Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
&
ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY
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1. INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS SI UNITS-TERMS AND CONCEPTS.
2. ELECTRICAL PRICIPLES-TERMS AND CONCEPTS.
3. ELECTONIC ENGINEERING PRICIPLES, TERMS AND CONCEPTS.
4. ELECTRICAL POWER ENGINEERING PRINCIPLE TERMS AND
CONCEPTS.
5. ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND NETWORKS.
6. ELECTRICAL ENGINERING MATERIALS.
7. FUNDAMENTALS OF HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING.
8. SWITCH GEAR AND CONTROL GEAR.
9. SWITCHING PROTECTION AND DISTRIBTION IN LOW-VOLTAGE
NETWORKS.
10. UTILIZATION OF ELECTIRCAL ENERGY.
11. POWER ELECTRONICS.
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1. INTERNATIONAL SYTEM OF UNITS
1.1. The International System of Units (known as SI in every language) has been finally
introduced is 1960 and has been accepted almost all countries as the only legal
system of measurement.
Note: However, in USA the imperial system are still in force in certain areas of legal
system of measurement.
1.5. Capital letters are normally used to represent constant quantities – if they vary, the
symbol can be made lower case, the symbol “w” indicates a value of energy which is
time varying.
1.6. Terms and concepts:
“Force”, when applied to a body, causes the body to accelerate. Force is man made
or may be existing in nature.
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“Weight” is the gravitational force exerted by the earth on a body. This is a force of
Nature.
“Energy” is the capacity to do work, when selling energy; it is measured in Kilowatt
hours. (kwh) = 3600 kilo-joule per second
“Power” is the rate of doing working.
“Efficiency” is the rate of output power to input power.
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v=velocity of moving body
Ek=kinetic energy gained
T or M Turning moment or torque Newton Nm
of a force F in Newton, is meter
acting at right angles to a
radius r, in meter from a
point , the turning moment
or torque about that point is
T = (F)x(γ) or Newton
meter symbol T for torque
‘M’ is reserved for the
torque of a rotating
electrical machine
P : Power Power is the rate of doing (Watt joule Js-1, W
(mechanical) work, per second)
P : Power real P=work/time, W/t
S : Power, apparent =F.(l/t)
Q : Power reactive =F.u
Power = force x velocity
Joule per second or watt
Note: 1 kilo joule (1000
joule) per second is kw
which is in usage by
electrical engineers
E or W Energy is the capacity to do joule J
work
Energy is the power watt second Ws
multiplied by time
When selling
electrical energy it
is measured in
kilowatt hours
rather in
joules(watt-
seconds):1kwh=100
0 watt-hours
=1000x3600 watt
seconds
=3600000J
=3600kJ
=3.6MJ(mega-
joules)
F ‘Force’ when applied to a Newton N, kg(m/s2)
body causes the body to
accelerate
W Weight is the gravitational kgf 1kg=9.81kg.m/s2
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force exerted by the earth
on a body = 9.81Newtons
Note: The weight of a body
of mass ‘m’ is
approximately ‘9.81m’
Newtons, where ‘m’ is the
X Reactance Var-ohm Var-ohm or j ohm
R Resistance ohm Ω
S Reluctance Ampere per A/Wb
weber
M (mass) Mass of the body in kg M
kilogram.
Note: weight of 1 kg mass
at sea level is 9.81 newtons
T or M Torque when applied to a Newton N-M torque
body causes the body to -meter
rotationally accelerate
P In the case of a rotating (Newton ) [(N)x(arc
electrical machine (circular distance)=γθ/s]
Power= torque x angular distance per
velocity second)
P=MW
=2ΠNrM/60
Where ‘Nr’ is measured in
revolutions per minute
Ep or W W = work done Joule N-M
Ep = potential energy (Newton – Meter
= mgh Or
m = body of mass ‘m’ Joules)
falling
h = height of fall
g = acceleration due to
gravity
Note:
The unit of force, called the Newton, is that force which when applied to a body
having a mass of one kilogram, gives it an acceleration of one meter per
second squared.
Force F=ma
F [Newtons] =m [kilogram] x a [meter per second2]
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Owing to the variation in the radius of the earth, the gravitational force on
a given mass, at sea level, is different at different latitudes. The weight of 1kg
mass at sea-level from zero degrees latitude to 90o latitude varies from 9.78 to
9.84. The weight of 1kg mass at sea level on the London area is practically
9.81N. For most purposes we can assume: For engineering calculations, the
weight of a body = 9.81m Newton, where ‘m’ is the mass of the body in
kilogram
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17. Specific energy Joule per kilogram J/kg
18. Thermal Watt per meter Kelvin w/(m-k)
conductivity
19. Energy density Joule per cubic meter J/m3
20. Electric field E Volt per meter v/m
strength
21. Electric charge D Coulomb per cubic meter c/m3
density
22. Surface density of D Coulomb per square meter c/m2
charge, flux density
23. Permittivity ε Farad per meter F/m
24. Current density J Ampere per square meter A/m2
25. Magnetic field H Ampere per meter A/m2
strength
26. Permeability µ Henry per meter A/m
27. Molar energy Joule per mole J/mol
28. Molar entropy Joule per mole Kelvin J(mol K)
Molar heat capacity
29. Radiant intensity Watt per steradian w/s
30. Resistance R Ohm meter Ωm
31. Conductivity γ Siemens per meter s/m
gamma
32. Self inductance L
33. Mutual inductance M Henry
H = wb/ampere
34. Permeability μ H/M
35. Flux density B Tesla w/m2 T =w/m2
36. Magnetic potential F Ampere A
difference
37. Admittance or Y siemens S
Susceptance B siemens S
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Instantaneous value i
Maximum value Vm
45. Magnetic flux Ф weber Wb
46. Magnetic flux ψ weber Wb
linkage
47. Magnetic field H ampere per metre A/m
strength ampere turns per metre At/m
48.(a) Inductance, self L henry H
48.(b) Impedance, mutual M henry H
49. Impedance Z ohm Ω
50. Electric flux ψ coulomb C
51. Magneto motive F Ampere A
force Ampere turns At
52. Resistivity φ Ohm/metre Ω/m
53. Volt ampere Volt ampere VA
54. Reactive volt Q var var
ampere
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A- Introduction to electric systems:
1. ‘Current’ is the rate of flow of electric charge in a circuit. The term is often used
to describe the flow of electric charge e.g. a current flowing in a circuit; this is
ambiguous but is so, common that we have to accept it.
2. A ‘source’ supplies energy to a system.
3. A ‘load’ accepts energy from a system.
4. ‘Electrical charge’ may be either positive or negative. Negative electrons are
free to move around a circuit thus transporting energy from a ‘source’ to ‘load’.
5. To maintain a current, the source must provide a driving force called the
‘electromotive force (e.m.f)’
6. The ‘potential difference’ across a load indicates in volts the energy lost per
coulomb of charge passing through the load.
7. Since the current is the rate of flow its product with the voltage gives the rate of
energy transmission i.e. the power
Current=coulomb/second = (charge/time)
Voltage=watt second/coulomb = (energy/charge)
Current x voltage=coulomb/second x joule/coulomb
=joule/second or watt
=power = (charge flow/time)
8. ‘Resistance’ is a measure of the opposition to the flow of charge through a load.
9. Ohm’s law states that the ratio of voltage to current is constant, provided other
physical factors such as temperature remain unchanged.
10. The resistance of resistors can be identified by code systems.
B-SIMPLE D.C.CIRCUITS:
11. Loads are connected in ‘series’ when the same current flow passes through each
of them.
12. Loads are connected in ‘parallel’ when the same potential difference is applied
to each of them.
13. Kirchoff’s laws state that the sum of the currents entering a junction is equal to
the sum of the currents leaving that junction and the sum of the volt drops round
any loop is equal to the sum of the e.m.fs. The equivalent delta resistance
between two terminals is the sum of two star resistances connected to those
terminals plus the product of the same two star resistances divided by the third
resistance.
14. The most common application to kirchoff’s current law is to two branches in
parallel i.e. one current in and two out(vise versa).
15. The most common application of kirchoff’s voltage low is to a single circuit
with one ‘source’ and one ‘load’.
16. Resistivity is a constant for a material relating its resistance to its length and
cross-sectional area at constant temperature.
17. ‘Resistivity’ varies with change of temperature
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18. The temperature co efficient of resistance relates the change of resistance to
change of temperature according to the initial temperature.
19. TEMPERATURE RISE CAN DAMAGE INSULATION AND HENCE IS THE
BASIS OF RATING ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT.
C-NETWORK THEOREMS:
20. Most circuits problems can be solved by applying kirchoff’s law to produce
simultaneous equations; the solution of these equations is often unnecessary
difficult.
21. The superposition theorem states that we can solve a circuit problem one
‘source’ at a time, finally imposing the analyses one on another.
22. Thevenin’s theorem states that any network supplying a load can be replaced
by a constant – voltage source in series with an internal resistance.
23. Norton’s theorem states that any network supplying a load can be replaced by a
constant current source in parallel with an internal resistance.
24. The delta-star transformation permits us to replace any three loads connected
in star. The star-delta transformation permits the converse transfer permits the
converse transfer. The equivalent star resistance connected to a given terminal is
equal to the product of the two delta resistances connected to the same terminal
divided by the sum of the delta resistances.
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25. The maximum –power transfer theorem states that maximum power is
dissipated by a load when its resistance is equal to the equivalent internal
resistance of the source. (For maximum power transfer R=r).
E-ELECTRO MAGNETISM:
33. A ‘magnetic field’ can be described using ‘lines of flux’ such lines form closed
loops, do not cross, and when parallel, repel one another.
34. Magnetic fields have the ‘North and the South poles’ like poles repel one
another. Unlike poles attract one another.
35. A current carrying conductor lying in a magnetic field experiences a mechanical
force.
36. The relative directions of the field, force and current are given by ‘left hand
rule’. (Sometimes known as Fleming’s right hand rule).
37. An electric current can be produced by the movement of magnetic flux relative
to a coil connected as a circuit in ‘electric circuits’, induced emf can be created
by ‘electromagnetic field’. When the magnetic flux linking a circuit is varied, an
emf is induced and the same is known as ‘Faradays law’of electromagnet
induction. The magnetic flux passed through the coil is varied.
Note:
Variation of magnetic flux linking a circuit is applied in generator
machines transformer machines to induced e.m.f in electric circuits.
38. The direction of an induced e.m.f is always such that it tends to set up a current
opposing the motion or change of flux responsible for inducing that e.m.f. The
induced emf opposes the change of condition. This is known as ‘Lenz’s law’
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39. The relative directions of the magnetic field, mechanical motion of conductor
and induced emf are given by the right hand rule (some times known as
Fleming’s right hand rule).
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54. The ‘inductance’ depends on the number of turns of the energizing coil, the
length and cross sectional area of the magnetic circuit and the material from
which the magnetic circuit is made.
55. Ferromagnetic cored inductors produce significantly higher inductances than
other inductors.
56. The current in an inductor cannot change instantaneously but has to rise or fall
exponentially.
57. When a magnetic field is set up by an inductor it stores energy.
58. When a magnetic field of one coil links with a second coil the coils are said to
be mutually linked and they have ‘mutual inductance’. How well they are linked
is indicated by the ‘coupling coefficient’.
59. Both self and mutual inductance influence the emf induced in coils.
60. Inductance are calculated in terms of the dimensions of its sources and hence
the related emfs.
61. An ‘alternating’ system is one in which the voltages and currents vary in a
repetitive manner. A cycle of variations is the sequence of change before the
repetition commences.
62. The most basic form of alternating system is based on a sinusoidal variation.
63. The very common form of ‘periodic alternating system’. Nowadays, in electric
supply system is ‘non-sinusoidal variation’ because of the harmonics generators
of non linear loads.
64. A ‘sinusoidal emf’ can be generated by rotating a rectangular coil in a uniform
magnetic field although in practical terms this would be a most in efficient
method.
65. The ‘time taken’ to complete a cycle is the ‘period’. The ‘frequency’ is the
number of cycles complete in a second.
66. The ‘Average value’ of an alternating wave form has to be taken over half a
cycle. The application of the average value is some what limited.
67. The ‘root mean square value (rms)’ of an alternating waveform can be taken
over half cycle or over a full cycle. It is the one most generally used in electrical
alternating systems. ‘r.m.s’ means square root of the mean of the square.
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‘r.m.s current’ means square ‘root’ of the ‘means’ of the square of the current =
root – mean - square (rms) value of current.
‘r.m.s’ quantity’ is also termed the ‘effective’ value of the current.
‘Effective’ value of the current.
The r.m.s for ‘effective value of an alternating current is measured in terms of
the direct current that produces the same heating effect in the same resistance.
Alternating, the average heating effect of the alternating current over half cycle
=area enclosed by i2R curve over half cycle/length of base.
68. If ‘Im’ is the maximum value of a current which varies sinusoidally, the
instantaneous value ‘i’ is represented by
i = Imsin θ
Where θ is the angle in radian from instant zero current.
Average value of current over a half cycle is 2 Im (ampere radians)/π (radians)
i.e. Im = 0.6237 Im
Hence, in general average value of a sinusoidal current or voltage is
0.623times the maximum value. Therefore r.m.s value of current or effective
values of current over one cycle is
I = Im/√2 = 0.707 Im.
Hence in general r.m.s value or effective value of sinusoidal currant or voltage
is (0.707) x (maximum value).
Note: The r.m.s value is always greater than the average except for a
rectangular wave, in which case the heating effect remain constant so that the
average and r.m.s values are the same.
69. ‘Form factor’ of a periodical wave is r.m.s value/average value.
Form factor of a sine wave is kf = 0.707x maximum value / 0.6237 x maximum
value
i.e. kf = 1.11
70. ‘Peak or crest factor’ of sine wave is (maximum value)(0.707xmaximum
value ) = √2. Therefore kp =1.414 = √2.
71. If ‘f’ is the frequency in hertz of a sinusoidal periodic wave then the
corresponding angular velocity of the rotating generator denoted by the symbol
‘ω'(omega) is
ω = 2πf radians per second.
If the time taken by the radius vector OA to rotate through an angle θ radian is
‘t’ seconds.
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Then, θ = angular velocity x time = ωt
= 2πft radians.
Then the current is said to ‘lag’ the voltage by an angle Ф or the voltage
is said to ‘lead’ the current by an angle Ф. The phase difference Ф between the
two alternating quantities remains constant, respective of their position.
Wave form
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OV=phasor of voltage V
Voltage leads current by an angle Ф, current lags voltage by an angle Ф
77. If a single phase series circuits is purely resistive, the current is in phase with
the voltage. If it is purely inductive, the current lags the voltage by 90o. If the
circuits purely capacitive, the current leads the voltage by 90o.
78. If a single phase series circuits contain both resistance and inductance, the
circuits lags the voltage by an angle less than 90o but the angle is greater than 0o.
79. If a single phase series circuit contain both resistance and capacitance, the
current ‘leads’ the voltage by an angle less than 90o but the angle is greater than
0o
80. If single phase series circuit contains resistance, inductance, and capacitance,
the current may ‘lead or lag or be in phase with the voltage depending on the
relative values of the inductive and capacitive reactance.
81. The ‘reactance’ of ‘inductor’ rises with frequency.
82. The ‘reactance’ of a ‘capacitor’ inversely falls with frequency.
83. Single phase parallel networks are simply solved by treating each branch as a
simple single phase series circuit and then adding the branch current.
Alternatively we can manipulate branch impedances provided they are
expressed in polar form.
84. The ‘admittance’ is the inverse of the impedance. The in phase component of
the admittance is the ‘conductance’ and the quadrature component is the
‘susceptance’.
K.1.-POWER IN AC CIRCIUTS:
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85. The ‘ active power’ sometimes also referred to as the ‘real power’ is the rate of
energy conversion or dissipation taken as an average over one or more complete
cycles.
86. The ‘reactive power’ is the peak rate of energy storage in the reactive elements
of a circuit. The average rate of energy storage is zero, the energy continually
flowing into and back out from the reactive components.
87. The ‘apparent power’ is the product of the r.m.s voltage and current and is
related to the active ‘power factor’. The ‘apparent power’ is a useful means of
rating certain equipment, bearing in mind that conductor heat losses occur
whether or not the current is in phase with the voltage.
K.2.-RESONANCE IN AC CIRCUITS:
88. ‘Resonance’ occurs when the peak energies stored by the inductor and the
capacitor are equal and hence this energy can shuttle to and for between these
components without taking energy form the source. In practice the transfer in
loss and only the loss has to be made good by the source.
89. In an RLC series circuits, resonance occurs when the supply voltage and current
are in phase.
90. a. The voltages which appear across the reactive components can be many times
greater than that of the supply. The factor of magnification is called the ‘Q
factor’.
90. b. RLC series circuits accept maximum current from the source at resonance
and for that reason is called an ‘acceptor circuit’.
91. a. In a parallel RLC network, the natural resonant frequency would be the same
as for the equivalent series circuit. However, the losses caused by the resistance
have to be replaced and the resulting operational frequency is called the ‘forced
resonant frequency’ which is slightly lower.
91. b. The current in the branches can be many times greater than that form the
supply. The factor of magnification is again called to ‘Q factor’.
91.c. The lowest current from the source occurs at forced resonance hence the
network is called ‘rejecter network’.
92. A ‘Complex number’ is one which represents the horizontal and vertical
component of a polar number separately. The horizontal component is the real
component and the vertical component is the imaginary component.
Note: In a right angle triangle the horizontal component is the ‘real power’ and
the vertical component is the ‘reactive power’ and the hypotenuse is the
‘apparent power’.
93.a. Voltages currents and impedances can be all represented by complex numbers.
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93. b. However, care should be taken that the complex voltages and complex
currents contain time information whereas complex impedances at merely
independent operators.
94. Complex notation is especially useful when dealing with parallel networks since
it simplifies both the addition and subtractions of the branch circuits and also
the manipulation of the impedance which is difficult if expressed in polar
notation.
95. ‘Power’ can be expressed in complex form but if we wish to obtain the power
from a voltage and current we need to use the conjugate of current, this removes
the time information which otherwise distorts the solution.
96. By the application of complex notation, any of the network theorems which
were used in dc networks can be applied to ac networks.
97. For maximum power it is necessary to match the impedance which requires
equal resistance components but equal and opposite reactance components.
98. Both who either describes electronics engineer or the power engineer use the
same ‘electrical principles’ and both deal with electricity. However such similar
individuals are different in their ways just like sheep are separated from the
goats. Nowadays there is the apparent involvement of electronic control
equipment in power system operations and vice versa. It is worth observing that
more and more power engineers are using electronic devices in their work;
equally more and more electronics engineers are controlling power system. The
divisions between electronics engineers and power engineers are therefore
becoming less distinct.
98.1. The underlying factor which affect our judgment as engineers are:
99. The ‘electronic systems’ use ‘micro power’ where as ‘power system’ use ‘mega
power’.
99.a. The electronics systems have to be considered in the following contexts.
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The power levels are very low and therefore energy efficiency is of little
importance.
Even with poor efficiency, the waste heat is rarely significant.
The reduction of distance between circuit components has lead to
miniaturization.
The outcomes of electronics circuits generally seek exceptionally high levels
of accuracy by means of components with poor tolerances.
99. b. The power systems have to have to be considered in the following contexts.
The power levels are high and there fore energy efficiency is most
important.
Even with high efficiency the waste heat is significant and limiting to
applications.
The distance to a load is only occasionally significant but generally does not
feature.
The outcomes of power systems can be quite variable, yet are achieved
using components with high tolerances.
99. c. The general electrical principles are applied to a variety of applications to the
‘electronic systems’ and the ‘power systems’.
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101. f. POWER FACTOR, DISPLACEMENT:
The displacement component of power factor, the ratio of the active power of
the fundamental wave, in watts, to the apparent power of the fundamental wave,
in volt amperes.
Notes: (1) This definition includes the effect of harmonics component of current
and voltage , the effect of phase displacement between current and voltage,
and the exciting current of the transformer. VOLTAMPERS are the product of
rms voltage and rms current.
(2) The power factor is determined at the ‘a.c. line terminals of the converter’.
101. j. HORMONICS:
A sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or quantity having a frequency
that is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency.
E1
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101.l. IMPEDENCE RATIO FACTOR:
The ratio of the source impedance at the point in the system under
consideration, to the equivalent total impedance from the source to the converter
circuit elements that commute simultaneously.
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3. ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING FOR POWER SYSTEM
ENGINEERS AND ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION
ENGINEERS TERMS AND CONCEPTS
A. ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS:
I1 I2
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V1 V2 load RL
Amplifier
Gp = Gv x Gi (A4)
2. a. The function of an amplifier is to provide ‘gain’. Usually the gain is that either
the current or the voltage out is directly propositional to the ‘current in’ or
‘voltage in’ and is greater in magnitude.
2. b. Current or voltage gains normally result in ‘power gain’. The additional power
is taped from a source separate from that of the input current or voltage.
2. c. The input power for amplification comes from a separate power supply.
2. d. Reduction of amplifier blocks diagram and an amplifier symbol
2. e. It is necessary to provide a source of power from which is obtained the output
signal power fed to the load: the magnitude of this signal power being
controlled by the magnitude of the input signal
G
Vi Vo
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Input port output port
The input voltage is applied to the input terminals which we call the input port
and the output voltage will be observed at the output terminals which we will
call the output port.
3. a. If the input is a voltage υi and the output is υo, the relationship between the
two can be expressed as
υo = Aυi
‘A’ is the action produced by the block box and is called the transfer function
Generally when ‘A’ is greater than unity, the system is acting as an amplifier.
However, when ‘A’ is less than unity, it is acting as an attenuator.
3. b. Attenuator does not require a separate power supply and there fore the output
power is entirely derived from the input power.
3. c. Attenuators has no separate power source and therefore cannot be power gain.
The attenuator can be thought of as ‘negative gain’.
4. System can be illustrated by means of ‘block diagram’ which should be read left
to right.
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13. ‘Filter’ permit the separation of one signal from a number which are all using
the same transmission system. ‘Passband filters’ permit the passage of one
signal and reject signals at all other frequencies.
14. ‘Demodulation’ is the reversal of modulation, and is the process where by the
‘carrier frequency’ is removed in order that the signal returns to its original
range of frequency operation.
15. ‘Amplifier’ does not always amplify equally either ‘at all frequency’ or at all
magnitudes’ When applying amplifier, we have to take into consideration these
practical limitations.
22. All material is made from elemental atoms which comprises ‘protons’(positive)
‘neutrons’(neutral) and electrons (negative). The number of ‘protons’ equals the
number of ‘electrons’ in any atom.
23. ‘Electric current’ is caused when electrons migrate from atom to atom.
24. ‘Semiconductor materials’ commonly used in electronics are ‘silicon’ and
‘germanium’ Both form crystals with adjacent atoms sharing electrons in
covalent bonds. ‘Silicon’ and ‘germanium’ atoms have four ‘valance electrons.
25. If an atom in such a crystal of germanium or silicon is replaced by an atom with
five valance electrons, the atom is said to be a ‘donor’ pentavalent crystal of
germanium or silicon when doped with materials such as phosphorous, arsenic,
referred to as n type (negative type) semi-conductor.
26. If an atom the crystal of germanium or silicon is replaced by an atom with three
valance electrons, the atom is said to be ‘acceptor’. Crystal of germanium or
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silicon when doped with materials such as gallium, boron or aluminum which
are trivalent is referred to as p-type (positive type semiconductor).
27. The ‘junction’ between ‘donor’ and ‘acceptor’ material create a depletion layer
because donor electrons link with the acceptor atoms.
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In forward bias of p-n junction diode, the current in the diode is due to hole flow in
the p region and electron flow in the n region and a combination of the two in the
vicinity of the junction.
In reverse bias of p-n junction diode, in the region x there are no holes or free
electrons i.e. there are no charge carrier in this region and is known as ‘depletion
layer’. Consequently the junction behaves as an insulator.
28. The development of p-n junction gives rise to the ‘diode’ a device which readily
conduct in one direction but not in the other
E. RECTIFIERS
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34. a. The bipolar junction transistor has three layers - the ‘emitter’ the ‘base’ and
the ‘collector’. It is connected to two circuits with any one layer common.
34. b. The input circuit obtains its power from the signal super imposed on a current
supplied from a power source. The output circuit is entirely provided with
power from the power source, hence the ability of the transistor to amplify. The
amplifier signal can e removed by means of a capacitor which blocks the d.c.
power source.
35. The transistor is essentially a current operated device and the equivalent circuits
are often based on ‘constant current generator’.
36. Consistent operation depends on the stability of the operating conditions. It is
common practice to make ‘supply stabilizers’ incorporating transistors.
37. Transistors are commonly used as switches.
G. FET AMPLIFIERS
38. FET means the field effect transistor. It is better known as the FET.
38. a. In bipolar transistor there is need to draw current and it is seen as a draw
back. Hence a better transistor than bipolar transistor known as FET transistor
has been produced.
39. Fields effect transistors (FETs) come in two forms-JUGFETS and IGFETS.
40. The JUGFET has three connections the ‘source’ the ‘gate’ and the ‘drain’
41. The IGFET also has a ‘substrate’ connection.
42. An advantage of the FET when compared with the ‘bipolar’ transistor is that its
input resistance is so high it is effectively an open circuit.
43. The high input resistance leads to much better operation as a switch, there being
effectively no current through it when in the OFF condition. With the increasing
dependence on digital rather than analogue signal transmission, this is a
significant advantage.
43. a. FET switching times are very high.
44. It is quite usual that a ‘single amplifier’ cannot provide the ‘gain’ which we
desire we there fore use two or more ‘cascaded amplifier’.
45. It does not matter whether the amplifier in corporate ‘junction transistors’ or
‘FETS’ both can be cascaded.
46. Amplifiers are often ‘integrated circuits’ in which all the components are
encapsulated.
47. A common integrated circuit takes the form of an ‘operational amplifier’ (op-
amp) which provide degrees of choice in there applications, e.g. the input can
either be ‘inverting’ or ‘non-inverting’.
48. Operational amplifier can be used as ‘summing amplifiers’ in which the output
voltage is the sum of the input voltages. Similarly operational amplifiers can be
29
fused as ‘differential amplifier’ in which the output signal is propositional to the
difference of two input signals.
I. DIGITAL NUMBERS
49. Digital transmission of data requires that numerical data is available in ‘binary’
form.
50. We can convert ‘decimal numbers’ to ‘binary numbers’. This quickly gives rise
to large numbers of ‘binary’ digits but these can be reduced by the ‘octal’
system.
51. We can perform addition, subtraction, multiplication and division using binary
digits.
52. For best use of digital systems, it can be appropriate to apply the ‘hexadecimal
system’.
3.. TABLE:
53. ‘Logic gates’ operate in two conditions ON and OFF (i.e.) they are digital.
54. Logic gates can be made from ‘diode’ circuits but most incorporate ‘transistors’’
usually FETs since they can effectively operate as though they were open
circuits when in the ‘OFF’ position.
55. The basic logic gates are ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NAND’ and ‘NOR’. They can be
connected in any group required but it is common practice to create circuits
which only incorporate one form of gate e.g. the NOR gate.
56. The number of gates required can often be reduced by the application of
‘combinational logic’.
30
57. A common gate arrangement is the ‘S-R bi stable’ which locates its output in
either of two conditions until it is intentionally reset.
58. A ‘group of bistable’ can be made to form a ‘register’ which is driven by a
‘clock’ i.e. its condition can only be set or reset by the application of pulses
which are applied at regular intervals.
M. CONTROL SYSTEMS
67. ‘Control system’ can be either ‘open loop’ or ‘closed loop’. An ‘open loop’
system takes no recognition of the output in the belief that the input will be
achieved. The closed loop system ‘feeds back’ information of the output to
ensure that the input intention is achieved.
31
68. The difference between the feedback signal and the input signal is referred to as
the error.
69. The device which produces the ‘feed back signal’ is called a ‘transducer’.
70. The ‘error’ is produced by the ‘comparator’ and is supplied to the ‘controller’.
In turn the controller causes a motor to cause the desired output movement.
71. ‘Control systems’ can be divided into ‘regulated’ and ‘remote’ position
controllers (r.p.c.s). Typically regulators control speed whilst r.p.c.s control
position.
72. A ‘change of the input signal’ gives rise to a period of transient change prior to
a ‘new steady state condition’ being achieved. Generally the ‘steady state
condition’ is achieved with an ‘error which is not zero’ but is ‘insufficient’ to
cause further change.
73. To reduce the ‘transient period’, ‘damping’ is introduced. This may be ‘critical
damping’, ‘over damping’ or ‘under damping’. Excessive damping can make the
system unstable.
74. The ‘settling time’ is time taken for the transient to reduce within given
tolerance limits.
O.FIBRE OPTICS
80. ‘Fiber optic systems’ operate at frequencies between 1010 and 1017 HZ.
81. The light passes along a fiber which is clad with a material of suitable
‘refractive index’. Refraction is observed when light passes from one material to
32
another and changes direction as a consequence. ‘Reflection’ occurs when the
light requires to deflecting by more than 90o at such a transfer.
82. Light can be ‘modulated’ by the suitable control of a ‘diode laser’ or LED.
83. ‘Optical fibers’ include ‘multiple mode’ and ‘single mode’ type.
A.MULTIPHASE SYSTEMS:
1. ‘Multiphase systems’ are best noted for their general ability to transmit ‘high
powers efficiently and also to provide powerful motor drives.
2. Most ‘multiphase systems’ operate with three phases although others operate with
‘two’, ‘six’ and even ‘twelve phases’.
3. Three phase systems often identify the phases by the colours ‘red’, ‘yellow’ and
‘blue’ although higher power systems use the numbers 1, 2, and 3.
4. ‘Three phases’ can be connected either in ‘star’ or in ‘delta’. ‘Star’ connection is
sometimes called a ‘wye’ connection, while the ‘delta’ connection is sometimes
called a ‘mesh’ connection.
5. The voltage across, and the currents in, the component of the load or source are
termed the ‘phase values’. The voltages between the supply conductors and the
currents in these supply conductors and the currents in these supply conductors
are terminal the ‘line values’.
6. In the star connection, the phase and line currents are identical.
7. In the delta connection, the phase and line voltages are identical.
33
8. In both star and delta connected systems, the line voltages are mutually displaced
by 1200.
9. The sum of the currents in the supply conductors in a three wire system is always
zero.
10. The active power can be given by measuring the active power in one phase and
multiplying by ‘3’ provided the load is balanced. However, two wattmeter’s can
be used to measure the total active power whether the loads is balanced or not.
11. Two phase systems have phase voltages displaced by 900.
B. TRANSFORMERS:
12. ‘TRANSFORMERS’ effect ‘changes of voltage’ with virtually ‘no loss of power’.
The input is called the ‘primary’ and the output is termed the ‘secondary’
13. The primary and secondary systems are ‘connected’ by ‘magnetic flux linkage’.
14. The winding terminals are so connected to their respective windings that the
primary and secondary voltages are normally in phase with one another.
15. A ‘no load current’ is required to ‘magnetize’ the core of a transformer. The ‘no-
load current’ has ‘two components’ one ‘to supply the power losses’ incurred by
the core and the other ‘to create the magnetic flux’. Normally the no load current
is almost significant in relation to the full load current caused by a secondary
load.
16. Not all the flux links the two windings although the leakage can be minimized by
placing the low voltage winding inside the high voltage winding.
17. ‘Losses’ occur in a transformer due to the ‘IR losses’ in the windings plus the
‘hysteresis’ and ‘eddy current’ losses in the core. The losses usually are
sufficiently small under full load conditions that the efficiency is in excess of 98
percent.
18. ‘Auto transformers’ have a ‘common’ primary and secondary winding.
19. ‘Current transformer’ is intended to strictly relate the primary and secondary
currents for the purpose of measurement and protection.
20. ‘Voltage transformer’ is intended to strictly relate the primary high extra high
voltages secondary low voltage for the purpose of measurement and protection.
21. CTs and VTs are called ‘instrument transformers’.
22. ‘Voltage transformers’ are also called ‘potential transformers’.
23. ‘Ratio error’ and ‘phase angle error’ are absent, in their application of VTs and
CTs.
24. There are three important families of ‘doubly excited rotating machines’ as
follows
34
Commutator machines: Stator flux – direct current
Rotor flux – direct current
25. Magnetic systems try to optimize the stored energy by distorting the magnetic
core either by closing ‘air gaps’ or ‘ by aligning poles’. The former is associated
with forces of attraction and the latter with ‘forces of alignment’.
26. Few machines are based on the force of attracting principle. The most common is
the ‘relay’ or ‘contactor’.
27. Rotating machines are based on the force of alignment principle.
28. The most simple are the ‘reluctance motors’ which are ‘single excited systems’.
29. Doubly excited systems can either incorporate cylindrical rotors and stators or be
salient.
30. Doubly excited machines fall into three principal categories ‘synchronous’,
‘asynchronous’ and ‘commutator’.
31. The ‘speed’ of a synchronous machine depends on the ‘frequency’ and the number
of ‘pole pairs’.
32. The ‘rotor’ can be salient or cylindrical and is excited by ‘direct current’.
33. The ‘stator’ has three phase windings which if excited by a three phase supply can
produce a rotating magnetic field. The direction of rotation a can be reversed by
interchanging two of the phase supplies.
34. The magnetic flux in the air gap between the rotor and the stator is due to the sum
of the effects created by the rotor excitation and by the stator excitation. The
stator component is called the ‘armature reaction’.
35. The ‘rotor excitation’ varies the stator current and power factor.
36. The ‘stator reactance’ gives rise to the ‘synchronous impedance’.
Synchronous machine can operate either as ‘motor’ or as ‘generators’.
The change if operation is effected by variation of the excitation
current in the rotor.
F.INDUCTION MOTORS
35
37. The rotating field of the stator induces e.m.fs and hence currents in the rotor
conductors. The rotor conductors can either take the form of windings as in the
wound rotor machine or short circuited bars as in the cage rotor machine.
38. The speed of the rotor relative to the rotating field is termed the ‘slip’.
39. The torque developed varies during the accelerated period and also depends on
the ratio of the ‘rotor reactance to the rotor resistance’. The reactance also varies
during the acceleration period.
40. The torque must exceed the load torque for the machine to ‘accelerate’.
Eventually the motor torque falls to balance that of the load at which point the
speed stabilizers.
41. Three phase induction motors can be started by the star – delta method, the auto-
transformer starter and by a ‘soft stators’.
42. Induction motors can be used to ‘break’ the load a procedure called ‘plugging’.
43. One phase motors can be used for small power applications. The common the
‘split phase motor’ and the ‘shaded pole motor’.
44. A dc machine normally has a ‘round rotor’ and a ‘salient pole stator’ with two,
four, six, or more poles.
45. The winding on the rotor is termed the ‘armature winding’ and as a consequence it
is common to refer to the rotor as the ‘armature’.
46. The connections to the rotor are made through carbon brushes which are held
under tension against the commutator.
47. The armature windings are either ‘lap windings’ or ‘wave windings’.
48. The e.m.f induced in the armature windings is proportional to the ‘speed of
rotation’ and to the ‘pole flux’.
49. The current in the armature winding creates a second field which results in the
‘armature reaction’.
50. The ‘process of switching’ the connections on the rotor by means of the
‘commentator’ is known as ‘commutation’.
51. The methods used for connecting the ‘field and armature windings’ are divided
into the following groups:
a) Shunt wound machines- the field winding being connected across the armature
terminals.
36
b) Series wound machine – the field winding being connected in series with the
armature windings.
c) Compound – wound machines- a combination of shunt and series windings.
51. a .D.C machines can be separately excited or self excited. Separately excited
machines are often used in control systems.
51. b. Self excited machine can be ‘shunt wound’, ‘series wound’ or ‘compound
wound’.
52. D.C machines can readily act as both motors and as generators.
53. The ‘torque’ developed is proportional to the ‘pole flux’ and to the ‘armature
current’.
54. The ‘speed characteristics’ of a shunt motor is almost ‘constant’ that of a series
motor is ‘inversely proportional’ to the current. The consequence is that the shunt
motor is useful where speed control over a limited range is required whereas the
series motor gives exceptional starting torque.
55. The control of d.c motors is increasingly achieved using power electronic circuits.
A typical system would be based on a ‘thyristor chopper arrangement’
56. Both d.c and a.c motors can be used in ‘regulators’. Both depend heavily on
power electronic arrangements. These arrangements may control the field current
of a d.c motor or control the three phase supply current to an induction motor.
57. R.P.C systems (Remote position controllers system) can be effected either by
mechanisms such as a ‘Geenva cam’ or by a ‘stepping motor’.
58. Stepping (or stepper) motor is developed from the reluctance motor except that
the input usually is pulsed.
59. There are two forms of ‘stepping motor’ the variable reluctance motor and the
hybrid motor.
60. The ‘variable reluctance motor’ has a ‘rotor’ which is obviously based
on‘reluctance motor’.
61. The ‘hybrid motor’ has a ‘cylindrical rotor’ which has teeth.
62. Stepping motor can rotate through given angles of rotation or they can rotate
continuously. In the latter case the speed can be controlled.
63. Motor selection requires knowledge of the required speed, power rating duty
cycles and load torque.
64. To match a motor to a load to a necessary to know the ‘torque speed
characteristic’ for the load.
65. Machines experience ‘core losses’ which include ‘hysteresis and eddy current
losses’.
66. ‘Hysteresis’ is the variation of flux density with magnetic field strength Owing to
the nature is the domain structure of the ferromagnetic material the variation
37
produces a hysteresis loop which is indicative of the energy required every cycle.
The repetition of these cycles gives rise to power losses.
67. ‘Eddy current’ losses are due to the circulating currents in the core and the effect
is reduced by core lamination.
68. ‘Machine’ ‘losses’ due to the current in the ‘windings’ and in commutator
machines, the ‘brushes’ release waste energy due to ‘contact resistance’.
69. The ‘efficiency’ of a machine can be estimated by deducting the ‘losses’ from the
‘input power’.
70. Electrical machines are in general, used to convert ‘mechanical energy’ into
‘electrical energy’ as in ‘electrical generators’ or ‘electrical energy’ into
‘mechanical energy’ as in ‘electrical motors’. Most electrical machines consist of
an ‘outer stationary member’ and ‘inner rotating member’. The stationary and
rotating members consist of ‘steel cores’ separated by ‘air gap’ and form a
magnetic circuit in which ‘magnetic flux’ is produced by currents flowing through
windings situated on the two members.
71. Windings are classified as ‘concentrated’, ‘phase’ and ‘commutator’.
72. The generalized approach to machine theory is based on ‘the force on a current –
carrying conductor principle’ but the analysis stems from the self and mutual
inductances of the windings.
73. The ‘mutual inductance’ varies with the ‘distortion of the core components’,
hence the torque is determined by the rate of change of ‘mutual inductance with
the angle of distortion’.
L. POWER ELECTRONICS
38
82. Thyristor coupled back to back provide ‘soft starting’ arrangements for three
phase induction motors.
83. The most common measuring instrument is based on the ‘electronic indicating
instrument’.
84. Electronic instruments make little demand on the circuit being measured and there
fore are of relatively high accuracy.
85. Most vacuum devices such as diodes are obsolete but one significant device
remains the ‘cathode ray tube’. This is incorporated into oscilloscopes.
86. ‘Oscilloscopes’ provide ‘visual displays’ of ‘voltage’ and ‘current’ waveforms.
39
5. ELECTRIC CIRCIUTS AND NETWORKS
40
5.18. Two port circuits
41
5.52. Network function
5.53. Passive network synthesis
5.54. Feedback systems
5.55. Frequency response plots
5.56. Computer application
42
3. MATERIALS FOR CONDUCTORS AND RESISTORS:
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Classification of electrical materials
3.3. Conductor materials
3.4. Properties of conductors
3.5. Super conductivity
3.6. Characteristics of good conductor material
3.7. Commonly used conductor materials
3.8.Conductor materials for overhead lines electrical and mechanical
properties
3.9. Types of conductors
3.10. Conductor material used for underground cables
3.11. Conductor material used for electrical machines
3.12. Trade names
3.13. Resistor materials
3.14. Properties and applications of important resistor materials
4. SEMICONDUCTORS:
4.1.Definition – classifying materials as semiconductors
4.2.Application of semiconductor materials
4.3.Types of semiconductors materials
4.4.Electron energy and energy band
4.5.Excitation of atoms
4.6.Energy band representation of ionization
4.7.a. The chemical bond Si and Ge and its consequences
4.7. b. Simplified Si and Ge atom
4.8. a. Distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
4.8. b. The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor
4.8. c. Carrier densities in ‘n’ type semiconductors
4.8. d. p-type semiconductors
4.9. Working and application of semiconductors
4.10. Temperature sensitive elements (thermistor)
4.11. Photoconductive cells
4.12. Photovoltaic cell
4.13. Resistor
4.14. a. Hall Effect and carrier density
4.14. b. Hall Effect generators
4.15. Liquid crystal display (LCD)
4.16. Light dependent resistors (LDR)
43
4.17. Strain gauges
4.18. Piezo-electric material quartz and Rochelle salt
4.19. Merits of semiconductor material used in electrical industry
5. DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
5.1.Introduction
5.2.a. Dielectric strength
5.2. b. Polarization and dielectric constant
5.2. c. The atomic interpretation of the dielectric constant of monoatomic
gases
5.2. d. Qualitative discussion on the dielectric constant of polyatomic
molecules
5.2. e. Quantitative discussion on the dielectric constant of polyatomic
molecules
5.2. f. The internal field in solids and liquids
5.2. g. The static dielectric constant of solids
5.3.Factor effecting the dielectric strength
5.4.Dielectric loss
5.5.Dissipation factor
5.6.Permittivity dielectric constant
5.7.Polarization
5.8.Charging and discharge in a dielectric
5.9.Conducting gaseous dielectrics
5.10. Conductor through liquid dielectrics
5.11. Solid dielectric
5.12. Some properties of Ferro- electric materials
5.13. Spontaneous polarization
5.14. Piezo- electricity
5.15. Application of dielectrics
5.16. Impregnated paper capacitor
5.17. Electrolytic capacitors
7. INSULATING MATERIALS
44
7.1.Introduction
7.2.Properties of insulating material
7.3.Electrical properties
7.4.Visual properties
7.5.Mechanical properties
7.6.Thermal properties
7.7.Chemical properties
7.8.Classification of insulating materials
7.9.Thermal classification of insulators
7.10. Insulating materials
7.11. Fibrous insulating materials
7.12. Ceramics
7.13. Mica
7.14. Glass
7.15. Rubber
7.16. Insulating resins (plastics)
7.17. Thermoplastic resins
7.18. Thermosetting resins
45
9.14. Ferromagnetic materials
10.MAGENTIC MATERIALS
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Magnetization characteristics
10.3. Typical hystersis loops for different ferromagnetic materials
10.4. Loss of magnetism
10.5. Impurities in ferromagnetic materials
10.6. Soft and hard magnetic material
10.7. Ferrites
10.8. Permanent magnets
46
7. PRICIPLES OF HIGH VOLTAGE ENGINEERING FOR
POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING AND ELECTRICAL
INSTALLATION ENGINEERS TERMS AND CONCEPTS
7.1. Introduction
7.1.1. Electric field stresses
7.1.2. Gas Vacuum as insulator gas breakdown
7.1.3. Liquid breakdown
7.1.4. Solid breakdown
7.1.5. Estimation and control of electric stress
7.1.6. Surge voltages their distribution and control
47
7.2.8. Time lags for breakdown
7.2.9. Streamer theory of breakdown in gases
7.2.10.Paschen’s law
7.2.11.Breakdown in non uniform field and corona discharges
7.2.12. Port breakdown phenomena and applications
7.2.13. Practical considerations in using gases for insulation purposes
7.2.14.Vacuum insulations
48
7.6.4. Control of impulse voltages
49
7.11.6. Grounding of impulse testing laboratories
PART - I
50
I.8.3. CALCULATION OF SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENTS IN THREE
PHASE SYSTEMS
51
I.8.8. SWITCHGEAR AND SWITCHGEAR INSTALLATION FOR
VOLTAGES UPTO AND INCLUDING 52KV (MEDIUM
VOLTAGE AS PER IEC BUT HIGH OR EXTRA- HIGH AS
PER INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES)
I.8.8.1. Switch gear apparatus (<=52kV)
I.8.8.2. Switch gear installation (<=52kV)
I.8.8.3. Terminal connections for medium voltage installation (<=52kV)
52
I.8.13. CONDUCDTOR MATERIALS AND ACCESSORIES FOR
SWITCHGEAR INSTALLATIONS
I.8.13.1. Bus bar, standard wire conductors and insulators
I.8.13.2. Cables, wires and flexible cords
I.8.13.3. Safe working equipment in switchgear installations
I.8.17. MISCELLANEOUS
I.8.17.1. IEC Publications for substation designs
I.8.17.2. Quality in switchgear
53
PART-II
54
II.8.2.7. Substations
55
9. SWITCHING, PROTECTION AND DISTRIBUTION IN
LOW – VOLTAGE NETWORKS WITH SELECTION
CRITERIA AND PLANNING GUIDE LINES FOR
SWITCHGEAR SWITCH BOARDS AND DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS
56
9.3.2. Switching tasks and conditions
9.3.3. Switching frequency and service conditions
9.3.4. Protection against over current and excessive temperature rise
9.3.5. Protection against over voltages
9.3.6. Leakage current and earth fault protection
9.3.7. Application of low voltage switchgear in main circuits
57
9.7.6. Current transformers
9.9. MISCELLANEUOS
9.9.1. Fundamental equations, characteristics quantities and units of
electricity
9.9.2. Enclosure for electrical equipment to American, Canadian,
European, IEC, IS standards
9.9.3. Climatic values, influence of temperature and thermal conduction
9.9.4. Current carrying capacity and over current protection of
insulated wires, cables, and bus bars
9.9.5. Rated currents of three phase induction motors
9.9.6. Three phase power transformers
9.9.7. Tripping behavior of the line protection and switchgear
protection devices
9.9.8. Short circuit currents
9.9.9. Number of switching operations of switching devices subjects to
different periods per day –continuous duty, intermittent duty
9.9.10. International network voltages and frequencies
9.9.11. EC guidelines for low voltages equipments
9.9.12. Important specifications, standards and testing bodies
58
10. UTILIZATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY FOR
POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERS AND ELECTRICAL
INSTALLATION ENGINEERS PRINCIPLES
59
1.13. modern approach to speed control and D.C drives
7. ILLUMINATION ENGINEERING
7.1. Introduction
7.2. The nature of radiation
7.3. Definition
7.4. Polar curve
7.5. Laws of illumination
7.6. Luminous efficiency
7.7. Photometry
7.8. Lumen flux method of calculation
7.9. The electric lamp
7.10. Flood lighting and calculations
60
7.11. Street lighting
7.12. Design of choke and capacitor
8. ELECTRIC TRACTION
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Requirement of an ideal traction system
8.3. Supply system for electric traction
8.4. Train movement
8.5. Mechanism of train movement
8.6. The traction motors
8.7. Traction motor control
8.8. Control of single phase induction motor
8.9. Speed control of 3 phase induction motor
8.10. Multiple Unit control
8.11. Braking of electric motors
8.12. Electrolysis by circuits through earth
8.13. Current collection system
8.14. Thyristor used in traction system
14.LEATHER GOODS
15.HOSIERY INDUSTRIES
61
11. POWER ELECTRONICS
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Power semiconductor diodes and circuits
11.3. Diode rectifiers
11.4. Power transistors
11.5. DC-DC converters
11.6. Pulse-width modulation inverters
11.7. Thyristors
11.8. Resonant pulse inverters
11.9. Multilevel inverters
11.10. Controlled rectifier
11.11. AC voltage controllers
11.12. Static switches
11.13. Flexible AC Transmission system
11.14. Power suppliers
11.15. DC drives
11.16. AC Drives
11.17. Gate Drive circuits
11.18. Protective devices and circuits
62
Appendix D: DC Transient analysis
Appendix E: Fourier analysis
PART 2
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION ENGINEERING THEORY AND ELECTRICAL
INSTALLATION PRACTICE
63
Special electrical installations (medical establishments etc.
electrical installation engineers and consultants)
64
1. ELECTRICITY AND ENVIRONMENT, ROLE OF ELECTRICITY
TODAY – (THE EFFECT OF THE INTRODUCTION OF
ELECTRICITY ) ELECTRICAL SCIENCE, THE NATURE OF
ELECTRICITY , ELECTRIC CIRCUITS , ELECTRIC CRAFT
PRINCIPLE, ELECTRICAL MACHINES ,TRANSFORMERS ,
ELECTRICAL APPARATUS, INSTALLATION OF MOTORS,
ELECTROMAGNETIC DEVICES, STATIC OF ELECTRICAL
PLANT, ELECTRICAL SIGNALING SYSTEM , TELEPHONES,
INSTRUMENTS, MEASUREMENTS AND TESTING, TARIFFS AND
POWER FACTOR, FUNDAMENTAL TECHNOLOGICAL AND
REQUIREMENTS (1-19)
65
7. FAULT – TRACING IN CIRCUITS AND MECHANICAL
EQUIPMENT, FAULT DIAGNOSIS EQUIPMENT - FAULT
DIAGNOSIS AND REPAIR, ELECTRICAL AND MAINTENANCE,
EXTRA LOW VOLTAGE EQUIPMENT, CELLS AND BATTERIES
(70 -74)
66
12. SPECIAL INSTALLATIONS TEMPORARY INSTALLATIONS ,
AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL INSTALLATION,
CAVAVANS AND SAVANA BATHS SILA, FLAMMABLE, AND
EXPLOSIVE INSTALLATION, SECURITY SYSTEM, FIRE ALARM
CIRCUIT , STAND BY SUPPLY , LIGHTNING PROTECTION,
CORROSION, HOSPITAL OPERATING THEATRE, PETROL
FILLING STATION AND GARAGES ELECTROSTATIC
67
1. ELECTRICITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Reference:
H.A. MILLER – BOOK I – CHAPTER -1
TREVOR LINSLEY – BASIC CHAPTER 1
68
2.1. In the home
2.2. Health and welfare
2.3. Security
2.4. Leisure pursuits
2.5. Entertainment
2.6. Labor saving device
2.7. Communication
2.8. Data storage
2.9. In industries
2.10. Commercial and shopping malls
2.11. In office complex
2.12. In transport – Railway electrification and traction
2.13. In agriculture
Reference:
T. LINSLEY – BASIC – CHAPTER I
H.A. MILLER – BOOK 1 – CHAPTER I
3. ELECTRICAL SCIENCE
69
3.19. Mechanics
Reference:
MAURICE LEWIS – BOOK I – CHAPTERS 1 AND 2
LINSLEY – BASIC – CHAPTER 1
LINSLEY – ADVANCED – CHAPTER 7
70
Reference:
ADVANCED ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION – ADDISON
WESLEY LONGMAN HIGHER EDUCATION
T. LINSLEY – BASIC – CHAPTER I
H.A. MILLER – BOOK I – CHAPTER1
5. ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Reference:
H.A. MILLER – BOOK I – CHAPTER 9
71
6.13. Electrical measuring instruments
6.14. Lighting (Illumination)
6.15. Tables
Reference:
J.F. WHITFIELD – ELECTRICAL CRAFT PRINCIPLE – VOLUME
II
7. ELECTRICAL MACHINES
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Generators
7.3. Motors
7.4. Transformers
7.5. DC motors
7.6. Three phase AC motors
7.7. Single phase motors
7.8. Motor starters
7.9. Remote control of motors
7.10. Installation of motors
7.11. Motor maintenance
7.12. Power factor correction
Reference:
T. LINSLEY – BASIC – CHAPTER 9
T. LINSLEY – ADVANCED – CHAPTER 8
8. TRANSFORMERS
8.1. Transformer
8.2. Transformer losses
8.3. Transformer efficiency
8.4. Transformer construction
8.5. Instrument transformer
8.5.1. Voltage transformer
8.5.2. Current transformer
Reference:
T. LINSLEY – Advanced – CHAPTER 9
72
9. ELECTRICAL CALCULATIONS
73
9.34. Direct current
9.35. Direct current motor calculations generator calculation back emf and
speed ; efficiency test ; direct method , indirect current method;
starting resistance
9.36. Transformers – emf equation, open circuit test , short circuit test and
efficiency , maximum efficiency, all day efficiency , regulation system,
short circuit conditions
9.37. Electrostatics – series arrangement of capacitors, parallel arrangement
of capacitors, multiple capacitors DC excited circuit having resistance
and capacitance in series
9.38. Utilization of electric power I - (torque, work and power, efficiency of
machines power in AC and DC circuits)
9.39. Utilization of electric power II – illumination (inverse square law,
cosine law- luminous flux, calculations using utilization and light less
factor (LLF) – spacing - height ratio
9.40. Utilization of electric power III – heating schemes
Reference:
A.J. WATKINS & R.K. PARTON – ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION
CALCULATION
Volume 1 – sixth edition
Volume 2– fifth edition
Volume 3– third edition
Conforms to BS 7671: 1992(AMENDED 1994 and 1997, formerly
The 16th edition of the IEEE regulations
Reference:
ADVANCED ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS – ADDISON
WESLEY LONGMAN – HIGHER EDUCATION
74
11. STATIC ELECTRICAL PLANT
11.1. Capacitors
11.2. Switchgear
11.3. Transformers
Reference:
F.G. THOMSON - VOLUME 3 – CHAPTER 3
Reference:
F.G. THOMSON – VOLUME I – CHAPTER 24
75
general motor enclosures – DC motor – AC motor – three phase
motor with control gear – single phase motor – single phase
synchronous motor – installation of motor – regulation
14.2. Installation of motor – three phase induction motor, single phase
induction motor – commutation motor – DC motor – three phase
induction motor starter – DC Motor starter – installation and
maintenance
Reference:
MAURIS LEWIS – BOOK 2 – CHAPTER 5
Reference:
T.G. FRANCIS REVISED BY R.J. COOKSLEY – CHAPTER
11
Reference:
T.F. FRANCIS REVISED BY R.J. COOKSELY – CHAPTER 12
14.5. Electrical apparatus, transformers, capacitors – domestic appliances,
switch gear
Reference:
F.G THOMSON – VOLUME II – CHAPTER 9
14.6. Electrical machines – DC machines - AC machine types – machine
rating - motor circuit protection, machine enclosures, maintenance
and testing - summery of regulations
Reference:
F.G THOMSON – VOLUME II – CHAPTER 9
14.7. INDUCTORS And TRANSFORMERS
Reference:
F.G THOMSON – VOLUME I – CHAPTER 25
14.8. CELLS
Cells – primary cells, secondary cells, alkaline cell
Reference:
F.G THOMSON – VOLUME I – CHAPTER 23
76
14.9. Primary cells – internal resistance of the cell – different types of cell
– methods of connecting number of cells (series connection, parallel
connection and series parallel connection)
Reference:
F.G THOMSON revised by R.J. COOKSELY – ELECTRICAL
INSTALLATION WORK – CHAPTER- 9
Reference:
T.G. FRANCIS REVISED BY R.J. COOKSELY – CHAPTER
- 14
Reference
T.J.FRANCIS- revised by R.J.COOKSLEY chapter - 15
16.TELEPHONES
77
16.1. Telephones, telephone receiver, telephone transmitter - inset type
microphone, telephone circuits calling and speaking between two
points
16.2. The induction coil
16.3. Inter communication telephone systems
Reference:
T.J.FRANCIS- revised by R.J.COOKSLEY CHAPTER - 17
Reference
T.J.FRANCIS- revised by R.J.COOKSLEY- CHAPTER 8
20.BASIC ELECTRONICS
20.1. Pioneers
20.2. Thermonic emission
20.3. Diode, triode, tetrode, pentode valves
20.4. Semiconductors
20.5. Crystal lattice – doping
78
20.6. Semiconductor diode – testing
20.7. Resistors - colour code for resistor
20.8. Capacitors – types of capacitors
20.9. Electromagnetic induction
20.10. Cathode ray oscilloscope
20.11. Transducer
20.12. Semiconductor device
20.13. Amplifier
20.14. Logic gates and circuits
20.15. Graphical symbols used in electronics
Reference:
ADVANCED ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION – ADDISON
WESLEY LONGMAN HIGHER EDUCATION
MAURICE LEWIS – BOOK III – CHAPTER 6
21.ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
Reference:
T. LINSLEY – BASIC ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION WORK –
CHAPTER 10
MAURICE LEWIS – BOOK III – CHAPTER 6
79
22.2. Hand tools
22.3. Soldering iron and guns
22.4. Soldering
22.5. De Soldering
22.6. Circuit board
22.7. Wire wratting
22.8. Bread board
22.9. Inter connection methods
22.10. Fault finding
Reference:
T. LINSLEY – BASIC – CHAPTER 11
Reference:
T. LINSLEY – BASIC – CHAPTER 12
24.1. Introduction
24.2. The AND logic gate
24.3. The OR gate
24.4. The exclusive OR gate
24.5. The NOT gate
24.6. The NOR gate
24.7. Logic families
24.8. Working with logic
24.9. IEC standard symbols / BS standard / IS standard symbols
Reference:
T. LINSLEY – BASIC – CHAPTER 13
80
30.THE PROCESS OF THE INSTALLATION
E. INSTALLATION TEAM
The builder’s program
Length of contract
Availability of labor
Delivery dates for certain materials
Access to site
Hire of plant and equipments
Health and safety requirements
Reference:
81
H.A.MILLER – ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION PRACTICE –
BOOK2 – CHAPTER1
Reference:
T.LINSLEY – BASIC – CHAPTER-2
32.QUALITY ASSURANCE
32.1. Approaches to quality
32.2. Quality control
32.3. Total Quality control
32.4. Total quality management
32.5. Indian standard quality -IS 1400 series, international standard quality ISO
9000 series
32.6. The construction industry
32.7. The building team
32.8. The electrical team
32.9. Designing an electrical installation
32.10. Legal contracts
32.11. Management system
32.12. Bar charts
32.13. Network analysis
32.14. Critical path
32.15. Float time
32.16. Activities
32.17. Dummy Activities
32.18. Event
32.19. ON-SITE COMMUNICATIONS
32.20. Drawings and diagrams
32.21. Layout drawings
32.22. As fitted drawing
32.23. Detail drawing
32.24. Schematic diagrams
32.25. Block diagrams
32.26. Wiring diagrams
32.27. Time sheets
32.28. Job sheets
32.29. Day work sheets
32.30. Reports
82
32.31. Personnel communications
Reference:
T.LINSLRY – ADVANCED – CHAPTER-2
Reference:
F.G. THOMPSON: ELECTRICAL INSTALLTION
TECHNOLOGY- VOLUME THREE - THIRD EDITION –
CHAPTERS - 17
ASPECTS OF ESTIMATING
34.6. Materials
34.7. Tools
34.8. Transport
83
34.9. Insurance
34.10. Supervision
34.11. Labor counts
34.12. Production cost
34.13. Selling cost
34.14. Main contractors discount
34.15. Estimating labor performance
Reference:
F.G. THOMPSON – VOLUME 3- THIRD EDITION – CHAPTER-16
35.MANAGEMENT
35.1. Overseeing and human relations
35.2. Construction site administration
35.3. Critical path networks – constructing the network
Reference:
F.G. THOMPSON VLUME-3 – THIRD EDITION –
CHAPTER-18
Reference:
MAURICE LEWIS – BOOK 3 – CHAPTER-2
84
37.3. Model electrical specification by electrical contractor’s Association
37.4. Schedule of labor costs by electrical contractor’s Association
37.5. Estimating in relation to electrical installation contracts technical supplement
No.10 by Brooks W.H. Electrical supervisor, 1962
37.6. Introduction to estimating by Electrical supervisor seploct 1968
37.7. Profitable contracting by CONSEIL electrical review 12 Feb,1965
37.8. Contract planning by HAIGH D.B. Electrical supervisor seploct 1969
37.9. Electrical contracting and estimating by HINDLER.F.PITMAN 1969
37.10. Estimating rates for quantity surveyors, Architect and contractors by
HINDLER, Electrical supervisor April 1969
37.11. A scheduling of labor costs in the electrical contracting industry by INGLIS
J.P. Electrical contractors & retailers September 1968
37.12. Electrical contracting and management by NEIDLE.M.
BUTTERWORTH,1964
37.13. Scottish experience supports Bills of quantities SCLAR.I. electrical times 27
feb 1969
37.14. Principle of estimating as applied to Electrical Contracting by
STOTAHERS M.A Electrical supervisor December 1967
37.15. Electrical rates for quantity surveyors, architects and contractors by hundlers
F.PITMAN 1969
38.1. Planning – project co ordination – network analysis critical path method – bar
chart – Gant chart – PERT
38.2. Electrical subcontractor – estimating – builders discount – VAT- main contractor
– types of sub contract document – condition of sub contract and specification
38.3. Fixed price, variable price
38.3.1. Programme, working hours, liquidated damages, supply of materials and
labor, insurance, site facilities, Accoustics
38.4. Existing installation, compliance with local authorities, maintenance of plant
and temporary operation
38.5. PC items provisional sums forms of warranty, day works, percentage addition to
prime cost
38.6. Variation, bills of quantities, limits of variation Asbestos
38.7. Miscellanies points – provision sum - prime cost main contractor’s discount -
bill of quantities, schedule of rates, fluctuations monthly bulletion - construction
indices
Reference:
MAURICE LEWIS – BOOKS 3 - CHAPTER-5
39.INDUSTRIAL STUDIES AND SAFE WORKING PRACTICES
85
39.1. The structure of an electrical contracting form
39.2. Management and administration of the relationship between employers and
employees working in the electrical contracting industry
39.3. The grading systems
i) technicians
ii) approval electrician
iii) Electrician
iv) Apprentice
v) Skilled Labourer
vi) Labourers
39.4. Settlement of disputes conciliation machinery
39.5. Designing and electrical and electrical installation
39.6. Material requisites : from drawing to site - preparing a list- on receipt of
goods- in-house documentation
39.7. Time sheets – job sheets and day work sheets - reports
39.8. On – site security and preparation – keys – technological security
39.9. Tools – unlocked vehicles
39.9.1. On site working relationships – forming an effective working relationship
39.10. Safety and welfare in the work place
39.11. Safe practice THE HEALTH AND SAFETY LAW
39.12. Legal duties and responsibilities of an employee
39.13. The statutotry responsibilities and duties of an employer
39.14. Safety sign
39.15. Electricity at work regulations
39.16. Safety representatives and safety committees
39.17. Notification of accidents and general occurrences - regulations
39.18. A guide to the health and safety at work
39.19. Potential carrier prospects – choosing the right form- small companies, larger
companies,- carrier option, carrier avenues, contracting maintenance,
specialized electrical engineering, management, Proprietor owner of a
small business
Reference:
ADVANCED ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS ADDISO
WESLE LONMAN – HIGHER EDUCATION
86
40.2. Employer responsibility, safe place of work, provision of safe plant and
equipment, safe system of work, the work place environment, handling,
transportation and storage equipment ; training and instruction of employees,
safe policy, public liability.
40.3. Employees responsibility, responsibility to themselves and others
Follow the safety procedures
Interference with articles or substances
Measure of equipment, Reasons for accident (Human reasons and
environment reasons)
Reducing the risk of accident
87
40.4.18. The Lead Paint Regulations
40.4.19. The offices, shops, and establishment Act
40.4.20. Safety booklets relating to
timber for ladder and scaffold boards
Troughed conveyor belts
dust masks, breather apparatus respirators
safe means of access
Reference:
FG. THOMSON – ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION
TECHNOLGY - VOLUME III – CHAPTER 17
T. LINSLEY – BASIC – CHAPTER 3
MAURICE LEWIS – BOOK I – CHAPTER 1
MAURICE LEWIS – BOOK II – CHAPTER 1
Reference:
F.G. THOMSON – ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION
TECHNOLGY - VOLUME I – CHAPTER 2 & 3
T. LINSLEY – BASIC – CHAPTER 3
MAURICE LEWIS – BOOK I – CHAPTER 3
FG. THOMSON – VOLUME 2- CHAPTER 1
88
42. ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Fundamental requirement for safety – IEC document – IS specification – flame
proof standard index of protection IP standards
Reference:
FG. THOMSON – VOLUME I – CHAPTER 15
T. LINSLEY – BASIC – CHAPTER 3
H.A. MILLER – BOOK I – CHAPTER 3
T. LINSLEY – ADVANCED – CHAPTER 1
MAURICE LEWIS – BOOK II – CHAPTER 1
MAURICE LEWIS – BOOK II – CHAPTER 1
Reference:
MAURICE LEWIS – BOOK I – CHAPTER 6
` Reference:
T. LINSLEY – BASIC – CHAPTER 4
89
50.1. Distribution voltage
(i) 3 phase, 3 wires, 50Hz, 11KV supply for high voltage consumer.
(ii) 3 phase, 4wire (plus ground), 50Hz, 400/230V for commercial & residential
supplies
(iii) Single phase 2 wire plus earth 50Hz, 230 V for commercial and residential
supply.
Reference:
MAURICE LEWIS – BOOK II – CHAPTER 2
90
MAURICE LEWIS – BOOK III – CHAPTER 3
H.A. MILLER – BOOK I – CHAPTER 5
T. LINSLEY – BASIC – CHAPTER 1
91
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON – VOLUME III – CHAPTER 2
56. INSTALLATION PLANNING AND DESIGN
56.1. Introduction
56.2. Choice of wiring system – steel conduit, plastic conduit, MICs, plastic
sheathed catenary, suspension system, under floor ducting, bus bar
truncking.
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON – VOLUME III – CHAPTER 12
92
60.31. Incandescent lamp
60.32. Two way switching
60.33. Tungsten halogen lighting
60.34. Intermediate switching
60.35. Low pressure mercury vapor lamp (LPMV)
60.36. Fluorescent lighting, control gear, fluorescent lamp and control circuit
60.37. Stroboscopic effects.
60.38. High pressure discharge lamp, high pressure mercury vapor lamp, low
pressure mercury lamp
60.39. High voltage discharge lamp
60.40. Regulation governing low voltage discharge lighting
60.41. Loading and discharge circuit
60.42. Extra low voltage lighting circuit
60.43. Safe handling and disposal of lamp
60.44. Application of lamps
60.45. Maintenance of lighting installation
60.46. Alternate switching arrangement – contactor, time switch, light sensitive
switch
60.47. Lighting systems
60.47.1. Hospital lighting
60.47.2. Office lighting
60.47.3. Public lighting
60.48. Filament lamps
60.49. Arc lamp
60.50. Discharge lamp
60.51. Practical aspects of lighting – ambient temperature of lamps, effect of
voltage drops
60.52. Fault in discharge lamps
60.53. Planning lighting installation
60.54. Light measurements
60.55. Light control
Specular reflection, spread reflection, stroboscopic effect
60.56. Operation of fluorescents on DC supplies
INSTALLING OF LIGHTING
60.57.1. Light
60.57.2. Incandescent lamp
60.57.3. Tungsten halogen lamp
60.57.4. Discharge lamp
60.57.5. Low pressure mercury fluorescent lamp
60.57.6. High pressure mercury fluorescent lamp
60.57.7. Low pressure sodium vapor lamp
60.57.8. High pressure sodium vapor lamp
60.57.9. General lamp hints
60.57.10. Regulation requirements
60.57.11. High voltage installation
60.57.12. Emergency lighting
93
60.57.13. Illumination calculation
60.57.14. Laws of illumination
60.57.15. Lumens method of calculation
60.57.16. Spacing/ mounting height ratio
60.57.17. Measuring height
60.57.18. Lighting calculation
60.57.19. Useful terminology
60.57.20. Lamp letter code
60.57.21. Electric lamps (filament, discharge lamp, lamp circuit and control, lamp
rating, lamp measurement)
Reference:
MAURICE LEWIS – VOLUME 2 – CHAPTER 6
T. LINSLEY – BASIC – CHAPTER 3
FG. THOMSON – VOLUME 2 – CHAPTER 12
FG. THOMSON – VOLUME 3 – CHAPTER 13
ADVANCED ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION – ADDISON WELSLEY
LONGMAN HIGHER EDUCATION – CHAPTER - 5
MAURICE LEWIS – VOLUME 3 – CHAPTER 4
T.G. FANCIS REVISED BY R J COOKSLEY – CHAPTER 9
FG. THOMSON – VOLUME I – CHAPTER 15
60.58. ILLUMINATION
60.58.1. Light
60.58.2. Law of inverse square
60.58.3. Terms used in illumination – luminous intensity (symbol:I), luminous
flux, : (symbol:Φ) the lumen illumination (symbol:E), cosine law,
brightness
60.58.4. Photometry
60.58.5. Methods of denoting luminous intensity
Mean horizontal luminous intensity, mean spherical luminous intensity,
and mean hemispherical luminous intensity
60.58.6. Light meters
60.58.7. Incandescent filament lamp (tungsten filament lamp, gas filled tungsten
filament lamp)
60.58.8. Discharge lamp
60.58.9. Neon lamp
60.58.10. Voltage drop and power
60.58.11. Hot cathode discharge lamp
60.58.12. High pressure mercury vapor discharge lamp
60.58.13. Sodium vapor discharge lamp
60.58.14. Fluorescent lamp
60.58.15. Quick starting (preheating quick start, cold starting, twin tube circuit,
fluorescent lamp on direct circuit)
94
60.58.16. Stroboscopic effect of discharge lamp
60.58.17. Emergency lighting
60.58.18. The keepalite energy lighting system
60.58.19. Shades and reflectors
60.58.20. Design of lighting scheme
60.58.21. Calculation of lighting by lumens method
Reference:
95
T.G. FANCIS REVISED BY R J COOKSLEY – CHAPTER 9
Current using apparatus
61.17. Water heating
61.18. Space heating
61.19. User operated heater appliances
61.20. Motor operated appliances
61.21. Cooking apparatus
61.22. General regulation requirements
Reference:
F.G. THOMSON – VOLUME I – CHAPTER 13
Reference:
F.G. THOMSON – VOLUME III – CHAPTER 14
96
Reference:
H.A. MILLER – BOOK2 – CHAPTER 7
COOKING AND SPACE HEATING
61.38. The installation of cooker final circuit
61.39. Control and protection of cooker circuit (simmer stat)
61.40. The application of cf diversity to cooker circuit
61.41. Heating – (heat transference, conduction, convection, radiation)
61.42. Electric heating production of heat – classification heaters- types of heater
high temperature radiant heater, low temperature storage heater, low
temperature convection heater, low temperature conduction heater
61.43. Space heating – (space heating calculation)
Reference:
H.A. MILLER – BOOK 2 – CHAPTER 8
Reference
F.G.THOMSON-VOLUME 1-CHAPTER 29
97
71.4. Finding the faults
71.5. Safe working procedures
71.6. Live testing
71.7. Isolation of supply
71.8. Faulty equipment: repair or replace
71.9. Test equipments used by electricians
Reference
T.LINSLEY-ADVANCED-CHAPTER 5
72.ELETRICAL MAINTENANCE
72.1. General
72.2. Batteries
72.3. Plant in hazardous areas
72.4. Sound, bell and call system
72.5. Lighting
72.6. Installation
72.7. Portable appliances
72.8. Static plant
72.9. Rotating plant
72.10. Switch gear
Reference
F.G.THOMSON-VOLUME 3-CHAPTER 8
98
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION THEORY
80.14. INDUSTRIAL TYPE SWITCH GEARS (TPN CCU) AND HBC FUSE
DISTRIBUTION BOARD IN INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS
80.15. INDUSTRIAL TYPE OR CUBICLE TYPE SWITCH BOARDS AND
HBC FUSE DISTRIBUTION BOARD OR MCCB MOTOR CONTROL
CIIRCUIT BREAKER DISTRIBUTION BOARDS LAND MCB
LIGHTING FUSE DISTRIBUTION BOARDS IN INDUSTRIAL OR
COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS AND MULTI BLOCK RESIDENTIAL
COMPLEXES
80.16. RISING MAINS IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS- BUS BAR RISING
MAINS
80.17. BUS BAR TRUNKING SYSTEMS IN INDUSTRIES- VERTICAL
TYPE BBT AND HORIZONTAL TYPE BBT
80.18. CABLE TRAY AND LADDER RACK SYSTEM
80.19. DUCTING SYSTEM OF WIRING UNDER FLOOR DUCTS
80.20. SUPPORTING AND FIXING METHODS FOR CABLING AND
EUIPMENT
Reference:
T.LINSLEY-ADVANCED- CHAPTER 3
99
ADVANCD ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION ADDISON WESLEY
LONGMAN HIGHER EDUCATION
H.A.MILLER BOOK 2- CHAPTER 5
H.A.MILLER-BOOK 2- CHAPTER 6
81. PROTECTION
81.1. Mechanical damage
81.2. Fire risk
81.3. Corrosion
81.4. under voltage
81.5. Protection enclosure for electrical apparatus
81.6. Protective relay equipments
81.7. over current
81.8. Fuses
81.9. Circuit breaker
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 2-CHAPTER 16
CIRCUIT-CONTROL DEVICES
81.10. Definitions and terminology
81.11. circuit conditions
81.12. contacts
81.13. switches and switch fuses
81.14. circuit breakers
81.15. contactors
81.16. thermostat
81.17. summerstat(energy controller)
81.18. special switches
81.19. protector
81.20. wiring regulations
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 1-CHAPTER 21
100
Reference F.G.THOMSON-VOL 2-CHAPTER 7
Reference:
H.A.MILLER-BOOK 2-CHAPTER 3
Reference:
H.A.MILLER- BOOK-CHAPTER 4
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 3-CHAPTER 9
101
cable sheaths, protective multiple earthing (PME) circuit protective
conductors additional requirements(extraneous metal work, bath room, bell
and similar circuits, electrode boilers portable appliances, and protective
methods, ELV supplies, earth leakage circuit breaker residual current ELCB
earth testing, earth fault loop impedance
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 3-CHAPTER 10
EARTHING
86.2. Terms
86.3. reasons for earthing
86.4. regulations
86.5. methods of earthing
86.6. earth fault loop path
86.7. portable appliances
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 1-CHAPTER
EARTHING
86.8. General
86.9. bath rooms
Reference:
T.G.FRANCIS revised by R.J.COOKSLEY-CHAPTER 6
87.TESTING
87.1. Continuity of ring final circuit conductors
87.2. Measurement of common earth electrode resistance
87.3. Insulation resistance
87.4. Testing voltage, testing the installation to earth, testing between conductors,
verification of polarity of single-pole switches, earth fault-loop testing,
completion certificates
Reference:
T.G.FRANCIS-revised by R.J.COOKSLEY-CHAPTER 6
102
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 1-CHAPTER 18
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 1-CHAPTER 19
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 2-CHAPTER 8
103
87.1. Appliance testing
87.2. Testing in hazardous areas
87.3. Certificate
87.4. Machine testing
87.5. Direct current armature faults
87.6. Fault diagnosis
87.7. Cable fault location
87.8. Insulating oil
87.9. Safety of personel
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 3-CHAPTER 7
Reference:
MAURICE LEWIS-BOOK 1-CHAPTER 8
Reference:
MAURICE LEWIS-BOOK 2-CHAPTER 7
Reference:
T.LINSLEY-BASIC- CHAPTER 7
104
INSTRUMENTS AND TESTING
87.36. Moving coil instruments, moving iron instruments, damping,
making measurements, range extension, dynamometer wattmeter,
measurement of power in a three phase circuit energy meter, tong tester,
phase and sequence tester, inspection and testing techniques, certification
and reporting, commissioning electrical system.
Reference:
T.LINSLEY – chapter 5
91.1 Measurement and making out (bench work, essential tools for bench
work) (seriber try square, tape measure, centre punch, inside calipers,
outside calipers, odd legs calipers, steel rule, bevel and other desirable
tools)
91.2 Tools and equipment for settling out
91.3 Fixing methods
91.4 Plastic plug and wood screw
91.5 Rawl bolt fixing
91.6 Spring toggle
91.7 Gravity toggle
Reference:
H A Miller Book 1 Chapter 4
105
92.7 Lighting circuit
92.8 Socket outlet circuit
92.9 Outer power circuit
92.10Outdoor circuits
93 WIRING TECHNIQUES
93.1 Working in the flex and cable
93.2 Mounting wiring accessories
Reference:
T J FRANCIS REVISED BY R J COOKSLEY CHAPTER 3
106
Reference:
H A MILLER – BOOK 2 – CHAPTER 2
97 CONSUMER CIRCUITS
Reference
T G FRANCIS REVISED BY R J COOKSLEY
Reference:
H A MILLER - BOOK 2 - CHAPTER 4
99 INSTALLATION OF CIRCUIT 1
107
The basic electric circuit – ohm’s law – resistance factors – ammeter and
voltmeters – resistance connections – series circuits – parallel circuits – series
parallel circuits – energy - power – voltage drop – cable selection.
INSTALLATION OF CIRCUIT 2
Principle of electromagnetic induction
Generation of alternating current – generation of direct current – power station
electricity – the transformer low voltage distribution - power factor
Reference:
MAURICE LEWIS BOOK 1 CHAPTER 4&5
100.1 Wiring systems – pvc insulation – pvc sheathed cable – mineral insulator martial
- sheathed MIMS cables – armored pvc insulated, pvc sheathed cable – steel
conduit and insulated conduit system – steel trunking and insulator trunking
system – bus bar trunking system – circuit protection – fuses – circuit breakers
Reference:
MAURICE LEWIS – BOOK1 CHAPTER 7
Reference
T G FRANCIS REVISED BY R J COOKSLEY
108
102.8 High breaking fuses
102.9 Distribution boards
102.10Miniature circuit breakers
102.11Main switch and fuses
102.12Consumer control unit (CCU)
Reference:
T G FRANCIS REVISED BY R J COOKSLEY CHAPTER 5
103.1 General
103.2 Conductors
103.3 Insulators
103.4 Special cables and conductors
103.5 Cable types
103.6 Cable installation
103.7 Conductor’s identification
103.8 Abbreviations
103.9 Old wiring systems
Reference
F G THOMSON – VOLUME 1 CHAPTER 6
Reference:
F G THOMSON VOLUME 1 CHAPTER 7
109
105. WIRING SYSTEM –SHEATHED
105.1. TRS (tough-rubber sheathed)
105.2. PVC (polyvinyl chloride sheathed)
105.3. PCP (poly chloropropone sheathed)
105.4. LAS (lead-alloy sheathed)
105.5. HSOS (house – service overhead system)
105.6. PILC (paper insulated, lead covered)
105.7. MIMS (mineral insulated, metal sheathed)
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 1-CHAPTER 8
Reference:
F.G. THOMSON-VOL 1-CHAPTER 9
Reference:
110
F.G.THOMSON - VOL 1 - CHAPTER 11
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 1-CHAPTER 12
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL1-CHAPTER 20
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 1-CHAPTER 28
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 1-CHAPTER 6
111. TOOLS
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 1-CHAPTER 32
111
112. WORKSHOP SAFETY
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 1-CHAPTER 33
117. SOLDERING
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 1-CHAPTER 38
Reference:
H.A.MILLER-BOOK 1-CHAPTER 6
112
119.5. Regulations concerning 13A socket outlets – U.K. Practice
Reference:
H.A.MILLER-BOOK 1-CHAPTER 7
119.6. PORTABLE ELECTRICAL TOOLS
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 1-CHAPTER 16
119.7. WORKSHOP PRACTICE
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 1-CHAPTER 17
Reference:
MAURICE LEWIS-BOOK 3-CHAPTER 3
120.9. Temporary installations
120.10. Agricultural and horticultural
120.11.Caravans and caravan sites
120.12. flammable and explosive installations
120.13. hazardous area classification
120.14. intrinsic safety
120.15. static electrical
120.16. computer supplies
120.17. fire alarm circuits
120.18. security system
Reference:
T.LINSLEY-ADVANCED-CHAPTER 4
120.19. Damp situations
120.20. Corrosion situations
120.21. Electrostatic situations
120.22. Temporary installations
120.23. Agricultural and horticultural installations
113
120.24. fire-alarm circuits
120.25. Caravans and caravan sites
Reference: F.G.THOMSON-VOL 3-CHAPTER 5
114
121.9. connections 131.12 -wiring techniques for
intruder alarms, Zoning, The time zone
Testing the alarm system
130.ELECTRICAL WIRING
130.1. Resistance and Resisitvity
130.2. Work, power and energy
130.3. Alternating current
130.4. Magnetism
130.5. Electrical measuring instruments
130.6. Wires and cables
115
130.7. Wiring accessories
130.8. Use of different type of switches
130.9. Different systems of wiring
130.10. Earthing
130.11. Testing of electrical installation
130.12. Electrical appliances
130.13. Arrangement of distribution boards etc
130.14. Faults in wiring system and their remedies
130.15. Overhead line
130.16. How to do home wiring?
130.17. Wire and joints
130.18. Cables and joints
130.19. Wiring system
130.20. Fuses and earthing
130.21. Methods of testing
130.22. Electrical lighting
130.23. Motor starter
130.24. Lighting
130.25. Electric sign circuits
130.26. Time switch circuits
130.27. Alarm and intruder circuits
130.28. Crane and lift circuits
130.29. Safety precaution
Reference:
F.G.THOMSON-VOL 1-CHAPTER 3
116
140.1. Specification of wiring materials and appliances
140.2. Earthing
140.3. Type of wiring
140.4. Domestic and costing of substations
140.5. Feeder
140.6. Estimating and costing of substation
140.7. Low tension distribution and street lighting
140.8. Service connections
140.9. Testing of installation
140.10. Illumination
140.11.Data tables
140.12. Principles of estimating and schedule rates
140.13. Electrical installation conditions and requirements
140.14. Residential building wiring
140.15. Industrial installation estimate
140.16. Substation estimation
140.17. Wiring estimates
140.18. Wiring of general hospital
140.19. Stores lighting
140.20. Question on estimate
140.21. Office lighting
140.22. Items affecting labour costs
140.23. Distribution
140.24. Various advance estimates
140.25. Electric installations
117
140.42. Estimates of LT line, substation and service connections for power
loads
140.43. Underground cables, installation, estimates and street lighting
140.44. Elements of estimating
140.45. Contactor control circuits – estimates installation
118
150.8.2 Discharge lamp circuits
150.8.3 Lighting control
150.8.4 Luminaries
150.8.5 Lighting installation
150.15 HOTELS
119
150.16 HOSPITALS
120
150.27 CONTROL INFORMATION AND MONITORING SYSTEMS IN BUILDINGS
INSTALLATIONS
150.27.1 Switching, control (infrared remote – control systems)
150.27.2 Monitoring, protection
150.27.3 Combination of control, information and monitoring systems
121
150.36.6 Bus bar tracking systems
122
Verification of protection against indirect contacts depending on the
distribution system- TT, TN
150.40.14 Verification of the co ordination with other equipments discrimination and
back up, verification of the co- ordination with sounds disconnectors
150.40.15 Definition of the components and switch design
INTRODUCTION:
The electric power distribution system in an ‘industrial plant’ generally costs less than ‘5
percent’ of the total plant cost, including process machinery. The plant owners may have
invested money for the best of plant facilities, the most modern prediction machine, have
an ample inventory of raw materials, good product design, highly trained and efficient
labor, and every thing else that is required to produce manufactured goods quickly and at
low cost. When electric power stops flowing in a manufacturing plant the plants
production stops. (i.e.) if electric power is not available when and where needed in the
plant then the owner’s investment in both plant and inventory is so much idle capital.
Because electric power is so important in any manufacturer process, the electric power
distribution system in the plant in the vital link that carrier the electric power from the
utility supply point to the production machine that keeps the plants production moving so
he power system engineer who designs an industrial power plant power distribution
system must rely on his technical engineering back ground and also he must exercise
considerable engineering judgment, as all phases of industrial power system engineering
cannot be expressed in numbers or solved by formulas. When decisions based on
engineering judgment are required the power system engineer should always base his
consideration on the best fact available and both on vague hypothesis or information
which does not apply to the specific problems at hard. Field report and operating
experiences must always be weighed very carefully to be sure that all the facts and all the
background are available. One of his most valuable tools is test data made under
specified controlled condition. Field data are part of the engineers ware house of facts
and certain kinds of field data are extremely valuable. The design engineer must be sure
that he knows the conditions under which the field data are obtained and that the data are
broad enough to mean something. Any field data that are used should be extensive and
represent a cross section of industry and not just a few isolated cases.
OVER-ALL PLANNING
To obtain a power distribution system which is adequate to meet the service reliability
requirements of a plant and yet which is lowest in cost require that the power system on
an over all inclusive bases. While the electrical system is installed in parts, such as
123
substation, cable, bus, switchgear, transformers etc. the system never less functions as a
complete integral unit. The best way to get an over all picture of the probable
performance of an industrial power distribution system is to make a one line diagram.
This on one small piece of paper shows the system in its power system designer a
reasonable idea of what service reliability will be and how the component of the system
will fit to get her electrically to serve the needs of the plant most effectively and
economically.
ECONOMICS:
Economics is a very important part of a power system engineer. The engineer must
compare system on the bases of cost as well as other feature. In making cost comparisons
it is important to include all parts of the systems from the power source down to and
including the utilization equipment.
Always consider the cost of the completely installed system, not just the prices of its
components.
SIMPLICITY
Make system simple. Many total shutdowns have resulted from complicated systems.
Industrial operators do not get emergency switching practice every day. If they have
complicated systems, experience proves that they are a pt to make mistakes in an
124
emergency. These errors usually cause greater outages than they would with simple
systems. Simple systems are easy to understand and easy to operate during both normal
and emergency conditions. The growing difficulty of obtaining adequately trained
personnel makes a simple power system desirable.
FLEXIBLITY
Plants change manufacturing process from time to time. Process and predict alike
change as demands and styles change.
Two great contributions towards flexibility are:
1. The load center system with small substations which may be added in small units
as required and, if necessarily, moved and
2. Plug in bus way, which permits the installation of permanent power distribution
systems to which machine tools and other devices are merely plugged in where
necessarily.
SERVICE RELIABILITY
Service reliability in any plant is important. If the manufacturing process is on a
production line basis, a shutdown of any part of the line may hold up the entire plant.
High service reliability can be obtained in tow ways. One is by providing duplicate
channel to route power to any load; highest grade electric equipment available using the
best installation methods. It might be added that service reliability can be increased
through simplicity of system design.
When plant facilities have to be expanded or modernized, the engineer is afforded and
opportunity to design the ideal electrical system existing equipment obviously cannot all
be retired at once. But as additions and replacement of equipment are made, they should
be on the basis of being integrated into the ideal plan and not merely as replacement of
equipment in the old system.
SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
In selecting equipments, choose the best available. Use factory assembled equipment for
easier field installation and better co ordination.
Be sure equipment ratings are adequate in every respecting i.e. voltage, current,
interrupting rating etc.
Note: Much of the advantage of the high quality equipment can be lost if it is carelessly
installed and maintained.
MAINTANANCE
Maintenance is largely in the hands of operators. The system designer can aid in this
problems by designing systems that provided. Alternate power channels to permit one to
be takes out for maintenance without dropping essential loads.
125
Use draw out equipment whenever possible to enable maintenance on circuit breaker
elements to be done in a clean service shop. A spare element should be specified to
replace the one being maintained.
17. What heat cycle should be used gas turbine or steam turbine
18. What steam pressures and temperature are best for steam generation and process
use
19. How big should the boilers and turbine be
20. What should the balance between extraction at various pressures be and what
should the condenser capacity be
21. What kind of steam turbine is most suitable to the particular process under
consideration
a) Straight condensing
b) Extraction
c) Topping
d) Extraction condensing
126
22. Co generation power plants
160.14.1. INTRODUCTION
160.14.1.1. Purpose
160.14.1.2IEC / IEEE standards
160.14.1.3Codes and standards
160.14.1.4Safety and environmental considerations
160.14.1.5Hand books and periodicals
160.14.1.6Manufactures data catalogues
160.14.1.7Electric training institutes
127
160.14.4.5. Secondary network systems
160.14.4.6. Selecting a power distribution system for an industrial plant
160.14.4.5. Load centre power systems
160.14.4.6. Primary distribution systems
160.14.4.7. Secondary distribution systems
128
160.14.10. POWER DISTRIBUTION AND ILLUMINATION
160.14.10.1. Distribution voltage problems
160.14.10.2. Effects of voltage variation on lamp life and its lumen out put
160.14.10.3. Operating voltage levels for illuminating systems
160.14.10.4. Plant power distribution consideration for lighting loads
129
160.14.16.3. Energy efficient ballasts
160.14.16.4. New luminaries for energy-efficient light sources
160.14.16.5. Cost analysis
160.14.16.6. Energy saving lighting techniques
160.14.16.7. Lighting and energy standards
170.1. Introduction
170.2. Codes and standards
170.3. Industrial construction documents
170.4. Service and distribution
130
170.5. Electrical load calculations
170.6. Over current protection
170.7. Grounding
170.8. Transformers
170.9. Conductors and wiring material
170.10. Raceways, boxes and fittings
170.11. Cable tray
170.12. Wiring devices
170.13. Conductors terminations and spices
170.14. Anchors and supports
170.15. Electric motors
170.16. Motor controls heat tracing and freeze protection
170.17. Heat tracing and freeze protection
170.18. Wiring in hazardous locations
170.19. Industrial lighting
131
190.1. General information for electrical installation
190.2. Electrical symbol and outlets
190.3. Determining the required number and location of lighting and small
appliance circuit
190.4. Conductor sizes and types, wiring methods, wire connections, voltage
drop, and neutral sizing for services
190.5. Switch control of lighting circuits Receptacle bonding and induction
heating resulting from unusual switch connections
190.6. Ground fault circuit interrupters, Arc – fault circuit interrupters
transient voltage surge suppressors and immersion detection circuit
interrupters
190.7. Luminaries (Fixtures) ballasts and lamps
190.8. Lighting branch circuit for the front bed room
190.9. Lighting branch circuit for the master bed room
190.10. Lighting branch circuit – bathrooms and hallways
190.11. Lighting branch circuit – front entry, porch
190.12. Lighting branch circuit and small appliance circuits for the kitchen
190.13. Lighting branch – circuits for the living room
190.14. Lighting branch – circuit for the study bed rooms
190.15. Dryer outlet and lighting circuit for the laundry, powder room, rear
entry hall
190.16. Lighting branch circuit for the garage
190.17. Recreation rooms
190.18. Lighting branch circuit receptacle circuit for work shop
190.19. Special purpose outlets- water pump, water heater
190.20. Special purpose outlets for range, counter – mounted cooling unit and
wall mounted oven
190.21. Special purpose outlets – food waste, disposer dish weaker
190.22. Special purpose outlets for the bathroom ceiling heat- vent lights, attic,
fan and the hydro massage tub
190.23. Special purpose outlets – electric heating air conditioning
190.24. Gas and oil control heating systems
190.25. Television, telephone, low voltage signal systems
190.26. Heat, smoke and carbon monoxide detectors, fire alarms and security
systems
190.27. Service entrance equipment
190.28. Over current protection – fuses and circuit breakers
190.29. Service entrance calculations
190.30. Swimming pools, hot tubs and hydro massage baths
190.31. Wiring for the future. Home automation system
190.32. Stand by power systems
190.33. Specification for electrical work- single family dwelling
190.34. Key terms
190.35. Web sites
190.36. Appendices
132
200. ELECTRICAL CALCULATIONS
133
201.18. Calculating fault current and grounding conductor withstand rating
BIBLIOGRAPHY
134
7. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION TECHNOLOGY LONGMAN SCIENTIFIC &
TECHNICAL BY F.G. THOMPSON Longman scientific & technical Longman
group U.K Ltd Longman house, Burnt Hill Harlow, essex, CM2020JE,England
8. THE WHICH BOOK OF WIRING & LIGHTING MIKE LAWRENCE BY
TECHNICAL CONSULTANT TREVOR – E.MARKS A.R.T.C.S,C ENG M.IEEE
M.INST M.C,F.INST.D ANTHONY BYERS
9. BASIC ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION WORK BY TREVOR LINSLEY
ARNOLD A MEMBER OF THE HODDER HEAD LINE GROUP 338 EUSTON
ROAD, LONDON N.W1 3 BH
10. ADVANCED ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION WORK BY TREVOR LINSLEY
ARNOLD, a member of the Hodder Headline Group 338,Euston Road, London
NW 1 3BH
11. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS PRACTICE-1 (BOOK 1) BY H.A.MILLER
12. ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS PRACTICE BOOK 2 BY H.A .MILLER
13. ADVANCED ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION BY ADDISON WESLWY
LONGMAN HIGHER EDUCTION
14. ELECTRICAL CRAFT PRINCIPLES VOLUME – I J.F WHITFIELDS PETER
PEREGRINOUS LTD SOUTHGAT HOUSE, STEVENAGE HERTS, SG1HQ,
UNITED KINGDOM
15. ELECTRICAL CRAFT PRINCIPLES VOLUME-2 J.F.WHITFIELDS SERVICE
EDITOR PEREGRINUS LTD SOUTHGATE, HOUSE, STEVENAGE HERTS,
SG1HQ, UNITED KINGDOM.
135
Part 3
ENGINEERS
136
1. ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM PRINCIPLES AND
CONCEPTS
2. ELEMENTS OP POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS - PRINCIPLES
AND CONCEPTS
3. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND SWITCH GEAR -
PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS
4. OVERALL SUMMERY OF ELECTRICAL POWER
GENERATION, TRANSMISSION, DISTRIBUTION, POWER
SYSTEM STABILITY, POWER QUALITY, POWER
ELECTRONICS – PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS
5. MODERN POWER STATION, CONVENTIONAL AND
RENEWABLE ENERGY CONSERVATION
6. EHV-AC AND HVDC TRANSMISSION ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY
7. SWITCH GEAR & PROTECTION
8. POWER TRANSFORMERS AND SPECIAL TRANSFORMERS
9. ELECTRICAL MACHINERY
10. EHV SUBSTATION & EQUIPMENTS
11. ELECTRICAL SUBSTATION ENGINEERING & PRACTICE
(EHVAC, HVDC, TRANSFORMERS & SF6 INSULATED
SUBSTATIONS)
12. ELECTRICAL POWER CAPACITORS
13. ACCESSORIES FOR HIGH TENSION CAPACITORS
14. POWER CAPACITORS
15. ART AND SCIENCE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
16. POWER CABLES
a) ELECTRIC CABLES
b) POWER AND COMMUNITION CABLES-THEORY AND
APPLICATION
c) RATING OF ELECTRIC POWER CABLES
137
1. ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEM PRINCIPLES AND
CONCEPTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Important of electrical energy
1.2 Generation of electrical energy
1.3 Source of energy
1.4 Comparison of energy sources
1.5 Units of energy
1.6 Relationship among energy units
1.7 Efficiency- calorific value of fuels
1.8 Advantages of liquid fuels over solid fuels- Advantages of
Gaseous fuels over liquid fuels
2. GENERATING STATION
2.1 Generating station
2.2 Steam power station
2.3 Hydro electric PowerStation & constituents of hydroelectric power
plant
2.4 Diesel power station
2.5 Nuclear power station
2.6 Gas turbine power station
138
4. ECONOMICS OF POWER GENERATION
4.1. Economics of power generation
4.2. Cost of electrical energy
4.3. Expression for cost of electrical energy
4.4. Methods of determining depreciation
4.5. Importance of high load factor
5. TARRIF
5.1 Tariff
5.2. Desirable characteristics of a tariff
5.3. Types of tariff
7. SUPPLY SYSTEM
7.1. Electrical supply system
7.2. Typical A.C. power supply scheme
7.3. D.C and A.C transmission
7.4. Advantages of high transmission voltage
7.5. Various system of high transmission voltage
7.6. Comparison of conductor material in overhead system
7.7. Comparison of conductor material in underground system
7.8. Comparison of various systems of transmission
7.9. Elements of transmission line
7.10. Economics of power transmission
7.11. Economic choice of conductor size
7.12. Requirements of satisfactory supply
139
8.1. Main components of O.H line
8.2. Conductor materials
8.3. Line supports
8.4. Insulators
8.5. Potential distribution over suspension insulator string-string
efficiency- methods of improving string efficiency- important
points
8.6. Corona-factors affecting corona - important terms- advantages
and disadvantages of corona effect
8.7. Sag in overhead lines- calculation of sag- some mechanical
principles
140
11.3. Insulation of single core cable - dielectric stress in a single core
cable
11.4. Most economical conductor size in a cable
11.5. Grading of cables
11.6. Measurement of Cc and Ce
11.7. Current carrying capacity of underground cables
11.8. Thermal resistance- thermal resistance of dielectric of single core
cable-permissible current loading
11.9. Types of cable faults
11.10. Loop tests for location of faults in underground cables- Murray
loop test- vary loop test
141
14.4. Ground detectors
142
18.7. Analysis of unsymmetrical faults
18.8. Single line-to-ground fault
18.9. Line-to-line fault
18.10.Double line-to-ground fault
18.11. Reference bus for sequence networks
20. FUSES
20.1. High voltage and low voltage fuses- desirable characteristics of
fuse elements-fuse element materials- important terms
20.2. Types of fuses- high voltage fuses- current carrying capacity of
fuse element- difference between a fuse and circuit breaker
143
21.12.Definite distance type impedance relays
21.13.Time-distance impedance relays
21.14. Deferential relays
21.15. Current differential relays
21.16. Voltage balance differential relays
21.17. Translay system
21.18. Types of protection
144
2. ELEMENTS OF POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS FOR
POWER SYSTEM ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES AND
CONCEPTS
1. GENERAL BASICS
1.1. The growth of electrical power system
1.2. Energy production
1.3. Transmission and distribution
1.4. Load studies
1.5. Economic load dispatch
1.6. Fault calculation
1.7. System protection
1.8. Stability studies
1.9. The power system engineering
1.10. Additional reading
2. BASIC CONCEPT
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Single sub script notation
2.3. Double sub script
2.4. Power in single phase A.C circuit
2.5. Complex power
2.6. The power triangle
2.7. Direction of power flow
2.8. Voltage and current in Ballard
2.9. Power in balanced three-phase circuit
2.10. Per unit quantities
2.11. Changing the base of per-unit quantities
145
3.6. Flux linkage between two points external to an isolated conductor
3.7. Inductance of a single-phase two wire line
3.8. Flux linkage of one conductor in a group
3.9. Inductance of a composite-conductor line
3.10. The use of tables
3.11. Inductance of three-phase lines with equilateral spacing
3.12. Inductance of three-phase lines
3.13. Bundled conductor
3.14. Parallel-circuit three-phase lines
3.15. Summary of inductance calculation for three-phase lines
146
6. SYSTEM MODELLING
6.1. Construction of the synchronous machine
6.2. Armature reaction in a synchronous machine
6.3. The circuit model of a synchronous machine
6.4. The effect of synchronous machine excitation
6.5. The ideal transformer
6.6. The equivalent circuit of a practical transformer
6.7. The auto transformer
6.8. Per unit impedance in single-phase transformer circuit
6.9. Three-phase transformer
6.10. Per-unit impedance of three-winding transformer
6.11. The one-line diagram
6.12. Impedance and reactance diagram
6.13. The advantage of per-unit computation
6.14. Summary
7. NETWORK CALCULATION
7.1. Equivalence of source
7.2. Node system
7.3. Network portioning
7.4. node-elimination by matrix algebra
7.5. The bus admittance and impedance matrix
7.6. Modification of an existing bus impedance matrix
7.7. Direct determination of a bus impedance matrix
7.8. Summary
147
8.9. Capacitor banks
8.10. Control by transformer
8.11. Summary
11.SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
11.1. Synthesis of unsymmetrical phases from their symmetrical
components
11.2. Operations
11.3. The symmetrical components of unsymmetrical phases
11.4. Phase-shift of symmetrical components in star-delta transformer
banks
11.5. Power in terms of symmetrical components
11.6. Unsymmetrical series impedance
11.7. Sequence impedance and sequence network
11.8. Sequence network of unloaded generators
11.9. Sequence impedance of circuit element
11.10. Positive and negative sequence network
11.11. Zero sequence networks
11.12. Conclusion
12. UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS
12.1. Single-line-to-ground fault on an unloaded generator
12.2. Line-to-line fault on an unloaded generator
12.3. Double line-to-ground fault on an unloaded generator
12.4. Unsymmetrical faults on power system
12.5. Single-line-to-ground fault on a power system
148
12.6. Line-to-line fault on a power system
12.7. Double line-to-ground fault on a power system
12.8. Interpretation of the interconnected sequence networks
12.9. Analysis of unsymmetrical faults using bus impedance matrix
12.10.Faults through impedance
12.11. Computer calculation of fault current
149
14. C. POWER SYSTEM STABILITY POWER CIRCUIT BREAKER
AND PROTECTIVE RELAY
14.1. Fault clearing-power circuit breakers
14.2. Fault-clearing-protective relays
14.3. The influence of swinging and out of step operation upon
protective relays
14.4. Rapid reclining
150
16.10.Decentralized control
17.POWER
151
3.2. Derivation of a single-phase quantity
3.3. Components of protection
6. FEEDER PROTECTION
6.1. Introduction
6.2. over current protection
6.3. Distance protection
6.4. Pilot protection pilot relaying scheme
6.4.1. Wire (pilot) protection
6.4.2. Carrier current protection
152
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Microprocessor
8.3. Input\output devices
8.4. Semiconductor memories
8.5. Single chip microcomputer
8.6. I\O ports and programmable peripheral interface
8.7. Programmable interval timer
8.8. IC elements and circuits for interfaces
8.9. A\D converter, analog multiplexer S\H circuit
153
PART II
15. FUSES
15.1. Definition and fuse characteristics
15.2. Types of fuse
15.3. Application of HRC fuses
15.5. Discrimination
154
PART III
155
3. OVER ALL SUMMARY OF ELECTRICAL POWER
GENERATION, TRANSMISSION, DISTRIBUTION,
POWER SYSTEM, POWER ELECTRONICS, POWER
QUANLITY, POWER GENERATION
156
3. Photovoltaic
(a) Types of PV cells
(i)Silicon cells
(ii)Gallium arsenide cells
(iii)Copper indium (gallium) diselenide cells
(iv)Cadmium telluride cells
(b) Applications
(i) utility-interactive PV system
(ii) Stand-alone PV system
PE.C.TRANSFORMER
8. Theory and principle of transformers
9. Power transformers
10. Distribution transformers
11. Under ground distribution transformer
12. Dry type transformer
13. Step-voltage regulators
14. Reactors
15. Instrument transformers
16. Transformer connections
17. LTC control and transformer paralleling
18. Loading power transformers
19. Causes and effects of transformer sound levels
20. Electrical bushing
21. Load taps changers (LTCs)
22. Insulating media (transformer)
23. Transformer testing
24. Transformer installation and maintenance
25. Problem and failure investigation
26. Power transformer equipment standards
157
27. On-line monitoring of liquid immersed transformers
PE.F.DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
52. Power system loads
53. Distribution system modeling and analysis
54. Power system operation and control
158
56. Basic electric power utilization
57. Electric power utilization: motors
159
PE.L. POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL
86. Energy management
87. Generation control: economic dispatch and unit commitment
88. Optimal power flow
89. Security analysis
160
104. Inverters- pulse width modulator inverter
105. Thysistors
106. Resonant pulse inverters
107. Multilevel inverters
108. AC voltage controllers
109. Static switch
110. Flexible AC transmission system
111. Power supplies
112. DC drives
113. AC drives
114. Gate drive circuits
115. Protection of devices and circuits
116. Active filters for power conditioning
161
10. EHV SUBSTATION AND EQUIPMENT
ELECTRICAL SUBSTATION ENGINEERING &
PRACTICE, EHV AC, HVDC & SF6-GTS
162
10.28. Substation structures
10.29. Bus bar, connectors and clamps
10.30. Design of bus bars
10.31. Insulators
10.32. Insulation coordination and surge arrestors
10.33. Sub station earthing system
10.34. Firefighting system in sub station
10.35. Power cables and control cables
10.36. Auxiliary supplies and battery system
10.37. Protection, control and automaton in sub station
10.38. Power line carrier communication and telecontrol
10
.39. Sf6 gas insulated sub stations (GTS) and gas insulated cables
10.40. HVDC sub stations
10.41. Engineering aspects of EHV-AC sub stations
10.42. Project planning, insulation, communication and safety
procedure
163
11. TRANSFORMER
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Principle of transformer
11.3. Material used in transformer
11.4. Magnetic circuit
11.5. Winding and insulation
11.6. Voltage and insulation
11.7. Electromagnetic forces in power transformer
11.8. Cooling arrangements
11.9. Design procedure
11.10. Structural design of transformer tank
11.11. Transformer auxiliaries and oil system
11.12. Manufacturing and assembly
11.13. Drying and impedance
11.14. Testing of transformers and reactor
11.15. Standards on power transformers and reactors
11.16. Loading and life of transformer
11.17. Erection and commissioning
11.18. Transformer protection
11.19. Reactors
11.20. Rectifier transformers
11.21. Converter transformer
11.22. Controlled shunt reactors
11.23. Designing and manufacturing – A ‘short circuit proof’
transformer
11.24. High voltage condenser bushing
11.25. Computerization-A tool to enhance engineering productivity
11.26. Condition, monitoring, residual life assessment and
refurbishment
11.27. Transformer: an overview
TRANSFORMER
11.28. Fundamentals of transformer
164
11.29. The magnetic circuit
11.30. General types and characteristics
11.31. Transformer inquiries and tenders
11.32. Transformer efficiencies
11.33. The effect of load factor upon the value of transformer losses
11.34. Polyphase connection
11.35. The Scott and the balance connection
11.36. The interconnected star and the open delta connection
11.37. Multiwinding transformer
11.38. Transformer tapping
11.39. Voltage variation by tap changing
11.40. Performance and type tests
11.41. Phase representation of transformer test conditions
11.42. Impulse testing of transformer
11.43. Dispatch installation and maintenance of oil immersed
transformer, including drying out on SF6
11.44. Transformer oil
11.45. Parallel operation
11.46. The minimum total loss loading
Sub station transformers operation in parallel
11.47. Neutral point earthing
11.48. The three-phase interconnected star neutral earthing transformer
and static balancers
11.49. Transient phenomena occurring in transformer
11.50. Transformer protection
11.51. Failures and their causes
11.52. Effects of sustained abnormal operation conditions
11.53. The influence of transformer - connections upon third harmonics
voltage and currents
11.54. Electromagnetic forces in transformer winding
11.55. Transformer noise appendices
165
12. ELECTRICAL POWER CAPACITORS THE
BUILDING BLOCKS: CONTRUCTION MATERIAL
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Condenser tissue paper
12.3. Polypropylene film
12.4. Aluminum foil is other material of conductor
12.5. Impregnating liquids
12.6. Metallised dielectrically (DESIGN AND
MANUFACTURING)
12.7. Construction and design of a capacitor unit
12.8. The thermal design
12.9. Manufacture of capacitors - aluminum foil type
12.10. Fabrication of capacitors some detailed considerations
12.11. Partial discharge and dielectric breakdown of capacitors
TESTIG OF CAPACITORS
12.12. Testing of shunt power capacitors general requirement, safety
and routine tests
12.13. Testing of shunt power capacitors: type tests
166
13. ACCESSORIES FOR HIGH TENSION CAPACITOR
BANKS
167
14. POWER CAPACITORS
Appendices:
1. Power capacitors - standards
2. Glossary of terms relating to power capacitors
3. Useful formulae relating to power capacitors
168
15. ART AND SCIENCE OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
169
16. ELECTRIC CABLES
Appendices:
1. abbreviations
2. symbols used
3. conversion and multiple metric unit
4. conductor data
5. industrial cables for fixed supply
6. cables for fixed installation in building
7. cables for fixed installation (ship wiring and offshore)
8. flexible cords and cables
9. industrial cables for special application
10.mining cables
11. mineral Insulated wiring
12. paper insulated cables
13. PVC insulated distribution cables
14. XLPE insulated distribution cables
15. PVC insulated house semi cables
16. self controller oil filled cables
170
16.11. Low-pressure oil-filled power transmission cables
16.12.High-pressure oil-filled pipe-type power transmission cables
16.13.Voltage breakdown and other electrical tests power cables
16.14.Dissipation factor, partial- discharge, and electrical aging
tests on power cables
16.15.Field tests and accessories for polymeric power distribution
cables
16.16.Power cables system
16.17.Cryogenic and compressed gas insulated power cables
16.18.Underwater power cables
16.19.High voltage direct current cables
16.20.Telephone cables
16.21.Undersea coaxial communication cables
16.22.Terrestrial and underwater optical fiber cables
EVALUTION OF PARAMETERS
16.27.Dielectric losses
16.28.Joules losses in the conductor
16.29.Joule losses in screen, sheaths, and pipes
ADVANCED TOPICS
16.30. SPECIAL CABLE INSTALLATIONS
1. Introduction
2. Energy conservation equation
3. Cables on riser poles
4. Cables in trays
5. Cables in burried troughs
171
1. Introduction
2. General characteristics of numerical methods
3. The finite-element methods
4. The finite-difference methods
5. Modeling and computation issues
16.32. ECONOMIC SELECTION OF CONDUCTOR IRON-
SELECTION
1. Introduction
2. Cost of joule losses
3. Effect of charging current - dielectric losses
4. Selection of the economic conductor size
5. Parameter affecting economic selection of cables size
Appendices:
a. Different methods
b. An algorithm to calculate the coefficient of the transfer
function equation
c. Digital calculation of quantities given graphically
d. Properties of air at atmosphere pressure
e. Calculation sheets for steady state cable ratings
f. Difference between graphs and IEC 287 methods
172
17. UNDERGROUND CABLE FAULT LOCATION
GENERAL
SPECIALIZED AREAS
17.9. Power cables
17.10. Telecommunication system, information and control
system
17.11. under flow and under road, pipe and soil heating system
17.12. Lighting cables- motorway, highway, road and airfield
17.13. Optical fiber cable system
17.14. Information on cables
CHOICE OF EQUIPMENT
17.15. Factors
17.16. Choice
173
18. BUS BARS
174
19. RESERVED FOR FUTURE OVER HEAD LINE
DESIGN
1. Installation
2. Operation and maintenance
175
20. TESTING, COMMISSIONING OPERATION &
MAINTENANCE OF ELECTRICAL
EQUIPMENTS
176
23.Capacitor unit, capacitor banks
24.Protection, control & automation of electrical plant &
equipment
25.Rotary machines
26.Degree of protection, cooling system, enclosures and rating
of industrial rotating electrical machines
27.Selection of motors
28.Installation and commissioning of induction motors and
rotating electrical machines
29.Storage, installation and checks
30.Drying out of electrical rotating machines, insulation
resistance measurement
31.Mechanical maintenance of electrical rotating machines
32.Site testing & checking
33.Servicing and maintenance of motors
34.Maintenance management of rotating machines and
electrical preventive maintenance practice (EPMP)
35.Commissioning of synchronous generators
36.Synchronous motors and synchronous condensers,
commutators AC motors
37.Testing of synchronous machines
38.Protection and automation of synchronous generator and
motors (SCADA)
39.Automatic voltage regulators & excitation system of
synchronous generators
40.3phase induction motors
41.Testing of induction motors
42.Single-phase AC motors
43.AC commutator motors and special motors
44.Power Electronics
45.AC motor drives, DC motor drives, and electronic control,
programmable logic controllers(PLC) and microprocessor
based motor control
46.Electrical transportation and traction motors
47.Pumps, fans, blowers and compressors
48.Ventilation, air conditioning and refrigerators
49.Domestic installation and home appliances
50.Electrical heating and melting furnace, electrical schemes
productivity and energy conservation
51. Arc welding
177
52. Electrical system in ships
53. Electrical system in aircraft
54. Illumination engineering
55. Electrochemistry and electrometallurgy
56. ISO9000, RVQI and field quality management system
57. Digital computers and microprocessors
58. Information technology (IT), application in electrical
systems & plants
59. Maintenance of electronic equipments
60. Reliability, availability and outage
178