPICS
I. Nuclear properties.
A. Explain that the nucleusof an atom consistsof a collection of tightly bound neutrons, which
are neutral, and protons, which are positively charged. A proton has the same magnitude
Chargeas an electron. Define the term nucleon and state that the number of nucleons is
called the mass number and is denoted by A, the number of protons is called the atomic
number and is denoted by Z, and the number of neutrons is denoted by N. Point out
that A = Z + N. Remark that nuclei with the same Z but different N are called isotopes.
The atoms have the same chemical properties and the same chemical symbol. Show a wall
chart of the nuclides. Refer to Table 50-1 when discussingproperties of nuclides.
B. Explain that one nucleon attracts another by meansofthe strong nuclear force and that this
force is different from the electromagnetic force. It doesnot depend on electrical chargeand
is apparently the samefor all pairs of nucleons. It is basically attractive; at short distances
(a few fm) it is much stronger than the electrostatic force between protons, but it becomes
very weak at larger distances. Two protons exert attractive strong forces on each other
only at small separationsbut they exert repulsive electric forces at all separations. Because
of the short range, a nucleon interacts only with its nearest neighbors via the strong force.
Becausethe nucleus is small, the much stronger nuclear force dominates and both protons
and neutrons can be bound in stable nuclei.
C. Show Fig. 50-4 and point out the Z = N line and the stability zone. Explain why heavy
nuclei have more neutrons than protons. Also explain that unstable nuclei are said to be
radioactive and convert to more stable ones with the emission of one or more particles.
Show Fig. 12 and point out the stable and unstable nuclei.
D. Explain that the surface of a nucleus is not sharply defined but nuclei can be characterized
by their mean radii and these are given by R = RoA1/3, where Ro = 1.2fm (lfm =
10-15m). Stress how small this is compared to atomic radii. Show that this relationship
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPICS
a. Radioactive dating.
b. Nuclear models.
BASIC TOPICS
I. The fission process.
A. Refer back to the binding energy per nucleon vs. A curve (Fig. 50-6) .It suggeststhat a
massive nucleus might split into two or more fragments nearer to iron, thereby increasing
the total binding energy. Each fragment is more stable than the original nucleus. This is
the fission process.
B. Remark that many massivenuclei can be rendered fissionable by the absorption of a thermal
neutron. Such nuclei are called fissile. Give the example 235U+ n-+ 236U*-+ X + y + bn.
Explain that a thermal neutron ( ~ 0.04eV) is absorbed by a 235Unucleus and together
they form the intermediate fissionable 236U*nucleus. This nucleus splits into 2 fragments
(X and Y) and several neutrons. The sequenceof events is illustrated in Fig. 51-3. Point
out 236Uon Fig. 50-6. The disintegration energy for one possible fission event is calculated
in Sample Problem 51-1.
C. Explain that different fission events,starting with the samenucleus, might produce different
fragments. The fraction of events that produce a fragment of a given mass number A is
graphed in Fig. 51-2. Point out that fragments of equal mass occur only rarely. Explain
that the parent nucleus is neutron rich, the original fragments are neutron rich, and that
the original fragments expel neutrons to produce the fragments X and Y. These generally
decay further by ,B emission and some may emit delayed neutrons following ,B decay.
D. Show Fig. 51-4 and explain that the parent nucleus starts in the energy well near r = 0.
The incoming neutron must supply energy to start the fission process. The required energy
is slightly less than Eb since tunneling can occur.Point out the energy Q releasedby the
process. Point out Table 51-2 and explain that En is the actual energy supplied by an
incoming thermal neutron. It is the binding energy of the neutron in the compound nucleus.
Point out nuclides in the table for which fission does not occur.
E. Write out several fission modes for 235Uand note that on averagemore than one neutron is
emitted. Explain that some neutrons come promptly while others come from later decays
(the delayed neutrons) .Point out that the average mode yields Q ~ 200 MeV, of which
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. BackgroUIld: question 3.
b. Nuclear fission: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2; questions 5, 7, and 10; exercises3, 4, 9,
10, 13, 14, and 16; problem 1.
c. Nuclear reactors: multiple-choice question 4; questions 18, 19, and 20; exercises21, 22, 23,
and 25; problem 4.
d. Thermonuclear fusion: multiple-choice question 5; exercises30, 31, and 32; problem 9.
e. Fusion in stars: multiple-choice question 6; questions 27 and 32; exercises35, 38, and 40;
problems 6 and 8.
f. Controlled fusion: multiple-choice question 7, 8, and 9; exercise44.
2. Demonstrations
Chain reaction: Freier and Anderson MPal.
3. Books and Monographs
a. Fission Reactors; edited by Melvin M. Levine.; available from AAPT, One Physics Ellipse,
College Park MD 20740-3845. Covers both physics and engin~ring aspects.
b. Introduction to Nuclear Ji1usionPower and the Design of Ji1usionReactors; edited by J .A.
Fillo and P. Lindenfeld; available from AAPT (seeabove for ad.dress).Covers both physics
and engineering aspects.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Nuclear Energy; VHS video tape (23 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box
2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
b. .Energy Alternatives: Ji1usion;VHS video tape (26 min); Films for the Humanities & Sci-
ences( seeabove for address).
c. Energy from the Nucleus; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences
(seeabove for address).
d. Electrical Energy from Fission; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities &
Sciences(seeabove for address).
5. Computer Software
Atomic Physics; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains a section on nuclear reactors.
BASIC TOPICS
I. The particle "zoo" .
A. Show¡¡.list of particles already familiar to students. Include the electron, proton, neutron,
and neutrino, then add the muon and pion. Explain that many other particles have been
discoveredin cosmic ray and accelerator experiments. To impress students with the vast
array of particles and the enormous collection of data, make available to them a Review of
Particle Properties paper, published roughly every 2 years in Reviews of Modem Physics.
B. Explain that many new particles are discoveredby bombarding protons or neutrons with
electrons or protons and show a picture ofa detector, such as Fig. 52-1 or a bubble chamber
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Particle interactions: multiple-choice question lj exercise 2.
b. Families of particles: multiple-choice question 2j questions 4 and 22j exercises5, 7, and 8.
c. Conservation laws: multiple-choice questions 3 and 4j questions 8, 12, 13, and 14j exercises
9, 10, and llj problem 2.
d. Quark model: multiple-choice question 5j question 32j exercises16, 17, and 20.
e. Big bang: multiple-choice question 6j question 36j exercises24,25, and 27j problems 4,6,
and 7.
2. Books and Monographs
a. ResourceLetters, Book Four and ResourceLetters, Book Fivej American Association of
Physics Teachers, One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740-3845. Contain resource
letters on high energy and particle physics and on cosmology.
b. Quarksj edited by O.W .Greenbergj available from AAPT (seeabovefor address). Reprints
covering important aspects of the quark model.
c. Quarks, Quasars, and Quandariesj edited by Gordon Aubrechtj available from AAPT (see
above for address). Summaries of particle physics and cosmology.
d. Cosmologyand Particle Physicsj edited by David Lindley, Edward W. Kolb, and David N.
Schramm. Reprint collection dealing the evolution of the universe from the big bang.
e. Black Holesj edited by Steven Detweilerj available from AAPT (see above for address).
Reprints dealing with structure and dynamics of black holes.
The íollowing are the answersto the multiple-choice questions that appear at the ends oí chapters.
Chapter 1 Chapter 4
1. C
Chapter 3
2. D
3. C
1. D
4. B
2. c
5. D
3. B
6. C
4. A
7. D
5. C
8. (a) B; (b) A
6. D
9. B
7. B
10. A
8. D
11. (a) D; (b) A
9. B
12. (a) D; (b) C
10. C
13. (a) C; (b) D
11. C
12. A
13. B
Chapter 6
14. (a) c; (b) B
15. D 1. B
16. (a) c; (b) C 2. D
3. C
Chapter 16 Chapter 19
1. C 1. C
2. (a) C; (b) E 2. C
3. B 3. D
4. (a) C; (b) D 4. C
1. B
Chapter 20
2. E
1. (a) B; (b) B 3. E
2. (a) C; (b) A; (c) B; (d) Aj (e) C 4. A,C
3. C 5. B
4. (a) C; (b) C; (c) C 6. A
5. C 7. C
6. E 8. D
7. E 9. A,B,D
8. (a) B; (b) B; (c) C 10. (a) Aj (b) Dj (c) Cj (d) Aj (e) D
9. C 11. D
10. (a) B; (b) A 12. D
11. C 13. C
Chapter 21 Chapter 24
1. C 1. C
2. C 2. E
3. A 3. (a) Cj (b) Aj (c) A
4. C 4. C
5. A 5. (a) Bj (b) B
6. D 6. B
7. C 7. (a) Dj (b) Cj (c) C
8. B 8. D
9. (a) Bj (b) D 9. (a) A, Bj (b) B, C
10. A 10. (a) Aj (b) bj (c) Dj (d) D
11. B 11. B
12. C
Chapter 25
Chapter 22
1. A
1. B, C 2. B
2. D 3. B
3. C 4. C
4. (a) C; (b) D 5. D
5. B 6. A
6. (a) C; (b) B; (c) C 7. A
7. B 8. B
1. B 10. D
2. A 11. B
3. D 12. C
4. D 13. (a) Bj (b) A
5. (a) A; (b) C 14. (a) Bj (b) Aj (c) A
6. (a) B; (b) E 15. (a) A, B, D, Ej (b) Bj (c) B
7. (a) B; (b) C
Chapter 37 1. D
2. B
1. D 3. C
2. B 4. B
3. D 5. D
4. D 6. A
5. A 7. B
6. (a) Di (b) C 8. B
7. {a) Bi (b) A
9. (a) Aj (b) A
8. A
10. C
9. D
11. A
10. B
12. (a) Aj (b) A
13. C
14. C
Chapter 38 15. E
1. c 16. C
2. (a) Di (b) A
3. D
4. D Chapter 41
5. B
1. C
6. C
2. A
7. E
3. C
8. A
9. E 4. (a) B; (b) A; (c) B
10. B 5. A
11. A 6. D
7. A
8. A
9. D
Chapter 39
10. A, B, C
1. C 11. D
2. B 12. C
3. E 13. (a) C; (b) E; (c) C; (d) E
4. D 14. D
5. C 15. D
6. D
1. B
2. A
Chapter 43
3. C
1. D 4. (a) B; (b) B
2. B 5. D
3. B 6. C
4. A
7. B
5. A
8. D
6. C
9. D
7. (a) Cj (b) B
10. (a) O; (b) B
8. E
9. E 11. A
12. B
Chapter 44
Chapter 47
1. B
2. D
1. (a) D; (b) D
3. (a) Dj (b) Ej (c) B
2. A
4. B
3. C
5. ( a) Cj (b) C
6. D 4. (a) B; (b) B
7. ( a) Aj (b) B 5. B
8. B 6. B
9. B 7. (a) A; (b) B
10. C 8. D
11. B 9. B
10. A, B, C
11. (a) A; (b) C
Chapter 45 12. C
1. D 13. E
2. (a) C; (b) C 14. (a) C; (b) D
3. A 15. (a) A; (b) C
4. C 16. (a) A; (b) C
5. E
1. B 1. (a) B; (b) D
2. (a) Di (b) E 2. B
3. A 3. A
4. C
4. E
5. D
5. ( a) C; (b) C
6. C
6. C
7. B
7. (a) C; (b) A 8. C
8. B 9. B
9. (a) Bi (b) A
10. A
11. C Chapter 52
12. (a) Di (b) B
1. (a) Aj (b) Cj (c) B
2. (a) Aj (b) Bj (c) Cj (d) D
3. (a) Aj (b) Bj (c) C
Chapter 49 4. (a) Bj (b) B, Cj (c) A
5. B, D
1. C
6. B
2. B
3. D
4. A
5. D
6. (a) Bj (b) C; (c) A
7. B
8. E
9. A
10. D
11. (a) E; (b) Bj (c) C
12. A
Chapter 50
1. B
2. C
3. C
4. B
5. D
6. B
7. D
8. C
9. A, D
10. D
11. D
12. A
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
The íollowing are the answersto the exercisesthat appear at the ends oí the chapters.
Chapter 1 Chapter 2
2. (a) $692.31; (b) $41667; (c) 3.75 x 109 1. (a) parallel displacements; (b) antiparallel
3. 52.6 min; (b) 5.20% displacements; ( c) perpendicular displace-
4. 24000 mi ments
5. -0.4% 2. (b) 3.2km, 41° south ofwest
3. (a) 4.5,52° north ofeast; (b) 8.4,25° south
6. (a) Yes; (b) 8.6s
of east
7. 3.3ft
4. (a) -2.27, -6.98; (b) 50, 120°
8. 720 d
5. 4.76km
9. 55s
6. 60.2 km, 31.4° west of north
10. 2.0 h 7. (a) 2i+5j; (b) 5.4,68° from positive x axis
11. 2.2 d 8. (a) 3i-2j+5k; (b) 5i-4j-3k;
12. 6ft, 3in.
(c) -5i+4j+3k
i3. (a) 100m, 8.56m, 28.1ft; (b) lmi, 109m, 9. 5.0, 323°; (b) 10.0, 53.1°; (c) 11.2, 26.6°;
358 ft (d) 11.2, 79.7°, 11.2, 260°
14. 440nm 10. (a) 2.5, 15.3; (b) 15.5; (c) 80.7°
15. 1.88 x 1022cm3 11. (a) 370m, 57° east of north;
16. 2.0 x 10-2 km3 (b) displacement = 370 m,
17. (a) 4.00 x 104km; (b) 5.10 x 108km2; distance = 420 m
(c) 1.08 x 1012km3 12. 87km, 40° north of east
18. snail: 0.013m/s, spider: 0.55m/s, sqllirrel: 13. (a) 16.0cm, 45.0° clockwise from down;
5.3m/s, human: 10m/s, rabbit: 15m/s, (b) 22.6 cm, vertically up; ( c) zero
fox: 18m/s, lion: 22m/s, cheetah: 32m/s 14. -2.92, -2.92, 5.26, 0, 2.60, 5.34; (b) 4.94,
19. 2.86 x 10-31y/century 2.42; ( c) 5.50, 26.1° north of east; ( d) 5.50,
20. 0.0784L/km 26.1° south of west
21. (a) 4.85 x 10-6 pc, 1.58 x 10-51y; 15. 33900ft, 0.288° below the horizontal
(b) 9.48 x 1012km, 3.08 x 1013km 16. (a) 920mi, 63° south of east; (b) 410mi/h,
63° south of east; (c) 550mi/h
22. 450km
17. (a) (6m) i -(106m)j;
23. 5.98 x 1026
24. (a) 3.0 x 10-26kg; (b) 4.7 x 1046 (b) (19m/s) i -(224m/s)j;
2 A 2 A
25. New York (c) (24m/s ) i -(336m/s )j
18. (a) 3.9km/h; (b) 13°
26. 110 kg
27. 840km 19. (a) -(18m/s2)i; (b) 0.75s; (c) never;
(d) 2.2 s
28. 0.38mg/s
21. (a) 11.5h; (b) 5.5h;
29. 605.780211 nm
(c) North Atlantic Ocean
30. (a) 37.89; (b) 0.001
22. 3h 31 min after takeoff
31. meters per second 23. 31 km
32. JGh7C3 ( = 4.05 x 10-35 m)
24. 0.414 s
33. JCh7G ( = 5.46 x 10-8 kg) 25. 2 cm/y
26. (a) 10.2m/s, 5.41m/s; (b) lh 9min
Chapter 22
Chapter 21
1. (a) 0.0130mol; (b) 7.23 x 1021
1. (a) Ts = (9/5)TG + 491.69; (b) 671.69°S; 2. (a) 2.5 x 1025; (b) 1.20kg
491.69°S 3. (a) 39.9L; (b) 74.4g
2. -459.67° F 4. (a) 11.3; (b) 1.03
3. (a) TQ = TG + 273.13; (b) 373.1°Q, 5. 4.34 x 10-5
273.15°Q; (c) Kelvin scale 6. 3.0 kPa
4. (a) 10000° F; (b) 37.0° C; (c) -57° C; 7. (a) 531m/s; (b) 0.472mol/m3;
(d) -297° F; (e) 25° C = 77° F, for example (c) 28g/mol, N2
5. no, 310K = 98.6° F 8. 659m/s
6. (a) 320° F; (b) -12.3° F 9. (a) 2.69 x 1025; (b) 0.171nm
7. 291.1K 10. (a) 5.6 x 109 km
8. 186°C 11. 3.86 GHz
9. 31.2 12. (a) 3.59 x 1016; (b) 130m
10.1.3660 13. -12° C
11. 0.073cm Hg, nitrogen 14. (a) 6.5km/s; (b) 7.1km/s
12. 1.1cm 15. (a) 420m/s, 458m/s, yes
13. 0.038in. 16. 694m/s
14. 2.733cm 17. 180m/s
15. 6.2 mm 21. 1.5 cm/s
g+qE/m
35. 1.2rnm
21. (a) boronj (b) nitrogenj (c) carbon 36. (a) 9.22fC .mj (b) 10.1pJ
22. (a) 290Nj (b) 4.4 x 1028m/s2 37. (a) zeroj (b) 8.50 x 10-22N.mj (c) zero
23. 2.89nN 38. (a) opposite to Pj (b) parallel to Pj
24. (a) 3.2 x 10-19 Cj (b) two (c) 0.522fNj (d) 4.25 X 10-22 C .m
25. 3.8 N 40. R
26. (a) 7.19 x 1011j (b) 8.40 x 10-13
27. 5.08 m below the electron
28. -13.2 TC Chapter 27
29. 13.4 MC 1. -7.8mN.m2/C
30. 1.6 x 1018N 2. (a) zero; (b) -3.92N. m2/C; (C) zero;
31. (a) 57.1TC, noj (b) 598metrictons ( d) zero for each field
3. (a) -7rR2 E; (b) 7rR2E
1. 7.5pC Chapter 31
2. (a) 3.80pFj (b) 3.80pFj (c) 55.3V
1. 10.6 kJ
3. 3.25 mC
2. 13h 38min
4. (a) 143pFj (b) 16.6nC
3. 13h 38min
5. 0.546 pF 4. (a) $320; (b) 9.6cents
6. (a) 13.2 cm2j (b) 10.6pFj (c) -1.1 V
5. -10V
7. (a) 84.5pFj (b) 191 cm2 6. (a) 80mA; (b) 130mA; (c) 4O0mA
9.9090 7. (a) 14n; (b) 35mW
10. 3.10 J.LF 8.8.0n
11. 7.17 J.LF 9. (a) 44.2V; (b) 21.4V; (c) left
12.315mC 10. (a) 48.8mn; (b) 1.03V
13. (a) 2.4J.LFj (b) q4 = q6 = 480J.LCj (c) ~V4 = 11. &/7R
120V, ~V6 = 80V
14. ( a) 10 J.LFj (b) q4 = 800 J.LC,q6 = 1200 J.LCj 12. (a) -; el + &2 (b) - E2Tl + ElT2
rl + r2 + R Rrl + Rr2 + rl r2
(c) ~~ = ~~ = 200V 13. (a) i1 = 668mA, down; i2 = 85.7mA, up;
15. (a) d/3j (b) 3d i3 = 582 mA, up; (b) -3.60 V
16. (a) five in seriesj (b) three arrays as in (a) 15. (a) 3.4A; (b) 0.29V;
in parallel (there are other possibilities ) and: (a) 0.59A; (b) 1.7V
17. (a) 942J.LCj (b) 91.4V 16. 6.0 A
18. 50.1pF 17. 4.0n, 12n
20. (a) 45.4Vj (b) 52.7J.LCj (c) 146J.LC 18. (a) R/3; (b) R/3; (c) zero
21. 13.2 cents 19. 7.5 V
22. (a) 3.05 MJj (b) 0.847kW .h 20.3
23. (a) 28.6pFj (b) 17.9nCj (c) 5.59J.LJj 21. 262 n or 38.2 n
(d) 482kV/m 22. nine
24. 73.7mJ 23. (a) 131n; (b) i1 = 47.5mA, i2 = 21.2mA,
25. 74.1mJ/m3 i3 = 14.4mA, i4 = 11.9mA
Chapter 39
Chapter 40
1. (a) 4.5 x 1024Hzj (b) 10000km 1. (a) 2v; (b) v
2. (a) 4.7mHz; (b) 3.5min 2. 40 cm
3. (a) 515nm, 610nm, approximately; 4.1.5m
(b) 555nm, 541THz, 1.85fs 7. 390 cm beneath the mirror surface
4. 7.5GHz 8. three
5. (a) 515nm, 610nm, approximatelyj 9. 1.7mm2
(b) 555nm, 541 THz, 1.85fs 10. (a) 7; (b) 5; (c) 2
6.2.48 x 105 11. six
7. (a) 8.68yj 4.4My 12. no
8. 67ps 13. 11.0cm
9. 67 ps 15. (a) +, +40, -20, +2, no, yes; (b) plane, 00,
13. (a) 38.0°j (b) 52.9° 00, -10, yes; (c) concave, +40, +60, -2,
14. 1.50 yes, no; (d) concave, +20, +40, +30, yes,
15. 1.56 noj (e) convex, -20, +20, +0.50, no, yes;
16. 2.05 x 108 m/s (f) convex, -, -40, -18, +180, no, yes;
17. 1.95 x 108m/s (g) -20, -, -, +5.0, +0.80, no, yesj
18. air, 1.56ns (h) concave, +8.0, +16, +12, -, yes
19. 1.25 18. (a) -18, no; (b) -32.5, no; (c) +71, yesj
20. 1.5 (d) any n2 possible, no; (e) +30, no;
22. 3.07ns (f) +10, no; (g) -26, no; (h) 1.1, yes
23. 74m 19. (b) 2.0; (c) none
24. 110cm 21. 12 cm to the left of the lens
Chapter 52
1. (a) 2.4 x 10-43; (b) 8.1 x 10-37
2. (a) 937.76MeV, 803Mev
3. 2.84 x 1028m
4. 18.4 fm
5. 769MeV
6. 2.7cm/s
7. 31nm
8. (a) electromagnetic; (b) weak; (c) strongj
(d) weak
9. (a) K+; (b) n; (c) 7r°
10. Q = 0, B = -1, S = 0
11. b, d
12. e++lIe, 7r++7r°, 7r++7r++7r-, 7r++7r°+7r°
13. (a) AO -+ p + 7r+;
(b) n-+ p + e+lIe;
(C) T+ -+ JL+ + lIJL+V;j
(d) K- -+ JL- + V;
16. (a) not possible; (b) uuu
18. (a) iIiIdj (b) udd
20. (a) s-+ d+u+u; (b) s-+ d+u+u;
(c) d+d -+ s+Sj (d) 'Y -+ u+u
22. 4500 Mpc
23. 690nm
24. 91 Mpc
25. (a) 1.6TK; (b) 88JLs
26. (a) 0.13 cmj (b) 2.3 x 1011Hz, 0.95meV
27. (a) 285000y, era ofnuclear formation;
(b) 0.43eV; (c) 0.5
The íollowing are the answersto the problems that appear at the ends oí the cllapters.
Chapter 3
Chapter 2 1. (a) 0.28JLm; (b) 37 JLm
1. (a) 28m; (b) 13m 2. (a) 0.62m/s2; (b) 0.13m/s2; (c) 2.6m
2. 170 cm, 32° above the floor 3. (a) 1.8m/s2; (b) 3.8m/s2; (c) 4.0m
3. (a) (10ft) i + (12ft)j + (14ft) k; (b) 21ft; 4. (a) 4.6 x 103N; (b) 5.8 x 103N
(c) equal or greater than, not less than; 5. (a) 3260N; (b) 2720N; (c) 1.20m/s2
(d) 26ft 6. 2Ma/(g + a)
5. (a) 45.0mi/h; (b) 42.8mi/h; (c) 43.9mi/h 7. (a) 0.97m/s2; (b) 1.2N; (c) 3.5N
6. (a) 0, 0, -2, 0, 12 m; (b) -2, 12 m; 8. (a) 135N; (b) 45.3N; (c) 75.4N
(c) 7.0m 9. (a) 1.23N, 2.46N, 3.69N, 4.92N;
7. (a) in:finite number; (b) 87km (b) 6.15N; (c) 0.250N
8. (b) Vl =V2 10. 1.1 N
9. (a) 28.5cm/s; (b) 18.0cm/s; (c) 4O.5cm/s; 11. (a) P/(m + M); (b) PM/(m + M)
(d) 28.1 cm/s; (e) 30.3 cm/s
10. (e) a, b, d
11. (a) 14m/s, 18m/s2; (b) 6m/s, 12m/s2,
Chapter 4
24m/s2, 24m/s2
12. (b) 18.8m/s; (c) 31.3m 1.60°
13. no, his speed was less than 24mi/h 2. (a) 4.78m, 83.0°; (b) 2.82s; (c) 27.8m/s
14. (a) 5.71m/s2; (b) 3.68s; (c) 5.78s; 3. (a) 8.44km; (b) 59.0km
(d) 95.4m 4. (a) 0.222s, 0.222s; (b) 0.789ft; (c) 2.37ft
15. (a) 0.75s; (b) 50m 5. (a) 1.16s; (b) 13.0m; (c) 18.8m/s,
16. (a) 82m; (b) 19m/s 5.56m/sj (d) no
17. (a) 3.40 s; (b) 16.2m 6. (b) 27°
18. t = 5.1 s, 7" = 2E/9 7. (a) 99ftj (b) 90ft/s; (c) 180ft
19. 1.23, 4.90, 11.0, 19.6, 30.6 cm 8. (b) 6.3°, 83.7°
20. 3.0 m 9. 31° to 63° above the horizontal
21. (a) 110km; (b) 330s 10. D = V(v/2g) sin(} -L cos(}, pass over if
22. (a) 350ms; (b) 82ms D > 0, fall short if D < 0
23. 8.85m/s; (b) 0.999m 12. 70.5°
Chapter 19
~
22. (a) 641Hz; (b) 647Hz; (c) 636Hz Chapter 22
1. 0.76
3. 1/5
Chapter 20 4. 6.4 cm
5. (a) 1.67j (b) 49.5 x 10-6 cmj
1. (a) 2.60 x 108 m/s; (b) two
(c) 7.87 x 10-6 cm
2. (a) 0.844c, classical: 1.09c; (b) 0.212c, clas-
6. c=l/)., A=N/).
sical: 0.150c
7. 4.71
3. ( a) 25.8 J.LS;(b) red fiash (Doppler shifted)
9. (a) 3N/v3j (b) 0.750voj (c) 0.775vo
4. t~ = 0, t~ = -2.5J.Ls
10. (a) 2N/3voj (b) N/3j (c) 1.22voj (d) 1.31vo
6. (a) 0.859c, along the x axis; (b) 0.794c, 12. 9500km/s
17.6° forward from the y axis; ( c) 0.794c, 13. (a) (Na + Nb)kT/Vj (b) 1/2
17.6° backward from the y' axis 14. B1 = b- a/ RT , Bj = bi for j > 1
7. seven 15. 89° C
8. (a) 0.491c, in the negative x direction; 16. (a) 35 cm/Sj (b) 4.4 x 106 rev /s
(b) red fiash, 4.32 J.LS 17. (a) V/n = (a :l: va2 -4abRT) /2RTj
9. 2.43 J.LS (c) 131K
10. (b) 0.99999915c
11. (a) 4.00J.Ls;(b) 2.50J.Ls
13. (b) K = p2/2m; (c) 206me Chapter 23
14. 110km
1. (a) 24kW; (b) 24 W
15. (a) cv'('Y -1)/('Y + 1); (b) m~ 2. (a) 17.4W; (b) 188g/h
17. (b) 202 GeV; (c) 49.1 GeV 4. (a) 28 TW; (b) 70000° C
18. (b) 13.8 GeV; (c) 5330 GeV 6. 0.40 cm/h
19. 1 + ..¡2'Yi + 1, where 'Yi = (1- v; /C2)-1/2 7. (a) 5.26° C, no ice left; (b) 00 C, 62.0g of
ice left
8. 2400J/kg .K
9. (a) 6.75 x 10-20 J; (b) 10.7
Chapter 21 10. 45.4° C
11. 1.2 kJ
2. 53min
12. 1.89 kJ
4. 198K or 348K
13. 265K
6. 0.23 Co/s
14. -nRTln
Vf -nb
-an
(
2 1
---
1)
7. (b) steel: 71 cm, brass: 41 cm Vi-nb Vi Vf
8. 7.52cm 15.2.95cm;(b)2.11cm
9. 998.4kg/m3 17. diatomic
11. 66.4° C 18. 40.6 kJ
12. 27.4cm 19. AB: 3740J, 3740J, 0;
13. 0.27 mm BC: 0, -181pB = 2.00atm,
14. (b) 0.7 VB = 0.0246m3, Po = 1.00atm, Va =
15. (a) 2.25ftj (b) 3.99ft 0.0373 m3
16. 5.59 m3 20. (a) 360ug/s; (b) 814mW; (c) -694mW
17. 1.74atm 21. 12.0kW
18. 2.0 x 105 Pa
20. 8.99 cm
21. 152 kPa
22. 8.3 L
1. the cable
2. (a) rl -r2j (b) rl
Chapter 29 3. (a) 1.5knj (b) 400mVj (c) 0.26%
1. 7.1 ms 4. (a) 12.5Vj (b) 50.0A
2. 100 kA/m2 5. (a) PA = 16.3nn .m, rhoB = 7.48nn .m:
3. (a) 380J1,V; (b) negative; (c) 4.3min (b) jA = jB = 62.3kA/cm2; (c) EA =
4. (a) 2.27 x 1012; (b) 4280; (c) 11.2 MV 10.2V/m, EB = 4.66V/m;
5. (a) 95.0J1,C; (b) 158 Co (d) ~VA = 435V, ~VB = 195V
6. (a) joA/3; (b) 2joA/3 6. R
7. (a) 150° C 7. (a) 3R/4j (b) 5R/6
8. 1650° C 8. (a) i=50mA, i2 = 60mAj (b) ~ -Va =
9. 54n -9.0V
10. (a) 38.3mA; (b) 109A/m2; (c) 1.28cm/s; 9. (a) in parallelj (b) 72.0n, 144n
(d) 227V /m 10. (a) 13.5kn; (b) 1.50knj (c) 167nj
11. (a) silver; (b) 60.8nn (d) 1.48 kn
12. (a) 4.3 x 10-3, 1.7 x 10-5,3.4 x 10-5 11. 0.45A
13.0.036 14. 3.0MJ/kg
14. (a) pL/7rab 15. 27.4cm/s
16. (a) 240JLC; (b) 64JLAj (c) 480JLW
17. (a) 1.37L; (b) 0.730A
19. RCln2
Chapter 32
1. (0.75 T)k
2. (-11.4V/m)i+ (-6.00V/m)j
+(4.80V /m) k
3. (a) to the eastj (b) 6.27 x 1014m/s2;
7. (a) 50Vj (b) zero (c) 2.98mm
9. (a) ql = 9.0JLC, q2 = 16JLC,q3 = 9.0JLC, 4. (b) out of the page
q4 = 16JLCj(b) ql = 8.40JLC,~ = 16.8JLC, 7. (a) BLlx(qm/2LlV)1/2j (b) 7.91mm
q3 = 10.8JLC,q4 = 14.4JLC 8. (a) 523mT; (b) 20.2mAj (c) 7.65MJ
10. 4.0 JLF 9. (a) -q; (b) 7rm/qB
11. (a) 2.0J 11. (a) 78.6ns; (b) 9.16cmj (c) 3.20cm
12. 0.756n 15. 4.2 C
13. (a) e2/321r2EOr4j 18. 27raiB sin(},normal to the plane ofthe ring,
(b) e2/81rEORj(c) 1.40fm up
2. 49mV
3. (a) 28.2.uV; (b) from c to b Chapter 38
4. N=l
5. 80.uV, clockwise 2. (a) 5.47mA
6. (a) .uo7riiR2r2/2x3; (b) 3.uo7rivR2r2/2x4; 3. (a) 7.63p,Aj (b) 862kV .m/sj (c) 3.48mmj
( c) in the same direction as the current in ( d) 5.07 pT
the large loop 4. (a) at2/2j (b) at2/27rEOR2j
7. 0.455V (d) p,oart/27rR2j (e) same as (d)
8. (b) iBR2/2 5. (a) ::I:Eba2/ P'o for faces parallel to the xy
10. (a) (3.4mn))(2 + (}), with (} in radians; plane, zero through each of the other four
(b) (4.32mWb)(}; (c) 2.0rad; (d) 2.2A facesj (b) zero
11. (Bar)2i.A)ut 6. (a) 200 x 1012V.m.sj (b) 13p,T
15. (a) 34 V /m; (b) 6.0 x 1012m/s2 8. 43.4mW /m2
9. (a) l.I)/k = c, Em = cBmj
(b) S = (E~/4p,oc) sin(2I.1)t)sin(2kx)
10. (a) 83.3mV /mj (b) 4.03mTj (c) 267W /m2
Chapter 35
11. (a) E = (t:/r) ln(b/a), B = p,ot:/27rRrj
3. (b) Kí/ E, opposite to the field; (b) S = (t:2/27rRr2) ln(b/a)
(b) 312 A/m 13. (a) 94.3 MHzj (b) +z, 960nTj (c) 1.98m-l,
8. (a) 630MA; (b) yes; (c) no 593Mrad/sj (d) 110W /m2j
(e) 678nN, 367nPa
15. (a) 3.60GW /m2j (b) 12.0Paj (c) 16.7pNj
Chapter 36 ( d) 2.78 km/S2
16. 1.06km2
2. (a) JLoi/W; (b) JLO7rR2/W
4. (a) 15.0JLWb; (b) 0.160; (c) zero
6. (a) t = 1.5s
Chapter 39
8. (a) 78kJ; (b) 3.7kg
9. (a) JLOi2N2 /87r2r2; 2. 2.5 x 108 mis
(b) (JLoN2hi2/47r) ln(b/a) 3.22°
12. i.l.)o 5. (b) 0.60mm
13. (a) zero; (b) 2i 6. (b) 0.020°
14. (b) 2.1 x 10-3 7. 750 m
8. 1,24 < n < 1.37
Chapter 44
Chapter 40
1. (a) 0.16; (b) 0.84
1. Inew = (10/9)Iold
2. 2/3 polarized, 1/3 unpolarized
2. (b) 0.062 cm/s; (c) 70m/s; (d) 5.2 cm/s
3. (1/2) [cos2«(}/N)]N 4 0.5 as N 4 00
4. (1/2)R(2 -n)/(n -1)
4. (b) 49
9. (b) separate the lenses by f2 -lfll;
5. (a) polarizing sheet; (b) 45°
( c) (fl/ f2)2 6. (a) 0.495mm; (b) x is the e-ray, y is the 0-
10. 21.9 cm ...
ray; ( c) E in ray y lies in the plane of the
12. (a) coincides with the position ofthe object, ...
real, inverted, m = -1.0 figure, E in ray x lies at a right angle to
the plane of the figure; (d) every 90° one or
13. (a) 5.3cm; (b) 3.0mm
the other beam, alternately, will be extin-
15. 25 ms
16. (b) 8.47mm; (c) 2.5 cm g1lÍshed
Chapter 45
Chapter 41
1. 1.44W
1. (a) 0.253mmj (b) maxima replace minima
2. (a) 2980°C; (b) 20.2ms
and minima replace maxima
3. 1300K
2. 6640 nm
5. (b) 6°C
4. 8.0 ¡.tm
7. (a) 2.97x1020s-1; (b) 48000kmj (c) 281m;
6. I = (Im/9) [1 + 8cos2(1rdsinO/.>.)], Im =
(d) 5.91 x 1018(m2 .S)-l, 1.97 x 1010m-3
intensity of central maximum
9. (a) 3.10keV; (b) 14.4keV
7. 643nm
11. (b) 1.12 keV
8. (a) 169nmj (b) blue-violet
9. 2.4 ¡.tm
10. (a) 1800nmj (b) 8
12. I = Im cos2(21rx/ .>.) Chapter 46
3. 5.07eV
4. (a) -21%; (b) -7.2%; (c) 18%
Chapter 42
1. 24.4mm
Chapter 47
3. (b) 0,4.493, 7.725rad, etc.; (c) -0.50,0.93,
1.96, etc. 1. 18.1, 36.2,54.3, 66.3, 72.4J.LeV
4. 6.8 x 10-12 2. (b) 0.196; (c) 0.402; (d) 0.333; (e) 0.333
5. (b) 70JLm; (c) three times the lunar diame- 3. (b) 0.0006j (c) 0.0003
ter 4. (b) (2miAJ/h)1/4j (C) X = 0
7. (a) 5.0JLm; (b) 20JLm 5. (1/2)miAJ2X2
7. (a) 0.284pm; (b) 2.53keV; (c) 0.490nm
Chapter 48 Chapter 51
Chapter 49
Chapter 52
1. 3
3. (a) 20kJ; (b) 200s 1. 31 cm
5. (a) pure: 2.8x10-1O, doped: 0.034j (b) 0.93 2. (a) 1.90 x 10-18 kg .m/s; (b) 9.9m
6. (a) Ü.74eV above it; (b) 5.6 x 10-7 3. (b) 2.39 GK
4. (b) 0.934; (c) 4200 Mpc
7. (b) 4.9 x 108
5. (a) 280p,eV; (b) 4.4mm
8. 4.20eV
6. (b) 5.1m-3
7. (b) 27rr3/2(GM)-1/2
Chapter 50