PG Tests - Turbine Condensers, Heaters, Cooling Towers, Isolation Tests

Advance Heat Rate analysis
Created by:K.Bhanu Prakash

Date:04.10.2011
Coal to power
It is more convenient to express the energy content of coal, gas, oil or any
fuel for that matter in MWh and not in kCal or MJ.
Consequently a coal with a GCV of 4000 kCal/ kg has as well a GCV of

4000 kCal/ 860 = 4.65 kWh per kg, or 4.65 MWh per ton.
In case one ton of this coal is fired in a power plant with a system
efficiency of 33%, we would generate 4.65 x 0.33 = 1.53 MWh of
electricity.
Montag, 10. Oktober 2011 Fußzeilentext 2

Heat rate

Turbo generator efficiency and heat rate
• Heat rate:
• It is defined as the quantity of the heat supplied to the turbine to

give 1 kWh output at a specified loading.
• Heat rate = 3600/[actual efficiency]
• Actual efficiency = 3600/heat rate
• If a 500 MW turbine has a guaranteed heat rate of 7940 kJ/kWh

of heat rate, then the actual efficiency is
3600/7940 = 45.3%
Operating heat rate
• Operating heat rate is calculated from the heat energy consumed by a
unit or station for a specified time period regardless of the operating
status of the unit or station.
• A common utility practice is the use of an accounting heat rate which

is the ratio of the total fuel consumed by the unit or station divided
by the gross electrical energy produced by the generator.
• The fuel input into the furnace or the unit, is the fuel consumed by the
unit, multiplied by the fuels heating value.
• The total fuel consumed is considered in the heat rate calculation

including fuel used during light-off and start-up.
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Fußzeilentext 5
Design heat rate
• The design heat rate of a unit is a tool that provides a definable

benchmark for comparison and trending purposes.
• It is simply a curve generated from the following parameters:

• Turbine Heat Balance Curves
• Unit Expected Auxiliary Consumption
• Design Boiler Efficiency
• The proper procedure for calculating design/expected heat rate

corrects for expected absolute back pressure, coal quality, and
ambient temperatures.

Best achievable heat rate
The best achievable net heat rate is the net heat rate obtained from unit acceptance
test when the equipment was new and the unit was operated at optimum.
This heat rate value is realistic and attainable for it has been achieved before.
It is a requirement that the expected design and best achievable net heat rates be
adjusted for any equipment additions and/or modifications for any performance.
Having determined the best achievable heat rate at one valve point, say, valves wide
open for example, or at a load point, maximum guarantee, the performance person
can estimate the shape of the best achievable heat rate performance over the
remainder of the load range.
Once the performance person has determined the best achievable performance of
the unit, one can compare the actual and the best achievable heat rates to
determine the amount of improvement that can be made in the unit’s performance.

Heat rate curves

Reasons for deviation
• Differences between "as-designed" and "as-built" conditions are

because of the following factors
1. Extraction line pressure drops
2. Re-heater pressure drops
3. Turbine design deficiencies
4. HP, IP, and LP efficiencies
5. Boiler design deficiencies
6. Superheat and Reheat spray flow
7. Excess air requirement
8. Pre-heater efficiency
9. Fuel quality

Cost of Heat Rate Deviation
Calculating the annual fuel cost associated with slight deviations from the plant’s
target heat rate can be enlightening since small changes have a more profound
impact than one might expect.
If a plant’s target heat rate is 12,000 Btu/kWh and the actual value is 12,011 Btu/kWh,
what is the increase in annual fuel cost?
The following equation and assumptions are used to calculate the impact of a 1
Btu/kWH deviation.
Change in Annual Fuel Cost ($/year) = HRD/BE × FC × CF × UGC × T

Where:
HRD Heat Rate Deviation (net unit or turbine cycle heat rate)
BE Boiler Efficiency = 0.88
FC Fuel Cost/1,000,000 Btu = 2.01
CF Unit Capacity Factor = 0.85
UGC Unit Gross Capacity = 500,000 kW
T =8760 hrs/year
Reasons for deviation
• Factors that exist which are not usually included in the “as-designed”
heat rate curve are:
1. Heater vents
2. Pump seal and leakoff flows
3. Steam traps
4. Plant auxiliary steam usage
5. Cycle leakages
6. Soot blowers steam usage
7. Coal handling power consumption
8. Steam coils
9. Different fuel characteristics (grindability, HHV, moisture, ash)

Uncontrollable conditions
• Conditions which affect unit performance which are not

controllable are
• air inlet temperature, cooling water temperature, and fuel quality.
• The expected design net heat rate and best achievable net heat
rate have to be adjusted for these conditions.
• Once adjusted for these uncontrollable conditions then a

comparison can be made between actual and expected (design
and/or best achievable) heat rates.

Modifications
Some typical modifications include:

• conversion from constant speed to variable speed fans,
• addition of cooling towers,
• changes in fuel used, and the retrofit of electrostatic precipitators or flue
gas desulphurization.
• Other modifications could include:

• Addition or removal of heat transfer surface or
• the replacement of heat transfer surfaces with
• more efficient design,
• replacement of turbine nozzles or blading with designs which may
improve unit performance,
• replacement of feed water heaters,
• or replacement of the condenser tubing with a more efficient design.

Obstacles for accurate unit heat rate
• The obstacles to calculating an accurate heat rate for a coal-fired

unit using this method are:
• The difficulty of accurately assessing the quantity of coal which has

been diverted to the stockpile.
• The inaccuracies of the as-received coal scales and the large

uncertainty associated with measurements made over long periods of
time.
• The use of an average heating value for a fuel whose heating value
may vary widely with different fuel suppliers.

Approaches for Heat rate
•Two approaches for heat rate measurement

•unit incremental cost curve
•This approache utilizes input/outpt (I/O) data for the unit. I/O data are obtained in
two ways.
•This is done by varying unit load and measuring the rate of energy into the boiler
(i.e., fuel flow and heating value) and power produced by the generator (i.e., power
at the generator bus bar).
•This approach is practical for oil and gas units where the technology for reasonable
accurate fuel flow measurements and relatively consistent fuel heating values exist.
•A second approach to obtaining I/O data, is to measure turbine heat rate vs. Load
(corrected to standard conditions), boiler efficiency vs. load, and then calculate
energy input rate for various values of power output
•This approach is more suitable for pulverized coal-fired units,

Heat rate and uncertainities
•The measured value of coal flow rate required by this method can be obtained from
•gravimetric feeders, which, if they have just been properly calibrated, are capable of
accuracies of 1 percent or better.
•Laboratory analyses of coal heating value have typical uncertainties of about 1

percent.
•The electrical quantities can be measured relatively accurately with uncertainties

ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 percent.
•The uncertainty in the measured heat rate can be given as

Turbine

Blade efficiency

Effect of loading
• The efficiency of the blading is dependent on the u/Vi ratio

[blade speed to steam speed ratio]
• The speed of the blading remains relatively constant[machine
speed]
• But the speed the steam is dependent on the steam flow,which
is dependent on the load

Turbine[impulse and reaction]
For maximum efficiency the turbine stages contain a combination of impulse
bucket and reaction blade designs.
These designs are characterized by how the energy is extracted from the
steam.
Impulse nozzles orient the steam so it flows in well formed high speed jets
containing kinetic energy which the moving buckets convert into shaft
rotation, or mechanical energy, as the steam changes direction.
The pressure drop occurs across the stationary nozzles only.
In reaction stages the stationary nozzles and rotating blades are similar in
design, that is the blades are not bucket shaped.
Steam pressure drops in passing through both moving and stationary

blading. Steam velocity rises through the stationary nozzles and falls in the
moving blades.
Variable pressure operation
Variable pressure operation (VPO) can keep first stage exit temperature
nearly constant during load changes reducing thermal stress and
improving efficiency. Normal operation with constant throttle pressure
and sequential valve operation can cause a drop from 930 to 770°F across
the turbine first stage. Maintaining high HP exhaust temperature raises
hot reheat temperature at reduced loads.

Points to consider in VPO
The most important factors to consider when evaluating variable pressure

operation are:
1. Reduced available energy due to lower throttle pressure
2. Improved HP turbine efficiency since throttle temperature losses are minimized
3. Higher hot reheat temperatures at low loads
4. Higher throttle temperatures at low loads
5. Reduced power requirements for boiler feed pumps
6. Solid particle erosion is reduced

Turbine
The method used to control the steam flow to the turbine at various loads affects
the plant performance.
Partial arc admission can be used where the control valves are throttled
successively which adjusts the active nozzle area and the throttle pressure
remains constant through the load range.
In full arc admission the control valves remain fully open and the load is changed
by varying the boiler pressure or the boiler pressure can remain constant and all
the valves are operated together until the desired load is reached.
Each of these methods have their advantages and disadvantages.
Full arc admission while maintaining throttle pressure throughout the load range
wastes pumping energy at the lower loads.
Efficiency gains can result from full arc admission with variable boiler pressure
operation due to decreased throttle enthalpy losses in the turbine first stage and
higher inlet steam temperatures, but it tends to result in a less responsive system
and increased boiler fatigue since the boiler would be responsible for building
pressure and increasing load simultaneously.

THE STEAM POWER CYCLE
Cycle efficiency
• The thermal efficiency of any power cycle is maximized if the

heat supplied to the cycle is supplied at the highest possible
temperature and the heat rejected from the cycle is rejected at
the lowest possible temperature.
• Theoretically, Carnot efficiency is the highest possible

achievable efficiency
η = [Tmax- Tmin]/ Tmax

Cycle efficiency
Thermal efficiency Carnot cycle

• The thermal efficiency
of any power cycle is
maximized if the heat
supplied to the cycle is
supplied at the highest
possible temperature
and the heat rejected
from the cycle is
rejected at the lowest
possible temperature

• The area bounded by points 1-
2-3-4 is proportional to the
heat converted into work in
this cycle.
• The area bounded by a - l - 4 -

b is the heat rejected to the
surroundings from this cycle.
•
• The cycle efficiency can be
expressed by the ratio of the
areas on the T-S diagram
representing the heat
converted into work and the
total heat supplied.

Rankine cycle

Improving Rankine cycle efficiency

Improvements in cycle efficiency
Superheating
• thermal efficiency of a power

cycle is increased if the heat
supplied to the cycle is
supplied at a higher
temperature. The increase in cycle efficiency can
• One way to increase the be seen by noting that the ratio of areas 3 - 3
temperature at which heat is ' - 4 ' -4 to b - 4 - 4'-b' is larger than the ratio
of net work to heat rejected for the original
supplied is to superheat the
cycle (l-2-3-4/a-l-4-b).
steam above the saturation
temperature. Also, the quality of steam improves by
superheating

Effects of cycle parameters
Increasing Pressure
• Increasing the pressure at

which the boiler evaporates
steam increases the
saturation temperature
which results in an increase
in the average temperature
of heat addition.
• This increase in temperature
results in an increase in
thermal efficiency

Lowering exhaust pressure
• The increase in cycle efficiency

as a result of lowering the
pressure (and the temperature)
at which the steam is
condensed can be seen in Fig.
13-5.
• The shaded area 1'—2'—2—1—
4-4' represents the increase in
available work from the cycle.
• This area also represents a
decrease in the total cycle heat
rejection

reheating
Reheating
• Increasing the average

temperature of heat addition
increases the cycle efficiency.
• Reheating the steam after it has
partially expanded through the
turbine increases the average
temperature of heat addition.
• Additional reheating will
continue to increase the cycle
efficiency; however, the
incremental gain for each
additional reheat will decrease.
• It should be noted that an
additional benefit of reheating is
to provide drier steam in the last
stages of the turbine, point 4
compared to 4'.
Regeneration
Feed water heating
• A portion of the steam is extracted at
state 6 and sent to a feedwater heater
operating at state 3.
• The remainder of the steam expands
through the steam turbine to state 7. Heat
is rejected as the turbine exhaust steam
is condensed in process 7-1.
• The condensate is pumped to the
feedwater heater and mixed with the
turbine extraction steam to become
saturated liquid at state 3.
• The feedwater is pumped to the boiler
pressure (state 4), heated to saturation,
and evaporated in the boiler to reenter the
turbine at state 5.
• The low temperature heat addition into
the cycle (2-3) is avoided and the
improvement in efficiency comes from the
increase in the average temperature of
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Cycle losses

Losses in power plant
Source EPRI
Heat rate logic tree

Effects of parameters on efficiency

Effect of throttle Steam temperature
A throttle temperature change can affect the turbine load and heat rate.
1. For a fixed throttle value position, throttle flow is inversely proportional to
throttle temperature as shown in this equation:
where: W = steam flow, lb/hr (kg/hr)

K = constant
A = area, ft2, (m2)
P = steam pressure, psi, (kPa)
T = steam temperature, °F, (°C)
Therefore, if the throttle temperature rises the flow will decrease.
An increase in throttle temperature will increase the available energy in
the main steam.
A decrease in throttle flow decreases the total exhaust loss in the low
pressure turbine which results in an increase in low pressure turbine
efficiency and an increase in unit load.
Temperature effect
The effect of a temperature change on unit load in each section of the turbine can
be calculated by multiplying the ratio of the new and old steam flow by the ratio
of the available energy in the steam under the new and old conditions
Gnew = turbine section output at new conditions
Wnew = steam flow under new conditions

Wold = steam flow under old conditions
Havail(new) = available enthalpy under new conditions
Havail(old) = available enthalpy under old conditions
Gsection = design power generation for section

Heat rate curve for steam temperature

Effect of main steam pressure
change in main steam pressure can affect the unit load in three ways.
1. a 5% increase in initial pressure will result in a 5% increase in steam flow which
will in turn cause a 5% unit load increase.
2. The increase in flow will cause an increase in steam velocity leaving the last
stage, increasing the total exhaust loss. An increase in exhaust loss results in
poorer low pressure turbine efficiency.
3. The throttle available energy increases as the pressure increases.
The net result is a load increase of 4.9% at rated load. The increase in output
would be greater at lower loads because turbine exhaust losses improve with
increased pressure at loads less than 50%.
With increased energy in the steam that the turbine heat rate will improve.

Heat rate curve for throttle steam
pressure

Pressure drops across various
components
Component Pressure Drop

1. Turbine stop valves 2%
2. Control valves (VWO) 2%
3. Boiler reheater 7-10%
4. Reheat stop and intercept valves 2%
Turbine crossover 3%
As a general rule a 1% pressure drop can cause about 0 .1% effect on the unit
heat rate.
The pressure losses listed above could affect the heat rate as much as 1.9%.

Enthalpy Drop Test
The purpose of this type of testing is to determine the maximum unit capability and the
performance characteristics of the superheated turbine Sections.
HP turbine plus parts or all of the IP turbine are tested.
The maximum unit capability is determined by normalizing the tested generator

output for variation from design conditions of main steam pressure and temperature,
reheat temperature, reheater pressure drop, and absolute backpressure.
The performance characteristics of the superheated turbines which are of interest

include efficiencies and normalized pressure.
Test be conducted at the VWO (Valves Wide Open)position, or a repeatable valve

position.
This valve position is repeatable and will minimize valve position effects on HP turbine
performance characteristics.
The repeatability of a verifiable valve position is critical. This ensures that valve
position effects are equal between periodic tests.
Efficiency of HP Turbine
The actual enthalpy drop is the inlet enthalpy minus the exit enthalpy at test
conditions.
The isentropic enthalpy drop is inlet enthalpy at test conditions (temperature
and pressure) minus the exhaust enthalpy at test pressure with the change in
entropy equaling zero.
Example:
Throttle Conditions HP Exhaust Conditions
Pressure (16169 kPa) (3838.3 kPa)

Temperature (565 C) (360 qC)
Enthalpy (3477 kJ/kg) (3124 kJ/kg)
Enthalpy at (3838.3 kPa) with no change in entropy = (3044.7 kJ/kg)
Efficiency of HP Turbine = [3477-3124] / [3477-3044.7]= 0.82=82%

Correction curves

Corrections to heat rate
Corrections to heat rate and output may be made for ASME PTC-6 group 1 and 2
corrections such as:
1. Absolute condenser back pressure
2. Main steam or throttle pressure
3. Main steam or throttle temperature
4. Reheat steam temperature
5. Reheater pressure drop
6. Feedwater heater performance
7. Make-up flow rate
8. Generator conditions
9. Condenser - Condensate temperature depression

Correction curves for tested conditions

correction curves
% Change In Kilowatt Load
Main Steam Pressure + .55%

Main Steam Temperature + .013%
Hot-Reheat Temperature -.603%
Reheater Pressure Drop + .156%
Absolute Back-Pressure -.350%
The kilowatt load normalized to design conditions is found by dividing the test
output by the following for each correction:
1 + %KW / 100
%KW = % change in kilowatt load from each correction curve

Costs of heat rate deviation
• Throttle Temperature: Percent change in heat rate= (.32%/10°C)
• Possible Causes of Deviation
• Superheater spray control problems
• Superheater spray valve leakage
• Fouling of the superheater (low temperature)
• Fouling of the boiler waterwall (high temperature)
• High excess air
• Burner tilts mispositioned/broken - if applicable
Bypass dampers mispositioned/if applicable
• Temperature control setting calibration drift
• Incorrect amount of heat transfer surface (superheat/waterwalls)
• Mill out of service/mill biasing
• Improper biasing of secondary air
Possible Corrections:Operator Controllable:
• Blow soot selectively
• Adjust burner tilts
• Adjust bypass damper settings/if applicable
• Adjust auxiliary air dampers
• Control excess air
• Manually control superheater spray flow
• Run proper number of mills/proper biasing
Throttle Pressure
Percent change in heat rate= (0.036%/100 Kpa)
Possible Causes of Deviation

Feedwater flow too low (once-through units)
Firing rate inadequate
Instrument
Start-up/Silica
Inadequate BFP/BFPT problems
Recirculation valves leaking
Pump problems
Possible Corrections
Operator controllable:
Increase feedwater flow
Increase firing rate (manual control only)
Increase blowdown rate
Instrument calibration
Maintenance Correctable:
Pumps
Valves

Reheat Temperature
Percent change in heat rate= (0.27%/10°C)
x Reheat attemperation control problems
x Reheat attemperation control valve leakage
x Fouling of the reheater (low temperature)
x Fouling of the boiler waterwall (high temperature)
x Fouling of the superheater
x High excess air
x Burner tilts mispositioned/broken
x Bypass dampers mispositioned/if applicable
x Reheater tube leaks
x Incorrect amount of reheater heat transfer surface
x Mill out of service/mill biasing
x Improper biasing of secondary air
Possible Corrections Operator Controllable:
x Blow soot/selective
x Adjust burner tilts
x Adjust bypass damper settings
Adjust auxiliary air damper
x Control excess air
x Manually control reheat spray flow
x Run proper no. of mills/proper biasing
x Repair reheater spray control valves
x Clean boiler waterwalls,x Clean superheater platens,x Clean reheater platen
x Repair reheater tube leaks
x Add or remove reheater heat transfer surface
x Repair burner tilts, binding, linkage, etc.
x Repair Auxiliary air dampers
Condenser Back-Pressure
Percent change in heat rate= +.25%/.1 Absolute Back Pressure
x Air inleakage
x Excess condenser load (boiler feedwater pump & heater drain pump recir., flash t
dump, steam traps)
x Tube fouling
Tube bundle
x Design problem caused air binding and excessive pressure drop
x Steam by-pass into air cooling section
x Low circulating water flow
— Continuous priming system
— Vacuum breakers
— Correct number of CW pumps
— Clogged traveling water screen
x Increases in circulating water inlet temperature caused by:
— Changes in ambient conditions
— Problems with cooling tower performance
x Proper condenser setup (LP and HP condensers) and bundle design
x Poor performance from steam-jet air ejector (SJAE) and vacuum pumps
x Fouled water boxes and tube sheet
Operator Controllable:
x Increase circulating water flow/additional CW pump
x Add an additional vacuum pump/ SJAE
x Check cycle isolation
x Place additional cooling tower cells in service
x Maintain proper LP and HP service water
x Proper operation of Amertap tap systems
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water boxes 53
Make-up Water
Percent change in heat rate= .12%/0.5% deviation

Possible Cause of Deviation
x Boiler tube leaks
x Excess deaerator venting to atmosphere
x Excess continuous blowdown/ if applicable
x Excess steam lost through condenser venting (SJAE)
x Valve packing leaks
x Pump seal leaks
Steam leaks to atmosphere
x Overflow of CST, RCW, BFP seal leakoff sump tank
x Lose RCW through vents on exciter cooler
x Soot blowers (boiler/preheater)
x Feed rate on condenser neck, vacuum breakers (if
applicable)
x Overflow of storage tanks
x Overflow of exciter cooler vents
x Overflow of condenser neck seal and vacuum breakers seal

Feedwater Heaters
Percent change in heat rate for 'A' heater= (0.22/5°C)
x Improper heater level
x Improper extraction line pressure drop
x Reduced condensate flow through the heater(condensate
bypass valve leakage)
x Heater partition plate leaks
x Failure to vent noncondensable gases
x Tube Fouling
x Set feedwater heater levels
x Check vent system set-up
x Optimize feedwater heater level
x Maintain heater vent valves and line orifices
x Repair partition plate leaks
x Clean tube bundles

Desuperheater Spray
Percent change in heat rate= .025%/1% of steam flow

x Improperly adjusted control setpoint
x Leaking spray control valve
x Broken spray nozzle
x Fouling of boiler waterwalls
x High levels of excess air
x Burner tilts position
x Auxiliary coal-air dampers
x Blow waterwall soot
x Reduce excess air to proper levels
x Adjust coal-air dampers
Maintenance Controllable:
x Repair spray valves
x Calibrate temperature controls
x Replace spray nozzle

Reheater spray
Percent change in heat rate= .185%/1% of steam flow

x Fouled waterwalls
x High levels of excess air
x Fouled superheater sections
x Improperly adjusted temperature setpoint
x Leaking spray control valve
x Broken spray nozzle
x Burner tilts position
x Auxiliary coal-air dampers
x Adjust excess air to proper levels
x Soot blow waterwalls
x Soot blow superheater sections
Maintenance Controllable:
x Repair spray control valve
x Replace spray nozzle
x Calibrate temperature control setpoint

High Pressure Turbine Efficiency
Percent change in heat rate= .18%/1.0% decline in efficiency

x Erosion of nozzle blocks
x Erosion of turbine blades
x Damaged turbine blades
x N2 packing seal (HP and IP turbine are in same shell)
x Excess shaft packing leaks
x Excess spill strips and diaphragm packing leaks
x Malfunctioning control valves
x Plugged nozzle blocks
x Fine mesh strainers not removed
x Deposits on nozzles and/or blades
x Improper stroke on stop, intercept, and control valves
Operator Controllable: The operator can minimize the reduction in the high pressure
turbine efficiency by preventing these conditions from occurring by how well he starts
and operates the unit.
x Repair or replace nozzle block
x Repair or replace turbine blades
x Clean turbine blades
x Replace shaft packings
x Replace turbine spill strips and diaphragm packings
x Ensure proper setup of stop valve, intercept, and control valves.
Intermediate Turbine Efficiency

x Erosion of turbine blades
x Deposits on turbine blades
x Excess shaft packing leakage
x Excess spill strips and diaphragm packing leakage
Operator Controllable: The operator can minimize the reduction in the intermediate
pressure turbine efficiency by preventing these conditions from occurring by how
well
he starts and operates the unit.
x Repair or replace turbine blades
x Repair shaft packings
x Repair spill strips and diaphragm packings

Low Pressure Turbine Efficiency
Possible causes of deviation and possible corrections are applicable to the low
pressure turbine same as the IP turbine. A problem arises with the LP turbine
because the steam conditions exiting the LP turbine cannot be easily measured.
Hence, the amount of energy removed from the steam by the LP turbine cannot be
determined from a typical turbine output and enthalpy drop test. The LP turbine
efficiency effect on heat rate resides in the reported unaccounted-for loss value.

Generator Efficiency
Percent change in heat rate= H2 above expected (.087/150 Kpa)

x Improper hydrogen pressure for a given field and/or armature temperature
x Power factor setting
x Hydrogen purity
x Poor hydrogen cooling flow and/or temperature conditions
x Set hydrogen pressure at the lowest pressure allowable
x Operate at nearest unity power factor permitted by dispatch
x Operate purification system properly to ensure highest hydrogen purity/if available
x Maintain optimum hydrogen cooling flow and temperature conditions

Summary reporting

Improving Unit Performance
Performance improvement activities are divided into those which can be realized
with little capital investment, short term achievable,and those which would require
an expenditure of resources, long term achievable.
Actual Unit Heat Rate

Controllable losses through improved operation and maintenance
Short-Term Achievable Unit Heat Rate
Recoverable losses through cost-effective capital expenditures
Long-Term Achievable Unit Heat Rate
Recoverable losses through non-cost-effective capital expenditures

Monitoring and Trending
Monthly Generating Station Report
x hours on-line gross generation auxiliary power usage coal usage (tons)
x fuel oil usage
oil heating value
Daily Operating Log
x condenser back pressure
x throttle steam flow
x LP condenser CW inlet temperature
x CW crossover temperature
x throttle temperature
x hot reheat temperature
x HP turbine exhaust pressure
x hot reheat pressure
x make-up water usage throttle pressure HP spray flow
x air preheater average cold end temperature
x air preheater exit gas temperature
x economizer outlet oxygen
x feedwater heater TTD’s and DCA’s
Performance Test Values
x HP turbine efficiency
x combustibles in ash
Design Values
x air preheater inlet gas temperature
x air preheater oxygen rise

Investment in efficiency improvement

Investment for improving efficiency
How many rupees could we invest per MW installed power to improve the
system efficiency of a thermal power plant from ηas is to ηnew:”
PLF = plant load factor as a fraction

ηas is = the actual system efficiency
ηnew = the envisioned improved system efficiency
CMWh = Fuel costs in Rs/MWh where MWh1 refers to energy in
the fuel.
Take as an interesting first example a 3 x 210 power plant that operates at ηas is =
33%, PLF = 0.85 and uses coal costing2 Rs. 473/ MWh. Furthermore assume this
power plant unit should be replaced by a supercritical one with ηnew = 42%. Assume a
life time of 20 years and q = 1.16.
payback
Assume a power plant operator has the objective to improve the “as is” efficiency by 1
percentage point from 0.32 to 0.33. Calculate the investment limit Imax per MW if coal
cost are 350 Rs/ MWh, q = 1.16 and 10 years pay back is desired.
It is quite feasible to improve from 32% to 33% for this Imax by better housekeeping
measures, and more advanced instrumentation control as well as analysis of
performance, without replacing major hardware components
How large could be the investment cost difference between a 500 MW supercritical
and 500 MW subcritical if system efficiency improves from 0.38% to 0.42%. Assume
coal cost of 600 Rs./ MWh, n = 25 years and q = 1.16

Heat exchangers
ASME PTC 12.2 Performance Test Code for

Steam Surface Condensers

Feed water heaters
• Reversible heat transfer and an infinite number of feedwater

heaters would result in a cycle efficiency equal to the Carnot
cycle efficiency.
• The greater the number of feedwater heaters used, the better the
cycle efficiency
• additional heater results in lower incremental heat rate

improvement because of the decreasing benefit of approaching
an ideal regenerative feedwater heating cycle.
• Because of the diminishing improvement in cycle efficiency,

increasing capital costs, and turbine physical arrangement
limitations,the economic benefit of additional heaters is limited.
The typical number of feedwater heaters is shown in Table below
for various plant size ranges.
Feedwater Heater Construction
Arrangements
• There are three typical feedwater heater construction arrangements:
• (1) single zone in which steam entering the shell is condensed in the (Condensing
Zone) and leaves the heater at its saturation temperature,
• (2) two zone constructions in where the steam surrenders its superheat and latent
heat to the feedwater in the Condensing Zone before it enters an enclosed region
(Subcooling Zone) where it gives up some sensible heat to the feedwater flowing
through the tubes, and
• (3) three zone construction in which superheated extraction steam enters a

Desuperheating Zone where the steam surrenders most of its superheat to the
outgoing feedwater, exits into the Condensing Zone where it surrenders any
remaining superheat and its latent heat to the feedwater and the condensate enters
the Subcooling one where the condensate at approximately its saturation
temperature surrenders some sensible heat to the incoming feedwater and leaves at
a lower temperature.

Types of heaters
• Heaters that receive extraction steam from the lowest pressure end of the
turbine are usually single zone, condensing only heaters. If the plant operates at
low loads, the extraction pressure may be so low that there is insufficient
hydraulic head for a Subcooler to function.
• Steam in fossil- fueled plants leaves the boiler with so much superheat that even
after it has been partially expanded through the high pressure stages of the
turbine there is considerable superheat - 100 °F to as much as 400 °F. When the
extraction steam has enough superheat under all operating loads, including a
Desuperheater reduces the amount of steam extracted from the turbine that is
required to raise the feedwater temperature. The Desuperheater further
improves the Heat Rate.

Zones of heater

Parameters for Measuring Thermal
Performance
• Industry practice is to use two parameters to measure the thermal

performance of closed feedwater heaters (CFHs). These are Terminal
Temperature Difference (TTD) and Drains Cooler Approach (DCA).
The Heat Exchange Institute’s Standards for Closed
• Feedwater Heaters defines TTD as the difference between saturation

temperature corresponding to the entering extraction steam pressure
and the outlet feedwater temperature.
• It defines DCA as the temperature difference between the drains

leaving the shell side of the heater and the entering feedwater on the
tube side

TTD and DCA

Selecting TTD in CFHs without and with
Desuperheaters
• TTD in heaters not fitted with Desuperheaters is always positive. Turbine
manufacturers’ initial heat balance kits usually suggest a TTD of +5 °F, which is
the value on which they base the turbine generator output rating in Kw. However,
heater optimization studies based on plant economics usually result in +2 °F
TTD’s being specified for horizontal heaters without DSH zones.
• When there is a Desuperheater, the TTD is usually specified in a range of 0 to -3°

F, depending on the amount of superheat available in the entering steam at the
design basis load and the lowest standby operating
• The top heater TTD is unique in that it has the most effect on turbine Kw output.
• If the steam flow capacity in the cycle is constant, as in a fossil fueled unit where
the main steam valve and the turbine design limit the amount of steam that can
flow to the turbine, lowering the TTD may not improve the heat rate because the
Kw loss may result in a higher heat rate. For top heaters the optimal TTD is one
that balances loss of power and with fuel costs. loads considered.

TTD Guidelines

Effects of TTD and DCA on Cycle
Performance
• Most Drain Cooler (DC) designs follow the recommendations in the HEI Closed
Feedwater Heater Standards. The HEI recommends that DCA not be less than
+10 °F.
• Except for the highest pressure heater, a decrease in TTD of a particular heater
primarily affects two heaters.
• As TTD in a heater below the top heater decreases, the rise in feedwater temperature
increases. The increase in duty extracts more steam from the turbine. The lower steam
flow through the next turbine stage tends to decrease power output.
• The hotter exit feedwater becomes the new inlet temperature to the next higher-pressure
heater. This decreases extraction flow to the heater above the subject heater which
results in increasing the amount of steam available between the two extraction points.
• The expansion of this additional steam at higher pressure and temperature produces a
net improvement in cycle efficiency, with no change in cycle heat input.

Effect of decrease of DCA in heaters
below the top heater
• Except for the highest pressure heater, a decrease in the DCA of a particular heater
affects three heaters. The extraction steam flow to a particular heater decreases
slightly as the duty in the Drains Cooling zone increases and warmer feedwater
enters the condensing zone. Because less steam is extracted from the turbine, the
power output increases. The additional steam flow within the next turbine stage
results in a small increase in the extraction pressure of the subject heater, thereby
slightly increasing the feedwater outlet temperature. The higher feedwater inlet
temperature to the next higher-pressure heater results in lowering the extraction
steam flow to that heater. At the same time, the cooler drains cascade to the next
lower pressure heater, slightly increasing the extraction load. The net effect to the
cycle is an increase in output and cycle efficiency because expansion of more
steam at higher pressure and temperature produces more work. Note that there is
no change in heat input.
• Effect of decrease of DCA in the top heater. Lowering the DCA of the highest-
pressure heater will slightly reduce the amount of steam extraction to the heater
with a corresponding slight increase in power output. The reheater duty will
increase slightly.
• However the slightly higher feedwater temperature resulting from the same type of
extraction pressure increase discussed above may or may not overcome this deficit
in reheater duty which impacts the heat input to the boiler. It is cycle-dependent.
• Nevertheless the net effect is improved cycle efficiency and output.
Effects of TTD and DCA on Performance
Costs
• Lowering either the TTD or DCA increases cycle efficiency. The increase usually will
be manifested by either an increase in power output, a decrease in heat input, or a
combination of the two. In the special case of the highest pressure heater the
decrease in power output resulting from a lowered TTD must have a more than
compensating decrease in heat input in order to be acceptable.
• The TTD and DCA represent costs factors associated with the ability of a feedwater
heater design to save fuel or to produce more power that you can apply to the design
as charges or credits of performance dollar value for use in optimizing the heater
performance parameters. In evaluating overall heater performance you must also
consider the cost of pumping power used to force the feedwater through the tube side
of the heaters. The value and the way you calculate it is cycle dependent. The pumps
that circulate feedwater in heaters between the main condenser and the deaerator are
usually motor-driven. The costs for driving them are the costs of auxiliary power that
the condensate pumps use to overcome the feedwater heater ressure drop. For the
heaters between the deaerator and the boiler/steam generator it consists of the cost of
the added extraction steam required by the turbine-driven main feed-pump to
overcome the feedwater heater pressure drop. With feedwater reheat cycles that do
not have a deaerator the condensate pump supplies the necessary net positive
suction head (NPSH) for the intermediate pressure feed-pump and/or the high-
pressure feed-pump.
• Combining the costs associated with heat input, power output, and pressure drop
• allows you to make a total evaluation of the performance parameters of a specific
heater.
Condenser

Cooling water flow to condenser
• Condenser heat balance

• The cooling waterflow is derived from the
following equation
• P = q Cp(T1-T2)
• P is the condenser heat load
• P=Pg(HR/3600)-(10^4/ηm ηg)
• Cp= 4.188 Kj/Kg DegC

Heat transfer coefficient
• P = U A lmtd
• For a typical condenser, the following data
• P=588430 KW
• A=27871.9 sqM
• Lmtd=8.92
• U = 2.367 Kw/SqM K [design heat transfer coefficient]
• The reference Ur attainable is calculated by the following
expression
• Ur = 2.52 (Vd)^0.4 f(T1) Fm
Where
• Vd= cw flow velocity=1.82 m/s
• F(T1)=0.716+0.0236T1-0.00031(T1)^2
• Fm=1 for 70 cu,30 zn
• T1= CW inlet temp
Condenser performance
Load
1 Actual pressure mbar 52.3
2 Sat steam temp 33.7
3 CW inlet temp 17.9
4 CW outlet temp 26.8
5 Exhaust steam temp 33.7
6 Condensate temp 34.9
7 Air suction temp 24.9
8 CW valve position 55
9 Target back pressure 48.4
10 Optimum CW rise 9.0
11 Optimum TTD 5.2
12 Back pressure due to CW inlet [3+10+11] 47.8
13 Back pressure due to CW flow[ 4+11] 47.5
14 Variation due to CW inlet temp[12-9] -0.6
15 Variation due to air ingress/dirty tubes[1-13] 4.8
16 variation due to CW flow[13-12] -0.3
17 BP variation[1-12]
Montag, 10. Oktober 2011
Fußzeilentext1 84
Improvements in Efficiency
• There are a number of specific improvements in power plants

that can be investigated relatively quickly. These include, for
example:
• Cleaning tubes and boilers
• maintaining instrumentation
• restoring seals
• removing deposits on turbine blades
• condenser maintenance programs
• decreasing excess oxygen to the boiler
• Installing variable speed drives for motors
• Pursuing opportunities for waste heat utilization for coal drying
and using solar
• energy for feed water heating

References
• Integrated O&M release 2 FEMP

Performance Trending
• log and trend important parametric information related to the health of equipment.
• This information is then used to define when a maintenance is required.
• Logging and trending temperature data can monitor the performance of many heat
exchangers.
• This information can be used to assist in the scheduling of tube cleaning. It may also serve as
an indication that flow control valves are not working properly or chemical control measures
are inadequate. Perhaps a decrease in heat exchanger performance, as seen by a change in
delta-temperature, is due to biological fouling at our cooling loop pump suction.
• An increase in boiler stack temperature might be an indication of tube scaling. We may need
to perform tube cleaning and adjust our chemistry control measures.
• Changes in combustion efficiency may be indicative of improperly operating oxygen trim
control, fuel flow control, air box leakage, or tube scaling
• The key idea of performance trending is that much of the equipment installed in our facilities
is
• already provided with instrumentation that can be used to assist in determination of the
health/
• condition of the related component. Where the instruments are not present, installation of a
• pressure-sensing or temperature-sensing device is generally easily performed and
inexpensive. Many
• times this information is already being logged at some pre-defined interval but not being
utilized.

Best Practices
Reduce excess air

Action Required – Determine the combustion efficiency using dedicated or portable
combustion
analysis equipment. Adjustments for better burning
• Cleaning • Swirl at burner inlet
• New tips/orifices • Atomizing pressure
Damper repair • Fuel temperature
• Control repair • Burner position
• Refractory repair • Bed thickness
• Fuel pressure • Ratio under/overfire air
• Furnace pressure • Undergrate air distribution
Install waste heat recovery – The magnitude of the stack loss for boilers without
recovery is about 18% on gas-fired and about 12% for oil- and coal-fired boilers. A
major problem with heat recovery in flue gas is corrosion

Best practices contd;
Reduce scale and soot deposits – Scale or deposits serve as an insulator,
resulting in more heat from the flame going up the stack rather than to the water due
to these deposits. Any scale formation has a tremendous potential to decrease the
heat transfer.
- Symptom – The best indirect indicator for scale or deposit build-up is the flue gas
temperature. If at the same load and excess air the flue gas temperature rises with
time, the effect is probably due to scale or deposits
Reduce blowdown – Blowdown results in the energy in the hot water being
lost to the sewer unless energy recovery equipment is used. There are two types of
blowdowns. Mud blow is designed to remove the heavy sludge that accumulates at
the bottom of the boiler. Continuous or skimming blow is designed to remove light
solids that are dissolved in the water.
- Symptom – Observe the closeness of the various water quality parameters to the
tolerances stipulated for the boiler per manufacturer specifications and check a
sample of mud blowdown to ensure blowdown is only used for that purpose. Check
the water quality in the boiler using standards chemical tests

Best practices
Reduce line pressure – Line pressure sets the steam temperature for
saturated steam.
- Symptom and Action Required – Any steam line that is being operated at a
pressure higher than the process requirements offers a potential to save energy by
reducing steam line pressure to a minimum required pressure determined by
engineering studies of the systems for different seasons of the year.
Switch from steam to air atomization – The energy to produce the air is a tiny
fraction of the
energy in the fuel, while the energy in the steam is usually 1% or more of the
energy in the fuel.
- Symptom – Any steam-atomized burner is a candidate for retrofit

Common Causes of Cooling Towers
Poor Performance
Scale Deposits – When water evaporates from the cooling tower, it leaves scale
deposits on the surface of the fill from the minerals that were dissolved in the water. Scale
build-up acts as a barrier to heat transfer from the water to the air. Excessive scale build-up is
a sign of water treatment problems.
• Clogged Spray Nozzles – Algae and sediment that collect in the water basin as well as
excessive
solids that get into the cooling water can clog the spray nozzles. This causes uneven water
distribution over the fill, resulting in uneven air flow through the fill and reduced heat transfer
surface area. This problem is a sign of water treatment problems and clogged strainers.
• Poor Air Flow – Poor air flow through the tower reduces the amount of heat transfer
from the
water to the air. Poor air flow can be caused by debris at the inlets or outlets of the tower or in
the fill. Other causes of poor air flow are loose fan and motor mountings, poor motor and fan
alignment, poor gear box maintenance, improper fan pitch, damage to fan blades, or excessive
vibration. Reduced air flow due to poor fan performance can ultimately lead to motor or fan
failure.
• Poor Pump Performance – An indirect cooling tower uses a cooling tower pump.
Proper water
flow is important to achieve optimum heat transfer. Loose connections, failing bearings,
cavitation,clogged strainers, excessive vibration, and non-design operating conditions result in
reduced water flow, reduced efficiency, and premature equipment failure
Turbine heat consumption tests
• Method of testing BS 752

• Plant should be in a good condition
• Ensure no tube leakage in feed heaters
• Test instruments should be of test accuracy
• The instruments should be calibrated immediately before the
tests
• The unit should be kept at a steady loading
• The tests should be of one hour duration
• Efforts should be made to keep the fluctuations minimum
• {[Ms( H1-hf) +Mr(H3 – H2) + Mis(hf- his)+ Mir(H3-hir)] / Pg } X
3600

Interpretation of results
• For the purpose of comparison with tests,it is necessary to refer

the performance to the standard conditions of steam temperature
and pressure at the TSV and IP inlet,back pressure ,final feed
water temperature etc
• The heat rate calculated might be worse than expected.The
reasons for the deterioration must be explored through the
determination of the following
• HP and IP cylinder efficiency
• Turbine pressure survey
• Main shaft and gland leakage rate
• Deposition on turbine blades and blade roughness
• Condenser performance and
• Feed heater performance

Testing schedule
• Cylinder efficiencies are determined once in six

months
• Pressure surveys every month
• Gland leakage as required

Cylinder efficiency tests
• Cylinder efficiency = actual heat drop /isentropic heat drop
• Typical values of cylinder efficiencies of 500MW out put
machines are
• HP cylinder 89%: this is because, the HP blades are short,
consequently high tip losses
• IP cylinder efficiency 92% larger blade losses with
reduced tip losses
• LP cylinder 80% blades are long , velocities are high, there is a
wetness in steam, steam flow path is flared
• Typical losses in heat rate for 1% point change in cylinder
efficiency are as follows
HP cylinder 0.2% heat rate

IP cylinder 0.25% heat rate
IP/LP cylinder 0.75% heat rate
LP cylinder 0.5% heat rate
Efficiency and nozzle angle

Effect of errors on cylinder cycle
efficiency calculations
Base +1% error in +1 Deg

conditions parameters temperatur
e error
TSV 158 TSV temp 92.4 At TSV
89.9
ATV 150 TSV pressure 89
Cylinder exhaust 42.1 ATV pressure 88.8
HP cylinder efficiency 89.4 HP exh temp 87 88.7
IP before valve 39 HP exh pressure 90.2
IP inlet 38.5 IP temp bef valve 92.7 91.8
IP exhaust 3.6 IP pres bef valve 91.6
IP cylinder efficiency 91.6 IP inlet pre 91.3
IP exh temp 90.8 91.3
IP exh pre 91.9

Feedwater Heater Level Control
Feedwater heaters take advantage of the heat of condensation (energy available from
the change from saturated steam to saturated liquid) to preheat water destined for the
boiler.
This reduces the amount of fuel required to bring the water up to temperature. The key
to efficient operation is to optimize the condensing zone in an effort to transfer as much
of the available energy as possible to the boiler feedwater while maintaining sufficient
cooling of the tubes to prevent premature damage of the hardware due to thermal
overload the most important aspect to feedwater heater performance is precise and
reliable level control under all operating conditions. Accurate level control ensures the
unit is operating in the area of greatest efficiency (straight condensation) to optimize
heat transfer while preventing undo wear and tear on the feedwater heater and other
system components.
Operating a feedwater heater at levels higher or lower than the design has an effect on
performance and ultimately the net unit heat rate.
If the heater level is higher than the design,the active condensing zone is effectively
decreased and tubes in the heater that should be condensing steam are sub-cooling
condensate. Exacerbating the problem is the risk of turbine water induction from the
feedwater heater. As mentioned in the general guidelines for heat rate, a modest -5° F
reduction in final feedwater temperature increases heat rate by
11.2 Btu/kWh contributing an additional $59,230.00 to annual fuel cost (500MW plant).
Monitoring Feedwater Heater
Performance
The primary parameters used to monitor individual heater performance are the
feedwater temperature rise, the terminal temperature difference (TTD) and the drain
cooler approach (DCA)
Feedwater Temperature Rise is the difference
between the feedwater outlet temperature and the feedwater inlet temperature. A
properly performing heater should meet the manufacturer’s design specifications,
provided the level controls are up to the task.
• Terminal Temperature Difference (TTD)
provides feedback on the feedwater heater’s performance relative to heat transfer
and is defined as the saturation temperature of the extraction steam minus the
feedwater outlet temperature. An increase in TTD indicates a reduction in heat
transfer while a decrease a high-pressure heater with and without a desuperheating
zone are -3° F to -5° F and 0° F, respectively. The TTD for low-pressure heaters is
typically around 5° F. Steam tables and an accurate pressure reading are
required to complete this calculation.
• Drain Cooler Approach (DCA) is a
method used to infer feedwater heater levels based on the temperature difference
between the drain cooler outlet and the feedwater inlet. An increasing DCA
temperature difference indicates the level is decreasing;whereas, a decreasing DCA
indicates a rise in level. A typical value for DCA is 10° F.
Cooling tower efficiency
Cooling Tower Efficiency

The cooling tower efficiency can be expressed as
μ = (ti - to) 100 / (ti - twb) (1)
where
μ = cooling tower efficiency - common range between 70 - 75%
ti = inlet temperature of water to the tower (oC, oF)
to = outlet temperature of water from the tower (oC, oF)
twb = wet bulb temperature of air (oC, oF)
The temperature difference between inlet and outlet water (ti - to) is normally
in the range 10 - 15 oF.

Cooling towers
Cooling towers are rated in terms of approach and range, where

•the approach is the difference in temperature between the cooled-water temperature and
the entering-air wet bulb - twb - temperature
•the range is the temperature difference between the water inlet and exit states
Since a cooling tower is based on evaporative cooling the maximum cooling tower
efficiency is limited by the wet bulb temperature - twb - of the cooling air.

Performance of cooling tower
When selecting a cooling tower cell, the highest or the design wet bulb temperature your
geographical area will encounter must be used. Highest wet bulb temperatures occur
during the summer, when air temperatures and humidity are highest
Effect of inlet water temperature to cooling tower: keeping the out let water
temperature at 33 deg C and raising inlet water temperature to 45 Deg C, the cooling
tower efficiency becomes 65%.This is a situation of very effective cooling tower.
Variation of Air enthalpy with relative humidity:
Relative humidity is the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapor in a given moist air to the
mole fraction in an air saturated at the same temperature and pressure.
DBT 87.8oF, RH 0% (Dry Air), and sea level
Air Density: 0.0723 Lb/ft3
Air Specific Volume: 13.8224 ft3/Lb dry air
Air Enthalpy:
21.1196 Btu/Lb dry air
DBT 87.8oF, RH 100%, and sea level
Air Density: 0.0711 Lb/ft3
Air Specific Volume: 14.4639 ft3/Lb dry air
Air Enthalpy: 52.9849 Btu/Lb dry air
From the above,it can be noticed that, as the Relative humidity increases, Air enthalpy increases

BOILER FEED PUMPS
The boiler feed pumps consume a large fraction of the auxiliary power used
internally within a power plant. Boiler
feed pumps pressurize and force feedwater through the HP feedwater heaters and
boiler. Boiler feed pumps can
require power in excess of 10 MW on a 500-MW power plant, therefore the
maintenance on these pumps should be
rigorous to ensure both reliability and high-efficiency operation.

Best practices world over
Recent Plant improvements include Excess air reduction, ESP Power Reduction,
Turbine upgrades, Condenser Refit, Replacement of low duty pumps and motors.
Reduction in Oxygen level from 2.8% to 1.8% has been shown to be
feasible.
It can increase the efficiency by about 1%, Reduction in Aux Power consumption of the
order of 1 MW and 35 Kt/Annum Based on operational history, the load of ESP was
reduced to 20% of design which resulted in power saving of about 9 GWh/year. Pulse
energization is being investigated to reduce the ESP load further.
Turbine cylinders and condensers replacement in old plants can increase the efficiency
and out put of the plant considerably. For example in Loy Yang power plant HP and IP
cylinders were replaced and condenser was replace by new Titanium condenser. It
resulted in MCR improvement from 520 MW to 565 MW and efficiency improvements.
Many auxiliaries are conservatively designed and actual operation is well below the
design point.
Air compressors were replaced and fire service pumps were augmented with low duty
pumps.

Efficiency advancements

Advance technologies

Strength of materials
pressure
Boiler materials

Energy Efficiency as a function of
temperature and pressure

Best practices

Best practices in NTPC
A host of IT enabled services for standardization of system and latest diagnostic

tools for major equipments.
The company is focusing on improvement of availability through Reliability based

Maintenance and Risk Evaluation and Prioritization in its existing power stations.
Well defined guidelines for plant O&M, efficiency monitoring and recommissioning
have ensured high availability of stations even ater long periods of operation.
Specific efforts have been taken for monitoring and lowering the plant’s auxiliary
power consumption by use of VFD, equipment wise monitoring etc.
Formation of knowledge teams in functional areas and specialized training programs

have helped in wider dissemination of best practices.

Turbine pressure survey

Errors and uncertainties

Instrument Induced Errors & Heat Rate
Following are two primary

sources of instrument-induced errors.
• Drift (mechanical or electronic) associated
with aging instrumentation, moving parts or intrinsic to the design: Torque Tube/
Displacers. Calibration between shutdowns are a must to achieve reasonable
accuracy and prevent nuisance deviation alarms between multiple level
transmitters.
Measurement Technology vulnerable to process conditions, e.g., shifts in
specific gravity and/or the dielectric constant of the media related to variations in
process pressures and temperatures. Certain technologies cannot provide
accurate level from startup to operational temperatures without applying external
correction factors or the specified accuracy is only realized at operational
temperatures: Differential Pressure, Magnetostrictive, RF Capacitance and
Torque Tube/Displacers. Furthermore, the calibrations accomplished on differential
pressure, RF capacitance and torque tube/displacer technologies by "floating" the
chambers during a shutdown often require adjustment when the process is up to
temperature in order to maintain acceptable control and prevent unnecessary
deviation alarms.

Errors in measurement
The
Accuracy is a measure of
precision of a measuring how close the result of the
instrument measurement comes to the
is determined by the smallest unit "true", "actual", or
to which it can measure. The "accepted" value.
precision is said to be the same as (How close is your answer to the
the smallest fractional or decimal accepted value?)
division on the scale of
the measuring instrument.
Any measurement made with a measuring device is approximate.

If you measure the same object two different times, the two measurements may
not be exactly the same. The difference between two measurements is called a
variation in the measurements.
Another word for this variation - or uncertainty in measurement - is "error." This
"error" is not the same as a "mistake." It does not mean that you got the wrong
answer. The error in measurement is a mathematical way to show the
uncertainty in the measurement. It is the difference between the result of the
measurement and the true value of what you were measuring.
Tolerance intervals
Tolerance intervals:
Error in measurement may be represented by a tolerance interval (margin of error). Machines used in
manufacturing often set tolerance intervals, or ranges in which product measurements will be tolerated or accepted
before they are considered flawed.
To determine the tolerance interval in a measurement, add and subtract one-half of the precision of the measuring instrument
to the measurement.
For example, if a measurement made with a metric ruler is 5.6 cm and the ruler has a precision of 0.1 cm, then the tolerance
interval in this measurement is 5.6
Absolute Error and Relative Error:

Error in measurement may be represented by the actual amount of error, or by a ratio
comparing the error to the size of the measurement.
The absolute error of the measurement shows how large the error actually is, while
the relative error of the measurement shows how large the error is in relation to the
correct value.
Absolute errors do not always give an indication of how important the error may be. If
you are measuring a football field and the absolute error is 1 cm, the error is virtually
irrelevant. But, if you are measuring a small machine part (< 3cm), an absolute error
of 1 cm is very significant. While both situations show an absolute error of 1 cm., the
relevance of the error is very different. For this reason, it is more useful to express
error as a relative error. We will be working with relative error
Errors and uncertainities
For example, if you know a length is 3.535 m + 0.004 m, then 0.004 m is an absolute error.
Absolute error is positive.
In plain English: The absolute error is the difference between the measured value and the actual
value. (The absolute error will have the same unit label as the measured quantity.)

errors
Relative error is the ratio of the absolute error of the measurement to the accepted measurement. The
relative error expresses the "relative size of the error" of the measurement in relation to the
measurement itself.
Percent of Error:
Error in measurement may also be expressed as a percent of error. The percent of
error is found by multiplying the relative error by 100%.

Numerical
Find the absolute error, relative error and percent of error of the approximation
3.14 to the value

Case studies
A thermal efficiency-restoring project through operational improvement of the

existing thermal power stations in Thailand
Improvement items:
- Reducing reheater spray water volume
- Reducing power consumption of the auxiliaries by stopping the boiler water
circulating pump (BWCP) and the gas recirculating fan (GRF)
b. Heat efficiency improvement: heat efficiency improved by 0.23%
A thermal efficiency-restoring project through operational improvement of
the existing thermal power stations in the Republic of Indonesia
Improvement items:
- Reducing power consumption of the forced draft fan (FDF) and the primary
air fan (PAF) by removing the steam air preheater (SAH)
- Reducing power consumption of the auxiliaries and spray loss of the
heater/reheater by stopping all GRF units.
- Changing the Boiler Water Treatment Method
b. Heat efficiency improvement: heat efficiency improved by 0.27%
Implementation results
a. Improvement items:
- Changing the material of the condenser tubes (from cupronickel to titanium)
Montag, -
10.Changing
Oktober 2011 the ball cleaning equipment of the condenser tubes
Fußzeilentext 121
Factors for efficiency improvement
Following factors were identified as fundamental for efficiency improvement:

- Organizing & analyzing the historal maintenance information.
- Monitoring & analyzing the operating information.
- Integrating the above information ^ developing long term O&M
progress.
A common recognition of importance of day to day operational management was

developed through the peer review. The importance of day to day operational
management in energy and cost saving and reduction in emissions and sharing of
best practices through Peer Review.

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Advance Heat Rate analysis

Created by:K.Bhanu Prakash

Consequently a coal with a GCV of 4000 kCal/ kg has as well a GCV of

Montag, 10. Oktober 2011 Fußzeilentext 2

Montag, 10. Oktober 2011 Fußzeilentext 3

• It is defined as the quantity of the heat supplied to the turbine to

• Heat rate = 3600/[actual efficiency]

• Actual efficiency = 3600/heat rate

• If a 500 MW turbine has a guaranteed heat rate of 7940 kJ/kWh

• A common utility practice is the use of an accounting heat rate which

• The total fuel consumed is considered in the heat rate calculation

• The design heat rate of a unit is a tool that provides a definable

• It is simply a curve generated from the following parameters:

• The proper procedure for calculating design/expected heat rate

Montag, 10. Oktober 2011 Fußzeilentext 6

Montag, 10. Oktober 2011 Fußzeilentext 7

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• Differences between "as-designed" and "as-built" conditions are

Montag, 10. Oktober 2011 Fußzeilentext 9

Change in Annual Fuel Cost ($/year) = HRD/BE × FC × CF × UGC × T

Montag, 10. Oktober 2011 Fußzeilentext 11

• Conditions which affect unit performance which are not

• Once adjusted for these uncontrollable conditions then a

Montag, 10. Oktober 2011 Fußzeilentext 12

Some typical modifications include:

• Other modifications could include:

Montag, 10. Oktober 2011 Fußzeilentext 13

• The obstacles to calculating an accurate heat rate for a coal-fired

• The difficulty of accurately assessing the quantity of coal which has

• The inaccuracies of the as-received coal scales and the large

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•Two approaches for heat rate measurement

•This approach is more suitable for pulverized coal-fired units,

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•Laboratory analyses of coal heating value have typical uncertainties of about 1

•The electrical quantities can be measured relatively accurately with uncertainties

•The uncertainty in the measured heat rate can be given as

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• The efficiency of the blading is dependent on the u/Vi ratio

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The pressure drop occurs across the stationary nozzles only.

Steam pressure drops in passing through both moving and stationary

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The most important factors to consider when evaluating variable pressure

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Each of these methods have their advantages and disadvantages.

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• The thermal efficiency of any power cycle is maximized if the

• Theoretically, Carnot efficiency is the highest possible

η = [Tmax- Tmin]/ Tmax

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Thermal efficiency Carnot cycle

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• The area bounded by a - l - 4 -

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• thermal efficiency of a power

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• Increasing the pressure at

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