E&E Unit I

Unit 1
Electronics Devices
Unit 1: Electronic Devices
Contents
• Diode
- Symbol
- Structure
- Concept of depletion and diffusion layer
- forward and reverse diode
- Ideal and Practical diode
• Zener diode– breakdown, Characteristics
• BJT
-Symbol
- Structure
-Common emitter configuration and its biasing
-DC load line concept
• MOSFET
-Symbol, Structure
-Types
-Characteristics
Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 2

Diode – Symbol and Structure
 A p–n junction is a boundary

between two types of semiconductor
material, p-type and n-type , inside a
single crystal of semiconductor.
 A diode (two electrodes) is a

semiconductor device having two
regions anode and cathode are
created.
 It allows flow of current in one

direction

Concept of Diffusion and Depletion layer
 Diffusion: moving of charge carriers (electrons and holes) from the region of
higher concentration to the region of lower concentration.
 Before the p-n junction is formed there are equal no of electrons and holes
making material neutral in terms of net charge.
 When p-n junction is formed the electrons from the n-region looses free
electrons as they diffuse across the junction, this creates a layer of positive
charge.
 similarly p-region losses holes creating a negative layer at the junction.
 These two layers of positive and negative ions form the depletion
region(layer).

Concept of Diffusion and Depletion layer
 When depletion region reach to certain limit it stops further combining of

electrons and holes(depletion region), it acts like a barrier potential.
 Barrier potential :
The electric field in the depletion region creates an energy hill at junction that
prevents free electrons from diffusing across the junction at equilibrium.(0.7v)
for silicon and (0.3v) for germanium.

Forward and Reverse diode
 Biasing: Applying external of DC voltage across the terminals of electronics

device to establish certain operating condition for the device.
 Diode biasing can be done in two different ways

1)Forward biasing 2)Reverse biasing
 Forward biasing:
The positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type material and the
negative terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type material
 Reverse biasing:
The positive terminal of the battery is connected to n-type material and the
negative terminal of the battery is connected to p-type material.

Forward biasing
 The applied bias voltage Vd must be

greater than the barrier potential.
 A resistor limits the current to a

value that will not damage the
diode.
 The –ve side of bias-voltage pushes

free electrons(majority carriers)
from n-region towards the p-n
junction.
 This flow of free electrons

(conduction electrons) is called as
electron current.

Forward biasing…
 These electrons crosses have enough energy to cross the potential barrier.
 Now the electrons are in the p-region (valance band)
 The +ve side of source attracts these electrons and they move from one hole
to another towards left.
 The holes which are majority carriers in the p-region move to right side and
this flow of hole is called as hole current.
 As these electrons move towards the +ve side leaving behind holes they
conductive and give rise to flow of current
 The direction of current is from p-region to n-region.

Forward biasing…
 Effect on depletion region due to forward bias:

Width of depletion region decreases due to reduction in the number of
positive and negative ions.
 Effect of barrier potential during forward bias:

- Results in voltage drop across the p-n junction equal to barrier potential
(0.7V).
- There is a small voltage drop occurs across the p-n junction due to the
internal resistance of the material called the dynamic resistance, is very
small and can usually be neglected.

Forward Current in P N Junction
• When battery voltage is applied across the junction in the forward bias, a
current will flow continuously through this junction.
𝑽
𝐢 𝒊 = 𝑰 𝒏𝑽 −𝟏
• IS is Saturation Current (10-9 to 10-18 A)
• Vt is Volt-equivalent temperature (= 26 mV at room temperature)
• n is Emission coefficient (1 ≤ n ≤ 2 for Si)

Reverse biasing
 Resistor is not required when the diode is reverse biased.
 Reverse bias prevents current through the diode.
 The +ve side of the voltage source pulls the free electrons(majority carries) in
n-region away from p-n junction.
 As these electrons move towards +ve side they leave behind +ve ions and
widens the depletion region.
 Similarly in p-region as electron move towards left side from hole to hole
leaving behind -ve ions depletion region get wider.
 Depletion region decrease when reverse bias voltage applied.
• The -ve ions , +ve ions faces a stronger electric field until potential barrier
and depletion region equals bias voltage Vd.

Reverse biasing…
 Effect of reverse bias on the width of depletion region:

Due to movement of electrons and holes away from the junction, the
width of the depletion region increases
saturation: Refers to the fact that it reaches its maximum value very
quickly and does not change significantly with increase in reverse bias
potential.

Reverse biasing…
 Reverse saturation current:
-The minority electrons in the p region are attracted by the positive end of
the dc supply and holes attracted by negative end. Hence these electrons and
holes will cross the junction and constitute the Reverse current Is of the diode
-direction of current is from cathode to anode.
-Reverse saturation current flows due to minority carriers and is very small
(few µA). Resistance offered is large(k ohms)
-Reverse saturation current depends on temperature and independent of

reverse voltage.

Reverse biasing…
 Reverse breakdown voltage:
When the reverse bias is increased beyond a certain limit, the reverse current
increases drastically resulting in reverse breakdown voltage and diode is said
to undergo breakdown.
Avalanche breakdown and Zener breakdown.

Reverse Current in P N Junction
• In reverse biased condition and ideally there is no current flowing through the
junction.
• But practically there will be a tiny reverse bias current iD which is expressed
as, iD drops to zero value or very small value.
• iDcan be written as i0.

𝐕
𝐢 𝐢 ≈ 𝐈𝐒 𝐕
• ISis Saturation Current (10-9 to 10-18 A)
• VT is Volt-equivalent temperature (= 26 mV at room temperature)
• n is Emission coefficient (1 ≤ n ≤ 2 for Si)

Forward Bias Characteristics

Forward Bias Characteristics…
• It is a graph of VD vs ID.
• The forward bias voltage is very small and less the cut-in voltage(threshold
voltage Vy) therefore forward current through diode is very small.
• With Increase in forward voltage equal to threshold voltage width depletion

region reduces.
• When forward voltage equal to threshold voltage, current through diode

increases drastically i.e exponentially as in fig.
• This current will be limited by using a resistor in series.
• Forward current is conventional current that flows from anode to cathode.
• Cut-in voltage for silicon is 0.6v and germanium is 0.3v and forward resistance
in in the order of few ohms.

Reverse Bias Characteristics

Reverse Bias Characteristics …
• It is a graph of VR vs IR.
• Reverse saturation current flows due to minority carriers and hence negative
• As the reverse voltage increase Reverse saturation current remains constant if

the temperature is constant
• As the reverse voltage reaches breakdown voltage a large current flows

through the diode.
• Operation in the breakdown region is avoided because the diode may be

damaged due to excessive power.
• Typically breakdown voltage is in the range of 50 to 100volts.
• resistance of diode in reverse bias is very high few hundred K ohms

Complete V-I Characteristics of a Diode

Ideal diode
• If the diode is forward biased then it acts

as a closed switch as shown and forward
resistance is 0.
VF=0 , IR=0
VR=Vbias
• If the diode is reverse biased diode current

is zero and it acts like a open switch and
applied voltage appears across the diode.

Practical diode
• The real (practical) diode includes the barrier

potential.
• If the diode is forward biased then it acts as a

closed switch with small voltage source 0.7v.
• The barrier potential must be exceeded by the bias

voltage before diode start conducting.
VF=0.7 , IR=0
VR=Vbias

Numerical Problem1
• Sketch i versus v to scale for each of the circuits shown below. Assume
that the diodes are ideal and allow v to range from -10 V to +10 V.
A) 5
i
4
+
3
i (mA)
v 2kΩ
_ 2
1
Diode is on for v > 0 and R=2kΩ
0
-10 -5 0 5 10
v (V)

Numerical Problem1…
B) i 1kΩ
+
+ 5
v 5V
_
_ 4
i (mA)
Due to the presence of the 5V 2
supply the diode conducts only 1

for v > 5, R = 1kΩ
0
-10 -5 0 5 10
v (V)

i
C)
+
2kΩ 1kΩ 10
v
_ A B
5
i (mA)
0
Diode B is on for v > 0 and R=1kΩ.
Diode A is on for v < 0 and R=2kΩ. -5
-10 -5 0 5 10
v (V)

Zener diode
 A Zener diode is a special type of p-n junction diode which operates under
reverse bias condition.

Zener diode
 As we increase reverse voltage a small amount of reverse saturation current Is

flows due to thermally generated minority carriers.
 At a certain voltage value of reverse voltage, reverse current suddenly

increases resulting in breakdown called as zener breakdown.
 After breakdown zener doide operates in a region called as zener region.
 In this region voltage across the zener diode remains constant but current
changes depending on supply voltage.
 Zener diode is operated in this region when it is being used as a regulator

Numerical Problem2
• A zener diode exhibits a certain change in VZ for a certain change in IZ on a

portion of the linear characteristic curve between IZK and IZM as illustrated in
Figure. What is the zener impedance?
𝑉z 0𝑚𝑉
Zz = = = Ω
𝐼𝑧 𝑚

BJT (Bipolar junction transistor)
 Transistor: (Transfer of Resistor) transfer of input signal current from low

resistance to high resistance circuit.
 BJT: is constructed with three doped semiconductor regions separated by

two p-n junction.
-It is a current controlled device.
-Conduction takes place due to both electrons and holes.
 It has Three terminals:
Emitter : heavily doped
Base : lightly doped and very thin
Collector : moderately doped

BJT- structure and Symbol
 There are two types:

N-P-N
P-N-P
(a) PNP schematic symbol, (b) physical layout ,(c) NPN symbol, (d) layout.

BJT- structure and Symbol
 In an NPN transistor, a thin and lightly doped P-type base is sandwiched

between a heavily doped N-type emitter and N-type collector.
 PNP transistor, a thin and lightly doped N-type base is sandwiched

between a heavily doped P-type emitter and P-type collector.
 The p-n junction joining emitter and base is called base emitter junction.
 The p-n junction joining collector and base is called base-collector

junction.

BJT Operation
 A bias arrangement for both npn and pnp BJTs for operation as an amplifier.
 In both cases the base-emitter(BE) junction is forward-biased and the base-

collector(BC) junction is reverse-biased. This condition is called forward-
reverse bias.
 Depending on which of the three terminals is used as common terminal, there

can be three possible configurations for transistor:
1)Common emitter (CE)
2)Common base (CB)
3)Common collector (CC)

N-P-N and P-N-P Operation
 In the npn structure, the heavily doped n-type emitter region has a very
high density of conduction-band (free) electrons.
 These free electrons easily diffuse through the forward based BE junction
into the lightly doped and very thin p-type base region, as shown in fig.

N-P-N and P-N-P Operation…
 The base has a low density of holes, which are the majority carriers.
 A small percentage of the total number of free electrons injected into the base
region recombine with holes and move as valence electrons through the base
region and into the emitter region as hole current.
 Most of the free electrons that have entered the base do not recombine with
holes because the base is very thin and become free electrons.
 As the free electrons move toward the reverse-biased BC junction, they are
swept across into the collector region by the attraction of the positive collector
supply voltage.

N-P-N and P-N-P Operation
 The free electrons move through the collector region, and then return into the
emitter region along with the base current, as shown.
 The emitter current is slightly greater than the collector current because of the
small base current that splits off from the total current injected into the base
region from the emitter.
 IE=IB+IC , IE is very small compared to IB and IC.

Common Emitter Configuration
• When a transistor is used in CE configuration, the input is between the base

and the emitter and output is between the collector and the emitter.

Input characteristics
 Input characteristics IB (Base Current) is the input current, VBE (Base - Emitter
Voltage) is the input voltage for CE (Common Emitter) mode. So, the input
characteristics for CE mode will be the relation between IB and VBE with VCE as
parameter.
 The typical CE input characteristics are similar to that of a forward biased

diode. But as VCB increases the base width decreases.
VCE=VCB+VBE
 VBE is 0.6 to 0.7 V, VCE must be sufficiently larger than 0.7 V.

Numerical Problem3
• Determine IB, IC, IE, VBE, VCE, and VCB in the circuit of Figure. The
transistor has a ßDC= 150.
w.k.t 𝑉 =0.7v
Calculate the base, collector, and emitter currents as follows:

𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉− . 𝑉
𝐼 = = = µ𝐴
𝑅 𝐾Ω
𝐼 = 𝛽𝛽 𝐼 = 𝜇𝐴 = . 𝑚𝐴
𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼 = . 𝑚𝐴 + 𝜇𝐴 = . 𝑚𝐴
𝑉 = 𝑉 +𝐼 𝑅 = 𝑉− . 𝑚𝐴 Ω = 𝑉− .
= . 𝑉
𝑉 =𝑉 −𝑉 = . 𝑉− . 𝑉= . 𝑉

Numerical Problem4
• Determine the dc current gain ßDCand the emitter current IE for a

transistor whereIB 50 mA and IC 3.65 mA.
𝐼 . 𝑚
𝛽 = = =
𝐼 0𝜇
𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝐼 = . 𝑚𝐴 + 𝜇𝐴 = . 𝑚𝐴

Input characteristics curve
Input resistance (ri)=(VBE/IB)Vce
Current amplification factor (β)=(IC/IB)VCE

Output characteristics
 Output characteristics for CE mode is the curve or graph between collector

current (IC) and collector - emitter voltage(VCE) when the base current IB is the
parameter.
 Output resistance (ro)=(VCE/IC)IB

characteristics…
• (1)Active region
(2)Cut-off regions
(3)saturation region
• The active region has collector region reverse biased and the emitter junction
forward biased.
• Cut-off region the emitter junction is slightly reverse biased and the collector
current is not totally cut-off.
• Saturation region both the collector and the emitter junction are forward
biased.

DC Load line
 The dc load line is the locus of IC and VCE at which BJT remains in active region
i.e. it represents all the possible combinations of IC and VCE for a given
amplifier.
 To draw DC load line of a transistor we need to find the saturation current and
cutoff voltage.

DC Load line
 The saturation current is the maximum possible current through the

transistor and occurs at the point where the voltage across the collector is
minimum.
 The cutoff voltage is the maximum possible voltage across the collector and
occurs at zero collector current.
 From the DC equivalent circuit by applying Kirchoff’s voltage Law in collector

loop in
 Vce = Vcc – Rc *Ic (Equation 1)
• cutoff point : To find the cutoff point equate the collector current to zero(in
cutoff the collector current is ICO which will be of micro amperes and hence can
be assumed to be zero).

Continued…
• In equation 1 equating Ic to zero the cutoff point is (Vcc, 0).
• Saturation point : To find the saturation point equate the collector voltage to
zero(in saturation the collector voltage will be around o.2 Volts which is small
and hence can be assumed to be zero).
• In equation 1 equating Vce to zero the cutoff point is (0, Vcc/Rc).

Continued…
• (Vcc, 0) is cut off point where transistor enters in to cut off region from active
region and (0, Vcc/Rc) is saturation point where the transistor enters saturation
region
• Q point or quiescent or operating point of BJT
-Q-point is the operating point of the transistor (ICQ,VCEQ) at which it is biased.
-The concept of Q-point is used when transistor act as an amplifying device

and hence is operated in active region of input output characteristics.

MOSFET
• Is an another category of FET(field effect transistor).
• MOSFET stands for metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor. It is

capable of voltage gain and signal power gain.
• The MOSFET is the core of integrated circuit designed as thousands of these

can be fabricated in a single chip because of its very small size.
• Widely used for switching and amplifying electronic signals in the electronic
devices.
• The MOSFET is a three terminal device such as source, gate, and drain. Two
types
1) Enhancement MOSFET.
2) Depletion MOSFET.

Enhancement MOSFET (E - MOSFET)
• Construction:

Enhancement MOSFET (E - MOSFET)
 The E-MOSFET operates only in the enhancement mode and has no

depletion mode.
 The substrate extends completely to the SiO2 layer.

E – MOSFET…

E – MOSFET…
Working of E-MOSFET

E – MOSFET…
 For an n-channel device, a positive gate voltage above a threshold value

induces a channel by creating a thin layer of negative charges in the substrate
region adjacent to the SiO2 layer.
 The conductivity of the channel is enhanced by increasing the gate-to-source

voltage and thus pulling more electrons into the channel area.
 For any gate voltage below the threshold value, there is no channel.

E–MOSFET characteristics
 The E-MOSFET uses only channel enhancement.
 n-channel device requires a positive gate-to-source voltage, and a p-channel

device requires a negative gate-to-source voltage.

E–MOSFET characteristics…
• There is no drain current when VGS=0. Therefore, the E-MOSFET does not
have a significant IDSS parameter, as do the JFET and the D-MOSFET.
• Also that there is ideally no drain current until VGS reaches a certain nonzero
value called the threshold voltage, VGS(th).
ID = K(VGS - VGS(th))2

Numerical Problem5
• The datasheet for a 2N7002 E-MOSFET gives ID(on) 500mA(minimum)

at VGS 10 V and VGS(th) 1V. Determine the drain current for VGS=5 V.
𝐼 𝑚𝐴 𝑚𝐴
𝑘= = = = . 𝑚𝐴/𝑉
𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝑡ℎ 𝑉− 𝑉 𝑉
Next, using the value of K, calculate ID for VGS 5 V
. 𝑚𝐴
𝐼 = 𝐾 𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝐺𝑆 𝑡ℎ = 𝑉− 𝑉 = . 𝑚𝐴
𝑉

Depletion MOSFET(D–MOSFET )
• Construction:
n-channel D-MOSFET

Depletion MOSFET(D–MOSFET )
 The drain and source are diffused into the substrate material
and then connected by a narrow channel adjacent to the insulated gate.
 Both n-channel and p-channel devices are shown in the figure.

D-MOSFET…
• Biasing..

D–MOSFET…
 The D-MOSFET can be operated in either of two modes, the depletion mode or
the enhancement mode, and is sometimes called a depletion/enhancement
MOSFET.
 Since the gate is insulated from the channel, either a positive or a negative
gate voltage can be applied.
 The n-channel MOSFET operates in the depletion mode when a negative gate-
to-source voltage is applied and in the enhancement mode when a positive
gate-to-source voltage is applied.
 These devices are generally operated in the depletion mode.

D–MOSFET characteristics
• D-MOSFET can operate with either positive or negative gate voltages.

D–MOSFET characteristics…
 This is indicated on the general transfer characteristic curves in Figure for both
n-channel and p-channel MOSFETs.
 The point on the curves where VGS=0 corresponds to IDSS. The point where
ID=0 corresponds to VGS(off).
VGS(off) = -VP.

Numerical Problem6

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune

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Unit 1

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 2

Diode – Symbol and Structure

 A p–n junction is a boundary

 A diode (two electrodes) is a

 It allows flow of current in one

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 3

Concept of Diffusion and Depletion layer

 similarly p-region losses holes creating a negative layer at the junction.

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 4

Concept of Diffusion and Depletion layer

 When depletion region reach to certain limit it stops further combining of

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 5

Forward and Reverse diode

 Biasing: Applying external of DC voltage across the terminals of electronics

 Diode biasing can be done in two different ways

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 6

 The applied bias voltage Vd must be

 A resistor limits the current to a

 The –ve side of bias-voltage pushes

 This flow of free electrons

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 7

 Now the electrons are in the p-region (valance band)

 The direction of current is from p-region to n-region.

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 8

 Effect on depletion region due to forward bias:

 Effect of barrier potential during forward bias:

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 9

Forward Current in P N Junction

• IS is Saturation Current (10-9 to 10-18 A)

• Vt is Volt-equivalent temperature (= 26 mV at room temperature)

• n is Emission coefficient (1 ≤ n ≤ 2 for Si)

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 10

 Resistor is not required when the diode is reverse biased.

 Reverse bias prevents current through the diode.

 Depletion region decrease when reverse bias voltage applied.

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 11

 Effect of reverse bias on the width of depletion region:

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 12

 Reverse saturation current:

-direction of current is from cathode to anode.

-Reverse saturation current depends on temperature and independent of

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 13

 Reverse breakdown voltage:

Avalanche breakdown and Zener breakdown.

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 14

Reverse Current in P N Junction

• iDcan be written as i0.

• ISis Saturation Current (10-9 to 10-18 A)

• VT is Volt-equivalent temperature (= 26 mV at room temperature)

• n is Emission coefficient (1 ≤ n ≤ 2 for Si)

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 15

Forward Bias Characteristics

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 16

Forward Bias Characteristics…

• With Increase in forward voltage equal to threshold voltage width depletion

• When forward voltage equal to threshold voltage, current through diode

• This current will be limited by using a resistor in series.

• Forward current is conventional current that flows from anode to cathode.

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 17

Reverse Bias Characteristics

Electronics Department, Vishwakarma Institute of Technology, Pune 18

Reverse Bias Characteristics …