How To Write Chapter 4

Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila
Intramuros, Manila
College of Engineering and Technology
Chemical Engineering Department
HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 4

Chapter 4 – ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Submitted by:
Sablan, Anna Angelica M.
Sarsoza, Andriane C.
Supremo, Journel Ann T.
Venturina, Richard Harvey G.
Submitted to:
Engr. Milagros R. Cabangon
01 September 2014
Intramuros, Manila
Table of Contents
ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................2
Classification of data.......................................................................................................................... 3
Quantitative Analysis in Evaluation ............................................................................................. 5
Arrangement of data or classes of data. ...................................................................................... 6
Group-derived generalizations ........................................................................................................ 6
PREPARING DATA FOR PRESENTATION ..............................................................8

How to construct a talligram ........................................................................................................... 8
PRESENTATION OF DATA ................................................................................. 11

TEXTUAL PRESENTATION OF DATA ......................................................................................... 11
TABULAR PRESENTATION OF DATA ......................................................................................... 12
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA .................................................................................... 19
REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 32
Chapter 4 – ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INERPRETATION OF DATA 1

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ANALYSIS
Analysis is the process of breaking up the whole study into its constituent
parts of categories according to the specific questions under the statement of
the problem. This is to bring out into focus the essential features of the study.
Analysis usually precedes presentation.
In most social research the data analysis involves three major steps, done in
roughly this order:
 Cleaning and organizing the data for analysis (Data Preparation)

 Describing the data (Descriptive Statistics)
 Testing Hypotheses and Models (Inferential Statistics)
Data Preparation
- involves checking or logging the data in; checking the data for accuracy;
entering the data into the computer; transforming the data; and
developing and documenting a database structure that integrates the
various measures.
Descriptive Statistics
- used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide
simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with
simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every
quantitative analysis of data. With descriptive statistics you are simply
describing what is, what the data shows.
Inferential Statistics
- investigate questions, models and hypotheses. In many cases, the

conclusions from inferential statistics extend beyond the immediate data
alone. We use inferential statistics to make inferences from our data to
more general conditions.

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Hence with the use of Data Analysis Procedure, you can

 convert data into information and knowledge, and
 explore the relationship between variables.
Understanding of the data analysis procedures will help you to

 appreciate the meaning of the scientific method, hypotheses testing and
statistical significance in relation to research questions
 realise the importance of good research design when investigating
research questions
 have knowledge of a range of inferential statistics and their applicability
and limitations in the context of your research
 be able to devise, implement and report accurately a small quantitative
research project
 be capable of identifying the data analysis procedures relevant to your
research project
 show an understanding of the strengths and limitations of the selected
quantitative and/or qualitative research project
 demonstrate the ability to use word processing, project planning and
statistical computer packages in the context of a quantitative research
project and report
 be adept of working effectively alone or with others to solve a research
question/ problem quantitatively.
Classification of data
Classification is grouping together data with similar characteristics.

Classification is a part of analysis. The bases of classification are the
following:
A. QUALITATIVE
- Qualitative data can be arranged into categories that are not numerical.
These categories can be physical traits, gender, colors or anything that
does not have a number associated to it.
- Qualitative data is sometimes referred to as categorical data.
- The most common analysis of qualitative data is observer impression.
That is, expert or bystander observers examine the data, interpret it via

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forming an impression and report their impression in a structured and

sometimes quantitative form.
Qualitative data is extremely varied in nature. It includes virtually any

information that can be captured that is not numerical in nature. Here are
some of the major categories or types:
 In-Depth Interviews
In-Depth Interviews include both individual interviews as well as "group"

interviews. The data can be recorded in a wide variety of ways including
stenography, audio recording, video recording or written notes
 Direct Observation
It differs from interviewing in that the observer does not actively query the
respondent. It can include everything from field research where one lives in
another context or culture for a period of time to photographs that illustrate
some aspect of the phenomenon. The data can be recorded in many of the
same ways as interviews and through pictures, photos or drawings.
 Written Documents
Usually this refers to existing documents (as opposed transcripts of interviews

conducted for the research). It can include newspapers, magazines, books,
websites, memos, transcripts of conversations, annual reports, and so on.
Usually written documents are analyzed with some form of content analysis
B. QUANTITATIVE
- Quantitative data are anything that can be expressed as a number, or
quantified. Examples of quantitative data are scores on achievement
tests, number of hours of study, or weight of a subject. These data may
be represented by ordinal, interval or ratio scales and lends themselves
to most statistical manipulation.
- refers to the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena via
statistical, mathematical or numerical data or computational techniques
- The objective of quantitative research is to develop and
employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to
phenomena.

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- Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative

research outside of the physical sciences, and also finds applications
within the physical sciences, such as in statistical mechanics. Statistical
methods are used extensively within fields such as economics, social
sciences and biology.
- . Using quantitative methods, it is possible to give precise and testable

expression to qualitative ideas. This combination of quantitative and
qualitative data gathering is often referred to as mixed-methods research.
Quantitative Analysis in Evaluation
Before you begin your analysis, you must identify the level of measurement
associated with the quantitative data. The level of measurement can influence
the type of analysis you can use. There are four levels of measurement:
 Nominal data – data has no logical; data is basic classification data
 Ordinal data – data has a logical order, but the differences between
values are not constant
 Interval data – data is continuous and has a logical order, data has
standardized differences between values, but no natural zero
 Ratio data – data is continuous, ordered, has standardized differences
between values, and a natural zero
C. GEOGRAPHICAL
- Data may be classified according to their location. For instance, the
schools in the secondary level in Province A may be grouped by
district.
- It uses techniques from spatial analysis, but also encompasses
geographical activities such as the defining and naming of
geographical regions for statistical purposes.
-
D. CHRONOLOGICAL
- In this, data are classified according to the order of their occurrence
Cross-classification- this is further classifying a group of data into subclasses.

This is breaking up or dividing a big class into smaller classes.

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Arrangement of data or classes of data.

The bases of arrangement of data or groups of data are the same as those of
classification.
A. QUALITATIVE
- Data may be arranged alphabetically, or from the biggest class as
from phylum to specie in classifying animals or vice versa, or listing
the biggest country to the smallest one or vice versa, or from most
important to least important, or vice versa, etc. Ranking of students
according to brightness is qualitative arrangement.
B. QUANTITATIVE
- This is arranging data according to their numerical magnitudes, from
the greatest to the smallest number or vice versa. Schools may be
arranged according to their population, from most populated to the
least populated, and so with countries, provinces, cities and towns.
C. GEOGRAPHICAL
- Data may be arranged according to their geographical location or
according to direction. Data from the Ilocos Region may be listed from
north to south by province as Ilocos Norte, ABra, Ilocos Sur, and La
union
D. CHRONOLOGICAL
- This is listing down data that occurred first and last those occurred
last according to the purpose of presentation. This is especially true in
historical research. For instance, data during the Spanish period
should be treated first before the data during the America period.
Group-derived generalizations
One of the main purposes of analyzing research data is to from inferences,

interpretations, conclusions, and/or generalizations from the collection data. In
so doing the researcher should be guided by the following discussions about
group-derived generalizations.
Group-generalizations are applicable to all kinds of research, be they social,

science or natural science research. There are several types of these but are
discussed under four categories by Good and Scates.

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1. Generally, only proportional predictions can be made. One of type of

generalization is that which is expressed in terms of proportion of the
cases in a group, often in the form of probability. When this type is used,
we do not have enough information about individual cases to make
predictions for them, but we can nevertheless predict for a group of
future observations
2. The average can be made to represent the whole group. A second type of
ground-derived generalization results from using the average as a
representation of the group of cases and offering it as a typical result.
This is ignoring the individuals comprising the group or the variation
existing in the group or the variation existing in the group but the
average represents the whole group.
3. Full-frequency distribution reveals characteristics of a group. As a third
type of knowledge growing out of the study of groups, we have the full-
frequency distribution- the most characteristic device, perhaps of all
statistical work. Perhaps too, the most inferential characteristics of
frequency distribution are shape and spread. Frequency distributions
carry the implication of probability.
4. A group itself generates new qualities, characteristics, properties, or
aspects not present in individual cases.
Other group properties that exist only in groups are cooperation, opposition,
organization, specialization, leadership, teaching, morale, reciprocal sharing of
emotions, etc. which vanish in individual cases.
Two more categories of generalization may be added at this point.
1. Generalization can also be made about an individual case. For instance,

a high school graduating student is declared valedictorian of his class.
We can generalize that, that student is the brightest in his class. This is
group-derived generalization because it cannot be made if there is only
one student.
2. In certain cases, predictions on individual cases can be made. It has been
mentioned earlier that, generally, only proportional predictions.

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PREPARING DATA FOR PRESENTATION
Before presenting data in accepted forms, especially in presenting them in the

form of statistical tables, they have to be tallied first in a tabulation diagram
which may be called talligram, a contraction of tally and diagram. The
individual responses to a questionnaire or interview schedule have to be tallied
one by one.
How to construct a talligram

A talligram may be constructed as follows:
1. Determine the classes and their respective subclasses along with their
respective numbers. For instance, in the study about the relationship
between the perceived stress levels of 4th-year standing Engineering
students of Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila and their academic
performances, suppose there are eleven stress factors (stressors)
contributing to the level of stress perceived by the student during the
previous semester such as Broken Family, Bullying, Course Load,
Environment, Examination, Health Problems, Heavy Workload, Long Travel
Time, Relationship and Traffic. The subclass used is the number of
students that perceived stress under the said stressors. The classes and
their subclasses are arranged alphabetically.
2. Make rows for the classes by drawing horizontal lines with appropriate
spaces between the lines and the number of the rows should be two more
than the number of classes. In the previous example, there should be,
supposedly, thirteen rows, since there are eleven classes (the eleven
stressors mentioned in the previous step). The uppermost row is for the
subclass (number of students that perceived stress under the said
stressors). The next eleven rows are for the classes. The bottom row is for
the totals, but for the tallying of the data gathered, there is no need for
additional bottom row since the data to be tallied is from a multiple
response questionnaire and the grand total of these data is meaningless.
Therefore, only twelve rows are necessary for the talligram construction.
3. Make columns for the subclasses by drawing vertical lines with appropriate
spaces between the lines and the number of columns should be two more
than the number of subclasses. For the given example, since there is a
single subclass, there should be three columns. The leftmost column is for

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the labels of the of the class rows, the rightmost column is for the totals,
and the middle column is for the subclass.
Number of Students
Stressors that Perceived stress Total
under the stressor
Broken Family
Bullying
Course Load
Environment
Examination
Financial Difficulties
Health Problems
Heavy workload
Long Travel Time
Relationship
Traffic
How to tally data (responses) gathered through a questionnaire.
Tallying responses to a questionnaire in a talligram follows.

Suppose a multiple-response questionnaire gives the following data.
a) Student A put a checkmark on the following items (stressors) in the

questionnaire that he thought contributes to the stress level he perceived
during the previous semester: Course load, Examination, Environment,
Financial difficulties and Health Problems. Enter a tally in the cells which are
the intersections of the 2nd column and the Course Load row, 2nd column and
the Examination row, 2nd column and the Environment row, 2nd column and
the Financial Difficulties row and 2nd column and the Health Problems row.
b) Student B put a checkmark only on the item Broken Family in the

questionnaire. Enter a tally in the cell which is the intersection of the 2nd
column and the Broken Family row.

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c) Continue the process until all the data gathered are entered.
Number of Students
Stressors that Perceived stress Total
under the stressor
Broken Family 11 2
Bullying 11 2
Course Load 11111 – 11111 – 11 12
Environment 11111 – 11111 10
Examination 11111 – 11111- 111 13
Financial Difficulties 11111 – 1 6
Health Problems 111 3
Heavy workload 11111 – 11111 10
Long Travel Time 11111 – 1 6
Relationship 11 2
Traffic 11111 - 1111 9
Stress Factors Perceived by 4th-Year Standing Engineering Students of

PLM During the Previous Semester, A.Y. 2013-2014
The tables presented above can now be converted into a statistical

table for data presentation. Generally, all quantified data are tallied first in
talligram which are then converted into statistical tables for data presentation
using Hindu-Arabic numerals in the cells in place of tallies.

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Presentation of Data
Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and

meaningful categories and classifications to make them amenable to study and
interpretation. Analysis and presentation put data into proper order and in
categories reducing them into forms that are intelligible and interpretable so
that the relationships between the research specific questions and their
intended answers can be established. There are three ways of presenting data:
textual, tabular and graphical.
TEXTUAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
Textual presentation uses statements with numerals or numbers to describe

data. The main aims of textual presentation are to focus attention to some
important data and to supplement tabular presentation.
The disadvantage, especially if it is too long, is that it is boring to read and the
reader may not even be able to grasp the quantitative relationships of the data
presented. The reader may even skip some statements.
Example: The following refers to the stress factors that contributed to the
perceived stress of the students during the previous semester during the
previous semester.
Number of Students Percentage

Stressors that Perceived stress Distribution
under the stressor, f
Broken Family 2 12.5%
Bullying 2 12.5%
Course Load 12 75%
Environment 10 62.5%
Examination 13 81.25%

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Financial Difficulties 6 37.5%
Health Problems 3 18.75%
Heavy workload 10 62.5%
Long Travel Time 6 37.5%
Relationship 2 12.5%
Traffic 9 56.25%
n = 16; *Percentage distribution = (f/n) x 100%
Percentage Distribution of the Number of Students Experiencing Stress

Due to Different Stressors
Of the sixteen 4th-year standing Engineering students of PLM

surveyed, two or 12.5 percent have perceived stress due to Broken Family,
Bullying and Relationship, three or 18.75 percent due to Health Problems, six
or 37.5 percent due to Financial Difficulties and Long Travel Time, nine or
56.25 percent due to Traffic, ten or 62.5 percent due to the Environment and
Heavy Workload, twelve or 75 percent due to Course Load and thirteen or
81.25 percent have said that they were stressed due to the Examinations.
TABULAR PRESENTATION OF DATA
When presenting ideas that include references to data, it can be helpful

to make the point using a table or graph. Text alone should not be used to
convey more than three or four numbers. Sets of numerical results should
usually be presented as tables or pictures rather than included in the text. Well
presented tables and graphs can concisely summarize information which would
be difficult to describe in words alone.
On the other hand, poorly presented tables and graphs can be confusing
or irrelevant. While they can be powerful methods, they also have the potential
to ruin a presentation if they convey the wrong message or they confuse the
audience. Appropriate use of tables and graphs is one way to enhance the
message you are delivering. It is crucial to remember that when using a table

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or graph the associated text should describe what the data reveal about the
topic; you should not need to describe the information again in words.
Tables and graphs should, ideally, be self-explanatory. The reader should

be able to understand them without detailed reference to the text, on the
grounds that users may well pick things up from the tables or graphs without
reading the whole text. The title should be informative, and rows and columns
of tables or axes of graphs should be clearly labeled.
Once data and information are recorded and available at school,

descriptive statistics can be produced to summarize the data, to describe the
situation, and to identify issues and factors. We can produce descriptive
statistics by:
 Sorting and re-grouping data;

 Transforming raw data into indicators such as percentages, rates, and
ratios; and
 Presenting the data and indicators in tables, charts, and texts which
enable easy analysis, interpretation, and use.
Descriptive statistics also include summary statistics such as averages,
range, median, mode, and standard deviation. These summary statistics can
help people to understand the nature and characteristics of the data set and
the phenomenon, which is important when they are analyzing and interpreting
data and indicators in order to understand the situation and to make
decisions. More and more, charts and other graphical presentations are
produced to present education data and indicators, using statistical and data
presentation tools.
Statistical table defined. A statistical table or simply table is defined as a

systematic arrangement of related data in which classes of numerical facts or
data are given each a row and their subclasses are given each a column in
order to present the relationships of the sets or numerical facts or data in a
definite, compact, and understandable form or forms. (Calderon, et al, p.210)
The basic structure of a table is a set of columns and rows that contain
the data and usually contain either a row or column (or both) of headings that
organize the data. When deciding on the size of the table, it is a good idea to
keep the six by six guideline in mind. Used in the context of tables, this
guideline suggests that a table should try to have no more than six columns

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and no more than six rows in order to keep the amount of information to a
reasonable level. In selecting the size of the table, make sure that the font size
of the text in each cell of the table is big enough to be read clearly when
displayed.
Advantages of tabular over textual presentation of data. (Calderon, et al,

p.210) The advantages of the tabular over the textual presentation of data are:
1. Statistical tables are concise, and because data are systematically

grouped and arranged, explanatory matter is minimal.
2. Data are more easily read, understood, and compared because of their
systematic and logical arrangement into rows and columns. The reader
can understand and interpret a great bulk of data rapidly because he can
see significant relationships of data at once.
3. Tables give the whole information even without combining numerals with
textual matter. This is so because tables are so constructed that the
ideas they convey can be understood even without reading their textual
presentation.
The major functional parts of a statistical table. (Bacani, et al, p. 55)
1. Table Number. Each table should have a number, preferably in Arabic,

for reference purposes. This is because only the table numbers are cited.
The number is written above the title of the table. Tables are numbered
consecutively throughout the thesis report. If there is only one table the
number is unnecessary.
2. Title. The title should tell about the following:

a. The subject matter that said table deals with;
b. Where such subject matter is situated, or to what entity or persons
it belongs, or from whom the data about such matter were
gathered;
c. When data about such subject matter were gathered or the time
period when such data were existent; and
d. Sometimes how the data about such subject matter are classified.

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Usually, however, only the first two elements are mentioned in the title,
and occasionally, only the subject matter. Only the beginning letters of the
important words in the title are capitalized. If the title contains more than one
line, it should be written like an inverted pyramid.
3. Headnote or Prefatory Note. This is written below the title and it is

usually enclosed in parentheses. It explains some things in the table that
are not clear.
4. Stub. The stub contains the stub head and the row labels. The stub head
tells what the stub contains, the row labels. Each row label describes the
data contained in that row.
5. Box Head. The box head contains the master caption, the column
captions, and the column subcaptions. The master caption describes the
column captions and the column captions in turn describe the
subcolumn captions.
6. Main body, field, or text. The main body, field, or text of the table contains
all the quantitative and/or proportional information presented in the
table in rows and in columns.
7. Footnote. The footnote which appears immediately below the bottom line
of the table explains, qualifies, or clarifies some items in the table which
are not readily understandable or are missing. Proper symbols are used
to indicate the items that are clarified or explained. The footnote is not
necessary if everything in the table is clear and there is nothing to clarify
or explain.
8. Source note. The source note which is generally written below the
footnote indicates the origin or source of the data presented in the table.
The source note is not necessary if the sources of the data are the
respondents to a questionnaire or interview schedule.
Rulings and spacing in tables. (Calderon, et al, p.210) Ruling is done in a

table to emphasize or make clear relationships. There are no fixed standard
rules to follow in ruling and spacing tables. Emphasis and clarity are the
determining factors. However, the following guidelines are generally followed in
the construction of tables for a thesis report:

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1. The table number is not separated by line from the title. It is written two
spaces above the title.
2. The title is separated from the rest of the table by a double line placed
two spaces below the lowest line of the title.
3. The stub, master caption, captions, subcaptions, and totals are

separated from one another by vertical and horizontal lines.
4. The rows and columns are not separated by lines. Major groups,
however, are separated by single lines. For purposes of clarity, rows are
separated by a double space and the columns are separated by as wide a
space as possible.
5. Both ends of the table are unruled

.
6. There is always a line, either single or double, at the bottom of the table.
Textual Presentation of Tabular Data
Tables and charts are often accompanied by descriptive text that

highlights the findings, patterns, issues and implications of the data. Textual
descriptions and discussions play a crucial role in almost every kind of data
presentation, especially for people who are not familiar with data tables and
charts. Many people even prefer plain textual descriptions to tables and charts,
or at least need some clear and simple explanations to help them understand
the data and important points presented in the tables and charts.
Basic rules
One of the important functions of text is to provide a verbal description of the

data in tables and charts. We should remember five basic rules when drafting
a text to describe a table or chart:
1. Try to capture the readers’ interest – While staying within the confines of
scientific rigor, the writer should strive to enliven the text by highlighting key
findings and meanings.
2. Take time to write clearly and succinctly – draft and re-draft to clearly and
unambiguously describe the data.

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3. Ensure consistency of language and style throughout the report or

presentation – Often sections of a single piece are written separately for each
table or chart, so a final check to ensure consistency is advisable.
4. Avoid unnecessary repetition – if parts of the report or presentation are

written separately, contents get repeated. Review the written text to eliminate
unnecessary repetitions and to harmonize the texts.
5. Focus on the main points and minimize unnecessary details – Present the
most important information first, and add details only if absolutely necessary.
A verbal summary should simply accompany the table or chart to explain

what the data reveal. It should not dwell on issues that are too specific or too
detailed. Nor should it repeat what is obvious in a table or chart unless there is
a need to emphasize the importance of a certain aspect or limitations of the
data. Sometimes, a verbal summary is all that is included in a presentation,
particularly when the findings are so simple that any other summarized display
like tables and charts are not justified. Or, when numerical or graphical
presentations are too complex, it is better to include them separately in the
appendices. The following are some additional basic rules:
 Keep the summary short – never allow the verbal summary to expand
into an itemized account of each entry in the table or chart. Position the
summary in the text close to the table or chart to which it refers.
Quoting directly the key reference numbers is the best way.
 Use ‘emotional’ descriptions and wording sparingly – Sensational

messages can be effective with a non-technical audience, but they can
communicate biases or lead to biased interpretations. For example:
“Education expenditure per student in China rose by 10 per cent” may
be better than: “Education expenditure per student in China shot up by
10 per cent!”
 Unless writing specifically for expert readers, avoid using unnecessary

technical terms.

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 Be cautious when attributing causality to a factor – for example,

some erratic movements in a data series may be due to changes in
definitions or measurement unit, rather than actual changes in the
underlying event. Do not jump to conclusions that ‘this caused that’,
unless there is ample evidences to justify it.
Percentage Distribution of the Number of Students Experiencing Stress

Due to Different Stressors
Number of Students that Percentage

Stressors Perceived stress under the Distribution
stressor, f
Examination 13 81.25%
Course Load 12 75%
Environment 10 62.5%
Heavy workload 10 62.5%
Traffic 9 56.25%
Financial Difficulties 6 37.5%
Long Travel Time 6 37.5%
Health Problems 3 18.75%
Broken Family 2 12.5%
Bullying 2 12.5%
Relationship 2 12.5%
n = 16; *Percentage distribution = (f/n) x 100%
Of the sixteen 4th-year standing Engineering students of PLM surveyed, two or

12.5 percent have perceived stress due to Broken Family, Bullying and
Relationship, three or 18.75 percent due to Health Problems, six or 37.5 percent

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due to Financial Difficulties and Long Travel Time, nine or 56.25 percent due to
Traffic, ten or 62.5 percent due to the Environment and Heavy Workload, twelve or
75 percent due to Course Load and thirteen or 81.25 percent have said that they
were stressed due to the Examinations.
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF DATA
Graph
A graph is a chart representing the quantitative changes of a variable

itself or in comparison with another variable in a pictorial or diagrammatic
form.
The quantitative variations or changes in the data may refer to their

qualitative, geographical, or chronological attributes.
Purpose of Graphing. To present the variations, changes, and relationships of

data in a way that is appealing, effective, and convincing.
Advantages of the Graphic Method (Bacani, et al., pp. 54-55)
According to Bacani, et al. the following advantages of the graphical

method:
1. It attracts attention more effectively than do tables, and, therefore, is less

likely to be overlooked. Readers may skip tables but pause to look at
charts.
2. The use of colors and pictorial diagrams makes a list of figures in
business reports more meaningful (also in thesis report).
3. It gives a comprehensive view of quantitative data. The wandering of a
line exerts a more powerful effect in the reader’s mind than tabulated
data. It shows what is happening and what is likely to take place.
4. Graphs enable the busy executive of a business concern to grasp the
essential facts quickly and without much trouble. Any relation not seen
from the figures themselves is easily discovered from the graph.
Illustrations, including attractive charts and graphs, are now considered

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by most businessmen as indispensable accompaniment to good business

reports.
5. Their general usefulness lies in the simplicity they add to the
presentation of numerical data.
Limitations of Graphs (Bacani, et al., p.55)
If there are advantages, there are also disadvantages of the graph. Some
of these are:
1. Graphs do not show as much information at a time as do tables.

2. Graphs do not show data as accurately as the tables do.
3. Charts require more skill, more time, and more expense to prepare than
tables.
4. Graphs cannot be quoted in the same way as tabulated data.
5. Graphs can be made only after the data have been tabulated.
Types of Graphs or Charts
Graphs may be classified into the following types:
1. Bar Graphs
a. Single Vertical bar graph
b. Single Horizontal bar graph
c. Grouped or multiple or composite bar graph
d. Duo-directional or bilateral bar graph
e. Histogram
2. Linear Graphs
a. Time series or chronological line chart
b. Composite line chart
c. Frequency Polygon
d. Ogive
e. Band Chart
3. Hundred percent graphs or charts
a. Subdivided bar or rectangular bar graph
b. Circle or Pie graph
4. Pictograms
5. Statistical Maps

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6. Ratio charts
Construction of Individual Graphs
Stated herein are the principles to be followed in the construction of

individual graphs.
1. Bar Graph
A bar chart or bar graph is a chart with

rectangular bars with lengths proportional to the
values that they represent. Each bar is drawn to a
height or length equal to the magnitude it
represents as indicated in the scale (y-axis). The
bars are separated from each other by a space equal
to one-half inch the width of a bar. However, there
are no fixed rules that govern the construction of
graphs and the maker may only be guided aesthetic, proportional, and
symmetrical consideration and for convenience.
Comparison in bar graph is linear. It is the length of each bar that

determines the magnitude it represents.
Essentials of a Bar Graph
The essential parts of a graph are the following:
1. Number. Charts or graphs are also numbered for reference purposes.

The general practice is to write the number as Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure
3, etc. at the bottom of the graph.
2. Title. The same principles hold in graphs as in tables. The title is usually
written above the graph.
3. Scale. The scale indicates the length or height unit that represents a
certain amount of the variable which is the subject of the graph. The
scale enables the reader to interpret the significance of a number of
length or height units. Thus, if a length or height units. Thus, if a length
or height units. Thus, if a length or height unit is equal to 2, two length
or height units equal 4,3 length or height units equal 6, etc. The y-axis
represents the scale.
4. Classification and arrangement. The principles of classification and
arrangement are the same in graphs as in tables.

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5. Classes, categories, or time series indicated at the x-axis and the scale
units are indicated at the y-axis.
6. Symmetry of the graph. The whole chart or graph should be about
square; otherwise the length should be a little greater than the height.
The chart should be placed on the page in such a way that the margins
at the left and at the right should be about the same, or or the margin at
the left is a little wider.
7. Footnote. The footnote, if there is any, should be placed immediately
below the graph aligned with the left side of the graph.
8. Source. The source of the data, if there is a any, should be written just
below the chart at the lower left immediately below the footnote if there is
any, but it should be above the graph number.
Types of Bar Graphs
A. Single Vertical Graph. The bars are constructed vertically and show
magnitude of data, used to depict time series data.
B. Single Horizontal Graph. The bars are constructed horizontally and are
used to compare magnitudes of different categories.

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C. Grouped (Multiple or Composite) Bar Graph. Grouped bar graph is

used in comparing two or more categories of a variable; when the groups
have common attributes.
D. Duo-directional or Bilateral Bar Graph. It is used to show data in the

form of assets, profits, and positive numbers, liabilities, losses and
negative numbers.
E. Subdivided (Composite) Bar Graph. It is used to show variations or

changes of the component parts of a whole and the whole itself.

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F. Histogram. It is composed of bars placed side by side whose heights

indicate the magnitudes of classes/categories.
2. Linear Graphs
Linear graphs are good devices to show

variations of values over successive periods of
time. Changes in the data are indicated by the
linear curves.
Advantages of Linear Graphs or Charts
The advantages of the linear graph or chart are the following:
a. The curve shows data as a continuous line; hence, it is continuous in its

effect.
b. The wandering line of the curve tells the story. At a glance one can see
just what the situation is and what is likely to happen.

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c. Its preparation requires less time and skill.
Construction of Line Graphs
Linear graphs are constructed in much the same way as many of other
graphs are. A slight difference lies in the process of locating the intersections of
the abscissa representing a class or category of a variable and the ordinate
representing the magnitudes of the classes or categories of the variable. The
intersections of the abscissa and the ordinate are marked by bold dots and
then joined successively by either straight lines or curved lines to show the
variations of a variable or the variable to that of another.
Types of Linear Graphs
A. Time Series Linear Charts (Single Line). Line charts depict the
variations of a variable over a period of time. The (x) – Periods of time; (y)
– values of the variable.
B. Time Series Composite or Multilinear Charts. These charts are used

when comparisons are made between or among categories of the same
variables vs. periods of time.

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C. Frequency Polygon. It is used to graph class or grouped frequency

distributions. (x-axis) – Classes; (y-axis) – frequencies of the classes.
D. The Ogive. The ogive is used to graph cumulative frequencies, either

cumulative freq. upward or cumulative freq. downward.
E. Band Chart. Band Chart is a form of line graph that shows the
proportional variations of the parts of a whole vs. period of time.

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3. One Hundred Per cent Graphs or Charts
One hundred percent graphs or charts show the comparison of the

proportional sizes of the component parts that make up the whole, the whole
being made equivalent to 100%. It is the percent equivalent of the component
parts that are portrayed in the graph. The percent equivalent of each
component part is found by dividing it by the total of the component parts and
multiplying the result by 100%. There are two types or kinds of 100% charts:
a.) the 100% bar or rectangular chart and b.) Pie chart or circle graph. These
are to graph budgets, enrolments, sales, etc.
Types of 100% Graphs or Charts
A. One Hundred Percent Bar Graph/ Rectangular Chart. The bar is

erected vertically and the whole height is equivalent to 100%.

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Composition of food commercials on Black prime time and general prime time
100%
Alcohol
90%
Chicken, Turkey
80%
Percentage of Population
Other (snacks,
70% restaurants, etc)
Bread, Grains
60%
Other Deserts
50%
Other Beverages
40% (coffee, water etc)
Soda
30%
Candy, Chocolate
20%
Fast Food
10%
0%
Black Prime Time General Prime Time
B. Pie Chart. A pie chart is a circular chart divided into sectors, illustrating
numerical proportion.
4. Pictograms
The Pictogram or pictograph is used to portray data by means of

pictures or symbols with equivalent values.

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5. Statistical Maps
Statistical Maps are special type of map in which the variation in

quantity of a factor such as population, or crops in a geographic area is
indicated.
6. Ratio Charts
A Ratio Chart in which the points are determined by measuring time

(independent variable) and the logarithms of the values (dependent variables).

Intramuros, Manila

Intramuros, Manila

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References
(March 2001). Approaches to the Analysis of Survey Data. U. K.: The University
of Reading and Statistical Services Centre.
Calderon, J. F. (1993). Methods of Research and Thesis Writing. Mandaluyong

City: National Book Store, Inc.
(March 2000). Informative Presentation of Tables, Graphs, and Statistics. U.K.:

The University of Reading Statistical Services Centre.
Presenting Numerical Data. (2012). Learning Development, University of

Leicester .

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Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila

HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 4

Sablan, Anna Angelica M.

Supremo, Journel Ann T.

Venturina, Richard Harvey G.

Engr. Milagros R. Cabangon

PREPARING DATA FOR PRESENTATION ..............................................................8

PRESENTATION OF DATA ................................................................................. 11

Chapter 4 – ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INERPRETATION OF DATA 1

 Cleaning and organizing the data for analysis (Data Preparation)

- investigate questions, models and hypotheses. In many cases, the

Chapter 4 – ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INERPRETATION OF DATA 2

Hence with the use of Data Analysis Procedure, you can

Understanding of the data analysis procedures will help you to

Classification is grouping together data with similar characteristics.

Chapter 4 – ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INERPRETATION OF DATA 3

forming an impression and report their impression in a structured and

Qualitative data is extremely varied in nature. It includes virtually any

In-Depth Interviews include both individual interviews as well as "group"

Usually this refers to existing documents (as opposed transcripts of interviews

Chapter 4 – ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INERPRETATION OF DATA 4

- Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative

- . Using quantitative methods, it is possible to give precise and testable

Quantitative Analysis in Evaluation

Cross-classification- this is further classifying a group of data into subclasses.

Chapter 4 – ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INERPRETATION OF DATA 5

Arrangement of data or classes of data.

One of the main purposes of analyzing research data is to from inferences,

Group-generalizations are applicable to all kinds of research, be they social,

Chapter 4 – ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INERPRETATION OF DATA 6

1. Generally, only proportional predictions can be made. One of type of

Two more categories of generalization may be added at this point.

1. Generalization can also be made about an individual case. For instance,

Chapter 4 – ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INERPRETATION OF DATA 7

PREPARING DATA FOR PRESENTATION

Before presenting data in accepted forms, especially in presenting them in the

How to construct a talligram

Chapter 4 – ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INERPRETATION OF DATA 8

How to tally data (responses) gathered through a questionnaire.

Tallying responses to a questionnaire in a talligram follows.

a) Student A put a checkmark on the following items (stressors) in the

b) Student B put a checkmark only on the item Broken Family in the

Chapter 4 – ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INERPRETATION OF DATA 9

Course Load 11111 – 11111 – 11 12

Environment 11111 – 11111 10

Examination 11111 – 11111- 111 13

Financial Difficulties 11111 – 1 6

Health Problems 111 3

Heavy workload 11111 – 11111 10

Long Travel Time 11111 – 1 6

Traffic 11111 - 1111 9

Stress Factors Perceived by 4th-Year Standing Engineering Students of

The tables presented above can now be converted into a statistical

Chapter 4 – ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INERPRETATION OF DATA 10

Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and

TEXTUAL PRESENTATION OF DATA

Textual presentation uses statements with numerals or numbers to describe

Number of Students Percentage

Course Load 12 75%

Chapter 4 – ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION, AND INERPRETATION OF DATA 11

Financial Difficulties 6 37.5%

Health Problems 3 18.75%

Heavy workload 10 62.5%