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MODEL TESTS OF FISHING GEAR 113

easily found by equating force components normal to the line as in Figure


5.15(b), ie W
R = w -cosa, where, by the cross-flow principle [Hoerner,
1958]
-

(5.22)

where C n * 1 , 4 is the drag coefficient of the line when oriented normal to

- --
the direction of the velocity. Thus, equating these two expressions for R,

sin

cos
2
a= 1
a cos a
cos a=
Ww
L, Cn-Di-pV*
(5.23)

^Ww 1,4
2
L, D, -
pV
where Ww/Li is the weight per unit length of line in the water, can be solved
for a.
Estimating the enclosed volume of the line as
v = (7r/4)-D,
2
-L, (5.24)

equation (5.21) gives the bulk, buoyed specific weight of the line as

7b = 4 WW/TT Di
2
LI (5.25)

From (5.23) and (5.25), eliminating Ww ,

2
sin a/cos a= TT Di y\>/2 C* p V2
and from (5.20)
2
-
_jDJ_V IT COS
Fr ~ 2
7b -D,~2'C n -sin

1,12--^
sura (5.26)

Sto Surface

X RY R Vim a

\ RX
-Ry

W w cosa\

TY

(a) (b)
Ww

Fig 5. 15 Equilibrium of a line subjected to hydrodynamic and gravity forces.


114 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

Figure 5.16 shows this dependence between a and the generalized Froude
Number, F r Obviously for Fr < 100 the influence of weight on the shape
.

and position of nets and ropes is considerable and the Froude Number must
be taken into consideration when planning model tests. For F r > 100 the
effect of weight on the shape of nets and ropes may be neglected. Note that
for lines and twines the diameter, D t is the characteristic linear dimension
,

for the Froude Number.

Fr
= relation for C n = I 4

Fr = 509 $ Empirical relation

2O 4O 6O 8O IOO ISO I4O I6O ISO 2OO 2.

Fig 5. 16 Dependence of the generalized Froude number on the angle of incidence of a line.

Example 5.5
Find the Froude Number for a steel trawling warp of 12,5 mm diameter in
a trawl towed at 3 knots (1,54 m/sec).

Solution

First find -yb-According to manufacturer's data the weight of 100 of such m


a warp in air is W 54 kgf. From Table 3.1 the sinking coefficient for steel
is Ea = 0,86. Hence, the weight of 100 m
of the warp in water according to
equation (3.4) is

Ww - Ey W * 0,86 x 54 - 46,4 kgf .

The enclosed volume, v, of the warp is the product of its cross-sectional


area by its length, fe,
MODEL TESTS OF FISHING GEAR 1 1 5

v = ^-xL = ^x 0,0125
2
x 100 = 0,0123 m 3

4 4

Hence, using (5.21),

4
p = 104,5 kgf-sec /m so that
2
On average, the mass density of sea water is ,

from (5.20) the Foude Number is


2
Fr = 104,5(1,54) /3780(0,0125) = 5,25

where the characteristic linear dimension is the warp diameter. Conse-


quently, when model testing this warp the Froude Number must be taken
into consideration.
It often happens that the Froude number is greater than 100 for the
netting but less than 100 for the lines.For example, a trawl net in water is
nearly always practically weightless and its Froude number can be neglected
while planning its model testing. However, if a complete trawl gear includ-
ing warps is to be tested, the Newton number, Ne, and the Froude number,
Fr, must each be identical both in the model and in the prototype for
similarity. If the Newton number is such that scaling factors can be selected
at will, then the Froude number dictates the conditions of the model tests.
Representing the Froude number (5.20) by its combination of scaling
factors,
2
S P -S V /S 7 -S L =1 (5.27)

is the Froude criterion for similarity. Hence, when modelling the warps, the

characteristic length for the Froude number is the line diameter (L = D) and
the scale of velocities is

[c . c_
(5.28)

The model velocity must be selected accordingly. With Sv thus determined,


the other scales can be calculated from the Newton criterion (5.18) to find
the various parameters for the model.
Similar situations may occur in model testing rope trawls in which the
fore part of the net consists of a system of ropes. If the ropes are steel or
chain, the Froude number must be taken into consideration.

Example 5. 6
Find the towing velocity required for testing a trawl model with 6 mm
diameter steel warps in water. The prototype trawl is towed at 5 knots
(2,57 m/sec) by 24 mm diameter warps. Assume that the buoyed specific
-1
weight of the warps in the model and in the prototype is the same, ie, Sy .
1 16 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

Solution

From (5.28), since pm = p p and Sp = 1

Consequently, the velocity of the model must be


Vm = Vp/Sv = 2,57/2 1,3 m/sec

5.4.7 UNSTEADY MOTION


This subject was introduced in 5.4.4 while considering initial conditions of
motion for the prototype and its model.
A purse seine is an example of fishing gear in unsteady motion. However,
the characteristics of this motion depend mostly upon the gravity forces
which cause the purse seine to sink to its fishing depth. Therefore, three
conditions, defined by the Newton number (Ne), the Froude number (Fr)
and the Strouhal number (Sr) each being identical for the prototype and
model, must be satisified and, as discussed in Section 5.4.4, they must
include the initial conditions of the motion. Therefore, to obtain numerical
values for these similarity criteria we must consider the initial coordinates
of the gear reference point Xo and the velocity of this reference point V
at the beginning (T = TO) of
the manoeuvre. If the similarity of the proto-
type and the model achieved for the initial moment of the motion at the
is

beginning of the manoeuvre, then this similarity will be preserved


throughout the manoeuvre, whatever velocity and position the model may
assume during the test.
For the case of the trawl motion considered in Example 5.6, the model
speed V m was selected according to the Froude criterion (5.28). For a purse
seine the sinking speed of the model results from fulfillment of the test con-
ditions imposed by the characteristics of net geometry, netting and rigging,
and by the similarity criteria for the initial conditions. From (5.28) the
initial speed of the model at the start of setting according to the Froude
criterion is

Vom = Vop .n.E (5.29)


Dp Pm
and for any subsequent moment the sinking speed of the model will be

(5.30)
Dp p m

If the model is tested in water and is made of the same netting as the
prototype,
MODEL TESTS OF FISHING GEAR 1 1 ?

S y = S D = S, = 1

whence
V 0n = V 0p
, and Vm = Vp
thatis, to satisfy the Froude criterion in this case, the model speed is the

same as the prototype speed and S v = 1.


The initial moment of the setting operation is the moment when the seine
drops from the deck into the water. Depending on the different elements of
the system, such as the hanging ratio of the netting, the weight of the
leadline and the height of the deck above water, the seine attains its initial
sinking velocity V 0p by the time it hits the water. To reproduce the proto-
type system operation in the model, Vo m calculated according to the Froude
criterion (5.29) must be observed.
According to the criterion for kinematic similarity, corresponding
moments of time for the model and the prototype can be calculated by
holding the Strouhal number identical for both the model and the proto-
type. The Strouhal number to be held constant is

Sr = VT/L (5.31)

where T is the time from the initial instant. This condition can be expressed
as

Vp
*
1
p/Lp
= Vm

where T p and T m are corresponding times for the prototype and model, or
it can be expressed in terms of the relevant scaling factors as

SvS T/S L =l (5.32)

Thus, by this criterion, the scaling factor for time is

(5.33)

In the above case, where Sv = 1, (5.33) requires that ST = SL, that is, that
the scaling factor for time is equal to the scaling factor for linear dimen-
sions. In general, from (5.29) and (5.33) the time for the prototype is given
by

.k.
T Tm
LB \7P SZ^T^
Dp p ro
(5.34)

Thus, the changing depth of the model seine


if m as a function of time Tm H
is it is easy to find the corresponding depth
known, p for the prototype H
at each corresponding moment T p Assuming that SH - SL, .

*
rl p == Aim 2^L

In the same manner the radius rp of the area encircled by the prototype seine
118 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

can be determined at any corresponding moment in time as

rp = r m SL

Example 5. 7
In an aquarium test of a SL = 100 1 purse-seine model made of the same
:

netting as the prototype, the following data on leadline sinking were


obtained:

time,
depth,
T m (sec)
H m (m)
1234
0,6 0,9 1,05 1,10

Calculate the rate of sinking for the leadline of the full-scale seine.

Solution

Find the corresponding times for the prototype using (5.34), where under
these conditions7n = TP D m = D p and p m = p p Consequently,
,
.

Then Tp = 1 x 100 = 100 sec = 1


,
min 40 sec,
TP2 = 2 x 100 = 200 sec = 3 min 20 sec,
TP3 = 3 x 100 = 300 sec = 5 min,
Tp,
= 4 x 100 = 400 sec = 6 min 40 sec.

The depth at each corresponding time is given by

H p = Hm SL
as,

H = 0,6x 100 = 60m,


PI
H = 0,9X 100 = 90 m,
P2

Hp, = 1,05x100= 105m,


H P4 = 1,10x100= 110m.
Thus, the required data for the sinking of the leadline on the full-scale seine
are:

time, Tp (min:sec) 1:40 3:20 5:00 6:40


depth, Hp(m) 60 90 105 110

To ensure initial similarity between the prototype and the model,


especially in more complex systems, such as a purse seine in operation, first,
the initial shape of the model in action must be an exact replica of that of
the prototype, then, an auxiliary initial linear dimension Lo can be intro-
duced to indicate, for example, the distance between the central float of the
seine and the seiner at the beginning (T = To) of a pursing operation. Thus,
MODEL TESTS OF FISHING GEAR 1 19

during the model test, L /L must be identical for the prototype and the
model and

Lop/Um = Lp/U (5.35)

should be fulfilled.

Then,

In rigging the model with floats and sinkers the criterion for force
similarity must be observed, ie 9

F m = F p /S F

where Fp are the forces from the rigging which affect the prototype seine.
The value of SF is determined from (5.19) according to Newton's criterion.

in this particular case, where S, = SD = S m = Sv = 1,

2
SF = SL

and
F m = F p /S L 2 (5.36)

The Newton similarity criterion in (5.19) applies to the external forces on


the gear as well as to the internal forces in the gear. Thus, forces on the
prototype can be predicted from measured forces on the model from

F p = F ra -S F (5.37)

For this, the manner of the operation of both the model and the prototype
must be as similar as possible. Therefore, to satisfy boundary conditions,
large models should be tested at sea, while only small ones may be tested
in tanks (see 5.3.5).

Example 5. 8
The maximum stress in the purse line was measured during a pursing test
of the purse-seine model described in the Example 5.7 and found to be
0,6 kgf. Find the maximum stress in the purse line of the prototype seine.

Solution

Using equation (5.37) the prototype tension is

F p = F m -S F
where, according to (5.19) SF in this case is

2
S F = SL
2
=100 = 10000.
120 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

Thus, the maximum stress in the full-scale purse line will be

Fp = 0,6x 10000 = 6000 kgf.

5.4.8 SCALE EFFECT


The scale effect can be defined as the difference between full-scale values for
variables as actually measured and observed for the prototype and cor-
responding values estimated from the results of model tests. The magnitude
of the scale effect on the various variables depends on how the model and
its rigging have been designed and on the test procedure, in particular on

how closely the similarity criteria have been observed. In practice, similarity
criteria can only partly be satisified, resulting in discrepancies between
values calculated from the results of the model tests and the corresponding
values measured with full-scale fishing gear.
One of the conditions which frequently cannot be observed is the
Reynolds criterion (explained in 3.1.2.5), which requires that for similar
fluid flow the ratio of fluid-inertia forces to fluid friction forces must be the
same in the model and in the prototype. That is,
Re = L-V/*> (5.38)

where L is a characteristic linear dimension of the fishing gear, V is the


velocity of the gear through the water, and v is the kinematic viscosity of
the fluid medium, is the same for the prototype and the model.
This condition may be written

Lp Vp/Pp = L m V m/I> m
If the model is tested in the same medium as the prototype, eg, in water,
then ?p = ym and

Then, according to the Reynolds criterion, the speed of the model should be

V m = Vp -Lp/L m (5.39)

and the speed of the model must be higher than that of the prototype by
the same number of times as the full-scale is bigger than the model. This
is not practical because the model would be destroyed by the hydrodynamic

and related forces even before it reaches the required speed.


However, careful investigation of this problem with regard to fishing nets
[Fridman, 1973] shows that it is the twine diameter, rather than the overall
dimension of the net, that should be used in Reynolds number as the
characteristic linear dimension of the fishing gear. Then, Reynolds criterion
(5.38) for the netting requires that

Ret - D t V/r (5.40)

(where D t is the twine thickness) should be the same in the prototype and
MODEL TESTS OF FISHING GEAR 121

in the model. Instead of (5.39) we now have


V m = V p -Dp/Dm. (5.41)

Comparing the resultsfrom (5.39) and (5.41), a much lower model speed
can satisfy the requirement. Observing the similarity criteria related
latter
to netting solidity (see sections 5.4 and 5.4.2) models can be made of the
same netting as the full-scale gear, easily satisfying conditions (5.40) and
(5.41). In particular, when D m = D p , (5.41) shows that Reynolds number is
satisfied when V m = V p , which is often possible. Consequently, attempts to

preserve geometric similarity in the mesh size and twine diameter of the
model may result in greater deviation from the Reynolds criterion than
would occur if the model were made of the same netting as the prototype.

Example 5.9
Find Reynolds number for a trawl net when the weighted mean diameter of
the twine in the netting t D
= 2,7 mm, the trawling
speed
V = 3,5 knots, and
6
the kinematic viscosity of the water is v = 10~ mr/sec.

Solution

First, convert the speed to m/sec:

V = 3,5 x 0,514=1. 8 m/sec,


and the mean diameter to metres:
B = 2,7 x
t 10"
3
= 0,0027m.

According to (5.40), Reynolds number for the twine is:

6
Re = 0,0027 x
3
t 1,8/lQ- 4,9 X 10 .

When the Reynolds criterion is not satisfied, the magnitude of the scale
effectdepends mainly on the influence of the Reynolds number on the
magnitude of hydrodynamic forces within that range of the Reynolds
number values which is of interest in the particular case. The influence of
Re decreases with increasing values of Re and, in most cases where it
exceeds Re D = 1000, can be neglected (see Fig 3.8 for netting normal to the
flow). respective numerical values for the Reynolds
Having calculated the
number for the twines in the prototype and in the model, Retp and Retm,
experimental results of the model hydrodynamic drag can be corrected to
some extent. Knowing the netting solidity ratios E,p and E,m and the
Reynolds numbers Retp and Retm, the corresponding drag coefficients C*p
and Cm can be obtained from Fig 3.8. Then, the corrected model drag, Fm
'

is obtained from the measured model drag Fm from ,

Fm (5.42)

The values of hydrodynamic drag acting on ropes and other rigging ele-
ments of fishing gear can be corrected in a similar way using data for flat
122 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING OEAR DESIGNS

plates, spheres and cylinders plotted in Fig 3.16, the last applicable to ropes
and cables (for wire rope C x * 1,4 for Re between 10 3 and 10 5 ).

Example 5 JO
The drag of a model Fm is 72 kgf Correct this value for a scale
fishing gear .

3
effect occurring because the Reynolds numbers, Re p =l,8xl0 and
= 3
Rem 0,2 x 10 differ between the prototype and the model. The netting
,

solidity ratio is E
= 0,05 in both the model and the prototype

Solution

First, find Cxp and C xm from Fig 3.8 at E =


s 0,05.

When Rep = 1,8 x 10


3
, Cxp = 1,35;

and when Re m = 0,2 x 10 Cxm =


3
, 1,50;

hence, from (5.42):


Fm = '

1,35/1, 50x72
= 65 kgf.

The ratio Cxp/Cxm = Sc can be considered as the scaling factor for the
drag coefficients. Incorporating this as a correction factor for forces in the
Newton criterion, (5.18) becomes
SD =
2 2
SF '
S m/Sc Sp Sv SL 1 (5.43)

enabling partial correction of scale effect errors due to Reynolds number.


There are also other causes for scaling errors, some already mentioned.
For example, it was shown in Section 5.4.6 how to evaluate the scale effect
when the Froude criterion is not satisified. The causes for scaling errors are
different in each case, requiring special analysis of each model tested.
In general, smaller models lead to less accurate test results, but they are
usually cheaper to construct and test. Usually the geometric scale for the
model is dictated by the technical characteristics of the available test
facility, expenses involved with the construction of the model being of a
secondary importance.
The accuracy of results obtained in tank tests is usually checked by
comparison with measurements on full-scale gear, the latter normally being
considered the more accurate. However, this is not always so. Full-scale
tests, especially under adverse conditions at sea, often do not give good
accuracy. Although accuracy can be improved by repeating measurements
a great number of times and by a statistical evaluation of results, the
variance in data collected at sea is higher and the cost of tests at sea with
full-scale gear is many times more than when models are tested in a tank
or in a similar testing facility.
Finally, in connection with scaling errors, the model of a mobile fishing
gear may be either towed in a test tank or held stationary in a flume tank
where the relative motion is induced by flowing fluid and a moving screen
MODEL TESTS OF FISHING GEAR 123

in thebottom of the flume. When the latter method is used for steady
motion, no correction for scale effect is required, but in unsteady motion,
measured forces require appropriate correction.

5.5 Model tests of sinkers, anchors, floats, doors and kites

The models of all these auxiliary devices for fishing gear must be so
designed that all forces in the model tests will be at the same scale, as re-
quired by the Newton criterion. Correct rigging of the fishing gear model
requires an evaluation of the magnitude of the forces that will be generated
by the model of each separate device or other component of the rigging.
This is simple where only weight is involved, but for hydrodynamic forces,
data are needed on the magnitude of the relevant hydrodynamic coeffic-
ients. Such data are usually collected during preliminary model tests of
these components while observing relevant conditions of similarity to be
discussed.
The similarity criteria for model studies of these rigid gear components
are the same as for any impermeable rigid body moving in a viscous
medium, such as a hydrofoil or a submarine. They include geometric
and identical Reynolds number in the model and prototype (see
similarity
3.1.2.5). When motion occurs near the free surface of a liquid, the Froude
number must be identical (see 5.4.6), and for unsteady motion the Strouhal
number must be identical (see 5.4.7). Naturally, the initial and boundary
conditions must also be taken into consideration.
In preliminary model tests of fishing gear auxiliary components,
hydrodynamic coefficients C, are usually found to depend on Reynolds
number, on the shape of the components and on their attitude in space. The
forces F imposed on the model by the liquid are measured directly, and their
magnitude depends on the velocity V. Such data are used to calculate the
hydrodynamic coefficients by definitive equations such as:

Cx = 2-F x/p-V 2 -A (5.44)

where Ais the selected reference area of the model. Such tests are usually

carried out over a wide range of velocities and model dimensions, and their
results are summarized in the form of functional dependencies such as
C = f(Re) C = f(a), where a angle of incidence of the body to the
and
fluid flow.This information can then be applied to any valid situation which
occurs in subsequent work. A
graph representing results collected in such
tests on trawl doors is given in Figs 3.15 and 3.17.
To observe the effects of boundary conditions on the operation of trawl
components tests must be conducted near the bottom of the tank. These
effects are partly taken into account when the model is set on a special
moving screen or is towed over the tank floor. In a flume tank an endless
belt in the bottom of the working area is used for this purpose. It is most
difficult to test trawl doors moving simultaneously in two media as when the
124 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

upper part is in water the lower part is in oozy mud. This problem must be
treated specially because it is complex and will not be discussed here.

5.6 Practical aspects of model testing procedures

Different procedures are required for the model tests of different fishing
gear, depending on the objectives of the study, but all model tests have
some things in common. Consider, for example, the preparation and test
of a trawl model.
The objective of this model test is to determine the mouth opening and
the drag of a full-scale trawl at various towing speeds while towed by a given
trawler. The tests are to be carried out on the test ground from a given,
small research vessel which can develop a towing pull not greater than
(F m ) max If the given commercial trawler can develop a maximum towing
.

pull (Fp) m ax, then the force scale must be not less than

SF = (Fp) max/(F m ) ma x (5.45)

All other scaling factors such as SL and Sv must be selected so as to fulfill


this basic requirement of available experimental conditions.
The same netting and hanging ratios are used for both the prototype and
the model so that So = 1, S m = 1 and SB = 1 and, as the model is tested in
water, S p
= 1. As a first approximation, the scale of the hydrodynamic
coefficients Sc is assumed to be equal to 1 and corrections for each range
of speeds are made according to the dependence C = f(Re) for netting.
Practical scaling factors SL and Sv for dimensions and speed are selected by
trail-and-error using the Newton criterion (5.43)

S F = Sc
2 2
Sp SD SL Sv /Sm (5.46)
2
This is simple because, in this case, (5.46) reduces to SF = Si,
2
Sv Any.

values of the linear scale SL and the speed scale Sv can be chosen so long
as SF is greater than the value set by (5.45). The final selection of the scale
for linear dimensions used to construct the model must also take into
account conditions imposed by the nature of the fishing ground, such as
depths, the type of sea bed as it affects the boundary layer, and the range
of suitable test speeds, the limited power of the research vessel requiring a
smaller model for a wider speed range.
With the geometric scale SL for constructing the model and the range of
speeds V selected, it is necessary to calculate the force scaling factor SFI for
each model speed using equation (5.46). Then, the model can be rigged so
that, for each given speed, all forces of sheer, lift, weight, etc, due to the
various components are to the appropriate scale:

(5.47)

These forces on the model can be determined from the scaling factors when
the forceson the full-scale gear are known. If they are not known, the
experimenter can set preliminary values and later, using the data obtained
MODEL TESTS OF FISHING GEAR 125

in the model test and the equation (5.47), recalculate the full-scale forces
from
Fp = F mi
i 'SFi (5.48)

These corrected data can now be used for the design or selection of auxiliary
components for the full-scale trawl so that its performance will simulate
that of the model with respect to drag and mouth opening. As with all other
forces, the drags of the model and of the full-scale trawl are related by
(5.48), v/z,

SF i (5.49)

and the scale of the linear dimensions and trawl mouth opening will be

L p = L m -S L (5.50)

Example 5. 11
velocities and linear dimensions re-
Find the scaling factors for the forces,
quired to make and test trawl model if it is known that the commercial
trawler develops maximum pull of (Fp) max = 8000 kgf while the research
boat towing the model can develop maximum pull of (F m ) max = 500 kgf. The
model is made of the same netting as the full-scale trawl.

Solution

The force scaling factor, SF, is found from the equation (5.45),

S F = 8000/500 =16.
Possible variants of S L and S v can be determined according to the
Newton criterion from equation (5.46) taking into account that S D = 1,
S m * 1, Sc = 1 and Sp = 1, whence
2 2
S F = S L -Sv =16

and
S L = 4/S V

Tentatively assign values to Sv and calculate corresponding values for SL as


follows:

SvV /V m p 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8

S L = Lp/Lm 6,7 5 4 3,3 2,9 2,5 2,2

Find the velocity and linear scaling factors which introduce minimum scale
effectaccording to Reynolds criterion using equation (5.40). With the same
fluid and the same twine thickness in the model as in the prototype,
Re is constant when V p Vm or Sv - V p/V m 1 whence S L , 4,0 is the ap-
propriate geometric scale.
126 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

5.6.1 CALCULATIONS FOR THE ROPE FRAME OF THE MODEL


In the above discussion, the approximate similarity between the model and
the full-scale net depends on the similarity of hydrodynamic forces while the
influence of the weight of the netting can be neglected. For wire ropes
(headlines, leadlines, footropes, riblines, etc) the influence of weight is more
substantial and the buoyed weight of the prototype and the model lines
must be to the same scaling factor S F as are the hydrodynamic forces. The
scaling factor for the weight of the ropes in water by definition is
2 2
S F = Dp Lp 7b P /D m L m 7bm (5.51)

which should be made the same as the scaling factor for the hydrodynamic
forces (3.17), v/'z,

From equation (5.51) the diameter of rope in the model which will satisfy
the weight similarity conditions is

/r~7T~
(5.53)

while from (5.52) the diameter of rope in the model which will satisfy the

hydrodynamic similarity condition is


D m = Dp Sc SL Sp
2
S V /S F (5.54)

However, the rope diameters for the model are calculated according to
if

(5.53), weight similarity is observed but the drag of the model ropes is
higher than required by the force scale S F and, if the rope diameters for the
model are calculated by (5.54), hydrodynamic similarity is observed but the
weight of the model ropes is less than required by the force scale SF.
It is theoretically possible to overcome this incompatability of criteria

by calculating the rope diameters for the model according to (5.54) for
hydrodynamic force similarity, then making them of a material somewhat
denser than the full-scale ropes for weight similarity. The required buoyed
specific weight of the material for the model ropes is calculated by trans-
posing (5.51) to
C C5 ^ /C. /C CC\

However, it may be difficult to obtain the necessary material and in practice


the experimenter may be forced to choose only one of these similarity
criteria, is more relevant to the character of the prototype gear.
whichever
For example, the gear has relatively long and heavy ropes and velocities
if
are relatively low, as in purse seines, the model ropes should be selected
for weight according to the equation (5.53). For active gear such as
trawls, however, equation (5.54) should be used to satisfy hydrodynamic
conditions.
MODEL TESTS OF FISHING GEAR 127

These considerations are of special importance for rope trawls where a


system of lines replaces the netting in the fore part of the net.

5.6.2 CALCULATIONS FOR MODEL WARPS


The principles for calculating model ropes discussed in 5.6.1 apply also to
the warps, but there is one practical circumstance which should be treated
separately. Ideally, for each trawl model which is tested, a corresponding
model warp should be used. In practice, however, it is difficult to obtain
and use a different model warp for each of the different trawl models.
Moreover, the warp is often used also as an electrical communication link
to transmit information from instrument transducers on the model to
recording instruments. Therefore, it is more practical to test different trawl
models using one permanent of model warps. This can be done by
set

adjusting the warp length for each test to the scaling factor for velocities.
The scaling factor for forces, SF, should be the same for all types of force
(hydrodynamic, buoyed weight, tension) acting on the warp, which is
achieved if the scaling factor for hydrodynamic force areas (C A) is the
same for the warps as for the trawl net. Thus, the scaling factor for warp
length SLW fulfilling the above condition can be calculated from

S Lw = (S L n /Sl>w)
2 '
(Sen/Sew) (5.56)

where Stn is the geometric scaling factor for the net and Sen is the scaling

factor for the hydrodynamic force coefficients for the gear, including trawl
doors and other attachments. The latter depends on Reynolds number and
better similarity conditions are observed in the model tests if Sen is near
unity. Similarly, Sew, the scaling factor for hydrodynamic force coefficients
of the warps, also depends on the Reynolds number and is near unity if the
test has been planned correctly. Therefore, for simplification, equation

(5.56) is approximated by
S Lw = S Ln /SDw
2
(5.57)

and since, by definition, SLW = Lwp/Lwm, the model warp length should be
2
Urn = Lwp/SLw = L Wp Sow/Stn '
(5.58)

When all these conditions have been observed, the fishing depth of the
model should be
2
H m = HP/SLW = Hp Sow/Stn (5.59)

The warp velocity is determined according to the


scaling factor for
generalized Froude criterion, equation (5.28), which for model tests in the
same medium as the prototype assumes the form
(5.60)

where, for wire rope, the characteristic linear dimension is its diameter.
Since, by definition, Sv - V p/V m the desired velocity of the model warps
128 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

within the basic speed range of the test is

(5.61)

Example 5.12
For the trawl mentioned in Example 5. 1 1 the diameter of the full-scale warp
is Dwp =18mm and the warp diameter of the research vessel is
Dwm = 6 mm. Find the scaling factors for warp length SLW and velocity Sv
suitable to test the trawl model with available warps.

Solution

The linear scale for the trawl net was found to be Sm = 4 and the scale for
the warp diameters Sow now proves to be different

Sow =18/6 = 3.

Thus, the scaling factor for warp length SLW is determined from equation
(5.57) and is

SLW = S Ln 2/SDw = 4 2 /3 = 5,34.

rather than 4, as it would have been


the conditions of geometric similarity
if
were strictly observed. Using equation (5.60), assuming for simplicity that
the scaling factor for specific weight S 7 = 1 (although in practice it should
be confirmed for each case),

and the appropriate towing speed for the model warps is

Vwm = Vwp/Svw-0,6V wp .

Thus, to test the trawl model with the available warps, the model speed
must be reduced and, as a result, somewhat larger scaling errors can be
expected. For drags the scale effect can be corrected as was done in Example
5.10.

5.6.3 CALCULATIONS FOR THE RIGGING OF MODELS


In Section 5.6 the forces F rai imposed on the model net by its auxiliary or
rigging components were calculated by equation (5.47) in which the scaling
factors SF were given tentative values for each model speed. This is fully
valid for those auxiliary components which create hydrodynamic sheer or
lift hydrodynamic floats, kites). For those auxiliary
forces (trawl doors,
components which model only by their buoyancy or weight,
affect the
independent of velocity, forces for the most common speed and the
corresponding force scale were calculated. These auxiliary components of
MODEL TESTS OF FISHING GEAR 129

the model rigging do not need to be changed or modified for testing at other
speeds.
In model testing the gear system, it is not always necessary to observe
strict geometric similarity of the model rigging, the number of auxiliary

components, or even the principle of their action. However, it is important


that their force pattern is similar to the full-scale. For example, if oval trawl
doors are used for the full-scale trawl, it is possible to rig the trawl model
with doors of rectangular or other shape. However, their sheering force
must correspond to that calculated by equation (5.47) for the given test
speed. The error consists in that condition (5.47) will not be observed for
the drag of the trawl door model. In some tests, for example where unsteady
motion is being studied, such substitution of trawl door types is not per-
missible. As another example, it is not mandatory to rig the model with the
same number of floats as the prototype. The headline of the model can be
rigged with spherical floats, made of foam plastic or other suitable material,
of diameter and quantity determined from the condition that their overall
lifting force is correct and their distribution along the headline is analogous
to the full-scale gear. Thus, although the model gear rigging is not a
physical replica it produces a scaled-down system of forces which is a
replica of the full-scale system of forces acting on the gear. Through this
principle, the preparation of the auxiliary components is considerably
simplified and the expenditure for carrying out tests is reduced. This
approach is quite acceptable, for example, for the situation considered in

Section 5.6 where the aim was to evaluate the mouth opening and drag of
the trawl moving at different speeds.
For model tests of auxiliary fishing gear components, the models of the
components are made according to the principle of geometric similarity
with full-scale components. Then, to obtain a similar pattern of flow
around both the model auxiliary components and their full-scale counter-
parts, Reynolds number should be identical for both the model and the
prototype. However, more often than not in practice, the Reynolds con-
dition cannot be observed in testing of model gears. Fortunately, over a
wide range of speeds and linear dimensions, fishing gear auxiliaries operate
within a range of Reynolds number which has little effect on force coeffic-
5
ients. For example for trawl doors, Re is less than 8 x 10 and for spherical
3 5
floats and bobbins Re is between 10 and 10 (see Fig 3.16). Therefore, it
is advisable to select model dimensions and velocities such that the auxiliary

components in the model are also in the range of Reynolds number which
has little effect on their performance. Experimental experience shows that
this is quite possible when large-scale gear models are tested. Though such
scales require more labour, they provide greater accuracy in the model test

results, and they can be used for solving a wider range of problems.

5.6.4 MEASURING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MODEL


The effectiveness of model tests conducted on research vessels or in other
130 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

facilities depends mostly on the available system of testing instruments.


Data on the variables of fishing gear model behaviour are transmitted in a
coordinated way by the system of instruments on board. There is no mass
production of such equipment so the instruments and systems for model
testing must be designed and produced to special order. Such instrument
systems consist of three main parts: (a) primary transducers on the model
to sense the variables, (b) communication channel from the transducers to
recorders, and (c) recording instruments installed in the research boat
(Fig 5.6). Underwater transducers are used to measure such variables as the
fishing spread between the trawl doors and between the wing ends, the
fishing height, fishing depth and tensions in the sweeplines and in warps.
Deck instruments are used to measure such variables as trawling speed,
warp tensions at the vessel, and warp angles.
The overall dimensions of underwater transducers must be such that their
weight and hydrodynamic resistance do not influence substantially the
shape of the model. Also, they must be waterproof, pressure-resistant,
reliable, sensitive, and accurate to within 5%. Various operating principles
may be used. Hydrostatic transducers to indicate the depth of the model in
the water may use a pressure sensor such as a membrane, disk or rod. Load
cells to measure line tensions may use a spring, hydraulic cylinder or strain

gauge. Small echo sounders may be used to measure the mouth opening or
the height of the model above the sea bed. Acoustic transducers are fixed
to the points on the gear whose separation is to be measured so that one
transducer transmits the sound pulse while the other receives it. The signals
from the receiving transducer are transmitted over the communicating cable
(which may be the warp) to the recorder of the echo sounder on board.
Recording instruments are usually placed in the deckhouse of the towing
vessel.

5.6.5 TEST PROCEDURES AND CONVERSION OF RESULTS FROM MODEL TO


FULL-SCALE
The process of a model test consists of a series of typical fishing operations,
tows in the case of a trawl, each lasting about 30 minutes. The number of
trialsdepends on the accuracy required for data on the technical parameters
of the model, usually within 5 to 10% at present. First, a series of three to
five tows is conducted during which 30-50 measurements of each relevant
variable are taken. The means and standard errors for all variables are
calculated and, if the latter are too great, further tests are conducted until
the means of all variables are obtained to within the required precision, if
practical. _
The arithmetic mean for each variable X from a series of measurements
is found as

X-i-SXi
n j.i
(5-62)
MODEL TESTS OF FISHING GEAR 131

where Xj is the result of each measurement, and n is the number of


measurements. The probable error, ex, of the arithemtical mean X is deter-
mined from

Cx = (5.63)
tc--p
Jn
where t c is a variable coefficient depending on the level of confidence, c,

required by the experimenter and on the number of degrees of freedom of


the mean (n - 1), and s is the standard deviation of the measurements about
that mean. If the number of measurements is small (less than 20), t c is
chosen from statistical tables of Student's V, otherwise the normal
distribution is used. The confidence level, c, is usually taken in the range
0,9 to 0,95.
The standard deviation, s, of the data is calculated according to formula

Having calculated X, s and ex, the value for each variable of gear-model
behaviour are reported in the form

B= Xex (5.65)

Also, the relative error of each mean


ex /(X-100) (5.66)

issometimes reported as a percentage. Practical experience with model tests


of trawls shows that relative errors of 5 to 10% require 30 to 40
measurements of each variable under each condition.
Conversion of model test results to full-scale gear is accomplished with
the same scaling factors for linear dimensions, forces, velocities and other
variables which were derived from the similarity criteria used to develope
the model design and test procedure from prototype conditions. For
example,

Vp = V m -Sv (5.67)

In this way, theoretical values for variables of full-scale trawl behaviour are
obtained, probably with some error.
Errors in the predicted variables of full-scale gear behaviour are of
two types, systematic and random. Systematic errors originate in the test
method adopted and occur when full similarity conditions cannot be
achieved, but must be compromised in such a way as to realize approximate
similarity. Greater deviation from the similarity criteria causes larger
132 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

systematic errors, influencing each separate measurement and usually


introducing a bias, already identified as the scale effect (see 5.4.8).
Systematic errors can also originate in the instrumentation. Random errors
result from errors in reading the measuring instruments and from uncon-
trolled variations in the test conditions. These errors can be treated
statistically and can be reduced by improving the measuring instruments
and test conditions and by increasing the number of measurements.
To improve the accuracy of conversion of the results of the model tests
to full-scale under given experimental conditions, empirical correction
coefficients K can be introduced into the conversion equations (5.67), which
then assume the form:

L p = KL SL Lm
Fp = KF SF Fm
V p = KvSvV m (5.68)

The empirical correction coefficients K are determined from experience


accumulated during repeated tests of different model and full-scale trawls.
It is important to realize that they are specific for the given experimental

conditions and that correction coefficients obtained in one experimental


installation cannot be used to correct the results of tests conducted in
another, although they may qualitatively indicate a trend.
B. DESIGN
CHAPTER 6

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING COMMERCIAL FISHING


GEAR

6.1 The objectives of Ashing gear design

There is a great variety in fishing gear types, requiring a flexible approach

to design methods. Some of the more complex design problems will be


discussed, following the philosophy that basic principles learned in this way
can be applied by the reader to simpler cases. The scope of this manual does
not permit description of all aspects of the design process such as how to
select the best design solution or how to draw net plans. Instead, prime
attention is paid to the main task of the designer, namely to establish the
principle parameters of the desired fishing gear design.
Designing fishing gear is the process of preparing technical specifications
and drawings for a fishing gear to satisfy gear handling, technical,
operational, economic and social requirements. The solution of problems
involved in producing fishing gear to satisfy specified characteristics is
complex, first because the technology is complex and second because a
number of conflicting characteristics must be reconciled. In principle, to
design fishing gear, it is enough to have practical fishing experience and
to be able to carry out engineering calculations. With this knowledge,
plans and specifications for fishing gear can be developed and the gear
constructed and tested at sea. If the new fishing gear is not satisfactory, it
may be modified or, at worst, redesigned from the beginning, taking into
account previous errors.
Most fishing gear has been produced by trial and error methods and,
although such methods produce good results, they are expensive both in
resources and in time. As in other spheres of human activity, as experience
and understanding accumulate, generalization develops, ie, theory and
the related science appear.It is no coincidence that, in the science of

commercial fishing, a new trend, Theory of designing fishing gear,* has


appeared and developed since the sixties. Empirical approaches for deter-
mining the design parameters of fishing gear have been substituted by
analytical methods based on similarity principles.
In designing a fishing gear it is necessary to appraise simultaneously both
its fishing and technical qualities and its economic efficiency. The problem
134 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

of designing fishing gear can be solved in many ways and, in addition, there
are many types of fishing gear, therefore, design theory has no fixed,
routine solution or recipes and the designer has to be creative in each
particular case under these circumstances.
The effectivenes of fishing gear depends heavilyon the knowledge of and
due regard for behaviour in the zone of gear action, and this cannot
fish
be calculated numerically. Conformity of a given gear to fish behaviour and
fishing conditions is appraised empirically and the main requirements for
the designed gear are usually set subjectively, taking into account fishing
experience. This factor imposes special requirements on the design process,
often making it more of an art than a science.
The general knowledge and ability of the fishermen who must use the new
gear also affects what design features may be incorporated. For example,
a sophisticated or complicated gear cannot be properly used and maintained
in an artisinal fishery. If high technology electronics or machinery is
required to operate the gear, then the fishermen must be able to assimilate
the relevant technical training. There are usually advantages in keeping the
gear simple, even when the fishermen are highly skilled and when qualified,
shore-based services are available.
The following are some of the more common actual cases where fishing
gear can and should be designed by engineering methods and analysis.
1 The performance of a well known and tested gear has to be improved
.

by upgrading its technical characteristics such as by using a more suitable


netting material, by better rigging, or by reducing weight or construction
cost.
2. An
established fishing gear has to be modified to accommodate a new
fishing area, operational technique, etc. The new variant is developed by an
analysis of the main elements of the gear and by model tests followed by
under fishing conditions.
full-scale tests
3. An entirely new type of gear is designed for which there is no

prototype. The main difficulty is that the reaction of the fish to the new
method of capture is not known. Such a project involves design and testing
of successive experimental models and of full-scale design variants under
fishing conditions.
The main attributes of a fishing gear and its design, namely its economic
feasibility and depend on many factors such as the state
fishing efficiency,
of fishery resource, the market demand for the fish and its price, the cost
of operating the fishing fleet, the number, size and type of fishing vessels
in the given area, the remoteness of the fishing area from home ports, the
availability of fishing gear materials and components and of technical
support for construction and maintenance of the fleet, the management of
the fishery resource (regulations and operational constraints), the hydro-
meteorological conditions, the availability and professional skill of the
fishermen and on other technical and economic conditions. The new design
should suit as many as possible of these and other relevant technical,
economic and social conditions.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING COMMERCIAL FISHING GEAR 135

6.2 Design stages


The design of fishing gear and of any other associated equipment,
machinery, instruments, etc, is divided into several stages which may partly
overlap in practice. There are:
1. Justification (definition of needs for the new gear);
2. Formulation of technical requirements to satisfy the new needs;
3. Preparation of a preliminary or conceptual design;
4. Development of a detailed technical design (specifications and details
of materials);
5. Preparation of construction drawings.
The justification explains why a new or a modified gear variant is needed,
specifies the fishing conditions under which this variant is supposed to
be operated, including the knowledge and ability of the fishermen, and
identifies economic and other gains.
The principal technical requirements of the new design are formulated
according to:

1.the purpose of the gear;


2. the gear type and method of operation;
3. the performance characteristics of the gear;
4. the structural characteristics of the gear.

The efficiency of fishing gear depends very much on this technical formu-
lation, because inappropriate characteristics can make the gear inefficient.
If possible, an existing gear is selected as prototype. As an aid to this
selection, Table 6.1 summarizes the performance characteristics of the more
important fishing methods. Improvement is developed during this technical
formulation, requiring a thorough knowledge of the peculiarities of the
fish and of the fishing conditions on the prospective fishing grounds. Then
the desirable changes in the design and dimensions, rigging, materials,
operational regime, etc, for the new design are tentatively suggested. The
technical formulation should be comprehensive and the requirements for
the fishing gear should be mutually compatible. For example, the towing
speed and trawl dimensions can be determined only if the power of the
fishing vessel is known.

During the preparation of the tentative design, the compatibility of


the structural and performance requirements should be verified and the
expediency of developing several alternate variants of the design should
be determined. For this purpose all available information on the design
and operation of the prototype fishing gear is required for evaluating the
different tentative variants of the design and of the rigging. If model tests
are needed, they are carried out at this stage to determine the working shape
and position of each gear, the speed, the location, magnitude and direction
of forces, etc. Also, it may be useful to conduct controlled experiments with
the full-scale, prototype gear. For this, recommended precautions and
procedures should be observed [ICES, 1981]. During this stage some
136 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

1
2
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GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING COMMERCIAL FISHING GEAR 1 37

necessary amendments and modifications to the original formulation can be


made according to the constraints and limitations disclosed by the analytical
calculations and the experimental results. During the stage of technical
designing all the construction problems are solved, taking into account the
availability of required netting materials, ropes, rigging and other
equipment. For fishing gear developed for industrial production, structural
details, list of materials and costs are specified.
Construction drawings containing all the necessary information for the
manufacture and operation of the fishing gear are prepared at the next
stage. The operational efficiency of the new gear is verified in full scale
under actual fishing conditions on the designated fishing grounds and, if the
gear is accepted for commercial production, a full technical description and
operation manual is prepared for delivery to the fishermen with the new
gear.
The formulation of the technical requirements and the preparation of the
tentative design are the most creative stages of the design process. At these
stages the principal solutions are found. The subsequent stages consist of
detailed technical specification, experimental work and gear evaluation, and
material quantification and costing.

6.3 Formulating design requirements and approach to the solution of


design problems
The biological law of natural selection and survival of the fittest can also
be applied while evaluating existing fishing gears. Those net types which are
widely used survived other, now 'extinct' or forgotten, gears because they
fished better or were otherwise more advantageous to fishermen. The
experience stemming from this acceptance or rejection of various types of
fishing gear is the basis for the conceptual design of new and improved gear
variants.
The values assigned to design parameters while developing new fishing
gear can be divided into four groups.
1. Values established by fishing experience or desired as operational

features, such as the catch (C) for each immersion of the gear, the speed
at which the fishing gear moves or the velocity of the current (V), the power
of the vessel (P) or the average duration of each fishing cycle (T). In some
cases values for additional parameters are required, such as the maximum
dimensions of fishing gear, dimensions or other characteristics of the vessel,
maximum permissible catch per a fishing cycle or special constraints of the
weather, including sea state, ocean currents, and ice.
2. Values established by government and/or international rules and

regulations, such as the minimum mesh size, type of fibre, by-catch quota
of certain species, minimum individual fish size, allowable loads in the gear
and its maximum gear weight for vessel stability and limiting safe
rigging,
fishing conditions. Such standards are often mandatory so that desirable
values are known for design purposes.
138 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

3. Values selected intuitively by the designer for optimum functioning,


including structural details (number and position of netting panels, number
of ropes and other rigging elements) and sometimes maximum or minimum
dimensions. These values should not be arbitrary but should be rationalized
by the designer, drawing on both practical experience and the results of
theoretical calculations.
4. Values found rationally by the designer in the design process are the
final dimensions of the fishing gear, its drag, and the required magnitude
of the forces to be provided by floats, sinkers, anchors, trawl boards, kites,
etc to ensure the desired performance of the gear.
The mathematical problem can be stated precisely. There are V
unknown quantities associated with each other and it is necessary to
compile a system of 'n' equations from which all the unknown values can
be found. The solution is difficult because most functional relations
between the different characteristics of the gear, such as between
dimensions and drag or between the drag and fishing depth, are not simple
or exact. Therefore, most problems of fishing gear design are solved by
approximate methods and the most usual method is that of successive
approximations.
The basic procedure for using existing fishing experience in the design
of fishing gear for new applications is to base the design on an existing
and proven prototype. The prototype is chosen as having demonstrated
performance characteristics similar to those specified for the required new
application, as meeting the technical specifications and as satisfying the
conceptual plans of the designer better than other known fishing gear. Some
characteristics of the prototype are transferred directly to the new design.
With a good prototype, the selection of design parameters is simplified
because most of them can be taken from the prototype, thus assuring
suitability and avoiding large errors. Many general characteristics and even
technical specifications of the new design may be selected arbitrarily.
Consequently, two different persons may provide different solutions for the
same technical assignment. Therefore, where possible, several solutions or
design variants may be developed and the best ones selected.

6.4 Determining the principal design features based on the prototype


gear
The basic technical characteristics of any
fishing gear are its dimensions and
shape, drag as a function of speed and the magnitude of the forces
its

imposed by various rigging components. These values are calculated for the
new design from the prototype using the rules of similarity, regarding the
new fishing gear and its prototype as being similar in their main features.
The relations between the technical characteristics of corresponding gear
components are presented as scales of similarity for linear dimensions,
speeds, forces, etc (Fridman, 1973). If the new design differs insignificantly
in principle from the prototype, then its basic elements can be calculated
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING COMMERCIAL FISHING GEAR 139

directlyfrom prototype data. If the difference is significant, then a model


test of the new design may be considered. The technical characteristics
obtained by testing the model are then used to calculate the basic compo-
nents and technical characteristics of the new gear.
For the sake of convenience, when designing new gear using data from
an established full-scale prototype gear, a small difference in procedure
from that described for model studies in Chapter 5 will be introduced. In
model studies, the scaling factors are defined as ratios of prototype values
to model values so that they can be used as multiplying factors when using
measured model data to estimate full-scale prototype characteristics. That
is,

SB = B p/B m B p = SB B m
;

However, when designing new gear from known values for established,
full-scale, prototype gear, it is more convenient to define the scaling factors
as ratios of new-gear values to prototype values so that they can be used as
multiplying factors when using measured prototype data to estimate
full-scale, new-gear characteristics. That is,

This changed role of the prototype gear does not change the basic
principles. All the relations between scaling factors developed for model
studies are equally valid for designing new gear from established
prototypes.
Relations of the scaling factors for physical values result from the
conditions of approximate similarity of fishing gear discussed in Chapter 5.
The full-scale prototype is now the device with known characteristics and
is designated by subscript p, whereas the new design is also a full-scale

device, but usually to different scale and with unknown characteristics and
is designated by subscript n. According to similarity criteria already
developed in Section 5.4 for modelling full-scale gear, the numerical values
for the similarity criteria, Ne, Fr, and Sr, should be the same in the new gear
and in the prototype, but, because solid or blocked areas of the net are used
in these criteria, there is no need to consider solidity ratios as such. These
similarity criteria may thus be presented respectively in the form
2 2
(S F S m)/(S c S,) SD SL Sv = 1 (6. 1)

from (5.17),
2
S,-Sv /S>'S D =l (6.2)

from (5.20) and


SvST/SL =l (6.3)

from the same as in Chapter 5, with the


(5.31), where the nomenclature is

new definition for S just given.


140 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

Depending on the specific design problem either all the equations 6.1 to
6.3 or only some of them may be used.

Example 6.1

The linear dimensions of the newly designed trawl are 30% larger than the
prototype and the towing speed is 20% lower. The technical specifications
of the nets are the same. Determine how the drag of the new trawl will differ
from the prototype under these conditions.

Solution

For the solution, the condition of force similarity for the new trawl and the
prototype, ie, equation (6.1), may be used. According to the above
conditions

SL= 1 ,3 and Sv = 0,8 while


Sc = Sp = S D = S n=l. I

Thus
2 2
S F = S L -Sv
2
= (1,3)
2
-(0,8) =1,08
F n =l,08-Fp~ 1,1-Fp
Thus, under the given conditions, the drag of the new trawl is about 10%
higher than that of the prototype.

6.5 Additional scaling factors for designing principal gear components


from prototype data
From the above similarity criteria, there are only three equations [(6.1) to
(6.3)] containing 10 variables. Thus, to obtain a unique solution it is
necessary to use additional relationships to bring the number of equations
into conformity with the number of variables (scaling factors).
In most cases S, = 1. Deviations from this can occur if the prototype is
not an existing gear but is a newly produced model tested in some medium
other than water, such as in a wind tunnel.
The factor S7 can be estimated approximately if the material of the new
gear has been specified, or it may be estimated tentatively, and determined
later from the tests.
The Sm can be set on the basis either of the size of the individual
factor
fish to be caught or of hydrodynamic conditions at the netting (eg, large
meshes in the wings of a trawl to reduce drag).
The value for factor Sc can be proposed when the type of netting and
velocity of the new gear are prescribed, enabling calculation of Reynolds
Number (Reo) and its influence on the drag coefficients of the netting of
both the prototype and the new gear. In practice, in most cases, the
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING COMMERCIAL FISHING GEAR 141

difference between the values of these coefficients in the two gears is not
such as to influence Rep greatly so that Sc is close to 1. Nevertheless, it is
recommended that this assumption be verified in each case.
In trawl design, the force scaling factor, S F , can be determined from the
additional formula equating the estimated trawl drag at the given speed to
the available towing pull of the vessel

SF = Rn/Rp = Ftn/F t p (6.4)

where R n and Rp , respectively, are drag resistance of the new and prototype
trawls while F tn and Ftp are the towing forces available from the respective
trawlers at the given speed. The power actually delevered to the trawl while
towing it through the water is a surprisingly small fraction of the rated
power of the propulsion engine(s). However, as a first approximation, for
practical purposes, this fraction may be regarded as similar for different
trawlers at the same towing speed. Then, considering that P = F V,

Sp (6.5)

provided that Sv = V n/V p = 1. Substituting these values into (6.1),

(6 - 6)

Example 6.2

A trawl of a given design with a 300-mesh square is well matched to a 400


horsepower trawler. What would be the size of the square of a similar trawl
adapted to a 200 horsepower trawler?

Solution

Because the two trawls are similar, Sc = S m = SD = S p = 1 and SL = Mn/Mp .

Then, from (6.6)


Mn = Mp

300- = 212 meshes


400
In designing a purse seine, the linear scaling factor SL can also be
obtained by using the additional equation (8.5) given in Chapter 8 for
calculating the length of a purse seine according to sizes of the fish schools
and the speed of the vessel. If there are no other constraints such as the
towing power of the vessel, the scale of linear sizes SL can also be
determined by comparing the required catch per unit time of the designed
gear Cm with that of the prototype CTp .

According to (1.2)

CTn/CTp = (C E n/CEp) (Wn/W p) (Ein/Eip) (6.7)


142 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

Assume (for convenience for the present) that in the new fishing gear the
volumetric fishing speed (see 1.2) is W
n while the catch per unit effort CE
and the time efficiency of the operation ET are the same as in the prototype,
then
Crn/CTp = Wn/Wp = (Vn/Tfn)
-
(Tfp/V p ) (6.8)

Considering that the total catch is CT T f


*
, (6.8) gives

(Cin/Cip) (Tfn/Tfp)
= Vn/Vp (6.9)

That is, the ratio of the total catches is proportional to the ratio of the
fished water volumes for the new design and the prototype.
The volume of water fished can be expressed as
v = A-V-Tf (6.10)

where A is the working area of the fishing gear (the area of the trawl mouth,
the enclosed area of a purse seine, etc) and V is the fishing speed. But, as
discussed in Section 5.2.1, the working area is proportional to the square
of the characteristic linear dimension so that

AocL 2
Then, if the amount of time fished by the new gear and the prototype is the
same, Tfn = T fp whence (6.9) and (6.10) give
,

C T n/C T p = (L n 2 /Lp 2 ) (Vn/Vp) (6.1 1)

or

whence

SL =

or

where L is any characteristic linear dimension of the gear.

Example 6.3

Scale up a prototype fishing gear to increase the expected catch per unit
operation by 20% at the same fishing speed, assuming the unit operation
requires the same time for the larger gear as for the prototype.

Solution

According to the above condition


CT /Orp=l,2 and Vn/Vp =l,
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING COMMERCIAL FISHING GEAR 143

then, (6. 12) gives

ie, the corresponding linear dimensions of the new fishing gear are to be in-
creased by 10%.
The same relation of catch to fished volume (6.1 1) can be rearranged to
estimate the increase in catch per unit time by a larger gear, based on the
known catch rate of the prototype. This 'fished volume* estimate does not
take into account the effects of variations in fish distribution or of different
reactions of fish to gears of different sizes.
When there are insufficient functional relations to solve for all variables,
some scaling factors, such as SL or Sv may tentatively be given a series of
values to obtain several design variants and the best of these selected.

6.6 Determining the scaling factors for twine and rope diameters
The determination of the thickness scaling factors So which characterize the
strengths of netting twines and ropes or lines in relation to imposed loads
must be treated separately.
For types of fishing gear where the dominant tensile loads in the netting
twines are related primarily to the overall size (area) of the gear, such as in
seine nets or gill nets, Sot can be determined by the equation

Q
Sot Q
Sv
\
-
|Sf Sm SL SEI
'
SE2
*

However, where the tensile loads in the netting twines are caused primarily
by the hydrodynamic drag of the netting itself, such as in full mounted
towed gears,
2
SL -SfS Ek

Except where the netting has large D t/mi (>0.05) and the netting in the new
gear does not correspond well with that in the prototype, SEK ~ 1 and can
be ignored.
Two new scaling factors are required for this analysis. S f is the ratio of
the load safety factor for twines in the new design fn to that in the prototype
fp.

Sf=fn/fp (6.14)

where the safety factor, f , is defined as the ratio of the breaking load, Fr ,

or tensile force at rupture of the twine, to its working load F


f = Fr/F (6.15)

The scaling factor SOT is the ratio of the breaking stress for the twines in the
new design ara to that for the prototype arp

(6.16)
144 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

where the breaking stress for the twine is the maximum (breaking) tensile
force Fr per unit cross-sectional area of the twine A t, commonly expressed
2
in kgf/mm
(6.17)

Equation (6.13) or (6.13a) may also be used as an additional similarity


relation when there are too many unknown variables, as described in section
(6.5).
If the loads on the twine are not imposed by the hydrodynamic drag but,
for example, by the efforts or passive weight of enmeshed large fish,

(6.18)
\ a<rr

may be used to find Sot-


Equations (6.13) and (6.18) for calculating Sot are valid when the twine
thickness, mesh size, hanging ratios, tensile strength and load safety factor
are constant over the whole fishing net. When the net consists of different
types of netting, the weighted means of D tx m, E, a and f referred to the
entire fishing gear are used. D t flf and E have already been given by
,

formulas (5.11) to (S.I 3), and for o and f analogous formulas are

a= ^ (6.19)

and
k
*
{A M Ati
f = ^ (6.20)

Example 6.4
Determine the twine thickness for netting in a new Danish seine to be towed
at20% higher speed and having mesh sizes 20% larger than those of the
prototype. The linear dimensions, netting types, load safety factor for the
twines and hanging ratios are the same. The tensile load in the netting is
assumed to be proportional to the overall size (area) of the gear, it, the same
in both nets and not affected by changes in mesh or twine size.

Solution

According to the above conditions, S L = 1,00; Sv = 1,2; Sm = 1,2; Sf = 1;

SEI 1; S2 1; Sw 1. From (6.13)

Si>il,2-Ji3- 1,3
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING COMMERCIAL FISHING GEAR 145

which means the twine thickness must be increased by 30%. On the other
hand, if the load in the netting twines is generated primarily by the
hydrodynamic drag of the netting itself, then increasing the mesh size
results in a proportionate decrease in the number of twines in the netting,
reducing the netting drag proportionately to the number of twines carrying
the load. Thus, changing the mesh size alone does not require a change in
twine diameter, as indicated by (6.13a). However, under these conditions,
all other things being equal, increasing the speed increases the netting drag

and, assuming Ssk = 1, (6.13a) gives

S Dt = Sv 2 =l,2 2 =l,44
which means that the twine thickness must not be increased 44 %. It will be
4
noted that the twine area and strength are increased according to Sot = Sy
2
.

The extra increase, above that required to withstand the higher


hydrodynamic stagnation pressure, is needed to sustain the higher drag
imposed by the larger twine diameter.
In practice, some deviation from the calculated values for the linear
dimensions of the fishing gear components and for netting characteristics
Dt and m$ are inevitable because available materials seldom conform exactly
to the calculated specifications. If available D t and m, differ considerably
from the calculated values, either the gear specifications (gear dimensions,
drags, etc) can be recalculated or the hanging ratios can be modified to some
extent to accommodate these differences.

Example 6.5

Find the load safety factor for twine in the netting of a scaled-up Danish
seine when the mesh size is 1,5 times larger than that of the prototype and
the twine material and diameter and the hanging ratios are the same. The
linear dimensions of the seine and the speed are to be increased by 15% and
10%, respectively. As in Example 6.4, assume that the tensile load in the
netting is proportionate to the overall size of the gear.

Solution

According to the prescribed conditions, S m =l,5; Sor=l; So=l;


S E i = S E 2 = l; S L =1,15; S v =l,10. From (6.13),

__ 1 1

~(U?' 0,5)0,15)
= 0,48

That is, the twine load safety factor in the new Danish seine is half that for
the prototype. It is interesting to estimate from (6.13a) the effect of these
146 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

changes on the safety factor when the tensile load in the netting is caused
primarily by netting drag.
Line sizes are selected by estimating the working loads to which the rope
is subjected during fishing and using a reasonable safety factor for the

application. The problem may be simplified when the performance


characteristics of the ropes of the prototype are known. For determining the
scaling factor SDI for the line diameters in the new design and in the
prototype the expression

SDI- (6.21)

may be used, where


(6.22)

is the ratio of the safety factors for the ropes of the new design and the
prototype,
S F = F n/F p (6.23)

is the general scaling factor for forces, and

S- (Tm/arp (6.24)

is the scaling factor for the breaking stress (tensile rupture force per unit

area) of the ropes in the new design and in the prototype.

Example 6.6
What should be the diameters of the purse line, floatline and leadline of a
new purse seine with a hauling or pursing drag 1,5 times larger than that
of the prototype while the materials and safety factors for the lines are the
same.

Solution

According to the prescribed conditions of SF= 1,5; Sf = 1; S OT = 1; then,


using equation (6.21)

801 = ^=1,22,
that is, the diameter of the new seine's mainlines must be 22% larger than
those in the prototype.

6.7 Calculating auxiliary components for rigging fishing gear


The scaling factor for forces SF is the basic value in the design of rigging
for any fishing gear. According to similarity criteria, this value must be the
same for both the netting and the auxiliary components in the gear.
Consequently, for all the components of the rigging

Fn = Fp -S F (6.25)
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING COMMERCIAL FISHING GEAR 147

After calculating the forces F n for any given part of the rigging, the type
and design of each gear component can be selected and the technical
parameters determined, using analytical or experimental methods.

Example 6J
Find the size of a cambered rectangular otter board for a new trawl with
2 000 kgf total drag at a given speed. The drag of the prototype trawl at the
same speed is 3 000 kgf and the size of its otter boards is 2 x 1 m. The same
type of otter board is used in both trawls.

Solution

The scaling factor for forces between the two trawls is

SF = Fn/Fp
= 2 000/3 000 = 0,67
Therefore, sheering forces required from the doors of the new trawl will
have to obey
Fn = 0,67Fp
According to equation (3.19) the hydrodynamic sheer force F<jy developed
by a trawl door is directly proportional to its area Ad, other conditions (the
type of the board, angle of attack and speed) being equal. Consequently,

Fdyn = 0,67 Fdyp


The size of the doors for the new trawl is determined from the geometric
similarity

Considering that SL = Ln/L p the length L of the new otter board must be
,

L = 2x0,82= 1,64m
and the height H
H= 1 x 0,82 0,82 m

6.8 Preparing drawings and specifications


The calculations for the basic characteristics of the new fishing gear made
during the first design stages are the basis for the subsequent detailed
description of the gear components and for the preparation of construction
drawings and specifications. The drawings should be drawn to scale as
closely as possible to present an accurate concept of the gear.
For trawl nets and seine nets, ISO (1975e) recommends that the widths
(athwart the net) of the forward and aft edges of each section of netting be
148 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

drawn at Ei = 0,5 and that the depth or length of each sec-


(see Section 2.2)
tion be drawn 2=1,0. The French (ISTPM-FAO-ACTIM) method
at
(Nedllic et <?/, 1979) differs in a minor way from the ISO method in that
the depth or length of each section of netting is drawn at 2
= 0,9 and
the widths of the fore and aft edges are drawn at the corresponding
EI = Jl - (0,9) = 0,436 as per formula (2.5). The latter method is some-
2

what more difficult to use than the former but the drawings more nearly
approximate average hanging ratios used in practice. Thus, the dimensions
of the netting sections are not distorted and they correspond more
accurately to the mounting lines which are drawn to the same scale, in
position, beside the edges of the netting sections to which they are secured.
In this way, dimensions can be scaled directly from the drawings. This
scaling of the netting panels often results in 'steps' at the edges of the net
plan which do not occur in the assembled net but which indicate that one
9
edge is 'hung in more than the other in the seam, the size of the step being
a measure of the difference in actual hanging ratios in the assembled nets.
For gill nets and entangling nets, the length is drawn according to the
length of the floatline. When the net has side lines, the depth is drawn
according to their length; otherwise it is drawn according to the depth of
the fully extended netting.
For surrounding nets, such as purse seines and lampara seines, the length
is drawn according to the length of the floatline and the depth according to

the fully extended netting. When these dimensions result in too little space
in the net plan for entering the more detailed information called up in the
remainder of this Section, a second distorted drawing may be provided,
drawn with vertical scale larger than the horizontal scale, where the detailed
information is entered.

All lengths should be given in SI units. Larger dimensions may be


expressed in metres to the nearest 0,01 m
and smaller dimensions may be
expressed in millimetres to the nearest 1 mm
without specifying units, but
any departure from this convention such as using other units or precisions,
requires that the units be stated.
In addition to these properly scaled plans of the netting and mounting
lines, thefollowing information must be entered on the drawing to define
the gear unambiguously:

1. For each section of netting:


1.1 The lengths of the forward or upper edge and the aft or lower edge
in numbers of meshes (M) or in metres (m) of the fully extended
netting;
1.2 The number of meshes (M) and, optionally, the length of the fully
extended netting in metres (m) between the forward or upper and the
aft or lower edges;
1.3 The length of the extended mesh (or the mesh opening if so
identified) in mm;
1.4 The cutting rate used on all tapered edges, as described in Section
2.8;
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING COMMERCIAL FISHING GEAR 149

1.5 The type of fibre and the


linear density (resultant tex) of the yarn
(twine) used to make
the netting as discussed in Section 2.3;
1.6 If double yarns (two parallel twines) are used to weave the netting,
as in cod-ends this is identified by 'DY' and if a type of knot other
than the standard weaver's or net-maker's single knot (sheet bend)
is used, it should be named;
1.7 Any special features, such as colour, or guarding and/or double
selvedge, or bonding or knot-setting treatment, or unusual sewing or
hanging procedures, must be identified.
2. For each mounting or strengthening line:
2.1 Length, specifying whether this is the cut or spliced length;
2.2 Diameter or thickness, or mass per unit length;
2.3 Fibre of filament material;
2.4 Any unusual construction (lay, doubling, etc) or preparation. Twine
and rope diameters may be identified simply by the symbol '0'.

For rigging lines and auxiliary components, and for other gears such
as traps, pots, dredges and longlines, the method of drawing cannot be
standardized as for nets. In these cases, perspective drawings, projections,
etc, may be used as best judged to convey the design, and all structural
information required to define the gear in an unambiguous way must be
given.
Examples of definitive fishing gear drawings, prepared according to these
guidelines, are given by FAO (1975, 1978).

6.9 The final design stages and tests


Model tests and sea trials play an important role in fishing gear design and
are conducted while selecting the prototype, developing technical specifica-
tions and at other design stages.
Chapters 5 and 6 dealt with the theoretical requirements for scaling down
fishing gear to a model size and for either scaling up model data to full-scale
gear or designing new gear on the basis of an existing prototype. When the
task is to create fishing gear of an entirely new design, first a model of the
new design is prepared, using arbitrary scaling factors. The model tests
make it possible to establish whether the gear can be constructed and
whether it behaves as intended. When the model gives desirable results,

often after modification, it is treated as the prototype and the full-scale gear
can be calculated according to the characteristics of the models.
Full-scale tests may be either technical trials or fishing trials.
Technical trials may be conducted, for example, to select a suitable
prototype or to evaluate the actual characteristics of the new device. They
may be considered as being conducted in three stages, viz, preparations,
measurements and data processing and analysis. The preparatory stage
includes elaboration of the programme and test procedures, manufacture
of the experimental fishing gear, and preparation and calibration of the
150 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

measuring instruments. Before the tests the experimental gear is inspected


carefully to ascertain that it conforms with the technical specifications,
and all from the design are duly recorded. The technical
deviations
measured by various self-contained and
characteristics of fishing gear are
remote-indicating instruments placed directly on the gear and on board the
vessel. They include instruments for measuring the dimensions, shape and

position of fishing gear in the water, forces and speed. Data recorded
by self-contained instruments such as bathykymographs and recording
dynamometers can be recovered at the end of each test. Instruments with
acoustic or electric displays on board produce real-time data during the
experiment. Technical tests of full-scale fishing gear are conducted in areas
of the sea specially chosen for stable conditions with respect to currents,
weather, depths, etc, to reduce the variability of the results and hence also
the required number of tests and the cost of the trials. Initial treatment of
experimental data obtained during technical tests includes calculation of
mean values of the measured characteristics of fishing gear and evaluation
of their precision (confidence limits). The data processing procedures
are the same as those described in Section 5.6.5. Graphs and algebraic
expressions are developed to describe the functional relations between the
characteristics of gear behaviour.
The aim of the fishing trials is to provide an ultimate evaluation of the
new fishing gear, taking into account the whole fishing system. For this
purpose, formula (1 .8) may be used to give the index of economic efficiency
of the fishing system

Ee (an/a,) (Cin/Cts)
'
(T n/T s )
'
(bs/b n )

(see Section 1.6 for the meaning of the terms). The coefficient of the
comparative economic value of the catch by the new and old fishing
systems, an/a,, is determined by comparing the average price per unit mass
of catch obtained by the two fishing systems. For this purpose it is necessary
to use information on the mass of the catch obtained during each set of the
gear, the species composition, length distribution, etc. The mass of the
catch is measured using containers (boxes, barrels, etc) after sorting the
catch according to species and quality depending on price. To determine the
relative catchabilities Cm/On it is necessary also to consider the fishing time
required for each cycle of operation. The relative expected life of the two
systems, Tn/T., is determined from data on actual wear and tear of the
fishing systems during fishing trials. The relative total costs of operating the
two systems, b,/bn , is estimated from actual manufacturing costs of the test
gears and estimated operating costs.
At the start of the trials, only the relative manufacturing costs are known,
while the other factors must be determined under fishing conditions because
they are typically very erratic and may contain bias if only limited trials are
conducted. Thus to obtain the most representative data for comparing the
new and old fishing systems, the comparative fishing is conducted, for ex-
ample, using alternative or parallel tows when comparing trawls. In alter-
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING COMMERCIAL FISHING GEAR 151

nate comparative trials the two gears are fished alternately from the same
vessel. This method is suitable over uniform concentrations of groundfish
and for aimed pelagic trawling. In independent comparative trials, the two
gears are fished during the same period from different vessels at the same
towing speed, on the same fishing grounds and on the same fish concentra-
tions, but the actual towing courses and the times of shooting and hauling
may be independent. Independent fishing trials require less time, but they
have their own disadvantages such as differences in the skill of the skippers
and crews and in vessel characteristics influencing the results. Because of
these differences, the two vessels should exchange their trawls during the
comparative trials. Parallel comparative trawling is conducted by two
vesselstowing on parallel courses, and, if possible for the same period of
time for improved reliability of test results. This method is preferred in all
cases, but is particularly recommended when the fish are distributed
unevenly as often occurs on some trawling grounds. Further guidelines for
comparative fishing are provided by ICES (1974, 1977).
This Chapter has dealt with the general principles of designing fishing
gear according to the theory of similarity. Rather simple mathematical
operations have been used to scale down, scale up, and modify different
types of fishing gear, always treating gear design in terms of actual
dimensions, materials, performance, etc, of full-scale gear. In particular,
these methods make it possible to solve the main problem of designing,
namely, to determine the technical characteristics of fishing gear to meet
specified performance requirements. However, this chapter does not
consider the problems involved in the search for new solutions and design
ideas which belong, instead, to the field of inventions. The art of inventing,
unfortunately, cannot be taught as a scientific or engineering discipline,
because it is primarily a characteristic of the inventor's creative mind.
CHAPTER 7

DESIGNING TRAWLS

7.1 Formulation of technical requirements

This Chapter describes the calculation and design methods and techniques
suitable for the development and construction of all types of trawl. While
documenting the required characteristics of a new trawl, one must consider
the behaviour of the fish the trawl is designed to catch, the technical
characteristics of the fishing vessel from which the gear is going to be
operated and the fishing conditions on the trawling grounds where the
fishing system is going to be used.
There is still no dependable mathematical model for describing the inter-
action between a trawl and the fish during the trawling process. One way
of taking specific fish behaviour into account is to base the new trawl design
on characteristics of a well known and proven trawl. Another way is to try
established designs from other areas or fisheries, or to apply new design
ideas based on information on the behaviour of the desired fish obtained
by such means as ecological research, direct visual observations or echo-
sounding. The interaction between the trawl and the fishing vessel can be
rather precisely stated from calculations.
The various requirements for a new trawl
may often not be compatible
with one another. For example, the requirements for maximum fishing
power and minimum hydrodynamic resistance at minimum cost contradict
one another. Compromise decisions must be taken to handle such
contradictions.
The formulation of technical requirements should involve a review of:
characteristics of fishing conditions and of the fishing grounds and of
the species to be caught,
characteristics of the trawler or trawlers to be employed,
desired characteristics of possible trawl prototypes and criteria for
selecting the most suitable,
characteristics of trawl operation such as speed, depth and tow
duration,
special requirements of trawl performance such as for rough or smooth
ground.
Finally, after these technical requirements are formulated, the main
technical characteristics of the gear, such as principal dimensions, drag and
DESIGNING TRAWLS 153

sheer forces, buoyancy and ballast needed for the desired performance can
be tentatively set.

7.2 Behaviour and fishing conditions


Information on the distribution of the relevant species and their vertical
migrations is the basis for selecting the type of trawl (bottom, off-bottom,
midwater or surface). If available, data on the distance at which the fish
react to netting, lines, trawl doors, kites, etc, can be used to estimate the
required minimum dimensions of the trawl opening. The form of the trawl
mouth is selected to the horizontal and vertical dimensions of schools to be
fished. In bottom trawls the wing spread exceeds the headline height by the
factor of 2 or 3 or more, while for midwater trawls the spread and the height
may be equal. The swimming speed of fish schools or individual fish to a
large extent determines the required trawling speed and thence, trawl
resistance and the maximum trawl size for available towing power. Mesh
size is determined by the size and body shape of the desired fish.
For bottom trawls, information about the type of sea bed and fishing
depths is used to select the type of footrope and trawl door and to determine
the required length of the warps.
Also hydrological and meteorological conditions such as current
direction and speed, storm frequency, temperature and wind at the fishing
ground are considered when calculating maximum trawl drag, required
strengths and towing speed.

7.3 Calculation of mesh size

For this purpose, the trawl netting can be divided into two parts. The
forward part, from wings through the bellies, leads the fish to the codend,
and the aft part, the codend, retains the catch. Experiments and observa-
tions have shown that most fish behave differently in the two parts. In the
forward part they are calm while in the codend they are active and try to
escape through the meshes. The mesh opening in the codend moc should be
such that the smallest commercial fish will not gill. This can be estimated
from
moc * (2/3) moo (7.1)

where moo is the mesh opening of the gill net designed to capture fish of
the same species and size. In its turn moo may be estimated from (5.2)

where L is the length df the body from the tip of the snout to the base
fish
of the caudal fin and Km an empirical coefficient depending on the
is

morphology of the fish ahd found by experimental fishing with gill nets. As
a first approximation, it is possible to take the value of coefficient
Km = 5
154 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

for narrow fish, Km = 3,5 for medium fish and K m = 2,5 for thick or deep
bodied fish

Example 7.1

Determine the mesh opening for the codend of a sardinella trawl. The body
length of fish to be retained in the codend should be not less than 240 mm.

Solution

First, find the mesh opening of a gill net most suitable for sardinella at
L = 240 mm. a relatively narrow-bodied
Sardinella is fish, so take K m = 5.
Then the mesh opening should be
moo = 240/5 = 48 mm
Further, from the expression (7.1) the mesh opening of the trawl codend
should be

moc = 2/3(48)
= 32 mm
Usually the mesh opening for the codend is not found optimally in this
manner, but is specified according to existing regulations prescribing

minimum permissible mesh opening or calculated from the minimum per-


missible size of fish in the catch.
Once the mesh opening for the codend has been determined, at least
initially, the mesh size in the remaining parts of the net may be determined
from
mi = Ki moc (7.2)

where Ki are proportionality coefficients, gradually increasing toward the


wings, whose values depend on information available on the degree of fish
activity in the net. In the forward parts of the net the mesh size is not so
critical as in the codend so that often extended mesh length, mi, rather than
mesh opening is taken from (7.2). It is usually practical to base values for
Ki on data from the prototype trawl, but these should be followed with due
regard to facts and developments subsequent to selection of the prototype.
Recently, many trawls have been constructed with very large meshes in the
fore pans, and even with pan of the netting replaced by a system of parallel
ropes. This allows both the towing speed and the area of the trawl mouth
to be increased without significantly affecting the escape of fish from the
net.

7.4 Tectonic*! parameters of the trawler

When designing a trawl and establishing its size and allowable drag, the
dimensions of the vessel, its architectural design, the method used for haul-
ing the gear and the height to which the catch must be lifted to bring it
DESIGNING TRAWLS 155

aboard and, especially, the bollard pull of the trawler and the pull of its
winch must all be known and specified.
The total propeller thrust of a trawler Fp can be equated to the total
resistance of the system as

Fp = R + Rv
t (7.3)

where R is the total drag of the trawl gear and Rv is the total hull resistance
t

of the vessel. Thus, the trawl drag Rt may be expressed in terms of the
available towing force (F )max at any given towing speed as
t

*
Rt Et (F p Rv)max (Ft)max (7.4)

where (F )max is the available towing force from the trawler and Et is the
t

towing force utilization coefficient. If the available towing force is fully


used for trawling, E = 1 but if it is expedient for some reason to maintain
t ,

a reserve of towing capability as, for example, in aimed pelagic trawling,


E < 1 Even in normal bottom trawling, E is normally between 0,8 and 0,9
t .
t

to avoid overloading the engine. Later in the text, the simplified symbol F t

will be used for the towing force actually available to tow the gear.
The statement of technical requirements should include the propeller
thrust and the hull resistance of the trawler at various speeds. Propeller
thrust as a function of vessel speed can be obtained from the propellor-
thrust graph for the particular vessel or by special calculations (Fridman,
1973). Trawler hull resistance as a function of speed can also be determined
by standard calculations used by naval architects. As shown in Figure 7.7,

o:
i

Q.

Fp -f, (V)

(Ft)mox'f8 (V)

Vj

Towing speed , V
Fig 7.1 Determining permissible trawl drag from available towinf force.
1 56 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

curves Fp = fi (V) and Rv = fz(V) arc obtained and can now be used to con-
struct the -
towing pull curve F t = fs(V) given Ft = F p Rv as used in (7.4).
The ordinates of this last curve show the maximum permissible drags of the
designed trawl at various towing speeds.
The available towing force can be estimated approximately from
F t ~P-(KF -0,7V) (7.5)

where Ft is the towing pull, kgf; P is the engine brake horsepower; is the V
towing speed, knots; and K F is an empirical, towing force coefficient which
ranges from 10 for trawlers with conventional propellers to 15 for trawlers
equipped with controllable pitch propellers in nozzles, leaving from 10 to
20% of the available towing force in reserve.
Example 7.2

Estimate the permissible drag of a trawl that can be towed by a 150 hp


trawler with conventional propellor at speeds of 3, 4 and 5 knots.

Solution
The permissible drag (Rt)max of a trawl is equal to the available towing pull
F t of the vessel, which can be estimated approximately from (7.5). Then,

FU = 150(10-0,7 x 3)= 1180 kgf = Ru


Ft2 = 150(10
- 0,7 x 4) = 1080 kgf = Rt2
F3=
t 150(10
- 0,7 x 5) = 975 kgf = Rt3

Example 7.3

A trawl gear has a drag of 660 kgf when towed at 3 knots, 870 kgf at 4 knots
and 1070 kgf at 5 knots. Estimate the maximum towing speed this trawl can
be towed by a 150-hp trawler with conventional propellor.

Solution

The available towing force from a 150-hp trawler was obtained in Example
7.2 and this is plotted along with the drag of the present trawl in Figure 7.2.
The abscissa under the intersection of the two curves shows the maximum
speed to be 4,6 knots.
In contrast to shallow-water trawls, where the drag and weight of the
warps can be neglected for preliminary calculations, the design of deep-
water trawls must take these values into account from the start. Therefore,
the designer must be informed of the technical specifications of the trawl
winch (drum capacity, hauling speed and power), of the desired fishing
depth and of the available towing force Ft Then, he can select the diameter
.

and the length of the warps, estimate their total drag and deduct this from
Ft to obtain the allowable trawl drag as the basis for calculating trawl
dimensions. The design of deepwater trawls is generally more dOmplex than
the design of standard trawls and will not be discussed in this manual.
DESIGNING TRAWLS 157

3*56
Vessel Speed, V (knots)
Fig 7.2 Equilibrium between trawl drag R and available towing force F, as functions of
t

towing speed V.

7.5 Selecting the prototype

When selecting the prototype for a new trawl design, special attention
should be paid to the behaviour characteristics of the fish species to be
caught. For example, long sweep lines (ground warps) are used on trawls
for fast-swimming fish not only to reduce the angle of incidence of the
sweeps to improve fish-herding but also to increase the width of the zone
between the trawl doors for maximum fished volume of water. Shrimp
trawls must have a wide mouth while the headline height is of no major con-
sequence, and the body of a shrimp trawl can be much shorter than that for
fast-swimming fish where the longer-tapered netting of the belly and batings
causes less alarm and reduces escape from the trawl by fish swimming with
the net.
Direct comparison of the design features of various trawls is rather
difficult because a great number of variables are involved and because many
of them fluctuate during fishing. The dimensions of a trawl mouth opening
cannot be estimated accurately from the trawl diagrams and drawings.
Trawls of the same size may have very different mouth openings, whereas
trawls of very different size may have similar mouth openings.
A more effective method for comparing trawls when selecting a design
prototype has been suggested by M. Nomura (1969). It consists of a com-
parison between relative structural dimensions rather than absolute
dimensions. Table 7.1 gives structural characteristics of some Thailand,
two-panel, bottom trawls according to the size of the trawler. The trawl
dimensions referred to are identified in Figure 7.3. Table 7.2 shows the
158 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

TABLE 7.1. TYPICAL DIMENSIONS OF THAILAND BOTTOM TRAWLS.

Width behind square, D 10,0 11,7 15,3 23,1

Fig 7.3 Identification of pertinent trawl dimensions.

TABLE 7.2. RELATIVE DIMENSIONS OF BOTTOM TRAWLS.

Native Thailand Trawls German Japanese

relative structural dimensions of these same trawls and of the German and
the Japanese trawls used in Thailand. The characteristic length used as the
basis of comparison for other trawl dimensions is the length of the headline
L of each trawl (L/L 1).
From Table 7.1 it is difficult to see whether the various trawls differ
substantially in their design characteristics. However, Table 7.2 shows
clearly that the trawls are basically similar except that the Thai codends
(C/L) are relatively shorter than those on the German and Japanese trawls,
the square and belly (B/L) on the 18-20 m
Thai vessels are relatively longer
DESIGNING TRAWLS 159

than on the other vessels, and trawls on vessels 18 and shorter have m
a longer taper (D/L) than on the larger vessels. The reasons for these
differences in empirical commercial practice should be determined and the
effect of these variations in trawl proportions on the catching ability of the
trawls established, with a view to improving trawl design. Thus, it is evident
that comparing trawls by means of their relative design characteristics
permits better clarification of their differences and peculiarities and permits
better selection of the prototype.
The best way to choose the prototype for a new trawl design is to compare
several possible candidates, both with respect to technical parameters and
in comparative fishing trials, to give fair judgement of both the technical
performance and the comparative fishing ability of the trawls.
A basic technical parameter of trawl performance is the mouth opening
coefficient

KT = A m/R t (7.6)

where Am is the area of mouth of a trawl (m 2


), and R t is the total trawl drag
(kgf).
Graphs showing the dependence KT = f(V) obtained from instrumented
measurements reveals which trawls are technically better. Figure 7.4 gives
such functional relations for two midwater trawls, A and B, showing that
trawl A is technically better over the whole range of normal speeds.
Technical tests on models of the trawls under consideration can greatly
reduce the cost and duration of such tests.

Towing Speed, V (knots)

Fig 7.4 Trawl mouth opening coefficient as a function of towing speed.

A basic fishing characteristic for comparing prototype trawls is their


relative fishing power. The biomass of catch C
m (kg) per tow is expressed by
CfAm -V-Tf (7.7)

where Em is the biomass fraction of fish in the fished zone actually taken
by the gear and is a measure of the absolute fishing efficiency, cf is the mass
160 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

concentration of fish in the area of operation (kg/m ), m is the frontal area


3
A
2
of the trawl mouth (m ), V is the trawling speed (m/sec) and Tf is the actual
fishing time (sec) (see Section 1.4).
Because it is very difficult to determine or even estimate the absolute
fishing efficiency, equation (7.7) will be transformed to obtain the relative
fishing efficiency of the trawls being compared. Identifying the two trawls
respectively by subscripts 1 and 2, formula (7.7) gives

C m i/Cfi '
Vi

Cm2/Cf2
'
V2

where vi and V2 are the fished water volumes (v = Am V Tf ) of the first

and second trawls. Thus, the relative fishing efficiency is

E rar = Em i/E m2 = (C m ,/C m2 ) (en/en) (v 2 /v,) (7.8)

Often trawls are compared only by their catches


Ec = C m i/C m2 (7.9)

However, for more accurate evaluation, especially when the difference


between vi and v2 is significant, the whole equation (7.8) should be applied.
After the various prototype trawls have been compared, the technical
specifications and performance data of the one selected are assembled and
included in the statement of technical requirements.

7.6 Trawling speed


It is widely accepted that the towing speed should be proportional to the
swimming speed of fish, lower towing speeds being used to catch slow-
swimming fish and higher towing speeds for fast-swimming fish. Practical
observations and special experiments have shown that there is an optimal
trawling speed for each species of fish and trawl design which provides the
maximum catch, all other things being equal. This optimal towing speed
must be determined empirically by trawling under regular fishing condi-
tions. Two trawlers using identical gear tow on parallel courses, one towing
at a constant speed V while the other tows at a series of different speeds
Vi,V2 ,...Vi...V n .

Assuming the fish are distributed uniformly (Cf is constant) in the area
where both trawls are operating, the expected catches according to (7.7) will
be

C EC Cf Ao V To
G-ErcrAi-Vi-Ti
and the relative fishing efficiency is

Ci-Ao-Vo- To/Co -Ai-Vi-Ti (7.10)

Values for C, V and T are measured while fishing, but the value for the
DESIGNING TRAWLS 161

mouth area A at various trawling speeds should be established by model


Then, having conducted a great number of tows during which all the
tests.
above variables have been measured, it is possible to establish dependence

E mr = Ei/Eo = f(V)
and thence the optimal towing speed as that speed where E mr is maximum.
As an example, this technique was used to determine the optimal trawling
speed for whiting in the North Sea using a 32/22,5 m bottom trawl on
400 hp vessels. The dependence of relative fishing efficiency on towing speed
from these experiments is given in Figure 7.5 which shows the optimal
trawling speed to be about 3,2 knots (l,7m/sec). Where possible, such
experiments should be conducted over grounds where the fish distribution
is relatively uniform for approximately constant c f because the accuracy of

the result depends greatly on it. For this same reason, when processing the
experimental data, it is necessary to exclude from consideration the data
from tows in which it was evident that this condition had not been fulfilled.
The relative density of fish concentations can be judged from echotraces
obtained on both vessels during the comparative tows.

I w

"
4*

t.7

Towing Speed, V (m/s )

Fig 7.5 Relative fishing efficiency for whiting in the North Sea as a function of trawling
speed.

The optimal trawling speeds for midwater trawls, as a rule, are higher
than for bottom trawls. With the help of underwater observations, it has
been specified that, at towing speeds less than 4,5 knots, such fish as
mackerel, horse mackerel and sardinclla often swim along with the trawl
and escape easily, even after having been in the net.

7.7 Tentative estimation of principal dimensions of the new trawl design

The main characteristics of the newly designed trawl are estimated from the
functional relations between the scaling of all physical
factors
characteristics of the new trawl and its prototype. These relations, or
similarity criteria, have been stated in formulas (6.1) to (6.3).
162 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

If the trawl moves under pseudo-steady-state conditions with negligible


accelerations, the Strouhal criterion of formula (6.3) may be ignored.
The Froude criterion of formula (6.2), which is related to the weight of
the netting and lines in the water, also does not usually significantly
influence either the shape of the trawl or the forces acting on it. Considering
the variables involved, (1) twine thicknesses are generally less than 5 mm,
ie, (Dt)max
= 5 x 10~ 3 m, (2) the range of trawling speeds is generally within
1,3 to 2,8 m/sec (2,5 to 5,5 knots) and (3) the density of sea water between
and 25C, between 10 and 40 %o salinity, and at depths to 1000m is
2 4
constant within 5% and is greater than 100 kgf-sec /m .
Regarding
polyamide as the most usual netting, the buoyed bulk specific weight of the
3
netting in sea water will be less than 90 kgf/m (Table 5.1). Even taking into
3
account the weight of the rope frame, ?b is less than 100 kgf/m .
Then,
under towing conditions the minimum possible value of the generalized
Froude number will be:
2
_ Pmin-VJin _ (100)0,3)
(100)(5 X UP)
However, according to (Fig 5.16), if Fr is greater than 100, the influence
of weight upon the form and position of nets in the water is negligible.
Although Reynolds number Re, does not appear in formulas (6.1) to
through the scaling factor for hydrodynamic force
(6.3), its effect is felt
coefficients Sc in formula (6.1), thus taking into account its scale effect.
Therefore, when determining the principal trawl dimensions by the Newton
criterion, formula (6.1) is used in the form:
2 2
SR'S m/Sc-Sp -SD-S L -Sv =l (7.11)

which shows the relationship between the scaling factors of the new design
and the prototype. Here, for the sake of convenience, instead of SF (scale
of all forces), the scale of hydrodynamic drags S R has been introduced.
From formula (7.11) obviously only one of the seven scaling factors may
be found as a function of the others. Thus, it is necessary to use additional
information on the material strength, fishing power, trawler horse power
and other technical requirements.

7.8 Preliminary determination of the additional scaling factors


The scaling factor for forces SR should be chosen so that the total drag of
the new trawl with its rigging does not exceed the available towing force F t

from the vessel. This latter depends on the towing speed, and that is why
tabulated or calculated data on the available towing force as a function of
speed F = f(V) must be provided in the statement of technical requirements.
t

Thus according to (6*4):

tn = f(V n ) (7.12)

where Rtp is the total drag of a trawl prototype at its most common towing
DESIGNING TRAWLS 1 63

speed Vp. But the scaling factor SR can be determined only after the desired
towing speed of the new trawl V n has been determined so that Ftn at this
speed, and thence allowable R tn can be found.
,

The scaling factor for the drag coefficients So is taken as 1 as a first


approximation, and its value may be refined at later stages of designing on
the basis of the prevailing values of Reynolds number and of the netting
solidity ratio E s corresponding to the type of netting adopted for the new
trawl under actual conditions of tow.
The scaling factor for water density Sp may be taken as 1 considering
that all possible values for p on the fishing grounds would probably be only
slightly different from experimental conditions.
Where meshes of various sizes are used in different parts of the trawl, the
scaling factor is based on a mean mesh size weighted according to projected
area of the netting twine for each mesh size.
Thence,
Sm =
where the weighted mean values of the mesh size are calculated as described
formula (5.12). Calculation of flfp for the pro-
in Section 5.4.2, using the
totype does not present difficulties because the mesh size p in each m i

separate part of the trawl is known and the netting twine area in each part
A p is easy to calculate. For the new trawl, mm are determined as described
i

in Section 7.3, while the Ani values are not yet known. However, proceeding
from geometric similarity we can tentatively assume that for each cor-
responding netting section of both trawls the ratio Ai Ef.i Ai is identical.
:

This provides a possibility of use values for Am


corresponding to those in
the prototype trawl for calculating ffTn for the new trawl and thus to
establish a tentative value for the mesh scaling factor S m .

The scaling factor for twine diameters So is


SD = Dn/Dp
where n designates values for new trawls and p for the prototype.JThe
values of D are calculated from formula (5.11). For the prototype, D p is
calculated from the known values of Dpi. Values Dm for net sections of the
new trawl can be determined from
Dm = Dpi SD

if the scaling factor SD is known.

Example 7.4

Determine the weighted mean mesh size for the four-panel semipelagic trawl

specified in the FAO


Catalogue of Fishing Gear Designs [FAO, 1978 (1st
ed. 1972)] on page 100 of the first edition and page 99 of the second edition.

Solution

Formula (5.12) is used. Information about the dimensions of the netting


164 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

sections, ie, Mi, M


2 N, mi and twine R-tex, are summarized in Table 7.3.
,

There isa compromise in the table regarding the fore bellies. In all four
panels, the leading 10 meshes are made of double, R940tex twine and the
remaining 50 meshes are made of single, R640tex twine. As a near-enough
approximation for estimating projected twine area, the whole panel is con-
sidered to be made of single, R940tex twine. Also, the effect of the double
twine in the few meshes along the mouth frame lines and in the crotches of
the wings is ignored. The twine thickness D is then estimated from the
ti

linear density (R-tex) for each panel by formula (2.16) using KDR =1,3 and
the projected or blocked area of the twine in each panel Ai is estimated from
formula (2.24), both given in Table 7.3. From formula (5.12), the weighted
mean mesh length is

mix At mi x Aj mi x Ai
120 mm x 0,21 m2 80 x 4,55 50x3,28
2,80 2,80 2,62
6,40 1,33
0,15 1.45
2,13
4,20
2
(SAi) i2o 15,89m
+ 80(7,35) + 50(8,68) =
120(15,89)
mm
15,89 + 7,35 + 8,68
TABLE 7. 3. DATA FOR CALCULATING THE WEIGHTED MEAN MESH LENGTH OF
A SEMI-PELAGIC TRAWL.

Example 7.5

Determine the weighted mean twine thickness for the netting in the trawl
of Exercise 7.3.
DESIGNING TRAWLS 165

Solution

Taking values for Di and Ai from Table 7.3 and using formula (5.11),

D t x Ai D xAi
t D xAi
t

1, 26 mm x 0,21m 1,04x4,55 0,87x3,28


2,80 2,62 1.45
MO 2,80 (SAi) ,87
= 4,73
0,15 (SAi)i,o4 = 9,97
2,13 1,48x1.33
4,20 (SAi)i,48 = L33
(SAi)i, 2 6= 15,89m 2
1,26(15,89) + 1,04(9,97) + 0,87(4,73) + 1,48(1,33)
D =
1

15,89 + 9,97 + 4,73+1,33


= 1,14mm
A method for determining the scaling factor for twine thickness Sot was
described in Section 6.6, where it was expressed by the equation (6.13)

c c ' (Sf Sm *
SL '
SEI
SDI

or by (6.13a). For present purposes, the scaling factors for the load safety
factor Sf, for breaking stress in the twine S^, and for the hanging ratios SEI
and SEZ should be set tentatively by the designer from fishing experience and
from design standards.
To determine SL and Sv the designer may use the method of variations.
The range of towing speeds found in practical fishing experience to produce
the best catch rates for a particular species of fish is determined and the
possible range of values for Sv established from this. Further, the practical
range of trawl sizes which can be operated conveniently from the vessel in
question may be used to establish S L .

The next step is to arrange all these preliminary and tentative values for
the scaling factors in such a way as to permit checking whether they satisfy
all criteria and, if not, to indicate how they should be modified. Rear-

ranging (7,11) and substituting for S D t from (7.13)

Taking Sc = S, = 1, formula (7.14) gives a tentative drag for the new trawl
of

Values for S f SEI, S E 2, S OT S m RP and V p are known from prototype data


, , ,

and from new trawl design criteria. Then values for Rn are calculated from
(7.15) using values for S L and S v within their respective,
most probable
166 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

ranges. From the values thus obtained a family of curves for R n = f(V n ) at
constant SL is constructed (Fig 7.6). Super-imposed over this is the curve
for the available towing force Ft = f(V). Then the abscissas of intersections
of this curve with those of R n at constant SL will indicate the towing speeds
V n corresponding to the respective dimensions of the new trawl, and the
ordinates of the intersections will indicate the corresponding values of the
trawl drag. Taking one of the possible values for SL the designer defines the
corresponding values for V n and R n and consequently values for SL and Sv.
Now, having obtained values for SL and Sv, the scaling factor for twine
thickness Sot can be determined by (7.13).

Towing Speed, Vn
Fig 7.6 Equilibrium between trawl resistance and available towing force as a function of
trawling speed.

When the scaling factors in equations (7.11) and (7.13) are found in
all
this way, compatibility of the values for S R , SL, Sv, Sm and S D with the
Newton criterion can be checked by substituting them in (7.11). If the two
sides of this equation agree within 5%, the problem is solved. With larger
deviations, another value for SL is selected and the calculations for scales
of similarity are repeated, making changes in an effort to modify their
values to fulfill the above condition. Next, the values obtained are checked
against the technical requirements and, if significant disagreement exists,
the situation should be analyzed and the calculations repeated using
modified values until a satisfactory compromise is achieved. Knowing the
final values for the scaling factors, it is possible to determine the overall
trawl dimensions and other technical characteristics of the new trawl.
It should be noted that, because (7.15) is derived from (6.13) rather than
from (6.13a), it does not take into account the effect of netting variables,
such as mesh size and twine thickness, on the hydrodynamic resistance of
the netting. Therefore, this relation is not appropriate for designing rope
trawls or large mesh trawls from conventional designs.
DESIGNING TRAWLS 167

7.9 Improving an established trawl


One, and sometimes the most feasible, way to attain the desired new trawl
design is by modifying the prototype. This can best be done by model tests
of successively improved variants of the original prototype. For example,
if a trawl with larger mouth is required, first otter boards and lifting devices
with greater sheer forces can be tried. Then, using the results from model
tests, modifications can be introduced iteratively into the model using
different cutting rates, increased number of meshes around the mouth
perimeter, etc, to take better advantage of these greater sheer and lift forces
to optimize the hydrodynamic quality of the new model.
The hydrodynamic quality KT of a trawl defined by formula (7.6) can be
improved by increasing the mouth area Am at the given drag Rt , by decreas-
ing resistance R while maintaining the opening A m or by a combination
t ,

of both. This may be achieved, for example, by increasing the mesh size and
decreasing twine thickness or by replacing part of the netting with ropes.
These ropes may be longitudinal in the net or as very large meshes. In this
way, the linear dimensions, and hence the mouth opening, may be increased
without increasing the trawl drag. However, the use of large openings in the
fore part of the trawl panels should be fully justified, the most important
question being to determine the maximum opening permissible for the
relevant fish species without substantially decreasing catchability. Also, it
must be confirmed that the handling space and facilities on the relevant
trawler are adequate to handle the larger trawl. Conversely, the taper ratios
in the netting can be increased to decrease the area of netting and increase
its angle of incidence to the direction of travel to reduce trawl resistance

without decreasing the mouth area. Such modification of the trawl leads to
a reduced drag coefficient as seen from Fig 7. 7, which shows the results of
testson ten models of various bottom and midwater trawls. The coefficient
of trawl resistance is defined as
K R = R /Am -V 2
t (7.16)

where R is the trawl resistance (kgf ), Am is the frontal area of the trawl
t

mouth (m 2 ) and V(m/s) is the towing speed. The measure of trawl taper is
the ratio A m/Af, where A m is the frontal area of trawl mouth and Af is the
fictitious area of the netting in the trawl (see Section 2.2). Specifically, for
a right circular cone this taper is

Am/Af = Eu 2 sin a (7. 1 7)

where a is the angle of incidence of the netting to the cone axis and Ei and
2 are the hanging coefficients for the netting. Thus, in this idealized case,
the taper parameter Am/Af is proportional to sin a for constant hanging
ratio.
As shown in Fig the reduction of the trawl resistance coefficient by
7. 7,

increasing the
taper of the netting may substantially improve the
hydrodynamic quality of the trawl and consequently increase available
towing speed, which is important for smaller vessels with limited power.
168 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

However, modifications of this kind require increased spreading and lift

forces, with associated increased drag, because the increased angle of the
netting cone increases the internal forces striving to close the trawl mouth.
Furthermore, this rather simplistic technical consideration does not take
fish behaviour, or even secondary technical effects, into account. For

example, as the angle of the netting surface to the direction of tow


increases, the flow pattern for the water through the netting changes and
increased numbers of fish escape through the netting rather than be herded
by the netting to the codend. Also, as shown by model studies, changing
patterns of fluid flow often change mesh shapes, further increasing
possibility for escapement. Under these conditions, the area of the trawl
A
mouth, m , alone is not a good measure of the catchability of the gear.
Thus, there is a practical limit, in the functioning of the gear, to the degree
to which the hydrodynamic quality of the trawl should be improved by
increasing the trawl taper.
After successive models of the prototype trawl have been tested compre-
hensively their characteristics can be used for calculating the corresponding
characteristics of the modified trawl by multiplying them by the appropriate
scaling factors

L p = Lm SL
RP = Rm SR n ^ .
(7 18)
Vp = Vm -Sv
'

Dp = Dm S D
etc, where, as in model studies, 'p' denotes estimated variables in the
modified, full-scale gear and 'm' denotes observed variables in the model.

7.10 Preparing trawl plans


The extended linear dimensions Li for each section of netting in the
modified trawl are calculated by the first expression of formula (7.18). Then
the numbers of meshes Mi in width and in length or depth are determined
using expression

(7.19)

where mi is the extended mesh length in the given section of netting.

Further, using the methods described in Section 2.8, the cutting rates of the
corresponding net sections are calculated, and twine thickness for different
pans of the trawl are determined by the fourth expression of formula
(7.18).
After this, the designed dimensions of each section of the new trawl are
judged against the known technical operating conditions for this particular
type of gear as regards fish behaviour, sea-bed type, size of the working
deck, etc. If the trawl dimensions as obtained from calculations using (7.18)
are further modified as a result of this adaptation to operating conditions,
the main characteristics of drag, shape, position under different towing
DESIGNING TRAWLS 169

conditions, speed, warp scope, etc. must be re-calculated to see if they are
compatible with the statement of requirements, particularly with respect
to available towing force and warp length. Another way to assess this
compatibility is to prepare a model and test it according to the procedures
discussed earlier in this manual. Here, only the re-calculation will be
considered.
The resistance of the modified prototype Rn can be determined from

Rn = RP -S R (7.20)

where SR is the resistance scaling factor and Rp is the known resistance of


the established prototype trawl.
To re-calculate the resistance of the new trawl formula (7.16) gives

R n = K R -Am -V 2 (7.21)

KR can be obtained from Figure 7. 7 where it is plotted as a function of the


trawl taper parameter Am/Af. For this, the new trawl mouth area Am can
be estimated from
Am = K A L H (7.22)

where: L = fishing spread at the trawl mouth, m;


H = fishing height at the trawl mouth, m;
KA = trawl mouth area coefficient, which is about 0,7 for bottom
trawls and about 1,0 for four-panel midwater trawls,
and the fictitious area of the netting A f is given by the sum

A f =I]Afi (7.23)
il
where An =
fictitious area (see Section 2.2), found by variants of formula
of each netting section of simple geometric form (rectangular, rhom-
(2. 10),
boidal, triangular or trapezoidal) into which the trawl has been divided for
the purpose of this calculation. An = Loi Hoi for rectangles and
rhomboids, An = Loi H
i/2 for triangles and
Afi = (Lou + LOW) i/2 for H
trapezoids
where: Loi = extended width athwartwise of each i-section
= Lou for forward edge plus Low for aft edge if unequal
Hoi = extended depth (fore and aft) of each i-section.
Then formula (7.23) becomes

(7-24)
i+l

where j for rectangles and rhomboids and j = 2 for triangles and


= 1

trapezoids for the final calculations of the fictitious area f A .

Having determined the dimensions and shape of all netting panels, the
designer drafts trawl plans to the approved scale. Plans for netting panels
can be scaled approximately to consistent hanging ratios Ei = 0,5 (athwart-
2 = 0.87 (lengthwise), or more conveniently
wise) and to hanging ratios
170 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

Ei = 0,5 (athwartwise) and 2 = 1,0 (lengthwise), as specified by ISO and


practised by FAO, or more accurately according to the French system
described in Section 6.8. The drawing specifies the linear dimensions of lines
in metres, panel sizes in numbers of meshes, cutting rates, twine sizes
(R-tex), extended mesh lengths in mm, etc, also described in more detail in
Section 6.8. The drawing specifies the linear dimensions of lines in metres,
panel sizes in numbers of meshes, cutting rates, twine sizes (R-tex),
extended mesh lengths in mm, etc, also described in more detail in Section
6.8. This brings us to the end of stage 3 (see 6.2) of the designing process.

9 OO4 0.12 0.2O O.26

Trawl Taper, A m /Af


Fig 7. 7 Trawl resistance coefficient as a function of trawl taper.

7.11 Calculations for floats, ballast (sinkers) and bobbins

A general approach to the calculation of auxiliary trawl components was


discussed in Section 6.7 using formula (6.25).
The total lift of floats of the new trawl fn can be defined as: Q
Qfn - Qfp S F (7.25)

where QfP is total known lift of all floats of the established prototype.
Having chosen a specific type of lifting device (float, hydrofoil float, kite,
etc)of known lift for the new trawl, the required number of such devices
to be fitted to the headline can easily be calculated.

Example 7.6

The headline of the model of the modified prototype trawl is equipped with
floatsof 4 kgf total buoyancy. The scaling factor for forces is SF = 84. Find
the required number of aluminium alloy floats for the tentative new trawl
design if the buoyancy of each float is 2,8 kgf.
DESIGNING TRAWLS 171

Solution

Total buoyancy of floats of the new trawl in accordance with formula (7.25)
should be

Qfn = (4)(84) =
and the required number of the floats is

Nf = 336/2,8
= 120

Commonly used floats are hollow spheres whose buoyancy can be


calculated by formula (3.1) which, taking into account the heterogeneous
density, becomes

Q=7 '
vi
- TW '
v2 (7.26)

where YI is the actual volume of the material of the float, m 3


;

\2 is the total volume of the float,


3
;
3
m
7 is the specific weight of float material, kgf/m ;
3
7w is the specific weight of water, kgf/m .

Example 7.7

Determine buoyancy of a hollow steel spherical float of diameter D = 0,3 m


and wall thickness w = 3 mm.

Solution

Actual volume of the float material is approximately


Vi = As W '

where As is the surface area of the float. Given

As = '' D2
then

v, TT (0,3)
2
(0,003) = 0,00085 m 3

The total volume of the float is

v2 = irD /6 =
3
ir(0,3) /6
3
= 0,014 m 3
The specific weight of the material (steel) is given in Table 3.1 as

y = 7400 kgf/m
3
,

and the specific weight of water is approximately

7w =
3
1000 kgf/m .

Consequently, according to formula (7.26) the buoyancy of the float will be


- 7,7
Q = (7400)(0,00085) - (1000)(0,014) = kgf,

the negative sign indicating an upward or buoyant force.


172 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

The safe working depth for spherical floats, H (in metres), can be
estimated from the equation

H = 20 a w/D (7.27)
2
where a the permissible compressive stress, kgf/cm , for the particular
is

material, found in tables of materials properties; w is the wall thickness,


2
cm; D
is the float diameter, cm; 20 is a dimensional coefficient, m-cm /kgf.

It should be noted that stress analysis of thick-walled spheres shows that the
3 3 3
allowable external pressure, and hence depth, varies as (Do -Di )/D ,
where Do and Di are the outside and inside diameters. Thus, (7.27) must be
regarded as empirical and approximate. However, it is easy to use and
serves as a guide.

Example 7.8

Estimate the safe working depth for the spherical float in Example 7.7 if the
permissible compressive stress for steel is a = 2000 kgf/cm
2
.

Solution

According to formula (7.27),

H = 20 x (2000)(0,3)/30 = 400 m.
Hydrodynamic floats (Fig 7.8) and kites (Fig 7.9) of various types, such
as boards, hydrofoils and 'sails', produce hydrodynamic lift which
flat
varies with towing speed. Some characteristics of different types of lifting
device are given in Table 7.4 where, to permit direct comparison, all devices
have the same projected area of 0,03 2
m
and are being towed at 2,0 m/s (3,9
knots). The lifting force includes both hydrostatic buoyancy and
hydrodynamic lift.

Rigging of the footrope is designed according to the type of sea-bed

Fig 7.8 Hydrodynamic float.


DESIGNING TRAWLS 173

Fig 7.9 Trawl kite.

TABLE 7.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFTING DEVICES.

Note: Cx and Cy for the flat plate and the hydrofoil are at the angle of incidence for maximum Cy.

which is to be fished. Total weight of the footrope for the new trawl is

W n = W p SF (7.28)

where W
p is the total weight of the footrope
on the prototype trawl. The
required number of footrope components can be determined from
the
weight in the air and in the water of individual components as given in Table
7.5. The weight in water of hollow spherical bobbins can be estimated from
formula (7.26) where the main difference between bobbins and floats is in
the wall thickness. Total drag of the footrope is:

R F = SRh + SRi (7.29)

where Z Rh is the sum of hydrodynamic drags of the footrope components


174 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

and S Rs is the sum of drags due to ground friction. Hydrodynamic drags


of the bobbins and spacers are calculated as for spheres and cylinders
respectively and the frictional resistance of the bobbins against the sea bed
are calculated according to the method given in Section 3.1.5.

TABLE 7.5. WEIGHTS OF FOOTROPE COMPONENTS.

7.12 Otter board (trawl door) calculations

The problems of design and operation of otter boards have been discussed
DESIGNING TRAWLS 175

in detail in an FAO Manual (1974). Here is a method for determining the


main characteristics of otter boards for the new trawl.
Trawl doors are designed according to the sheer force Fyn sufficient to
provide the required fishing spread of the new net. This force can be
calculated from
Fyn = Fyp-S F (7.30)

where Fyn is the sheer force of the new door, SF is the general scaling factor

for forces, Fyp is the sheer force generated by each door on the prototype
trawl (see Example 6.7). The sheer force from the prototype otter board is
estimated from the second expression in (3.19) using lift coefficients Cy
given in Figs 3.15 and 3.77.
Having chosen the type of trawl door, bearing in mind the type of trawl
and operating conditions, its dimensions may be calculated. Having found
Fyn, formula (3.19) is used to find the area of dn the new door A
Adn = Fyn/C yn -q (7.31)

where C yn is found from Fig 3.15 or Fig 3.77 having first selected the angle
of incidence a. This angle of incidence is usually chosen 5 to 10 degrees less
than the critical angle where C yn is maximum. If no available otter boards
have the required area Adn larger doors are selected and the angle of
,

incidence may be modified to give the required sheer force. The drag force
of these doors should then be determined and used in any calculations of
gear behaviour.
If this does not yield the desired result, then special otter boards of the
required size will have to be made. The design calculations for this are
rather easy, using available data on prototype otter boards of any standard
size. The linear scale is

SL-JJ*
\Ad P
(7.32)

whence the linear dimensions of the new trawl door are found from

L n = Lp-S L (7.33)

and the weight of the new trawl door, if both doors have the same density, is

W n = Wp-S L 3
(7.34)

where W
p is the weight of the prototype
door. The weight of the doors
should be adjusted according to constant S F .

The coordinates of points of attachment, Xni, Yni and Zm of the warp and
door legs to the door (see Fig 7. 10) are also determined from the linear scal-
ing factor
Xni - X pi S L ; Yni = Y pi S L ; Zni - Z pi S L (7.35)

This will provide the new otter board with the same equilibrium and
stability as the prototype.
The hydrodynamic drag of the new trawl door Rdhn may be calculated
176 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

from the first expression (3.19). The approximate total drag of the trawl
door may be obtained from an expression similar to (7.29)

Rdn = Rdhn + Rdgn (7.36)

l~--'

Z PC
XX
Fig 7. JO Dimensional scaling of otter boards.

Example 7.9

Find the required area of an oval, single-slotted trawl door for a new trawl
ifthe force scaling factor SF is 1,3, the sheering force from the prototype
door Fyp 600 kgf and the towing speed V = 2 m/sec.

Solution

Calculating the otter board area Aa n for the new trawl from expression
(7.31) it is necessary first to estimate the required sheer force F yn in accord-
ance with (7.30) and to choose the sheer force coefficient C yn .

Fyn = 600x1, 3 = 780 kgf.

The coefficient C yn is selected from the graphs in Fig 3.15(b) using curve 1
and angle of incidence a = 32, slightly less than critical angle of incidence,
whence Cyn = 1,6. The hydrodynamic pressure is

q . p v /2 - 105(2) /2 - 210 kgf/m


2 2 2

Thus the required area of the trawl door from (7.31) is

2
780/1, 6(210)
= 2,32m

7.13 Warp calculations

The warp is selected according to the trawl drag and hauling characteristics
DESIGNING TRAWLS 177

of the trawl winch. The warp diameter can be determined by equation (6.21)

(7.37)

Approximate warp diameter for safe working loads imposed by the winch
(based on ISO 2408 for 6 x 19, plow steel (160 kgf/mm 2 tensile grade), wire
rope at f = 5) are given in Table 7.6.

TABLE 7.6. WARP DIAMETER ACCORDING TO WINCH PULL.

Example 7.10

What should be the diameter of the warp new trawl if the scale of
for the
forces SF = 1,3, the warp diameter of the prototype trawl is D p = 17 mm,
the warp material is the same in both trawls and the load safety factor is
increased by 10%

Solution

Substituting in formula (7.37), S OT =1,0 for both warps of the same


material, Sf = 1,1 for the higher safety factor, whence

'
= 20,3 mm.

Rounding to the nearest higher standard steel-wire rope diameter,


D n = 21 mm.
The simplest approximation for the required warp scope, ie, the length
of warp to be paid out in relation to fishing depth, has been shown in
Chapter 4 (see Example 4.2) as

L s = Jb 2 +
^p (7.38)

where b is the fishing depth, T is the tension in the warp at the otter board,

F, is the weight per meter of the warp in water. Note that the warp scope
L, is only half the line length Li given by formula (4. 1) for the full catenary
AOB in Figure 4.5.
(7.38) as a first approximation assumes
Formula that the warp is horizon-
tal atthe otter board. However, the warp is generally not horizontal and
exerts an upward force on the otter board. To take this into acccount,
178 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

consider the scheme in Fig 7.11 where AC


is the warp with the vessel at

point A
and the otter board at point C, and Y is the fishing depth. The warp
tension To at the otter board is at an angle ao with the direction of travel
(X-axis). Its x-component T 0x is equal to the sum of one half the drag R n
of the trawl net and its rigging plus the drag of one trawl door Rd. That is,

Rn/2 + (7.39)

In bottom trawls, the vertical component of warp tension at the doors T 0y


is equal to the weight of the trawl door in water Wd minus ground reaction

Ff The ground reaction varies with the operating conditions of the trawl.
.

For midwater trawling, obviously, Fg = and Toy is half the weight of the
doors and trawl in water less any hydrodynamic lift.
The warp angle at the doors may then be estimated from
tan ao (7.40)

In Fig 7.11 the desired warp scope AC is a section of catenary AOB (Fig

4.5). It is the difference between lengths AO and CO, and can be calculated
from
2
2j Y TQX . /Tox
-
tan a \ -
T 0x tm n .
n
1- I 1 tan ao (7.41)
F,s'cosao V F / Fs
The fishing depth Y for a given warp scope Ls may be determined from
equation
Tox
Y= 4~ (7.42)
F, F s
'
COS I

derived from equation (7.41). Equations (7.41) and (7.42) disregard the
influence of hydrodynamic forces on the shape of the warp. At depths to
ISO mand towing speeds up to 4 knots the resulting error in the calculation
of the warp scope is about 3%, increasing with depth and speed. More
complex mathematical methods must be used to incorporate the influence
of hydrodynamic forces (Fridman, 1973).

Fig 7.11 Catenary model for estimating warp scope.


DESIGNING TRAWLS 1 79

The simplest way to estimate the hydrodynamic drag of the warp was
shown in Chapter 3 (Example 3.6), where the warp was considered as a
straight line moving at an angle a. The drag of the warp may be more
exactly defined as the difference between the x-components of the warp ten-
sions, parallel to the direction of travel, at the vessel and at the trawl door.
That is,

Rw = T cos a - To cos a (7.43)

where T is the tension in the upper end of the warp, a is the angle between
the upper end of the warp and the direction of travel, and TO and ao are
at the door as in Fig 7.11. Under steady conditions of inertia flow, the resul-
tant hydrodynamic force on the warp acts virtually at right angles to the
warp as shown in Fig 5.15(b). Then, the only force contributing to a
difference between the tensions at the two ends of the warp is that vector
component of the weight of the warp in water which acts parallel to the
warp, so that the equilibrium of forces parallel to the warp gives
T = To + W w sin a n ...
= T + Fs-Y l/ '** j

Thus, that part of the warp tension at the vessel which is caused by weight
of the warp is equal to the weight in water of a length of warp equal to the
depth of the doors. The value for T found by (7.44) can then be used in
(7.43) to estimate
warp resistance.
At higher towing speeds, where the warp generates a vortex street and
vibrates, additional drag is induced by the vibration. Then, if the warp
tension at the surface is estimated from (7.44), formula (7.43) must be
rewritten.

(Rw)vib = KV (T cos a - To cos a ) (7.45)

where Kv is an empirical coefficient for vibration effects, having a value of


about 1,5 according to investigations by Crewe (1964).
It is best to measure the warp declination, a, at the surface. If the tension,

T, in the warp at the surface is also measured then, of course, (7.43) should
be used to estimate warp drag under all circumstances.

Example 7.11

Find the required warp scope L, for a midwater trawl to be towed at a depth
of Y 120 m. The drag of the rigged trawl net is R n = 3 000 kgf, the drag
of one trawl door is Ra - 400 kgf and its weight in water is Wdw = 600 kgf,
and the sinking weight of 1 of the warp in water is F, = 1,5 kgf. Assume
m
the net behind the doors is neutrally buoyant.

Solution

To calculate the warp scope L, from expression (7.41) it is necessary first


180 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

to determine values for To*, tan oo and cos a . T 0x is found from (7.39) as

Tox = 3 000/2 + 400 = 1 900 kg f .

Assuming that the trawl itself is neutrally buoyant and that the sheer force
generated by the door is horizontal, the vertical component of warp tension
in the lower end of the door is equal to the weight of door W d so that
Toy = 600 kgf.Hence, using equation (7.40),
tan a = 600/1 900
= 0,316
whence ao = 17,5 and cos ao = 0,954. Then from (7.41)
2
(2)(120)(1900) (1900)(0,316) (1900)(0,316)
m
(1,5)(0,954) (1,5) (1,5)

Example 7.12

Determine the drag of the warps in Example 7.1 1 if the measured angle of
incidence of the warp at the surface is a = 23.

Solution

The drag of both warps 2 Rw can be found from equation (7.45) after the
tension in the lower end of the warp To and the tension in the upper end
T have been determined. The tension in the lower end of each warp is the
vector sum of the drag and buoyed weight on each warp from the gear.

= J(l 900) 2 + (600) 2 = 1 990 kgf


At the upper end of the warp, the tension from (7.44) is

T= 1990+ 1,5x120 = 2170 kgf,


and cos a = cos 23 = 0,921. Then, assuming the warps are vibrating, the
drag of one warp Rw from (7.45) is

1,5(2 170 x 0,921 - 1 990 x 0,954) = 150 kgf

The drag of two warps, consequently, is equal to 2 x 150 = 300 kgf.

7.14 Re-calculating the total drag and mouth opening of the trawl

The total drag of the new trawl R


representing the sum of drags of its parts
t,

(net, auxiliarycomponents, sweeplines, otter boards and warps) should not


exceed the value of the available tractive or towing force F t from the vessel
at the prescribed towing speed, ie t the condition

Rt * (Ft )m (7.46)
must be observed.
The rigging of a trawl as well as the warp scope are altered during fishing
DESIGNING TRAWLS 181

operations according to the changing fishing conditions. Therefore the drag


of any particular trawl may vary considerably, eg changes made in the
rigging may lead to changes in the mouth opening and thence to changes
in the drag. This fact should be taken into account when matching bottom
trawls to trawlers and when selecting a trawl to serve as a prototype for a
new design.
A practical check calculation of bottom trawl drag can be made with
Nomura's empirical formula [Nomura and Yamazaki, 1975] He measured .

various trawls used in vessels ranging from 300 to 4000 hp. Trawls have
fishing spreads at the wings between 15 and 35 m, headline buoyancy
between 200 and 650 kgf groundrope weight exceeding headline buoyancy
,

by 20-30%, towing speeds between 3 and 4,7 knots, and the netting was
polyethylene. The results of the observations are shown in Fig 7.12 and the
resulting equation is

Rn * 8 L m L n (D /m t s) V2 (7.47)

where Rn isthe resistance of the trawl net with its rigging, kgf; V is the
trawling speed, m/sec; L m is the net mouth perimeter, extended measure, m;
D
L n is the length of net extended measure, m; t is the weighted mean twine
diameter, mm; m s is the weighted mean mesh-side length, mm.

o 100 tar loo co toe

Structural Parameter, L m Ln
ms
Fig 7.12 Trawl resistance parameter as a function of trawl construction.

The fishing spread between the trawl doors can be estimated as shown in
Fig 7,13, from

YJL (7.48)
^Yd 2

where Yd is half the distance between the trawl doors; Lac is the sum of
182 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

lengths of the trawl net and its cables; L 5h is the horizontal projection of
the warp scope which ranges from 0,95 L s in shallow depths to 0,85 L s in
medium depths; Edx is the ratio of trawl door drag Rdx to half of the trawl
net drag R n ; and Ed y is the ratio of the trawl door sheer F dy to half of trawl
net drag Rn , /,

Edx = Rd/0,5R n E dy = F dy/0,5R n


;

Because equation (7.48) cannot be solved directly, it must be solved either


graphically or by the method of successive approximations. Using the
graphical method, let y be the value of each side of equation (7.48)
Yd
(7.49)

= Edy
- (1 -I- = fi(Y d ) (7.50)

Substituting an arbitrary, reasonable range of values for Yd into (7.49) and


(7.50), the resulting values are plotted as the curve yi
= fi(Yd) and the

-Rn

Fig 7.13 Schematic for estimating door spread and wing spread.

Door Spread *
2 V
Fig 7.14 Graphical solution of equation (7.48) for trawl door spread.
DESIGNING TRAWLS 1 83

straight line 72 = f2(Ya) shown respectively as lines A


and B in Fig 7.14. The
point of their intersection at D
gives the solution of (7.48), its abscissa being
the required value of Yd. The distance between the doors is 2 Yd.
The distance between the wing ends of the trawl net can be estimated by
the approximate equation

Yn - (L sh L r E dy)/[L sh + L nc (l + Ed,)] (7.51)

where Yn a half of the distance between the wing tips and L r is the rib
is

line length which, for present purposes, can be assumed as 0,9 of the
extended length of the netting L n Other values are the same as for (7.48).
.

The headline height at its centre, above the sea bed, can be estimated as
shown by Fig 7.75 from
H=h+b sin a (7.52)

and
a = tan" '(2 -Fix/Ho) (7.53)

where h is either the height of the otter board in trawls with bridles or that
of the danleno in trawls with sweeplines. If the danlenos are suspected to
be nearly horizontal, take h * 0. Ff2 is the total lift of the floats on the
headline. R n is the total drag of the rigged trawl net, half assumed to be
carried by the headline and half by the footrope. b is the sag of the headline
bight which is found for a catenary in Table 4 A from the known length of
the headline Li and from the spread of the wing tips L c = 2Y n as found by
(7.51).
The vertical mouth opening of a midwater trawl is approximated by
H = 2 b sin a (7.54)

where the symbols are the same as in (7.52).

Expressions (7.48) to (7.54) inclusive are useful for analyzing the results
of adjustments to a tentative trawl design during 'fine tuning* to meet both
the statement of requirements and the conditions of the assignment.

Rn/2

Fig 7.15 Schematic for estimating headline height.


184 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

Example 7.13

Find the fishing spread at the wing tips of a bottom trawl in which the length
of the horizontal projection of the warp L S h = 600 m, the hung length of the
trawl net L r = 50 m, the length of cable L c = 60 m, the drag of the trawl net
R n = 4000 kgf, the drag of one otter board R d = 400 kgf, the sheer force
generated by one otter board Fdy = 500 kgf.

Solution

To determine Yn using the equation (7.51) first find

E dy = Fd y/0,5R n = 500/2 000 = 0,25

Edx = Rd/0,5R n = 400/2 000 = 0,2

L nc = L + L c = 50 60 = 1 10 m
r -I-

Consequently,
Y n = (600)(50)(0,25)/[600 + (110)(l + 0,2)] = 10,25 m
hence the wing spread of the trawl will be approximated by
2 x 10,25 = 20,5 m.

Example 7.14

Find the headline height H of the bottom trawl in Example 7.13 when the
height of the danleno = 0,6 m, the lift force of the headline flotation
FfZ = 200 kgf, and the length of the headline Li = 40 m.

Solution.

To estimate the headline height from equation (7.52) first find the sag of the
headline bight b and sin a (Fig 7.15). The ratio of wing spread to headline
length is

L C /L, = 20,5/40 = 0,51


Then, from Table 4.1, for the catenary b/Lj = 0,4 and the sag of the
headline bight is

b= 0,4x40=16m.
From (7.53)

and sin a = 0,1. Consequently from (7.52)

H = 0,6 + (16)(0,1) - 2,2m.


It is possible to determine more precisely the mouth opening and shape
of the trawl by special full-scale and model tests.
CHAPTER 8

DESIGNING PURSE SEINES

8.1 Design objectives and procedure


Purse seine fishing has developed rapidly in inshore and offshore fisheries
in many parts of the world. By landings it is second (20%) only to trawl net
fishing. Purse seining is of great importance to fisheries in Norway, Japan,
Peru, Iceland, USSR, USA, France and other countries.
Technical improvements in purse seining are achieved by using new high-
by updating fishing vessel design and equip-
tenacity synthetic netting fibres,
ment, by introducing effective devices for seeking the fish and aiming the
gear at fish concentrations, by mechanizing pursing, net hauling, fish brail-
ingand stowing, and by attracting fish and preventing them from escaping
from the seine by various means.
As a rule, purse seines are used to catch pelagic fish. Generally, small fish
form dense schools which are suitable for purse seining, but large fish form
less dense schools which are more difficult to seine. Purse seining is usually
conducted where pelagic fish concentrate in mass densities between 0,5 and
3
5,0 kg/m which is a million times more dense than the average for all fish
,

in the volume of the world oceans. Purse seining becomes unprofitable


3
when the mass density of fish in the water is below about 0,1 kg/m ,

depending on the price of the fish and other techno-economic conditions.


The amount of catch from a single set of a purse seine depends on the
size of the gear and vessel, the fish species and the fishing conditions.
Catches range from as little as 0,25 to 0,5 tonnes per set in small seines to
hundreds of tonnes for herring, capelin, etc, in large, North European,
American and Japanese purse seines. Nevertheless, very large catches are
comparatively rare. Catch statistics give the designer information about the
possible catch rates. For example, Fig 8.1 gives statistical data on the catch
of mackerel per haul by USSR 300 h.p. seiners in the Japanese sea in 1953.
In 152 hauls out of 412 (37%), catches were 5 tonnes or less, while catches
over 30 tonnes occurred in only 27 hauls (6.5%).
Consider the idealized case (Fig 8.2) when all the fish encircled by a seine
of cylindrical shape are retained and do not escape, even partially, from the
enclosed volume. Then, the maximum mass of the catch C D is

(C m W = cr v
3
(8.1)

where Cf is the mean mass concentration (kg/m ) or fish density per unit
186 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

Catch per set, C s ( tonnes)

Fig 8.1 Catch-size frequencies for mackerel purse seining by 300 horsepower vessels.

3
volume of the sea enclosed by the seine and v (m ) is the enclosed volume,
which can be approximated by
v = -K rn
2
H
where r = 3,14; r n is the radius of the circle formed by the netting wall of
the purse seine; H
is the working depth of the purse seine, ie, the distance

between the floatline and the leadline at the moment of closure. Considering
that r n = L/(2*), where L is the floatline length,

T (8.2)

Substituting this value for v into equation (8.1),


2
(C m )mft*-Cf-L -H/4-7T (8.3)

The actual catch Cm is less than this maximum


because the fishing
coefficient for the purse seine E c is less than unity. The more that fish escape
from the seine the smaller is EC and the smaller is the proportion of the fish
in the enclosed space which is captured and brought aboard. Thus, the
actual catch is C m = E c (c m )max and

CE -crL c
2
-H/4 (8.4)

Equation (8.4) assumes that a mean effective mass concentration of the


fish, cr, evenly distributed throughout the volume enclosed by the seine,
DESIGNING PURSE SEINES 187

can be used. In reality, the fished schools usually occupy only part of the
volume enclosed by the seine so the conclusion should not be drawn that
the amount of catch depends chiefly on the length L and depth H of the
seine. With larger seines, it is not the size of catch in each set, but the
incidence of successful sets, that is of greater importance, and the larger the
seine the longeris the time required for each set. Determining the optimum

dimensions of a purse seine is, therefore, an important task of the designer.

Fig 8.2 Idealized purse seine geometry.

As for any other fishing gear, the essence of designing a purse seine is to
produce the optimum gear variant that best matches the behavioural
peculiarities of the given fish, the characteristics of the area to be fished and
the technical parameters of the fishing vessel. For this purpose, information
is and the fishing grounds and about existing
collected concerning the fish
fishing gear and methods, past experience of fishermen is studied, and
technical and economic problems are analyzed mathematically.
A purse seine design consists of technical specifications and drawings. In
the mathematical formulation of technical specifications the following
aspects are considered:

1. Characteristics of the fish species and the fishing grounds.


2. General characteristics of purse seines.
3. Characteristics of specific purse seines from which a prototype may be
selected.

The design procedure is:

1. Select a prototype if possible.


2. Calculate the seine length.
3. Determine the seine depth.
4. Estimate the speed, time, and depth for sinking of the leadline.
5. Determine the mesh size and twine thickness.
1 88 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

6. Determine the dimensions of each netting panel in the seine and their
hanging coefficients.
7. Specify the ropes for the floatline and the leadline.
8. Calculate the flotation and ballast for the floatline and leadline.
9. Calculate the required strength for the purseline.

Then, construction drawings and drawings specifying the rigging of the


floatline, leadline and other attachments, the purseline and other details are
prepared.

8.2 Characteristics of the target fish and the fishing grounds


During the foraging season, the fish are usually fast, make quick move-
ments and react actively to various stimuli. Data concerning the most usual
sizes of fish schools, their shape, migration speeds, depths and thicknesses
while being fished should be collected and studied. During the prespawning
period, fish swim more slowly and are less easily frightened. Schools and
very large accumulations can sometimes even be fished repeatedly by purse
seines without active attempts to escape.
Information concerning the distance at which schools react to an
approaching vessel and to the seine wall, how they react (such as the speed
of horizontal and vertical movement away from the source of danger), how
they escape (for example, through the gap between the seine ends, under the
leadline or over the floatline), their ability for rapid changes in swimming
direction, etc, is most useful for determining the dimensions of the purse
seine.
Calculation of the mesh size in the netting requires data on the minimum
commercial size and characteristic dimensions, such as body length, of
individual fish.
Information about the fishing grounds is used to determine the type and
dimensions of the seine and its strength. Data on the depth and character
of the sea bed and thermoclines, salinity gradients, currents and
meteorological conditions are used. The depths and the nature of the sea
bed are, to a great degree, decisive factors in determining the depth and
design of the seine for any fishing area where the leadline of the seine may
come into contact with the ground. Thermoclines and salinity gradients may
create barriers for some fish species, and their prevailing depths may be a
factor in determining the depth and sinking speed of the seine. It is
advisable to obtain seasonal data because the depth of such barriers usually
change with the season.

8.3 Vessel characteristics

The type, design and dimensions of the purse seine must match the size and
performance of the seiner, its deck machinery and other facilities. Thus,
while designing a purse seine it is necessary to have data on the maximum
ship speed, setting speed, minimum turning radius, dimensions of the vessel
DESIGNING PURSE SEINES 189

and its working deck and of the turntable, if any, and on the pull and

hauling speed characteristics of gear handling mechanisms and devices. The


speed of the seiner on a minimum circular course can be estimated from
Fig 8.3. Taking into account the resistance of the seine, the shooting speed
on a straight course is approximately 20% lower than the ship's free
running speed. The other data required to use Fig 8.3, such as the minimum
turning radius and the free running speed are found either in the vessel's
technical specifications, if available, or by direct measurement.

Example 8.1

What the setting speed for a seine when the free running speed of the
is

seiner on a
straight course is 9 knots, the seiner length is 20 and the radius m
of the curved course is 60m?

Solution

The ratio of the radius of the curved course to the vessel length is 60/20 = 3,
whence from Fig 8.3, the setting speed on this circular course is 0,86 that
on a straight course. But, at a free running speed of 9 knots, the setting
speed on a straight course is approximately (0,8) (9) = 7,2 knots. Therefore,
the setting speed on this curved course is

(7,2)(0,86) = 6,2 knots.

0.9

;
0.8

0.7

0.6

7
0.5
7
0.4
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

*
Rodtus of Circulof Count
L Vessel Length

Fig 8.3 Speed reduction on curved course as a function of radius of curvature.

8.4 Selecting the prototype seine

The type, shape, rigging, etc, of the purse seine for the prototype which will
serve as the basis for subsequent work is selected by the designer using his
190 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

own experience, from an examination of commercial fishing practice and


from information on the fish and the fishing grounds. Naturally, this selec-
tion is from a number of designs which have proven fishing performance
on the desired species or on species which behave in a similar way under
similar fishing conditions.
Two basic design configurations for round-haul seines are (a) the lampara
type in which the netting is specially tailored so that a netting tray forms
under the school of fish and (b) the purse seine and ring-net type in which
the netting tray is formed by tightening a special rope passing through rings
attached to the leadline. Purse seines may be operated from one vessel
(herring and salmon seines) or from two vessels (eg large tuna seines). For
one-boat purse seines the bunt is placed at one end of the seine, and for two-
boat purse seines and ring nets it is placed at the centre. Usually, two-boat
seining is conducted from smaller vessels (ring nets). This gear is shot and
hauled quickly but requires calm weather. Purse seining from one vessel can
be conducted in rougher weather because the seiner is larger and does not
have to operate alongside another vessel. The choice between one or two
boat systems is by no means clear cut because, in many cases, either system
may be selected, depending not only on technical but also on economic and
sociological factors.
In addition to the more common purse seines whose floatline is designed
to remain at the sea surface throughout the fishing cycle, midwater purse
seines are now used for fishing schools at greater depths. The buoyancy of
midwater seines is calculated so that, when the seine is shot, it submerges

to the required depth, as determined by the length of lines from auxiliary


buoys fitted to the floatline, and then rises to the surface during hauling.
Generally, purse seines are rectangular (Fig 8.4). Sometimes the seine is
deeper in the central part than near the wing and bunt ends. Leadlines
longer than floatlines sink more quickly, but leadlines shorter than floatlines
can be pursed more quickly and improve the scooping action of the seine.
Seines hauled by a power block must have the leadline and floatlines of
nearly equal length.

-BUNT

-BREASTLINE

PURSE LSIE-y LEADLINE^ SHOULDER^


Fig 8.4 Schematic diagram of a purse seine with principal parts identified.
DESIGNING PURSE SEINES 191

The mesh sizes of the netting are selected to prevent fish from gilling and
to guide them freely into the bunt; twine thicknesses are selected for
adequate strength. The selection of hanging ratios, E, is more involved and
must be based on the consideration of several factors with partly contra-
dictory effects. For example, as shown by a series of model and full-scale
underwater tests in the USA and Norway, in the range EI = 0,5 to 0,9 a
smaller hanging ratio at the floatline gives a higher sinking speed and
greater designed working depth of the seine. On the other hand, larger
hanging ratios improve handling and hauling both of the net and of the
catch. Also, with larger hanging ratios at the leadline the vertical force
component in the lower strips of netting is less and the leadline stays deeper
during pursing. Finally, the hanging ratio affects the cost of the netting,
E = 0,71 giving the lowest weight for a given style of netting and working
area (see Fig 8.5).
The buoyancy and the ballast of the floatline and leadline, respectively,
may be calculated using either the principles given in Section 3.1.1 or from
a prototype using the similarity rules (Section 6.7).

1,0

0,1 0.8 as 0,* 0,5 O,t 0,7 Q.6

Primary Hanging Ratio, /

Fig 8.5 Effect of hanging ratio on netting weight for a given working area.

8.5 Calculating the seine length


The criterion for this calculation is to determine the minimum length of
seine to ensure capture of the desired fish. The length of a one-boat purse
seine is calculated so that the entire fish school is encircled when the net is
192 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

set and the vessel is back at the starting point with the wing and bunt of
the seine together.
It is difficult to anticipate how the fish will attempt to escape: (a) through
the gap between the ends or (b) under the leadline while the net is being shot
as shown in Fig 8.6 or (c) under the leadline while the purseline is being
hauled as shown in Fig 8.7. A
longer seine requires more time to shoot the
net and haul the purseline, giving the fish more opportunity to escape
through the gap, but the fish may feel less crowded in a larger seine and stay
passively in it until it is pursed. Escape under the leadline is not strongly
affected by seine length but could indicate too shallow a seine or inadequate
sinking speed.

Fig 8.6 Fish escaping through the gap and under the leadline while the net is being shot.

Fig $.7 Fish escaping through the gap while the purse line is being hauled.
DESIGNING PURSE SEINES 193

During practical fishing, the plan form of the set may be anything
between a circle and a very elongate ellipse. For the purpose of simplified
estimations, however, the set will be assumed to be made on a circular
course.
The estimation of required purse-seine length is based on the seining
strategy as depicted in Fig 8.8 for fast swimming fish. It is assumed that the
school is herded by the seiner and is forced to swim parallel to it while the
net is being shot. There is a minimum distance, a, to which the vessel may
approach the school without disturbing its normal behaviour. The fish
school is initially on a course in the direction from point A toward point
B at velocity V f The seiner starts setting its net at point C, far enough from
.

the school not to affect its normal behaviour and steams on a circular course
at velocity V s such as to intercept the school at point D with one quarter
of the seine paid out. Thus, CD * TT rn/2, where r n is the radius of the set
net. During this same period, T, the fish school moves from point A to
point B, a distance AB (rn-a-rsX^), where r s is the radius of the
school. The ratio of the setting speed, V = CD/T,
s to the fish-school speed,
V f = AB/T, is thus

E = Vl =
CD TTn
Vf AB '2-j2-(rn -a-r,)
which rearranges to give the setting radius as

__
Ev (a + r.)
"
Ev-T/(2j2)
For a circular set, the length of the seine is the perimeter described by this
radius,

L-2w. ^*' Ev

Fig 8.8 Geometry of seining strategy.


194 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

Letting the coefficient be

b=

the length of the seine becomes

L = b-(a + rs ) (8.5)

The coefficient, b, is a function of the velocity ratio E v = V 8 /Vf of the setting


speed to the fish-school speed as given in Fig. 8.9. As the velocity ratio Ev
increases, ie, when the setting speed V s increases or the fish-school speed Vf
decreases or both, the seine-length coefficient, b, decreases and, according
to formula (8.5) the required minimum seine length also decreases. In the
limit as the velocity ratio, Ev approaches infinity, ie, when the fish school
is practically immobile, the seine-length coefficient, b, approaches 2ir.

Then, the length of the seine is a minimum and


) (8.6)

According to many experienced fishermen, the nearest distance, a, to


which a fishing vessel can approach a fish school without affecting its
behaviour is 50 to 100 metres for a migrating school and 30 to 40 metres
for a feeding school. The most common diameter (2 r s ) for nearly circular
schools and their most usual maximum speeds, Vf, by species are given in
Table 8.1.

TABLE 8.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF FISH SCHOOLS.

Example 8.2
What is the minimal length for a one-boat sardine purse seine when the

most common school diameter is 2 r $ = 50 m, the schools move at


Vf 1,1 m/s, the vessel shoots its gear at V, = 5 knots, the behaviour of the
school is affected by the vessel when it is closer than a = 50 m.

Solution

To find the seine length coefficient, b, from the velocity ratio, Ev , it is


necessary first to express the speed of the fish school, V f> and the shooting
DESIGNING PURSE SEINES 195

speed of the vessel, V s, in the same units. That is, the shooting speed
becomes
V = 5(0,514) = 2,57
s m/s
and the velocity ratio is

Ev = 2,57/1, 1=2,34

For Ev = 2,34, Fig 8.9 gives b = 12,0 whence from Equation (8.5)

L= 12,0(50 + 25) = 900m.

'G

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

=
Velocity Ratio E
V -y*-

/?$ 8.9 Seine-length coefficient as a function of seine-setting to fish-school velocity ratio.

Example 8.3

Determine how much the length of the seine used in Example 8.2 could be
reduced if the net could be set at V, = 8 knots.

Solution

In this case

V, = 8(0,514) = 4,12 m/s


and
Ev- 4,12/1,1 = 3,74 m/s
196 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

For this value of Ev ,


= 9 and from Equation
Fig 8.9 gives b (8.5)

L = 9x(50 + 25) = 675m


so that the length of the seine can be reduced by

L = 900-675 = 225m
it, by 25%, saving time by both a faster and a shorter set.
prevent the school from escaping below the leadline, the minimum
To
distance, a, between the vessel and the school must be such that the seine
can form a net wall deeper than the maximum depth, H, to which the fish
will dive before the school, swimming toward the seine, actually encounters
it. Then,

a= VfT 5

where T 5time required for the leadline of the seine to sink to the depth
is

H. To satisfy this condition by adjusting the designed length of the purse


seine, Equation (8.5) becomes
T +rs s) (8.7)

Considering the effect of this process on the required length of the purse
seine, a fast sinking leadline is in many cases the most important factor in
minimizing the length of the seine and preventing the escape of the fish
under the leadline during setting.

Example 8.4
Find the length of a purse seine to be used for schools which tend to sound
under the leadline. The most common diameter of these schools is estimated
to be 50 m, the speed of the vessel while setting is 8 knots, according to
special observations the maximum speed of the fish school is about
1,1 m/sec, their maximum sounding depth is 12 m, and the sinking speed
of the leadline averages 0,18 m/sec.

Solution

The time required for the leadline to sink to the sounding depth of the fish
school is

T.= 12/0,18
= 66,7 sec.

The shooting speed of the seiner and the swimming speed of the fish school
are the same as in Example 8.3, whence b = 9; so that Equation (8.7) gives

L-9x (1,1 x 66,7 + 25) - 885 m.

In two-boat purse seining the time needed to surround a school of fish


is,theoretically at least, about half that needed in one-boat purse seining.
Therefore, the length of a ring net is a much less critical factor than that
of a one-boat purse seine. A set will, in most cases, be successful if the
DESIGNING PURSE SEINES 197

setting begins in front of a school at a distance not less than V f T, so that


the fish do not reach their maximum sounding depth before the leadline.
Also, they are not likely to pass through the gap between the pair seine
wings because pair seiners meet before a one-boat seiner can close its net.
Therefore, the length of the ring nets is more often determined by other
operational features, such as handling aboard and manoeuverability of the
vessels, than by escape of fish.
The required length of netting in a purse seine can be reduced by using
special rope bridles about 25 to 125 m
long attached to the wings of the
seine.

8.6 Determining the depth of the seine


The design of the seine depth takes into account two factors. One of them
is the maximum
possible depth to which the fish are capable of descending
and the speed of their descent and the second is the ratio of depth to length
of the seine needed to preserve the required shape during the pursing
operation.
For successful fishing, the leadline should be designed to reach to a depth
H which is 20 to 30% deeper than the maximum swimming depth of the
schools. The designed depth of a purse seine Hh can be described in terms
of the hung netting as

(8.8)

where Ei and 2 are, respectively, the primary (horizontal) and secondary


(vertical) hanging ratios of the netting and Ho is the extended depth of the
netting in the seine between the leadline and the floatline.
When stenothermal species are sought, the seine should reach below the
thermocline which forms a natural barrier through which the fish will not
dive.
Deep seines are used for species which make large vertical migrations but
it is difficult to determine their most probable range of swimming depths.
The incidence of successful sets is greater for deeper seines but at a greater
cost for the gearand its operation. The optimum depth should therefore be
based on economic considerations, ie on maximum return of catch per unit
cost of fishing (see Yudovich, 1969). The required statistical data on the
depth distribution of schools susceptible to purse seining can be derived
from echo recordings obtained during fishing operations.
Thus, the length and the depth of the purse seine depend on the
swimming speed and the size of schools, on their sounding depth, and on
the distance at which the desired fish are alarmed and are scared away by
the seiner and the descending seine. However, the relation between the
depth and the length of the seine H/L is also determined by other factors
such as the shape of the purse seine during the pursing and hauling
forces are re*
operations. If the value for H/L is too low, excessive pursing
198 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

quired, contracting the net too quickly, drawing the floatline into the centre
of the seined area, crowding the fish, raising the leadline so the fish can
escape under it, and pulling the seiner into the net. Preferably, the depth
of the seine is greater than 0,1 of its length, but it is usually less than 0,2
of its length. When fishing in shallow waters, where the leadline scrapes the
sea bed and fish cannot escape under it, H/L may sometimes be as low as
0,05. For slow-swimming species or when fishing with light which attracts
and tends to hold fish so they do not try to escape, H/L can be increased,
even as high as 0,33 when deep water must be reached.

8.7 Determining the time, depth and speed of the sinking leadline
The leadline of the seine sinks at a gradually decreasing speed until it stops,
the approximate number of seconds, T s required for the leadline to sink to
,

depth H in metres can be found from

T = 0,9-H-
8 (8.9)
jji
where F 8 is the sinking force per unit length of leadline (kgf/m). This
assumes an average value for the hydrodynamic resistance coefficient of the
netting, and does not take into account the different buoyed, bulk specific
weights of different netting materials. It is known from the results of
experiments that when the weight of the leadline is increased from zero to
about 3 kgf/m the sinking time T s decreases considerably. Further increase
of the weight has a gradually decreasing effect on T s .

The depth of the leadline at any instant while sinking can be estimated
by transposing Equation (8.9) to

H
=^F <8 - io)

Example 8.5
What is the time required for the leadline of a purse seine to sink to a depth

of 80 m, when the ballast of the leadline is:

1) F, 2 kgf/m; 2) F. 5 kgf/m.

Solution

According to (8.9), for the first case

Ts * 0,9 x 80 I = 455 sec = 7,6 min

and for the second case:

=
y = 288 sec 4,8 min
DESIGNING PURSE SEINES 199

Thus, while the ballast of the seine has increased two and a half times, the
sinking time is reduced by only 3.

Example 8.6
What is the depth to which the leadline of a purse seine sinks in 3 minutes
after shooting when the ballast of the leadline is 1,5 kgf/m?

Solution

Using the Equation (8.10), the depth H when T =s 3 min = 180 sec is

The decreasing sinking speed, V m/s, of the leadline with increasing


depth is given by Equation (3.14) as

where F s the ballast in kgf/m of leadline, 1,8 is an empirical drag


is
2 4
coefficient (kgf-s /m ) for netting parallel to the direction of motion,
relatively constant for different types and geometry of netting, and is the H
depth in metres of the leadline at a given moment of time.
In the process of sinking a midwater (submerged) purse seine there are
two stages. First, the leadline sinks as usual at decreasing speed while the
floatline remains at the surface. Then, when the whole floatline becomes
submerged, the sinking speed of the seine is practically constant as
determined by the balance of forces generated by the weight and drag of
the seine. In this second stage,

= + Fn Hs " Fb
'

(8.12)
*\ 1,8 H s

where F 8 is as above, H s is the set depth of the seine between the leadline
and the floatline, Fn is the submerged weight per unit hung area of netting
and Fb is the submerged buoyancy of the floatline in kgf/m.

Example 8.7
What is the sinking speed of the leadline of a purse seine during the first
stage at a depth of 20 m
and at a depth of 40 m
when the ballast is

Solution

From (8. 11) for H = 20m


V 20 =
200 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

and for H = 40

Example 8.8
What is the sinking speed of a midwater purse seine during the second stage
of descent? The depth of the seine
its s H
= 40m, the ballast weight
F, = 4 kgf/m, the weight of the netting F n s H
= 0,5 kgf/m, the buoyancy
of floats Fb = 2 kgf/m.

Solution

Using equation (8.12)

v=
1,8

8.8 Calculating the mesh size and twine diameter for seine netting

When selecting netting materials for purse seines, preference is given to


those which, at equal strength and cost, have a lower hydrodynamic
resistance and higher specific weight for faster sinking. In addition, netting
for purse seines must resist mechanical wear and degradation by sunlight
and have a colour which is least visible to the fish. In clear, offshore waters
the best colour is black, brown or dark blue.
The mesh size must be small enough not to gill the fish in any part of the
seine. A
common procedure is to select a mesh size considerably smaller
than this in the bunt where the fish crowd the netting, but a larger mesh is
satisfactory in the other parts where it herds the fish while achieving faster
sinking. The bunt of purse seines performs basically the same function as
the codend of trawls so that its mesh size can be determined by the same
method, ie, by Equation (7.1), whence

(2/3) moo (8.13)

where moa is the mesh opening in the seine bunt and moo is the mesh
opening of a gill net for catching the fish of the same species and size.
Section 7.3 discusses how to estimate moo* As for the trawls, the minimum
mesh opening moB for the seine bunt may be specified by the Fisheries
Regulations for a given area, in which case it must be observed irrespective
of the value derived from (8.13).
Usually the same mesh size, mos, is also used in the shoulder (or
shoulders in ring nets) adjacent to the bunt. In other parts of the seine and
mesh opening or length mi may be larger than mos and can be determined
by an equation analagous to (7.2). For various sections and designs of seine
Ki ranges widely from 1.2 to 5. When selecting Ki to calculate the mesh size
DESIGNING PURSE SEINES 201

mi for different parts of a new seine, it is expedient to use the corresponding


values of Ki from a prototype seine. One way to make the seine lighter, and
thus to decrease its cost, is to change the mesh size over the depth of the
seine, while at the same time increasing the hanging ratio, as indicated in
Fig 8. 10.
To avoid gilling fish in the netting the mesh size should not be within the
range 0,7 to 1,3 of moo. This is difficult to achieve when fish of different
sizes and species are fished with the same purse seine. In this case, the
solution is to make the mesh size throughout the seine as small as feasible.

m,
= m oB

m? -
2m,
O
\ > E|
= 8

E,
= 09

Fig 8. JO Graduating mesh size and hanging ratio with depth to reduce seine weight.

The main criterion for determining the twine thickness for netting in a
purse seine is to provide sufficient strength for pursing and hauling when
the load due to the fish is maximum. The wing ends and the lower and upper
selvedges of the seine are subjected to the greatest stresses. Therefore,
twines of greater thickness are used in these parts. Minimal loads are
imposed on the central sections of the seine. Table 8.2 gives ratios Dt/mi for
different parts of purse seines as recommended in the USSR.

TABLE 8.2 RECOMMENDED (USSR) RATIOS OF TWINE THICKNESS TO MESH LENGTH (D t /mi) FOR
NYLON NETTING IN PURSE SEINES.

Vessel size

Netting section 100-150 tons 300-600 tons

Bunt 0,020-0,025 0,04-0,06


Shoulder 0,015-0.020 0,03-0,04
Other sections 0,010-0,015 0,020-0,03
202 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

As for the trawls, the twine thickness can be chosen according to


similarity criteria. In this case, the twine thickness for each part of the
designed seine can be found from (7.13). For purse seines, the most
important scaling factors are Sv and SL. The velocity scaling factor is

S v = V n/Vp (8.14)

where V n and V p are the respective speeds for hauling the purse line when
pursing the new seine and the prototype. Where the pursing is by both ends
of the purse line, the pursing speed V is the sum of the hauling speeds of
both ends. The scaling factor for linear dimensions is

(8.15)

where L n and L p are the lengths of the new seine and the prototype
respectively and Hn and H
p are the depths of the new seine and the
prototype respectively.
When the ratios of length to depth of the seines differ, then

SL = S
\Ap
(8.16)

where A n and Ap are the overall working areas (hung) of the netting in the
designed seine and its prototype respectively.

Example 8.9
In designing a new seine, smaller than the prototype but of the same general
strength, by how much should the twine thickness in the new seine be
changed if the seine area is 1/3 less and its weighted mean mesh size is 10%
less than those of the prototype? Other specifications are the same.

Solution

Because the speed, twine material and hanging ratios are the same, equation
(7.13) can be simplified by

Therefore,

For SL equation (8.16) gives

Oiven Sm = 0,9, then

Sot = JO,9x 0,82 = 0,86.


Thus, to maintain the strength standard of the prototype, the twine
DESIGNING PURSE SEINES 203

thickness must be decreased by 15% in corresponding parts of the new


seine.

8.9 Hanging netting to the breastlines (gavels)

In many existing purse seines, breastlines or gavels are employed to border


the vertical ends of the seines. It has been proved in model and in full-scale
tests that when the vertical ends of the seines are hung to gavels, instead of

being gathered to a point as with the power-block chokes, the gap between
the wings during pursing is greatly reduced (Fig 8. 11). The length of the
gavels, however, is often restricted by operational limitations and represents
a compromise between fishing performance and gear handling
requirements.

DEADLINE OF STANDARD
TUNA PUR* SEIN
~*~^"
lEADLINt OF HYBRID
sy TUNA PURSE SEINE ~~-

iOf> <o 80 70 60 5.0 <40 JO 20 10 10 20 SO 40 50 60 TO 80 90 OO

DISTANCE FROM NET ENDS IMETtRS)

Fig 8.11 Influence of gavels on the gap between the wings of purse seines.

The hanging pattern for the netting depends on the length of the gavels.
With short gavels (up to 10m) the netting is hung evenly and the hanging
ratio is

E 2 = L G /Ho (8.17)

where L G is the length of the gavel and Ho is the extended depth of the seine
netting. With longer gavels the slack of the netting is least at the leadline
and increases towards the corkline, so as to decrease the risk of the netting
becoming fouled by the purse rings. E2 = 1,0 at the leadline and gradually
decreases toward the floatline.
The following trial and error procedure provides approximate values for
the hanging ratios to be used in such cases. The length of the gavel is divided
into n equal pans. The extended length of netting hung to the first, bottom
part, at Ei * 1.0 is equal to the length of that part of the gavel, fe,

An increased length of netting is hung on each successive part of the gavel.


204 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

The additional extended length AL of netting in each successive part of the


gavel length is

ALo = 2(H^) (819)


n(n-l)
where Ho is the total extended depth of the netting at the edge to be hung
to the gavel [see equation (8.8)] The extended length of netting hung onto
.

the ith part of the gavel is

(8.20)

Correct hanging is achieved when

Z Loi = Ho
i-l

Dividing the gavel into a larger number of parts leads to a more uniform
graduation of hanging ratios along the gavel.
In some purse seines, it is advisable to fit vertical strengthening ropes
running from the floatline to the leadline. They should be long enough for
the seine to conform with the shape it would assume with all its rings
gathered after pursing at its maximum working depth w /, more than the H ,

H
hung depth h of the netting but less than the extended depth of the netting
Ho. The length of these vertical lines H w can be estimated from

H w = Ho Ei/arc sinEi (8.21)

where Ho is the extended depth of the netting in the seine, Ei is the primary
hanging ratio of the netting onto the floatline and the mesh half-angle
arc sin Ei in radians can be found from special trigonometric tables or by
using the more usual tables of trigonometric functions to find the angle X
in degrees for which EI is the sine and converting this to radians by multi-
plying by 0,0175. That is,

arc sin Ei(in radians) = 0,0175 X

where X = arc sin Ei(in degrees)

If the netting is hung onto these vertical lines with a gradient in the hanging

ratio, the same method of calculation as for the gavel ends, and equations
(8.18) and (8.20), are applicable.

8.10 Specifying the main lines


From observations of purse seining, it may be seen that the floatline is
subjected to larger tensile loads than the leadline. The main lines of the wing
sections experience greatest loads while the seine wall is being hauled to
close the gap between the wings of the seine. This is particularly serious if
9
the seiner 'runs out of net before completing the circle while setting. The
DESIGNING PURSE SEINES 205

breaking strength T r of the ropes for the float line, winglines and breastlines
must satisfy the condition
T =
r f-F, (8.22)

where F the maximum pull of the seine drum, power block or winch and
t is

f is the load safety factor which ranges from 5 for small and medium vessels
to 3 for the larger seiners. The strength of the leadline and ring bridles may
be less.
The strengths of the ropes may also be derived from the similarity ratios
when the seine is designed from a prototype. From formula (6.21), the
scaling factor SDI for the diameters of corresponding ropes of the new seine
and the prototype is

S D i= P^ (8.23)

where the scaling factors for the load safety factor f and the breaking stress
a r are chosen by the designer and the force scaling factor S F from the netting
drags is

SF = Sv 2 (Sot/Sm) [S A/(S E i S E2 )] (8.24)

where Sot is the scaling factor for twine diameters, SA is the ratio of the
designed working areas of the new design A n to those of the prototype A p
and other symbols are the same as in Chapter 7.

Example 8.10
Using the data and conditions from Example 8.9 determine the relative
diameters of ropes in the new seine as compared with those in the prototype.

Solution

According to the conditions of the problem, formula (8.23) can be reduced


to

The scaling factor for the forces SF can be obtained from formula (8.24)
which, under the given conditions, can be reduced to

The design criteria given in Example 8.9 give S A = 2/3 and S m = 0,9 and the
solution of Example 8.10 gives S D = 0,86, therefore
t

S F = 0,86/0,9x2/3 = 0,64

and the scaling fictor for line diameters SDI is

Thus, the diameter of the corresponding ropes of the designed seine can be
20Vo less than those of the prototype.
206 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

8.11 Calculations for the rigging of the seine

The weight in the water per metre of rigged leadline F s is calculated to sink
the leadline to the required depth in the required time. F s includes the
weight in water of the leadline, bridles, purse rings, purse line and sinkers.
If the weight distribution is uniform, the seine may be treated as a whole.
If not, the seine must be divided into sections of length Li and the ballast
per metre F s ; in each section used to find the total ballast Q si required for
that section
Qsi =F si -Li (8.25)

The total ballast for the seine is then

Qs = 2Q 5i (8.26)

The can be adjusted by specifying the appropriate amount of lead


ballast
(number x of sinkers) on the leadline. Where combination rope
size

(Appendix 5) is used for the leadline, its weight in water should be taken
into account. Braided nylon or polypropylene leadline with lead core is
selected for the proper mass per unit length and strength. Formula (8.23)
isfor scaling the diameters of laid ropes and cannot be applied to braided
leadlines because the lead core contributes to the diameter without
contributing to the strength.
Buoyancy must be able to support both the submerged weight of the
rigged seine and the vertical sinking forces which are generated by pursing
and hauling and by the pressure exerted by the fish on the net wall. The
required buoyancy per metre of the floatline Ff may be estimated from
Ff = K F -F s (8.27)

where K F is an empirical coefficient. For the bunt of the seine K F is taken


between 2,0 and 3,0 and for the wings between 1,6 and 1,8. For a
submerged purse seine KF must be less than unity.
When the purse seine is designed from a prototype, formula (6.23) may
be used to calculate the rigging, ie,
Fn = F p -S F (8.28)

where Fn is the buoyancy or the ballast of the new seine, Fp is the


corresponding values for the prototype and S F is the force scaling factor for
the hydrodynamic resistance of the netting found by (8.24).

Example 8.11
Find how the total buoyancy and ballast of the designed seine compares
with the prototype when the netting area is decreased by 30%, the twine
diameter is decreased by 20%, and the speed of pursing is increased by 5%.
The mesh size and hanging ratios are the same.

Solution

According to the conditions of the problem, S A 0,7; Sot * 0,8; Sv = 1 ,05.


DESIGNING PURSE SEINES 207

Therefore, from (8.24) the force scaling factor is

2
S F = 1.05 x 0,8/1 X 0,7/1 = 0,62
Thus both the buoyancy and the ballast of the new seine may be decreased
by 38% with respect to the prototype.

8.12 Specifying the purseline


The length of the purseline is usually 100-150 m
longer than the seine. To
estimate the forces imposed on the purseline it is assumed that during
pursing the vessel is pulled into the seine against the dynamic pressure of
wind on its exposed part and of the water on its submerged part. The pull
on the purseline while pursing, T (kgf ), is approximated by the empirical
equation
T = 0,06 Ai V w 2 + 30 A2 V h 2 (8.29)

where AI is the area for the wind force on the side of the vessel, ; m2
Az is the side area of the submerged part of the vessel,
2
; m
V w is the broadside wind velocity at the vessel, m/s;
Vh is the total linear velocity at which the purseline is hauled aboard
(sum for both ends if hauled simultaneously) related to the speed
and resistance of the hull through the water, m/s.
The pull in the purseline while the purse rings are being hauled on deck
is approximated by
T = 0,5(Q n + Q r ) (8.30)

where Q n is the weight in water of the lower half of the seine netting, kgf,
and Q r is the weight in water of the wet ropes, sinkers and purse rings, kgf.
The required breaking strength of the purse line is
T = f-T
r (8.31)

where f is the load safety factor between 5 and 6, taking into account the
wear and tear against the rings and the sea bed and peak dynamic forces
arising from the sea waves and wind forces. The purse line is usually
galvanized steel, although fibre cordage may be used on smaller and
shallower seines, and its type and diameter are selected for this breaking
strength using appropriate standards (see Appendices 4, 5 and 6).
Where chains are used for leadlines and steel-wire-ropes for purselines
their diameters may be larger than those calculated for adequate strength
so that their added weight permits the weight of the sinkers to be reduced
or deleted altogether.

Example 8.12
What should be the breaking strength of the purseline T r during pursing if
the hauling speed of the line is 30 m/min; the wind speed is 20 knots; the
208 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

side surface of the seiner exposed to the wind AI = 60 m2 ; one half the total
wetted surface of the hull A
2 = 100
2
m .

Solution

The hauling speed of the line is V h = 30/60 = 0,5 m/s and the wind speed is

Vw = 20(0,514) = 10 m/s. Thus, from equation (8.29),

T = (0,06 x 60 x 10
2
) + (30 x 100 x 0,5
2
)
= 1 1 10 kgf.

Using the load safety factor f = 5

T = 5x1110
r kgf =5550 kgf
Thus, according to Appendix 6, 11 -mm diameter galvanized wire rope is

required.
CHAPTER 9

DESIGNING GILL NETS

9.1 Dimensions, hanging, mesh size, twine thickness, colour

Drift nets and bottom-set gill nets are used to fish water space with any
concentration of fish, irrespective of sea-bed type and, in most cases,
hydrographic conditions. Once a suitable type of net has been chosen, it is
necessary then to determine its optimum size, material, mesh size, twine
thickness, hanging ratios, colour, sizes of mainlines, warp and other lines,
rigging, anchors, etc.
The length of the net is selected for convenient handling on board,
usually between IS and 75 m, depending on the fishing conditions and the
facilities for handling gear. The required fishing effort is achieved by

connecting a number of nets end to end to form a fleet. The depth of the
nets (floatline to leadline) depends on the vertical distribution of the fish.
For drift nets it is usually between 6 and IS m
and for set nets between 1,5
and 6 m.
The hanging ratios of drift nets at both mainlines are usually within the
Ei to 0,7 range. Bottom set nets are usually hung at EI = 0,5. Values
= 0,5
as low as Ei = 0,3 are sometimes used to increase entangling.
The method for estimating the mesh opening required to gill fish of length
L was described in Sections 5.2.1 and 7.3 in terms of the mesh selection
factor Km as

mo
Another method is to estimate the mesh opening in terms of the maximum
girth or circumference of the fish G as

mo = KG -G (9.1)

where KG is between 0,40 for long, narrow-bodied fish and 0,44 for deep,
short-bodied fish.

scaling factor for twine thickness required to maintain the strength


The
standard of the net when the load in the netting is caused primarily by the
hydrodynamic resistance of the netting itself is given by formula (6. 13a), viz

where, because D /mi is small in gill nets,


t
S Ek = 1. Changing the mesh size,
210 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

mi, or the primary hanging ratio, Ei, changes the number of meshes or
twines in the netting, but the hydrodynamic resistance per twine and the
ability of each twine to sustain that resistance do not change so that the
required twine thickness is independent of mesh size and primary hanging
ratio per se. However, changing the primary hanging ratio necessarily also
changes the secondary hanging ratio, 2, and this, in turn, changes not only
the netting solidity (and hence also the hydrodynamic resistance) but also
the twine angle to the direction of load in the netting (and hence also the
tension in the twine for a given load in the netting), thus having a two-fold
effect on the required twine thickness. Also, increasing the depth of the gill
net, L, increases the drag area of the netting, calling for an increase in twine
thickness to withstand the greater hydrodynamic resistance not only of the
larger net but also of the thicker twine. It should be noted that gill nets for
offshore waters are subjected to greater forces from wave action, wind ac-
tion and currents than are gill nets for inshore and inland waters. Thus, the
standards for strength in relation to drag for the two types of gill net are
different and scaling for twine diameters should not be applied between
them.

Example 9.1

The mesh size of a new gill net is to be 10% greater than its prototype and
the primary hanging ratio is to be reduced from 0,55 to 0,50. The twine
material and the number of meshes in the depth of the net are to be the
same. What minimum twine thickness is required if the load in the netting
iscaused primarily by hydrodynamic drag?

Solution

The mesh size and primary hanging ratio do not directly affect the required
twine thickness. However, for a given number of meshes deep, they both
affect the hung depth, L, of the gill net in metres. The number of meshes
in the depth of the two gill nets gives

Ezn = Hp/Hlip Eip

whence,
S L = Ln/Lp = Hn/H p = Ami SEZ

Also, changing Ei necessarily changes E2 according to equation (2.5),


whence

(9.3)
CZ P ji- nip-
thus,
2
Sp9 SB
Jl-(0,50)
MMMMMMMr
z
Jl-(0,55)
- 1,037
DESIGNING GILL NETS 21 1

and
S L = (1,1)0,037) =1,141
For the same material and strength standard and at the same speeds,
S f = Sor = S v = 1 Then (9.2) gives
.

=1, 141/(1, 037) =


2
Sot 1,061

and the thickness of the twine in the new net should be at least 6% greater
than in the prototype.
Usually, the main loads imposed on the gill net twine are those resulting
from the efforts of single fish which are gilled or entangled in single meshes
of the net as, for example, when the fish are being lifted out of the water
by the net. Then, the diameter of the twine should increase more with the
mesh size than is required by hydrodynamic resistance alone. The weight,
momentum and strength of the fish increase as the cube of its length and
hence also as the cube of the mesh opening, whereas twine strength
increases as the square of its diameter. Thus

(9.4)

Then, if the material of both nets is the same, the required twine thickness
for the new gill net is
/IT
(9.5)

Example 9.2
A prototype gill net has a mesh opening of 200 mm and a twine thickness
of 1 should be the twine thickness of a new net to preserve the
mm. What
same standard of mesh strength to retain individual fish if the mesh opening
is reduced to 128 mm?

Solution

Using equation (9.5)

Gill nets should be as invisible as possible to the fish. This is achieved


most simply by choosing colour and shade as close as possible to the
background. For example, in shallow water, white nets are less visible over
bright sandy bottom and green over bottom overgrown with algae and other
vegetation. In midwater, dark shades should be preferred where the water
transparency is high, but should become lighter with the depth and should
be white at depths exceeding ten times the Secchi disc depth.
212 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

9.2 Calculating the rigging of gill nets

The required buoyancy for flotation of a bottom set net Qf can be determin-
ed from
Qf = KQ -Q n (9.6)

where Qn is the weight in water of the netting and mainlines, and KQ is a


coefficient between 3 and The buoyancy coefficient KQ should be greater
6.
in stronger currents and lower for more wary fish because more flotation
produces larger vertical forces in the netting.
The weight of sinkers in the water Q, is made greater than the force of
flotation by
Q. = KB -Qf (9.7)

where the ballast coefficient KB varies from 1,25 to 6, depending on local


experience. Strong currents, large fish and snaggy bottom require higher
values, otherwise values in the lower part of the range may be recom-
mended. The spacing of floats should be not more than 15% of the depth
of the net to prevent loss of useful area of the net due to sagging between
adjacent floats.
For surface river drift nets, Qf = 4. Qn and Q = Qn
s .

For sunken river drift nets whose leadline drags over the river bed
(Fig 9.1) the drifting speed Vn (m/s) can be estimated from

5^00 (9 . 8)
Kh An*

where Vc = current velocity, m/s


KF = friction coefficient (dimensionless) for the leadline against the
river bed
Kb = empirical coefficient for the hydrodynamic resistance of netting
2 4
as defined by equation (3.12), kgf-s /m
360 D /m,
t

An = working area of netting, m2 .

Thus, for any given type of river bed, it is possible to adjust the speed of
the net in relation to the water, and hence also the shape of the net and the
tension in the netting, by changing the ratio KB of f to Qf. Formula (9.8) Q
neglects the hydrodynamic resistance of the floats and lines, but the
resulting error is probably less than that introduced by variations in the
ground friction coefficient KF.

Example 9.3
What is the speed of a river bottom drift net set across a 1 km/hr current?
The length of the net L, * 150 m, its hung depth Hh = 2,9 m, the mesh
length m = 1 10 mm, the twine thickness t = 0,4 mm. The weight of sinkers
D
in the water Q. = 13 kgf, the weight of the netting and lines in the water
Q a = 1 kgf, the buoyancy of the floats Qf 5 kgf, the coefficient of friction
of the leadline against the river bed KF * 0,5.
DESIGNING GILL NETS 213

Solution

Using equation (9.8), first find the current velocity Vc in m/sec.

Vc = 1
km/hr = 1
000/3 600
= 0,28 m/sec.
The total normal force of the leadline on the river bed is

The hydrodynamic resistance coefficient is approximately


Kh * 360 0,4/110 = 1,31 kgf sec
2
/m
4

Therefore, the drifting velocity is

0,19 m/sec = 0,68 km/hr.

Fig 9.1 Forces on a gill net dragged on the river bed by the current.

For marine set gill nets the buoyancy distributed along the floatline can
be taken equal to the weight in water of the netting and lines

Qf = Qn (9.9)

For marine drift nets rigged with steel lower warp, the ballast is the warp
whose weight can be found in the appropriate reference tables (eg Ap-
itself,
pendix 6).
For marine submerged drift nets with upper warp, or for surface or
submerged drift nets without warp, the weight of sinkers is
Q, = Qn (9.10)

The weight of the warp, net, sinkers and captured fish in submerged drift
214 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

nets iscarried by the buoyancy of the marker and dahn buoys (one for each
net) whose buoyancy is
Q B = 20-Q n (9.11)

In some cases it is convenient to determine the rigging of gill nets using


a graphical method explained in the following example.

Example 9.4
A bottom-set gill net under the influence of current assumes a cross section
of the shape AB shown in Fig 9.2. What should be the buoyancy of the
floatline (A) and the weight of the leadline (B) so that (A) floats on the
surface and (B) stays on the ground? The force of the current on the whole
net wall is 12 kgf.

Fig 9.2 Forces on a set gill net in a current.


DESIGNING GILL NETS 215

Solution

Draw the horizontal vector CD


in the direction of the current to represent
the resistance or force of the current on the net. In this case, the scale of
CD represents R = 12 kgf. From points C and D
draw two lines respectively
parallel to the tangents BBi and AAi to the curve of the net at points B and
A such that the lines cross at point O. Then OCD is the force polygon and
the magnitude of vectors OD and OC, to the same force scale as
CD =12 kgf, indicates the force in the netting at points A and B. The
vertical components of these vectors, FD and CE, give the required values
for the buoyancy of the fioatline and the weight of the leadline. Given
CD = 12 kgf, FD = CE = 9 kgf and the buoyancy of the floatline and the
weight of the leadline should each be 9 kgf minimum.
If the floatline is carried downwind or downstream of the leadline, for
example to point Ao such that the netting hangs vertically from the floatline,
then, from points C and D lines CF and DF are drawn parallel to the
tangents to the curve of the net at points B and Ao, respectively. Now CFD
is the force polygon. The minimum buoyancy of the floatline is the vertical

component of the force FD at Ao, which is FD itself, ie 9 kgf. The minimum


ballast of the leadline is the vertical component of the force CF at B, which
is CE = 9 kgf. EF = 12 kgf is the friction between the leadline and the river

bed.

9.3 Drifting behaviour of the nets and warp


Force equilibrium between the drifting vessel and the fleet of drift nets re-
quires that the drag of the nets and the tension F t in the messenger where
the nearest stopper is secured be equal to the force of the wind Rw on the
exposed parts of the vessel (Fig 9.3). The wind resistance can be estimated
from
Rw = Cw-Av -q (9.12)

where Rw is the wind resistance of the vessel, kgf


Cw is the coefficient for the wind resistance of the vessel, including
the force of the waves. Sea trials indicate that C w * 2
A v is the vessel area subject to wind forces and can be approximated

by the product of the maximum breadth of the vessel and the


height of the superstructure above the water for present pur-
poses, m2 2
2
q =pV /2 is the aerodynamic stagnation pressure, kgf/m
2 4
p the mass density of air (0,125 kgf
is s /m )
V the wind velocity, m/sec.
is

The drag of each net in the fleet is thus


Rn = Rw/N (9.13)

where Nn is the number of nets.


216 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

Messenger

Messenger
Fig 9.3 Forces on a fleet of drift nets.

Where the messenger is fitted under the nets (as is the most common
practice) the shape of the nets may deform under the influence of the drag
H
and their working depth w becomes less then their hung depth h (Fig H
9.4). The magnitude of the working depth Hw can be estimated from

Hdh
~-
IT
1 (9>14>
JH-OUP-Q,)
where Q, is the weight in water (kgf) of the section of warp under each net.

Fig 9.4 Distortion of a drift net by hydrodynamic resistance.

Example 9.5
H
What is the true working depth w of the drift net if the exposed frontal
A
area of the vessel v * 55 nr and the wind velocity V = 15 m/sec. The fleet
consists of 100 nets, the hung depth of each net Hh = 12 m, weight in water
of one section of the messenger is Q, = 9 kgf.

Solution

Find the drag of the whole fleet using equation (9.12). The hydrodynamic
stagnation pressure is

2 2
q=s (0,125)(15) /2^14kgf/m
DESIGNING GILL NETS 217

Therefore,
Rw = (2)(55)(14)= 1540 kgf
and the drag of a single net from (9.13) is

Rn = 1540/100 =15,4 kgf


The working depth of the net can now be found using the equation (9.14):
12
Hw = ;
2
= 9,lm
(15,4/2 x9)
The breaking strength of the messenger should be approximately 4 to 5
times as great as the largest load imposed on it during fishing. The strength
of the messenger, however, may be less toward the outboard end of the
fleet. At any given point, the messenger tows only the nets beyond that

point so that the load in the messenger is less at greater distances from the
vessel. Thus, the messenger, as it is paid out, may consist of coils of rope
of successively larger diameter. If the diameters of steel messengers are not
graduated, their weight causes excess sagging in the last sections of the
messenger, deforming the nets and decreasing their fishing efficiency. The
tension T in the messenger at any point can be estimated from

T = To x/L (9.15)

where To the tension in the messenger at the nearest stopper (where it is


is

greatest), L is the length of the whole fleet and x is the distance from the

outboard end of the fleet to the point in question.


If the sag b in a section of messenger (Fig. 9.5) is small, it may be
estimated from formula (4.10) which involves the parabolic approximation
to the shape assumed by a line suspended from both ends. Transposing
(4.10), the sag is
b= Qs-L /8-T
8 (9.16)

where Q c is the weight in water of the messenger section, kgf;


Ls is the length of the messenger section, m;
T is tension in the messenger under that particular net, kgf.

fig 9.5 Warp sag between suspension points.


218 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

The length of the tissot and messenger LT between the vessel and the
nearest stopper should be adjusted according to the strength of the wind.
If the tissot is too short, it raises the end of the net, collapsing it and allow-
ing it to tangle. If it is too long and of steel wire or chain, its weight may

sink the first buoy. The shape of the tissot and messenger to the first stopper
is best represented by the catenary as given in formula (4.1) and curve O-B
in Fig 4.5. Because this length is half the symmetrical catenary, its

magnitude is

^ZjJTtrb (9n)
Fs
where LT is the length to the nearest stopper, m;
To is the tension in the messenger at the nearest stopper (To = Rw),
kgf;
F8 is the weight in water per unit length of tissot and messenger,

kgf/m;
b is the sag of the catenary = messenger depth at the nets, m.
As shown in Figure 9.3, the total sag b of the catenary is the sum of the
four vertical dimensions of the gear.

b = Hi + H2 + H 3 + H4
where HI is the free-board of the vessel;
Ha is the length of buoy-rope;
H 3 is the depth of the net itself;
m is the length of the stopper.

Example 9.6
What should be the length of the tissot and messenger to the nearest stopper
if the tension in its lower end is T = 1000 kgf, the weight in water per unit

length of tissot and messenger is 1 kgf/m, the buoy ropes are each 50 m
long, the net is 8 m
deep, the stoppers are each 10 m
long and the free-board
of the vessel is 2 m?

Solution

To use the equation (9.17), the total sag of the catenary is first found as

Then, the length of the catenary should be


APPENDICES 219

mmm
oo oo ON ON ON ON
mmro r
"<r
^- mmm
^
<* <* <* rr
< ^t
m ~* o ~*
mnnmorf oo r- r
-*
oV^-
-*

ON^ ^ oo^ oo^ r*^ r^ C G^ O^ * m so fS v> ON


ON^ so^
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APPENDIX 7. MASS DENSITY OF WATER, p, (kgf-sec /m ) AS A FUNCTION OF TEMPERATURE AND
SALINITY.

APPENDIX 8. KINEMATIC VISCOSITY OF WATER, j>, ( x 10~ 6 = m 2/sec).

Salinity, %o

tC 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
BIBLIOGRAPHY

ANDREEV, N. N. Proektirovanie kosher kovykh nevodov (Designing purse seines).


1970 Pishchepromizdat, Moscow, 278 pp.
BARANOV, F. I. Selected works on fishing gear, Vol. 1. Commercial Fishing Techniques.
1969 Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem 1976, 631 pp.
BAZIGOS, G. P. Applied fishery statistics. FAO Fish. Tech. Pap. (135). Rome.
1974
BEN- Y AMI, M., and R. E. GREEN. Designing an improved California tuna purse seine.
1968 U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Ind. Res. 4:5, p. 183-207.
CREWE, P. R. Some of the general engineering principles of trawl gear designs. In Modern
1964 Fishing Gear of the World 2, Fishing News (Books) London, p. 169-180.
FAO. Otter board design and performance. FAO Fishing Manuals, FAO, Rome, 82 p.
1974
Catalogue of Small-scale Fishing Gear. Fishing News Books Ltd., Farnham, 191 p.
1975
FAO Catalogue of Fishing Gear Designs, revised edition. Fishing News Books Ltd.,
1978 Farnham, 155 p.
FOSTER, J. J., R. S. T. FERRO, and A. J. REID. Analytical approaches in fishing technology.
1977 In Fisheries Mathematics, J. H. Steele (Ed.). Academic Press, London, p. 99-116.
FRIDMAN, A. L. Theory and design of commercial fishing gear. Translated from Russian
1973 (PPB), U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Technical Information Service, 489 p.
GREEN, R. E., T. E. TURKOVICH, and B. PETRICH. Development and testing of the
1971 hybrid tuna purse seine. In Modern Fishing Gear of the World 3. Fishing News
(Books) London, p. 264-271.
HAMRE, J. Some technological aspects of the Norwegian tuna purse seine fishery. Fiskeri-
1963 direktoratets Sktifter Serie Havundersokelser 13(6): 106-119
HOERNER, S. F. Fluid dynamic drag. Published by the author, 376 pp
1958
International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. Report of the working group on stand-
1974 ardization of scientific methods for comparing the catching performance of different
fishing gear (trawl nets and seine nets). ICES Cooperative Research Reports No. 38,
p. 1-22.
Report of the working group on standardization of scientific methods for comparing the
1977 catching performance of different fishing gear (pair trawls, 'aimed* gears, gill nets,
hooks and lines, traps). ICES Cooperative Research Reports No. 66, 16 p.
Guide to experimental procedure in fishing gear research and development. ICES
1981 Cooperative Research Reports No. 109, 39 p.
International Standards Organization. Fishing nets - designation of netting yarns in the tex
1973a system. Standard ISO 858-1973, 2 p.
Three or four-strand manila and sisal ropes. Standard ISO 1181-1973, 4 pp
1973b
Fishing nets
- description and designation of knotted netting. Standard ISO 1530-1973,
1973c 3 p.
240 CALCULATIONS FOR FISHING GEAR DESIGNS

Fishing nets
- hanging of netting
- basic terms and definitions. Standard ISO 1531-1973,
1973d Ip.
Fishing nets
- determination of breaking load and knot breaking load of netting yarns.
1973e Standard ISO 1805-1973, 3 pp.
Fishing nets
- determination of mesh breaking load of netting. Standard ISO 1806-1973,
1973f 3 p.
Steel wire ropes for general purposes - characteristics. Standard ISO 2408-1973, 19 p.
1973g
, Bow shackles. Standard ISO 2791-1973, 3 pp.
1973h
Textiles- integrated conversion table for replacing traditional yarn numbers by rounded
19731 values in the tex system. Standard ISO 2947-1973, 13 pp.
Fishing nets
- netting - basic terms and definitions. Standard ISO 1107-1974, 3 p.
1974
Three-strand polyamide multifilament ropes. Standard ISO 1141-1975, 2 p.
1975a
Three-strand polyester multifilament ropes. Standard ISO 1141-1975, 2 p.
1975b
Three-strand (hawser-laid) and eight-strand (plaited) polypropylene monofilament or film
1975c ropes - required characteristics. Standard ISO 1346-1975, 2 pp.
Ropes and cordage
- equivalence between natural fibre ropes and man-made fibre ropes
1975d for use in the mooring of vessels. Standard ISO 3505-1975. 2 p
Fishing nets
-
drawings
-
general directives. DIS 3169-1975, 5 pp.
1975e
Three-strand polyethylene monofilament ropes. Standard ISO 1969-1976, 2 pp.
1976a
Fishing nets
- mounting and joining of netting - terms and illustrations. Standard ISO
1976b 3660-1976, 10 pp.
Fishing nets
- determination of elongation of netting yarns. Standard ISO 3790-1976, 4
pp.
1976c
KLUST, O. Netting materials for fishing gear.FAO Fishing Manual, Fishing News (Books)
1973 London, 173 pp.
Ltd.,
LUKASHOV, V. N. Ustroistvo i ekspluatatsiya orudii promshlennogo rybolevstva (Design and
1972 operation of commercial fishing gear). Moscow, Pishchepromizdat, 368 pp.
MACLENNAN, D. N. The drag of four-panel demersal trawls. Fisheries Research, 1:1, p.
1981 23-24.
NDLEC, C. Estimating the weight of knotted netting. FAO-FIIM, Rome, 6 p.
1977
NDLEC, C., M. PORTIER, and J. PRADO. Techniques de peche. Rev. Trav. Inst. Peches
1979 marit., 43(2 et 3), pp. 147-288.
NOMURA, M. Preliminary study of characteristics of trawl net construction in Thailand. Indo-
1969 Pacific Fiih. Counc. Curr. Aff. Bull. Nos. 54/55, April-August 1969, p. 11-
NOMURA, M., and T. YAMAZAKI. Fishing techniques. Japan International Cooperation
1975 Agency, Tokyo, 206 p.
REID, A. J. A
net drag formula for pelagic trawls. Scott. Fish. Res. Rep. No. 7, 12 p.
1977
TRESHCHEV, A. I., Nauchnue osnovi selektivnogo rybolovstva (Scientific principles of
1974 selective fishing). Pithchepromizdat, Moscow, 446 p.
VOINIKAINIS-MIRSKII, V. N. TekhnologU pottroiki orudii prorayshlennogo rybolovstva
1971 (Technology of manufacture of commercial fishing gear). Pishchepromizdat, Moscow,
271 p.
VON BRANDT, A. Fiih catching methods of the world. Fishing News (Books) Ltd., London,
1972 240 p.
White Fish Authority, Industrial Development Unit, Description of Hull Flume Tank, 11 p.
1*76
BIBLIOGRAPHY 241

YUDOVICH, Yu. B. Opreddenfe razmerov koshel'kovikh nevodov dlya lova malopodvizhnikh


1969 kosyakov sel'di (Determination of the dimensions of purse seines for slow swimming
schools of herring). Techn. Inst. Rybn. Prom. Khoz., Kaliningrad, p. 190-201.
ZASOSOV, A. V. Dinamika chislennosti promystovikhryb. (Population dynamics of commer-
1976 cial fishes). Pishchepromizdat, Moscow, 312 pp.
too', \\3HB 2.^;-f 2.7
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