EASA Module 13 - Book 1 Part 5 - Autoflight PDF

Book 1 Part 5
Autoflight
Initial Issue © MTC 2015

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Aircraft Aerodynamics,
Structures & Systems
Book 1 Part 5 - Contents

AUTOFLIGHT 1
INTRODUCTION TO AUTOPILOT 1
AIRCRAFT STABILISATION 1
Response Times 1
Practical Stabilisation 2
AUTOPILOT SYSTEM 4
Error Sensing 4
Correction 4
Follow-Up 4
Command 4
STABILITY AUGMENTATION SYSTEM (SAS) 5
REQUIREMENT OF PRACTICAL AUTOPILOT SYSTEM 5
AUTOPILOT SENSORS & EXTERNAL SIGNAL SOURCES 7
YAW DAMPER 9
Autopilot Yaw Damper - Rudder Channel 9
Dutch Roll 9
What Causes Dutch Roll 10
PRACTICAL YAW DAMPER 11
Three Axis Autopilot 11
Two Axis Autopilots 11
Two Axis Autopilots on Autoland 12
TYPES OF YAW DAMPER 12
Series System 12
Parallel Systems 12
Series Parallel System 12
TYPICAL YAW DAMPING SIGNAL PROCESSING 12
Sensing 12
Phase Advance 13
DUTCH ROLL FILTER 14
THREE AXIS AUTOPILOT WITH SERVO MOTOR 17
Engagement 17
Yaw Rate Signal 18
Bank Demand Cross-feed 18
Dynamic Vertical Sensor. 18
RUDDER SERVO MOTOR 19
Actuation 19
Action 19
SERIES YAW DAMPER OPERATION 20
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Operating Modes 20
Synchronisation 20
Yaw Damper Testing 21
BOEING 737 YAW DAMPER SYSTEM 22
Yaw Damper Coupler 23
Yaw Damper Engage Switch 23
Disengage Warning Light 23
Yaw Damper Rudder Position Indicator 23
Rudder Position Transducer 24
Rudder Transfer And Solenoid Valves 24
Duplex Yaw Damper System (Smith's -BAe 146) 25
INTERLOCKS 27
HYDRAULIC ACTUATION 30
Hydraulic Servo Action 30
TRANSFER VALVE 31
CONTROL SURFACE ACTUATOR OPERATION 33
Manual Operation 34
Automatic Operation 34
BOEING 737 AUTOPILOT ACTUATOR 35
Normal Sequence 36
COMMAND SIGNAL PROCESSING 38
Discriminator Operation 39
Limiting 41
Roll Demand Rate Limiter 42
Roll Demand Bank Angle Limiter 43
Bank Angle and Rate Limiter Action 43
Rate Limiting 43
Bank Angle Limiting 44
BUFFER AMPLIFIERS 44
Signal Processing 44
Gearing 45
Gain 45
ILS Signal Gain Adjustment 46
Gear Change - BAe146 46
INTEGRATION 47
DC Integrators 47
Amplified DC Integrators 48
AC Integrators 49
Amplifying AC Integrator 50
MECHANICAL INTEGRATORS 51
Operation 51
Amplified Mechanical Integrator 52
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS - MILLER INTEGRATORS 53
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DIFFERENTIATORS 54
Smith’s SEP 10 (BAe 146) 54
THE LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER (LVDT) 55
Special LVDT Characteristics 56
LVDT Position and Rate Feedback 57
GYROS 58
Displacement Gyro 58
Disadvantages 58
RATE / RATE SYSTEM 59
Rate Detection 59
Rate Control 59
Action 60
Disadvantages 60
DISPLACEMENT/RATE SYSTEM 60
Displacement Only 60
Rate Only 60
Rate and Displacement 61
THREE RATE GYROS SYSTEM 63
TORQUE LIMITING 64
Mechanical and Electromechanical Torque Limiting 64
Practical Mechanical Torque Limiter 65
Electro-Mechanical Torque Limiter 66
Stabilator Actuator & Limit Switches 67
DUPLEX SERVOMOTORS - HARD OVER & RUNAWAY PROTECTION 68
Example of a Voting System - Boeing 747 69
VERSINE SIGNALLING 69
Versine Circuit 70
ATTITUDE CONTROL 72
Roll Channel 72
Turn Control 73
Rate Gyro 74
Turn Control Knob 74
Roll Limiters 75
Roll Accelerometer 75
Bank Angle Limiter 76
Roll Rate Limiter 76
Operation 76
Versine Compensation 77
Boeing 737 Roll Channel (DFCS) 78
Operation 80
Pitch Channel 81
Attitude & Altitude Hold Mode 82
Altitude Hold Sensor 83
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ALTITUDE HOLD MODE 84
Altitude Hold Operation 86
Altitude Hold – Integration of Error 87
ALTITUDE ALERTING 89
VERTICAL SPEED HOLD MODE 90
Circuit Action 90
Automatic Release 91
HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR (HSI) 92
Operation 93
HDG Control Knob 94
Course Control Knob 94
Lateral Deviation Bar 94
Glideslope Pointer Coil 94
PRE-SELECT HEADING MODE 95
Autopilot response 95
Aircraft Response 96
MODE CONTROL PANEL (MCP) 97
FLIGHT DIRECTOR 100
Flight Level Change Mode 100
Flight Level Change 100
CLIMB AND DESCENT 102
Vertical Navigation (V.Nav) 102
V.NAV CLIMB MODES 102
Initial Take off 102
Climb One. 102
Preparation for Climb Two 102
Climb Two. 102
Preparation for Climb Three. 102
Climb Three. 104
V.NAV DESCENT MODES 104
Initial Conditions. 104
Descent One. 104
Levelling Off. 104
Preparation for Descent Two. 104
Descent Two 104
Preparation for Descent Three. 105
Descent Three. 105
Glideslope Capture 105
AUTOMATIC PITCH TRIM 106
Purpose 106
AIRCRAFT WITHOUT AUTOMATIC PITCH TRIM 108
AUTOTRIM ACTUATION 109
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Trim Priority 110
Manual Trim 110
Electrical Trim 110
AUTOTRIM 111
PRACTICAL AUTOTRIM APPLICATION 112
Motor Drive 112
Motor Drive Speed 112
Motor Brake 113
Motor Engagement 113
Neutral Shift Sensor 113
Limit Switches 114
MACH TRIM 116
Cause of Tuck Under 116
WING ROOT TURBULENCE 116
Down Wash Effect 117
INDEPENDENT MACH TRIM SYSTEM 118
BAC 1-11 Mach Trim System 118
Relay Box Mach Trim Indicator 118
Controller 119
Actuator 119
Relay Box 119
Disengage Relay 119
Trim Wheel Micro-switch 119
MACH TRIM INDICATOR 120
Operation 120
Integrated Mach Trim System 122
Mach Trim Circuit Operation 123
Logic and Interlocks 124
SUMMARY OF TRIM SYSTEMS 124
APLHA TRIM 126
Angle of Attack 126
Sensing 126
Moving Vane 126
Pressure Sensor 127
STALL WARNING 130
Stall Margin Mode 131
HEADING HOLD 133
Heading Hold and Heading Synchroniser 133
Synchronisation 134
Autopilot Engaged - Heading Hold 134
Pre-set Heading: 134
CWS Steering/Turn Knob out of detent. 134
AUTOMATIC THROTTLE SYSTEMS 135
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Control Modes 136
Control Sub Modes 137
Related Engine Controls 138
SENSORS 139
Clutch Assembly 141
Servomotor 143
OVERRIDE AND SAFETY 144
Modes of operation 146
Airspeed Mode 146
STALL MARGIN 147
Flare and Touchdown Mode 148
Microprocessor control 149
Autothrottle Inputs 152
AUTOLAND 153
Requirements 153
System Monitoring 154
Approach categories 154
Decision Height 154
Runway Visual Range 154
ILS Categories 155
THE TRIPLEX SYSTEM 156
THE DUAL-DUAL SYSTEM 157
CRUISE MODE CONFIGURATION 158
AUTOLAND CONFIGURATION 159
Autoland Sequence 160
Ground Roll Instrumentation 161
Paravisual Display 162
GROUND RUN MONITOR 163
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AUTOFLIGHT
Introduction to Autopilot
The definition of an autopilot is:
“A control system which will automatically manoeuvre the aeroplane into, and stabilise it with
respect to, a demanded flight condition determined by a computer (human or otherwise) inside
or outside the aeroplane.”
A modern high speed aircraft must be accurately controlled and monitored through all stages of
flight. This task, if carried out by the pilot will result in pilot fatigue which will lead to:
1. Increase in pilot’s response time.
2. Impaired judgment.
3. Increase in the possibility of human error.
To relieve the pilot of the physical and mental fatigue of flying the aircraft, especially during long
flights, an autopilot is used. This will result in the pilot being more alert during the critical phase
of landing the aircraft safely. However an un-commanded loss of an autopilot system must not
endanger the aircraft. There must be at least two methods available to the crew for
disengagement of an autopilot system.
Aircraft Stabilisation
Response Times
A human pilot controls the aircraft’s stability by detecting a change in aircraft attitude by one of
his senses. It will take a pilot approximately 0.2 seconds to detect a change in the aircraft’s
attitude and then a further delay in deciding which control to apply to oppose the disturbance.
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An autopilot will detect a disturbance and put on the required control to correct the disturbance
in approximately 50 milliseconds. An autopilot must also be capable of producing the same
actions as the pilot - it must:
1. Sense changes in attitude.
2. Compute the amount of control required.
3. Provide the muscle to move the control surface.
4. Detect that the control has been applied and that the aircraft has responded.
5. Return the control surface back to the neutral position when the disturbance has
been corrected.
Practical Stabilisation
An aircraft can be subjected to disturbances about its three control axes.
PITCH: About the LATERAL axis.
ROLL: About the LONGITUDINAL axis.
YAW: About the VERTICAL or NORMAL axis.
Therefore practical stabilization must be controlled about the same three axes.
Autopilot systems are broken down into three basic control channels:
PITCH - Controlled by the ELEVATORS.
ROLL - Controlled by the AILERONS.
YAW - Controlled by the RUDDER.

Autopilot Control Axes

Figure 1-6

Autopilot System
The autopilot is divided into four main parts:
Error Sensing
Determines when the flight condition of the aircraft is differing from that commanded by the
pilot. Almost all-modern aircraft use a gyro of some type for this purpose, and there are two
ways that the error signal can be generated, either by attitude gyros or rate gyros. The attitude
gyros only detect how far the aircraft is away from the settings; the rate gyros detect the rate at
which it is deviating and, hence, are more accurate.
Correction
This is the correcting input, sent to the actuators connected into the flying control systems. This
input is simply the command from the autopilot to reverse the movement of the aircraft away
from its set course. It does not have any idea of when to stop the correction; this is the job of
the follow-up mechanism.
Follow-Up
Is the detection mechanism, which senses that the aircraft is righting itself, under the
commands from the correction part of the autopilot. The mechanism reduces the correction
input as it nears the original selected position and, by the time the aircraft is level, there will be
no correcting input to the actuators.
Command
The command system is incorporated to allow the pilot to dictate which heading, height, speed
or rate of climb he wants the aircraft to follow. This can be a simple 'Heading Hold' system
which is controlled by a "bug" on the compass, which the pilot sets with a knob on the
instrument. Alternatively, the system 'Mode Control Panel' can have many different parameters
commanded by the pilot, such as autopilot modes, altitude, and vertical speed and
airspeed/MACH number modes.

Stability Augmentation System (SAS)
The very basic form of autopilot is known as Stability Augmentation System (SAS). In this form
the autopilot functions as an automatic stabilizer, which detects any change from the selected
flight path and returns the aircraft to its original attitude. This is referred to as the “Inner loop”
control and is illustrated at Fig 2-6.
Autopilot Basic Operation

Figure 2-6
This very basic autopilot is found in some light aircraft, but is more often found in helicopters
which are characteristically an unstable aircraft. Some military aircraft have the ability to select
this mode separately but most commercial aircraft incorporate the basic stability control within
more complex control systems and it is automatically selected on autopilot engagement.
Requirement of Practical Autopilot System
An examination of a typical flight profile from take-off to landing will identify the control
requirements and basic modes of operation required of a practical autopilot.
Figures 3-6 & 4-6 show a typical flight profile. Note that only the pitch and roll channels are
shown. This is because control of the aircraft is primarily by these two channels. The yaw
channel is a stability channel only.

Autopilot Vertical Profile

Figure 3-6
Autopilot Lateral Profile

Figure 4-6

Autopilot Sensors & External Signal Sources
To control an aircraft through a full flight profile, information from the following sensors and
external signal sources are required:
 Attitude - One Vertical Gyro or Inertial Navigation System for Pitch and Roll.
 Rate Information – Three rate gyros to measure the rate that the displacement is
taking place in pitch, roll and yaw. (An Inertial Reference System could also be
used.)
 Lateral Movement – One or more accelerometers mounted on the lateral axis to

detect sideslip movement. (Used for coordinating turns or reducing disturbances
caused by side winds.)
 Heading - Remote compass information for heading hold and pre-select heading
modes.
 Speed & Height - Information supplied from the Central Air Data Computer (CADC)
for control of: Vertical Speed (VS). Indicated Air Speed (IAS), MACH and Barometric
Height for altitude hold.
 Radio Coupling - VOR/ILS steering to control deviation away from a selected VOR
radial or ILS radio beam.

Figures 5-6 & 6-6 show simplified schematic diagrams of an autopilot system.
Autopilot System Block Diagram

Figure 5-6
Autopilot System Schematic

Figure 6-6

Yaw Damper
Autopilot Yaw Damper - Rudder Channel
Yaw Damper is the name given to the Rudder channel of the autopilot. It is called the Yaw
Damper, because its principle function is to damp out the oscillations caused by “Dutch Roll”.
Dutch Roll
All sub-sonic aircraft perform the Dutch Roll manoeuvre while in flight. It is a continuous
oscillation in which the aircraft will first Yaw left whilst rolling right and then Yaws to the right
while rolling left. The length of time required for one complete oscillation varies in different
aircraft from about 3 to 5 seconds.
The fin and rudder will oppose the yaw, slow it down and stop it, and return the aircraft towards
straight and level flight. If the fin and rudder are big enough the second yaw and roll are less
than the first and each excursion gets progressively smaller until the motion damps right out. If
however, the fin and rudder are too small the second yaw and roll are bigger than the first, each
over swing gets larger and the motion becomes unstable. Like any other form of stability,
oscillatory stability can be positive, neutral or negative.
Dutch Roll Stability

Figure 7-6

What Causes Dutch Roll
The initial yawing is usually caused by a side wind. When a straight winged aircraft is yawing it
also rolls. This is because the outside wing is speeded up, the lift generated by the two wings
now become unbalanced and rolling takes place. On a swept wing aircraft the effect is
compounded because the angle of slip effectively alters the sweep of the two wings. The faster
(outside) wing becomes less swept and generates increased lift. This is caused by the increase
in projected span (aspect ratio). The slower (inside wing) becomes even more swept and loses
lift at a constant incidence for the same basic reason.
Causes of Dutch Roll

Figure 8-6

Practical Yaw Damper
A yaw damper is a gyro system sensitive to change in yaw which feeds a signal into the rudder
which then applies rudder to oppose the yaw. It will damp the yawing motion within two or three
cycles of Dutch roll. If the Dutch roll has developed with the damper switched off then switching
the yaw damper on will result in the aircraft being brought under control. Under normal
operation the damper cannot make a mistake but applies the rudder in the correct direction and
of the correct amount, thus reducing the slip angle to zero and stopping all rolling tendency. The
number of dampers required depends on how stable the aircraft is.
If Dutch roll is easy for the pilot to control, then only one yaw damper maybe fitted. If the Dutch
roll is significant then two dampers are required so that failure of one system en route still
leaves the aircraft with some protection. Aircraft with split rudder control e.g. Boeing 747 will
control each half with a separate yaw damper. Yaw dampers in large aircraft are normally a
separate system from that of the autopilot, and are engaged before takeoff. In the case of most
modern aircraft it is an essential requirement that the yaw damper is serviceable prior to takeoff.
Yaw Dampers can drive either servo motors or hydraulic actuators. For the most effective
control the servo motor/actuator should be positioned as close as possible to the rudder control
surface. This ensures the fastest rate of application.
Three Axis Autopilot
In three axis autopilots, the yaw damper/rudder channel is an integrated part of the autopilot
system; it may though be housed in a separate LRU. The system shown at Figure 13.3-2-7 has
dual autopilot channels simultaneously controlling all three axes. The autopilot and yaw damper
can still be engaged separately from each other. One advantage of a three axis system is that
aileron to rudder crossfeed and turn co-ordination inputs are easy to apply.
Two Axis Autopilots
Two axis autopilot are completely separate from the yaw damper system. However, they may
be incorporated within the autopilot interlock system with the yaw damper having to be engaged
before the autopilot. Interfacing between the two systems can take place by the ARINC Data
Bus System allowing inputs into the yaw channel for turn co-ordination to prevent slip and skid.
Aileron to rudder cross-feed may also be employed to compensate for adverse yaw.

Two Axis Autopilots on Autoland
Some aircraft e.g. Boeing 757/767 during the Autoland approach, adopt a three axes function.
Triplex Rollout actuators are engaged to control the rudder during the final stages of the
approach. The function of the rudder is to align the nose of the aircraft to point down the
centreline of the runway. At touch down the rudder maintains the centreline until the nose wheel
touches the ground. The control is then transferred to the nose wheel as the aircraft slows
down.
Types of Yaw Damper
Series System
A series yaw damper system means that there can be a signal to the rudder based on yaw
damping functions as well as a pilot input via the pedals and that the yaw damper will not
oppose the rudder pedals pedal input. The rudder pedals do not move as a result of a yaw
damper input but the result of any damping signal is seen on the rudder trim indicator. Most
yaw dampers are series systems.
Parallel Systems
In a parallel system the control surface and the pedals move in response to input signals.
Series Parallel System
The Tri-Star is one example that uses a series parallel system. In all autopilot operational
modes except approach mode the yaw damper operates in series mode. On selection of the
Approach/Autoland mode the yaw damper reverts to a parallel mode, transferring yaw damper
corrections to the rudder pedals.
Typical Yaw Damping Signal Processing
Sensing
Sensing of a disturbance in yaw is usually by a rate gyro, though some systems may employ an
accelerometer. The objective being to sense the yawing motion as quickly as possible and
produce a correcting signal demand to the servo/actuator.

Phase Advance
Is a means of applying the damping application as soon as possible. The reason for this is that
damping must be applied when the rate of disturbance is at its greatest, not when the
disturbance has moved to the point where the natural stability of the fin has arrested the
disturbance. If a rudder application is applied at the same instant the fin starts to return the
aircraft, both the combined forces will over correct and cause the aircraft to overshoot. Figure 9
tries to explain the ideal damping required.
Figure 9-6 shows a typical phase advance of the signal by 90. It can be seen that it is nothing
more than a capacitor and resistor connected to form a differentiator. The output of a
differentiator is a rate signal. Therefore, if the input to the phase advance is a yaw rate, the
output must be rate/rate, which is acceleration. The circuit has effectively accelerated the yaw
signal to provide the rapid damping the system requires.
Principle of Phase Advance

Figure 9-6

Dutch Roll Filter
When an aircraft is turning, the aircraft rolls about its longitudinal axis in the direction of the turn
and also yaws about the vertical axis. A Yaw Damper is provided to dampen out the Dutch roll,
not to prevent the aircraft following a turn command. Therefore only the Dutch roll frequency
must be acted upon by the yaw damper.
Figure 10-6 shows an aircraft without a Yaw Damper reacting to a gust of wind from the left
side. it also shows a Yaw Damper damping along the Dutch roll, but allowing the aircraft to be
turned to the right by a pilot/autopilot command.
Yaw Damping
Figure 10-6

The Dutch roll frequency is based on the natural yawing frequency of the aircraft. The
frequency is relatively low and will differ slightly with aircraft type. The typical frequency being
0.2Hz for the BAe1-11 and 0.4Hz for the Boeing 747.
Yaw dampers must be designed to allow the Dutch roll frequency to control the rudder but block
other frequencies. Figure 11-6 illustrates a typical Dutch roll filter and circuit action.
Dutch Roll Filter

Figure 11-6
Initially, while the rate of turn is building up to the constant rate, the Dutch roll filter output also
builds, then falls off to nothing when the rate of turn becomes constant. The reverse, with
opposite polarity as the filter capacitor discharges, occurs as the aircraft levels out on
completion of the turn. Therefore, whilst the turn is constant the filter output is zero. This results
in no rudder demand.
Figure 12-6 shows an aircraft yawing at the Dutch roll frequency. Since the rate of turn is
constantly changing, the output from the rate gyro is constantly changing. The D.C. graph at the
bottom is the Dutch roll filter output.
The D.C. polarities are the greatest when the rate of turn is the greatest and reverse when the
direction of turn (rate of gyro signal) reverses.

Dutch Roll & Coordinated Turn Frequencies

Figure 12-6
Figure 11-6 shows only a simplified yaw damper, illustrating mainly Dutch roll filter. The Dutch
roll filter is a “Narrow Band Pass Filter” designed to pass only signals which change frequency
caused by the Dutch roll. The rate gyro produces outputs for all turns, but only those related to
Dutch roll will appear at the input to the servo amplifier to drive the rudder servo motor.

Three Axis Autopilot with Servo Motor
Engagement
Prior to engagement, the rudder signal chain is earthed and the rudder servo, which is
disconnected from the rudder control runs, synchronises to the null position. Refer to Figure 13
for circuit description.
On engagement, 29.5V AC is connected to the rudder servo clutch. At the same time, a rudder
engage thermal relay operates and energises a rudder engage relay to connect filtered bank
demand signal from the aileron channel to the rudder servo loop. The half second delay
between energising the rudder servo clutch and operating the rudder engage relay permits a
transient free engagement. Any yaw rate which then develops produces a rudder deflection
which tends to oppose the yaw rate.
Rudder Channel – Elliot E2000 Autopilot

Figure 13-6

Yaw Rate Signal
The yaw rate signal is derived from a synchro attached to the yaw rate gyro which forms part of
the Three-Axis rate transmitter. The Band Pass Filter has a peak frequency of 0.2Hz, which is
the natural yawing frequency of the aircraft. It attenuates steady and slowly changing yaw rate
signals which are present during a steady turn to prevent unwanted rudder deflection which
would mis-coordinate the manoeuvre.
Bank Demand Cross-feed
To improve co-ordination in autopilot control, the rudder correction is applied during the
manoeuvres. The demand signal is modified by a function of IAS from the CADC. This is
because a smaller rudder deflection is needed at high speed than at low speed for a given bank
angle.
Dynamic Vertical Sensor.
Dynamic Vertical Sensor, which consists of a damped pendulum, provides a signal which is
proportional to the difference between the aircraft vertical and the dynamic vertical. In the long
term, yawing movement caused by an un-coordinated turn or engine failure is thus opposed by
a sustained rudder deflection instead of a side slip.
When the flap selector lever is moved to give more than 26° of flap, the flap relays increase the
gain of the dynamic vertical sensor signal, and decrease the gain of the yaw rate signal.

Rudder Servo Motor
Figure 14-6 shows a typical servo motor driving the rudder of a Yaw Damper.
Servo Driven Yaw Damper (BAe 1-11)

Figure 14-6
Actuation
The servo motor converts the electrical outputs of the autopilot computer into mechanical
shape.
Action
The servo motor converts the electrical outputs of the autopilot computer into a mechanical
torque, which is used to control the aircraft's rudder. The servo motor is built into the servo unit
together with a reduction gear and position and rate feedback transmitters. The motor is a
conventional two-phase induction motor which drives through the reduction gear and an
electromagnetic disconnect clutch. The servo also incorporates friction override facilities. The
servo motor output is transmitted through a splined servo output shaft to the control system of
the aircraft. The servo mounting enables the servo motor to be removed without disturbing the
rigging of the aircraft flying controls.

Series Yaw Damper Operation
The yaw damper provides damping of the aircraft's yaw axis movement by shaping, amplifying
and coupling rate gyro and yaw damper actuator position signals to control the rudder through
the hydraulic actuator. The yaw damper operation is confined to synchronisation mode and
engaged mode.
Operating Modes
Refer to Figure 15.
Synchronisation
Synchronisation is used to prevent yaw axis engagement transients by cancelling servo motor
outputs by an inverting integrator. RL1 is energised prior to yaw damper engagement. Any
amplifier output is fed back through the integrator, the inversion through the integrator cancels
any transients present. On engagement of the yaw damper, RL1 is de-energised.
Providing the interlock logic is good, the engage solenoid engages allowing the yaw damper
elements of the Power Control Unit (PCU) to pressurise. The rate gyro signal is phase
advanced and applied to the demodulator. The demodulator converts the signal to a DC signal
where the output polarity will represent the AC signal input phase.
The yaw damper frequency is passed by the band pass filter which blocks all other frequencies.
Consequently, the yaw damper does not oppose normal turn manoeuvres and does not
respond to aircraft vibration and bending. The modulator restores the AC signal maintaining the
appropriate phase. The servo amplifies the signal and applies it to the transfer valve which in
turn drives the yaw damper actuator which drives the main actuator. The maximum deflection of
the rudder is 3°- 4° in either direction.
The LVDT position feedback is applied to SP2 to cancel the processed rate gyro signal when
the corresponding change in rudder position is appropriate for the rate of yaw change. Position
feedback is also applied through the energised relays of RL2 which is fed back to SP2. The
purpose of this is to ensure that the rudder will always return back to the neutral position.
The rudder can be affected by crosswinds. If the crosswind is strong, the position feedback
voltage may not be large enough to drive the rudder to the central position. The position
feedback voltage now causes INT 2 to ramp up, increasing the voltage at SP2. This increase in
position feedback starts to drive the rudder back to the neutral position. As the rudder returns
the position feedback voltage decreases allowing the integrator to run down.

Yaw Damper Testing
Actuation of the yaw damper test switch to either the right or the left applies a voltage to the
yaw damper rate gyro torquing coil which torques the rate gyro and simulates aircraft
movement. The rudder position indicator responds to this action of an output from the position
transducer. If the switch is moved to the left the indication will first move to the left and then
back to the centre, on release of the switch the indication will move to the right and back to the
centre. The reverse will happen if the switch is first moved to the right.
Series Yaw Damper

Figure 15-6

Boeing 737 Yaw damper System
Boeing 737 Yaw Damper System

Figure 16-6

Referring to Figure 16-6:
The yaw damper system is engaged by a switch on the flight control module. When the system
is engaged, a solid state rate sensor in the coupler senses yaw rate of the aircraft. The yaw
rate signal is processed to generate a command to the rudder power control unit which moves
the rudder. The signal is translated from electrical to mechanical in the rudder power control
unit by a transfer valve. Position feedback is accomplished by a LVDT. A position indicator in
the flight compartment indicates rudder movement due to yaw damper inputs. There is no
feedback to the rudder pedals since a series hydraulic actuator is used in the power control
unit.
The yaw damper system consists of a yaw damper engage switch and disengage warning light,
a yaw damper rudder position system indicator, a yaw damper coupler, a rudder pressure
reducer system, an autopilot warning light, and a yaw damper engage solenoid, transfer valve,
and position transducer on the rudder power control unit.
Yaw Damper Coupler
The yaw damper coupler provides rudder deflection commands to compensate for movement
about the yaw axis.
Yaw Damper Engage Switch
The yaw damper engage switch is used the place the yaw damper system in the operating
mode. The yaw damper engage switch is a 2-position solenoid-held switch. The solenoid is
controlled by the yaw damper engage logic and holds the switch in the ON position.
Disengage Warning Light
The yaw damper disengage warning light indicates that the system is not engages in the
operating mode. The disengage warning light is an amber annunciation that illuminates
whenever the yaw damper is not engaged. The master caution lights and the flight control
master caution annunciation lights, located on the glare shield, also illuminate when the
disengage warning light comes on.
Yaw Damper Rudder Position Indicator
The yaw damper rudder position indicator displays rudder movement caused by yaw damper
coupler commands. Whenever the yaw damper system is engaged, the yaw damper position
indicator reflects the movements of the yaw damper actuator. The position transducer on the
rudder power control unit senses actuator displacement from neutral and provides a signal to
the yaw damper coupler. The yaw damper coupler provides a signal to the indicator that is
proportional to the rudder displacement from the yaw damper actuator.

Rudder Position Transducer
A linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) mounted in the rudder power control unit
supplies a rudder position feedback signal to the yaw damper coupler. The LVDT is a variable
reluctance transformer which is excited by 26 volts ac. The magnitude of the output signal
varies directly with the length of the input stroke and the phase of the signal changes with the
direction of the stroke from the center null position.
Rudder Transfer And Solenoid Valves
The engage solenoid and the transfer valve control hydraulic flow for yew damper control of the
rudder power control unit. The yaw damper engage solenoid is mounted on the rudder power
control unit. It is a solenoid actuator valve which is energized when the yaw damper is engaged.
It then supplies hydraulic power to the transfer valve.
The transfer valve, also mounted on the rudder power control unit, converts the yaw damper
electrical signals into hydraulic flow to move the rudder. The unit consists of a torque motor
which moves a jet pipe assembly that regulates the hydraulic flow to the control valve.
Rudder Power Control Unit (Boeing 737)

Figure 17-6

Duplex Yaw Damper System (Smith's -BAe 146)
Some yaw damper systems operate in a duplex mode (duplex monitoring), providing lateral
stabilisation through all phases of flight.
A duplex system provides the monitoring necessary to prevent large fast movements of the
rudder in the event of a runaway fault condition. The two channels are identical and
independent, their outputs being fed to a comparator. Misalignment between them will cause
automatic disengagement of both channels. Figure 18 shows a block diagram of the system.
As the channels are identical, only one single channel will be considered:
Any unwanted lateral movement generates a yaw rate gyro 400 Hz signal. The phase of the
signal will determine the direction of the rudder and the amplitude will determine the rate of
movement of the rudder. The signal is reduced at 30° of flap to compensate for the effects of
increased airflow over the control surface.
The vertical gyro input is differentiated to produce a roll rate signal to assist in rudder
application when a roll is sensed. If the roll is a commanded turn, the roll rate signal decays
quickly to prevent the rudder opposing the turn.
The roll rate and yaw rate signals are fed through a 90° phase advance differentiating capacitor
to accelerate the signal to ensure that damping is applied at the correct time. The signal is then
summed with the Lateral Accelerometer. The accelerometer applies rudder to compensate for
slip and skid during a turn.
The summed yaw rate, roll and lateral signal are fed to the input of a servo amplifier where it is
summed with the rate and position feedback. The resultant of this summation is used to control
the actuator motor drive circuit and hence the actuator motor. This is mechanically linked to a
tacho-generator to provide rate feedback and an LVDT to provide position feedback.
Each actuator motor drives two rams which drive one side of a 'T' bar onto the rudder drive
mechanism. The right angles at the top of this 'T' bar are checked by the comparator switches,
misalignment causes both yaw dampers to be disengaged.
Different sources of 115V 400Hz and 28VDC are provided to both channels. The initial switch
on is made by two master yaw damper switches. This provides initial power to the system and
allows the gyros to run up. The actuator brake will still be on at this time and the power held off
the servo amp. Engaging the yaw dampers on the autopilot controller starts interlock and
monitor circuit operation. A one second timer starts, which allows the actuators to align. The
actuator brakes are released and engagement is complete.

Yaw Damper Duplex System (BAe 146)

Figure 18

Interlocks
Before an autopilot is engaged it must be in a condition where it will safely assume control of
the aircraft i.e. it will not snatch or suddenly move to a new attitude. A series of switches and/or
relays are used (interlocks) which operate in a prescribed sequence to ensure that the
engagement will be smoothly carried out in a satisfactory manner.
The number of interlocks in the system will vary according to the complexity of the system. A
simplified system is shown in Figure 19-6. For the servomotor clutches to be engaged the
series of contacts and switches must be made.
Interlocks
Figure 19-6
Power from the aircraft supply is supplied to the attitude sensing elements and the signal
processing elements so that they are operating, but in a standby condition, when the autopilot
engage switch is in the “OFF” position. The DC and AC power supply relays are automatically
energised when the power supply is ON.

When the VG has run up to the operating speed, after fast erection, its associated relay contact
is closed. The derived rate and CADC switches must be made, the turn control in its centre
detent and the mode selector knob at the “manual” position. When all these conditions are
satisfied then the system is ready for operation.
With the “Engage” switch placed to “Autopilot”, 28v DC is supplied via the mode select to the
“engage interlock relay” (K1). The relay is energised and its contacts allows power to engage
aileron and elevator servo clutches and to the “engage relay” (K2). The contact of the engage
relay completes a circuit which parallels the mode select and turn control switches. Other
contacts in the engage switch allow power to the rudder servo clutch and to the coil of the
engage switch, holding the switch in the autopilot position. With the engage relay held on,
operation of the turn control will not disengage the autopilot because a parallel circuit path has
been made. The same applies to feed outer loop control signals to the autopilot.
When the engage switch is in the “Yaw Damper” position, yaw damping only is possible. The
supply to the aileron and elevator servomotor clutches is broken and no turn control is possible.
The supply to the servomotor clutch of the rudder channel and the engage switch hold on coil is
fed via the closed contacts of the engage interlock relay.
To disengage the system, one of the switches on the control columns is depressed and the
power is removed from the engage and engage interlock relays. The hold on coil in the engage
switch releases the switch to the off position. Disengagement will occur if any of the interlock
switches or relays de-energise.

Autopilot Interlock Logic Circuit (Boeing 737 – 200)

Figure 20
Logic circuits allow systems designers to incorporate many conditions that may have to be met
before engagement takes place. These conditions will obviously increase with more complex
autopilot systems.

Hydraulic Actuation
Hydraulic Servo Action
Hydraulic activation of the control surface is normal in large aircraft. This is due to the size of
the control surface and the force required to move them. Movement of the control surface can
be either manually from the pilots’ controls or as a demand from the autopilot. The same
actuator may be used to move the control surface or dedicated autopilot actuators for automatic
commands and pilots demands via the main actuator.
Autopilot Hydraulic Actuator

Figure 21-6
Manual inputs are fed directly into the control valve which operates the actuator. The control
valve movement and the direction are proportional to the control wheel movement and
direction.
Engagement of the autopilot operates a solenoid which allows hydraulic pressure to be ported
to the transfer valve.
Autopilot signals are fed to the transfer valve, where the autopilot signal controls a hydraulic
valve. The valve movement, in both travel and direction, depends on the autopilot servo signal
amplitude and phase and thus the transfer of electrical information into hydraulic movement has
taken place.

The transfer valve movement allows hydraulic pressure to operate the autopilot actuator which
in turn operates the control valve. The control valve will now operate the actuator cylinder.
Note there are two LVDT’s, one to provide conventional position feedback to the autopilot servo
amplifier, the other gives cockpit indication of the control surface movement. It is common to
compare the position of the autopilot feedback LVDTs in multiple autopilot systems in order to
compare one autopilot with another. If a runaway of one autopilot takes place the high output of
the LVDT will indicate a fault condition when compared with the other systems. The faulty
system can then be shut down automatically. This function is called Voting, and is used in
automatic landing systems.
Transfer Valve
Figure 22-6 details the construction of the transfer valve. A coil winding is positioned around a
“C” shaped core. If the “C” core is magnetised by an autopilot command signal to the electrical
coil, it can move the permanent magnet armature up or down about its pivot point. Hydraulic
fluid comes in at the lower right, passes through the flex tube and splits across the pointed
divider just under the flex tube. This fluid flows all the time that the autopilot is engaged.
Transfer Valve
Figure 22-6

If there is no electrical signal to the coil, the flex tube is spring-loaded to the neutral position as
shown. In this position the combination piston/valve, against whose ends hydraulic flow is
directed, sees equal pressures at both ends. It, therefore, takes up the neutral position. In this
position both of the control ports are closed off by the piston/valve.
When the autopilot commands control surface movement an electrical signal is sent to the coil
windings which polarises the core. This causes the permanent magnet to rotate slightly in one
direction or the other. If the signal develops a north pole at the top and a south pole at the
bottom of the core ends, the permanent magnet will rotate slightly anticlockwise, moving the
bottom of the flex tube to the right.
This will cause greater pressure at the right side of the piston/valve spool than on the left side.
The spool will therefore move towards the left. It will move to the left until the force from the
feedback springs balances it and is sufficient to bring the flex tube almost back to the neutral
position.
A stronger signal from the autopilot would cause a greater movement of the spool to the left in
order to develop a greater force from the feedback spring to overcome the greater magnetic
force on the permanent magnet.
With the spool moved to the left, the right control port is connected to the hydraulic pressure
and the left control port is connected to return moving the autopilot actuator.
If the electrical signal is of the opposite polarity the spool will move right instead of left,
reversing the hydraulic connections to the control ports.

Control Surface Actuator Operation
Figure 23-6 is a schematic drawing of a Powered Flying Control unit (PFCU) which is either
operable by the pilot directly or by the autopilot electrically. The solenoid valve is energised by
the autopilot engage signal which will open the valve supplying pressure to the autopilot
transfer valve. The LVDT on the autopilot actuator indicates how far the actuator has been
moved by the operation of the transfer valve. Another LVDT on the control surface rod will
indicate the position of the control surface.
Powered Flying Control Unit (PFCU)

Figure 23-6

Manual Operation
With the autopilot disengaged, the control surface is maintained in its position by the autopilot
actuator which acts as a hydraulic lock. The pilot input to the PFCU is via control cables that
move the quadrant above the autopilot actuator. If the control quadrant was to move to the left
it would also move the autopilot actuator to the left against the spring.
The centre ball joint will move to the left which in turn will move the control valve to the left. With
the control valve moving to the left it will connect left side of the main actuator piston to
pressure. The right side of the main actuator piston will be connected to the return. The main
actuator piston will then moves to the right moving the control surface and also moving the
control valve back towards its neutral.
Further movement of the cockpit control in the same direction would again move the control
valve to the left causing the main actuator piston to move to the right until the control valve is
once again shut off. The amount of control surface movement is a function of the amount of
movement of the cockpit control. The direction of control surface movement is a function of the
direction of cockpit control movement.
Automatic Operation
With the autopilot engaged, the solenoid valve will pressurise the autopilot transfer unit. When
the transfer valve receives a signal from the autopilot the coil windings will polarise the core
which in turn will move the flex tubes. This will cause the spool valve to move in the direction
commanded.
If the spool moves to the right hydraulic system pressure will be ported to the right side of the
autopilot actuator with the left side ported to the return. As long as the transfer valve ports
remain open, the autopilot actuator will continue to move to the left.
As the actuator moves to the left a follow-up signal is developed by the autopilot LVDT. This
signal is used by the autopilot computer to null the transfer valve signal when the computed
command has been reached.
As the autopilot actuator moves to the left, it will also move the arm connected to the control
quadrant, thus moving the associated control device. This could be either the control wheel
rotating for aileron movement, or the control column moving for elevator movement. Autopilot
command actions can be monitored by the flight crew by observing the control wheel/control
column movement.
Note: This only applies to conventional flying control systems. Airbus does not have follow-up
action to the side stick controller.
The autopilot can be overpowered at any time by the pilot if the moves his cockpit control with
enough force. A typical over-powering force would be 25 to 35 lbs. of turning force on the
control wheel or 40 to 50 lbs. force on the control column.

Boeing 737 Autopilot Actuator
The autopilot actuator via a transfer valve converts electrical signal from the Flight Control
Computer (FCC) to a hydraulic signal which will drive the main piston in the PFCU. An LVDT
on the main piston will proved a follow-up signal the FCC. Figure 24-6 shows the location of
the Roll Control Autopilot actuators and sensors.
Roll Control Autopilot Actuators & Sensors

Figure 24-6

Figure 25-6 shows the Autopilot Actuator Schematic.
Autopilot Actuator Schematic

Figure 25-6
Normal Sequence
Prior to the autopilot engagement, the actuator solenoid and the detent solenoid are de-
energised. With no hydraulic pressure available, the detent piston springs move the detent
pistons away from the crank and the crank is free to move as the control system moves. When
the autopilot is engaged, the actuator solenoid energises, pressurising the transfer valve and
the detent solenoid. A flow restrictor located between the engage solenoids serves two
purposes:
1. It provides protection against over pressure by limiting the maximum flow to the pressure
regulator.
2. It provides a time delay during synchronisation.

The control surface position sensor is switched into the servo amplifier/transfer valve loop and
moves the main piston to a position that coincides with the position of the output crank. After
this synchronisation, the detent solenoid energises which pressurises the detent pistons and
moves them into contact with the internal crank. The hydraulic pressure to the detent pistons is
maintained to approximately 615psi by a pressure regulator.
Any command through the transfer valve will be represented as movement of the main piston,
and therefore the output crank. Since the main piston is synchronised to the output crank prior
to engagement, rapid movement of the surface (kick) is prevented when the autopilot is
engaged.
The pilot can mechanically override autopilot control by applying approximately 25 lbs. of force
on the control system. When override force is applied through the detent piston via the output
crank, the relief valve opens routing fluid from the detent piston to return. Also during dual
channel operation, the override feature prevents hard over by limit command output to the least
input channel.

Command Signal Processing
Error signals cannot be directly applied to servomotors since the power capability is insufficient
to deal with aerodynamic loads on the control surfaces. All the signals require amplification and
then modified to achieve the desired result and therefore a signal processing system is used
which will have all or some of the following functions:
1. Differentiating: Provides rate information, a vertical gyro output fed via a differentiator
will provide pitch rate and roll rate.
2. Demodulating: The conversion of AC error signals into a DC control signal,

maintaining a phase relation by the DC polarity representing the AC phase.
3. Modulating: The conversion of DC error signals into an AC control signal, the AC

phase representing the DC polarity.
4. Integrating: Obtaining simulated attitude information. Correcting long term attitude

errors.
5. Amplification: Amplifying sensor signals to a level sufficient to drive a servomotor.
6. Limiting: Controlling the level of signals so that control applications are kept within
limits.
7. Gain adjustment: Adapting the response of the system to suit the aircraft’s handling
qualities or to suit the flight path of the aircraft.
8. Programming: Pre-selecting a particular manoeuvre e.g. a turn onto a new heading

etc.
The way in which any of the above functions are carried out will vary from different aircraft and
are determined by the design of the system and its application to meet the handling
requirements of the aircraft that it is fitted to.

Signal Processing (Roll Command)

Figure 25-6
When a turn has been commanded either via the heading system, turn controller, VOR or LOC
navigation receivers, the corresponding roll error signal is determined by summing the value of
the commanded attitude signal with that of the actual aircraft’s attitude at point A in figure 25.
The demand signal produced is fed to point B which also has an input from the roll rate gyro to
establish the turn rate. The demand signal is then summed with the aileron position feedback
and an error signal is produced (Error signal = Demand – Position). The error signal is fed to a
discriminator.
Discriminator Operation
It is critical that unwanted signals are not allowed to be amplified by the servo amplifier. Any
unwanted amplified signals will result in an undemanded movement of the corresponding
control surfaces.

These unwanted signals are in the form of noise or spurious signals that have been generated
from other aircraft systems.
Therefore pre-amplifier stages must be designed with discriminators or filters, these will ensure
that unwanted signals are rejected and only the commanded signal allowed to pass.
These unwanted signals are in the form of:
 Interference frequencies and their harmonics.
 Motor/Generator noise and the associated quadrature noise.
Quadrature Rejection
Quadrature rejection is the filtering out of a 90 degrees unwanted phase shift of the computer
supply voltage. It is critical that the correct phase of the command signal is maintained through
the signal processing. As will be proved in later lessons, both a servomotor and a Transfer
Valve direction of movement, depends on the phase of the input.
A rotary machine producing the aircraft electrical supplies such as a generator or alternator will
not only produce the required voltage and frequency, but will also produce harmonics and a
secondary image of the supply frequency phase shifted by 90°. This secondary phase is called
the Quadrature Phase. It is these secondary outputs that are dominant in autopilots as noise
interference and must be filtered out in the initial stages of amplification.
The error signal is then fed to another summing operation at point D. Here the error signal is
summed with the velocity feedback which provides the required damping, thus limiting any
oscillations for the flying control surface. The servo motor in this instance is a Two-Phase
Induction Motor. When the difference between the commanded and existing attitude is zero,
there is no further input to the servo motor and the control surface will be at the position to
satisfy the commanded position. In An aircraft that utilises a Powered Flying Control Unit
(PFCU) the command signal from a servo amplifier is used for positioning of a control valve (or
transfer valve) in the poser unit. In this case there is no requirement for a servo motor and
tacho generator. Figure 26-6 shows a Powered Flying Control Unit (PFCU) with autopilot
transfer valve.

Powered Flying Control unit (PFCU)

Figure 26-6
Limiting
If the response of a servomechanism in an autopilot system was allowed to apply corrective

control, as the result of a disturbance, without a measure of the Rate at which the aircraft
returns after such a disturbance, then damage could result to the aircraft structure. It is
necessary to monitor the Authority of the control system so that automatically controlled
manoeuvres are not harsh or excessive. Monitoring is mainly carried out in the pitch and roll
channels.
Referring to the signal processing diagram Figure 26-6, it can be seen that there is a bank
demand rate limiter and a roll angle demand limiter.

Limiting Circuit
Figure 27-6
Roll Demand Rate Limiter
Prevents a rate of change of the demand signal exceeding a preset amount. e.g. 5°/sec. Aileron
movements are therefore softened and the aircraft will not react harshly to large error signals.
Limiting is achieved by imposing a specific time constant on roll demand signals.

Roll Demand Bank Angle Limiter
Determines the amount of roll angle authority the control system has. The amount will be
determined by the mode of operation in use by the autopilot system. The limits for each mode
of operation are accurately pre-set by potentiometers and for each mode the limits are
controlled by a DC bias signal applied to limiting diodes within the limiter module. Figure 28-6
shows a typical analogue roll demand limiter.
Roll Demand Limiter

Figure 28-6
Bank Angle and Rate Limiter Action
When an instantaneous demand from the turn control knob is made, the aircraft response must
be prevented from snatching to the new demand bank angle. This will protect the airframe from
experiencing excessive loading. The bank angle must also be limited to that of the operating
mode i.e. 30° for passenger comfort.
Rate Limiting
Rate limiting is achieved by controlling the operating speed of the roll computer servo to a
maximum of 5°/sec. The rate that the rotor of CT1 is driven and therefore the rate the servo
input builds up is controlled by the tacho generator feedback voltage.

Bank Angle Limiting
This can be achieved by the following four methods:
1. Control knob voltage limited to a value that represents maximum bank angle.
2. Position feedback provided by RS1 sine output, cancels the control knob input at the
demand angle.
3. CT1 can have rotor stops at 30° to physically stop bank angles greater than 30°.
4. 30° voltage limiter will limit the voltage signal to a value that represents the bank angle
limit.
Buffer Amplifiers
The function of buffer amplifiers used in autopilot systems is for the following purpose:
 To isolate one stage from another.
 To provide a constant load from one stage to another.
Signal Processing
Figure 29-6 shows the IAS input from a CADC into a pitch channel. This is a single transistor
buffer amplifier which serves to present a constant load to the air data computer IAS
potentiometer.
IAS Input (Pitch Channel)

Figure 29-6

Gearing
The rates at which different aircraft respond to displacements of their flight control surfaces vary
between types and their basic handling characteristics. These will vary with altitude, speed,
aircraft load, configuration and rate of manoeuvre. Thus, it is necessary to incorporate gearing
elements within flight control systems which will adapt them to the aircraft and thereby reduce
the effects which variations in flight parameters can have on handling characteristics.
Gain
The gain or amplification factor of any system is the ratio between input and output.
Amplification equals the Output Signal divided by Input Signal. The gain of a servomechanism
controlling the flight control systems are carefully determined to give good initial response with
long term accuracy. Prevention of overshoot and hunting is critical and correct feedback and
damping must be established. It is also necessary, particularly when a control system is
operating in any of the outer loop modes, for gain factors to be altered automatically to offset
variations in handling characteristics resulting from changing flight conditions. This is called
Gain Programming or Scheduling.
Pitch Channel – GS Approach

Figure 30-6

At the Glideslope Capture a solenoid changes from low to high so rotating the CT faster and
thus making the system more responsive.
ILS Signal Gain Adjustment
The radio signals are modified by a decreasing gain function to compensate for beam
convergence. Both Localiser and Glideslope signals are attenuated as the aircraft approaches
the transmitters. On manual approaches the gain adjustments are made in the flight director
system before being displayed.
Autopilot gain changes are made within the autopilot or by utilisation of the flight director
signals.
On non autoland controlled approaches a minimum altitude at which the autopilot may be used
is laid down. This will vary dependant on aircraft type. At this height the autopilot is switched.
Gear Change - BAe146
Gear Change Circuitry (BAe146)

Figure 31-6
1. Turbulence selected by RL1 will attenuate signal and soften output to servo during
Turbulence.
2. RL2 determined by approach flap position.
3. RL3 energised by a pre-determined airspeed.

Note: Parallel network will reduce gearing to give quicker response with low airspeed and flap
down.
Integration
Errors can build up slowly under automatic control and so Integrators are a more common
method used for the detection of low level errors in servo control channels. Small errors can be
present, but of such a value, that the servo is not sensitive enough to react to such a small
signal. Integrators are used to allow these small signals to build up to a level where the servo
will respond and correct the error.
DC Integrators
Figure 32-6 illustrates a DC integrator. The output is limited because it will never exceed the
input voltage.
DC Integrator
Figure 32-6
The CR value controls the time constant, i.e. the time that the integrator reaches the maximum
value and the time that the integrator decays. (Note: circuits can be designed where charge and
discharge times differ).
Time constants range from 15 seconds to minutes, depending on their use. It is difficult to
design circuits using capacitors to obtain long time constants and therefore Operational
Amplifiers (Miller Integrators) are common.

Amplified DC Integrators
Figure 33-6 shows the operating principle of a DC integrator which is also an amplifier. In this
case, the circuit is the same, except that an amplifier has been added in front of the RC
network. Time constants and amplification factors are adjusted to fit the needs of particular
operations.
Amplified DC Integrator
Figure 33-6

AC Integrators
Figure 34-6 shows essentially the same integrator as in figure 32, except that it employs a
Demodulator at the input and a Modulator at the output so that it can handle AC signals.
The input is a steady amplitude AC signal persisting for time X. The integrator charges at the
time constant rate, and then holds steady until the input signal removed. The output then falls
off during the same time that it took to build up.
AC Integrator
Figure 34-6

Amplifying AC Integrator
The inclusion of an amplifier allows the output to build up to a value greater than the input. The
demodulator converts the AC to a phase sensitive DC signal before the integration function.
After integration the modulator restores the AC, its phase being that of the input phase to retain
the command direction (up or down/left or right).
AC Amplifying Integrator
Figure 35-6

Mechanical Integrators
Mechanical integrators are a common form of integration application. Figure 36 illustrates a

non-amplified limiting integrator.
Mechanical Integrator
Figure 36
Operation
The small input signal is amplified and drives a motor/tachogenerator. The tacho output drives a
resolver via a low ratio gear. The resolver is aligned so that the sine output is zero, with zero
signal input. As the tacho starts to drive, the rotor of the resolver will move very slowly so that
the sine winding output develops very slowly. The speed (Time Constant) can be controlled by
the gear ratio and by the authority of the tacho signal. The system is limited because the sine
output is fed back to SP1 which will eventually cancel the input signal.

Amplified Mechanical Integrator
Figure 37-6 shows an amplified mechanical integrator. Amplification is achieved because there
is no feedback signal to the input. As long as there is an input, the servomotor continues to
drive the resolver, increasing the sine output. If the rotor were driven beyond 90° then the
output would decrease.
Amplified Mechanical Integrator

Figure 37-6
Practical systems therefore would be limited to 90°. This is achieved by mechanical stops and
slipping clutches on the resolver shaft.

Operational Amplifiers - Miller Integrators
The circuit of a Miller Integrator is the same as that for an Op Amp inverting amplifier but
feedback occurs via a capacitor C, rather than via a resistor.
Millers Integrator
Figure 38-6
If the input VI, amplified through the input resistor R, is constant, and CR = 1 Second e.g. C = 1
mF, R =1MΩ, the output voltage Vo after t (in seconds) is given by VO = - VI x t
The negative sign is inserted because, when the inverting input is used, Vo is negative if VI is
positive and vice versa. For example, if VI = -3v, VO rises steadily by +3v/sec and if the power
supply is ±15v, VO reaches about +15v after 5 seconds, when the Op Amp saturates. Vi is thus
added up or integrated over a time t to give VO a ramp voltage waveform whose slope will be
proportional to VI.

Differentiators
It is common in autopilots systems to convert a signal into a signal that represents a Rate of
Change of that signal.
Smith’s SEP 10 (BAe 146)
As in all Smiths systems, this autopilot is a Rate/Rate system. This system differs from earlier
SEP autopilots in that attitude information is derived from a vertical gyro. VG information is a
displacement system, measuring angular attitude changes. To convert this information for use
with a rate/rate system, the angular deviation must be changed into rate information. This is
achieved by feeding the VG signal via a differentiator.
Differentiator Circuit
Figure 39-6
This circuit will produce an Output Voltage, Proportional to the Rate of Change of Input.
The value of ”C” is kept very low, in order that charging occurs as soon as voltage is applied,
and current flows as the voltage changes. The voltage developed across “R” will thus be
proportional to the rate of change of voltage input.
In practical systems it is common for Op Amps to be used as differentiators.

The Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
The LVDT produces an electrical signal that is proportional to the linear displacement of a
moveable armature core.
The LVDT has a simple construction. There are two elements involved; the armature and the
transformer. The transformer has a stationary coil enclosed in a protective magnetic shield. The
armature then moves within the hollow core of the coil.
The coil has a primary winding in the middle of the two secondary coils, wired in series
opposition. When the primary winding is energised by the AC current, the armatures, made of a
closely controlled magnetic material, induces a voltage from the primary to the secondary
windings. The position of the armature within the core of the coil determines the level of the
voltage at each secondary.
If the armature is placed precisely between the two secondary (null position) the induced
voltage in each secondary is equal and opposite and there is no output. As the armature is
moved in either direction away from the null, the LVDT produces an output voltage that is
proportional to the displacement of the armature from the null and whose phase relationship
with the primary supply shows whether the armature has moved nearer one end or the other of
the coil.
Thus for each position of the armature, there is a definite output voltage, different in level and
polarity than for any other position, no matter how slight the difference.

Special LVDT Characteristics
Because of its special characteristics, the LVDT has distinct advantages over the other devices
used for motion mechanisation of the transducers. Some of these advantages are:
1. There is no friction or hysteresis, since there is no mechanical contact between

windings and armatures.
2. There is no mechanical wear, hence virtually infinite life.
3. Linear output assures easy circuit design.
4. There is infinite resolution, limited only by the sensitivity of the receiving circuit.
5. Complete electrical isolation between input and output, permitting easy matching.
6. High level output simplifies circuitry.
7. Over-ranging does not cause any damage or permanent change in characteristics.
8. The LVDT is rugged and shock resistant, and virtually free of maintenance.
LVDT Construction and Operation

Figure 39-6

LVDT Position and Rate Feedback
Figure 40-6 shows a practical application of a LVDT. This example is taken from a DC 10. The
values of position feedback shown give actual output levels. A second LVDT can be employed,
via a differentiator, a rate output obtained, again typical values are shown.
The values shown in the above diagram are actual values from a DC10; they have only been
shown to represent the sensitivity of a LVDT. A small movement of 1 degree of control surface
position producing 4.2 volts LVDT output, clearly shows how sensitive a LVDT is to any small
movement. They are the most common method of producing position feedback from a
Hydraulic Actuator (Power Control Unit) for both fixed wing aircraft and helicopters.
DC10 Position & Rate Feedback

Figure 40-6

Gyros
Displacement Gyro
1. Displacement gyro detects Angular Change in aircraft attitude.
2. Amplifier signal drives motor, control surface moved.
3. Position feedback cancels error signal, control surface stopped.
4. Aircraft commences return to datum attitude, gyro signal reducing.
5. Position feedback now dominant. Motor runs in opposite direction, control surface
moving to neutral.
6. Position feedback and error signal at zero when aircraft regains datum attitude.
Displacement Gyro Operation

Figure 41-6
Disadvantages
1. Because a displacement gyro senses angular movement away from the datum, the initial
error signal will be as the aircraft disturbance commences.
2. As the aircraft returns to datum position an angular displacement still exists, this signal,
plus the control surface momentum, can result in an overshoot with resultant oscillations
about the datum.

Rate / Rate System
Rate Detection
Rate – Rate System

Figure 42-6
Aircraft is subjected to a disturbance and the rate of disturbance is detected by the gyro. The
rate gyro is of a value proportional to the rate of disturbance and will be present whenever the
disturbance takes place. The disturbance will be arrested by the appropriate control surface
being applied in opposition to the disturbance. The applied signal from the servomotor to the
control surface is proportional to the rate of the disturbance; hence the speed of the servomotor
and the rate at which correction is applied will also be proportional to the rate of disturbance.
Rate Control
With high gain amplifiers connected to each servo control channel, even a small signal from the
gyro would cause the servo motor to run at maximum speed. No proportionality would exist
between the input signal and the rate of correction. To ensure that the system retains its
rate/rate characteristics, a signal proportional to speed of the servo is applied from the tacho as
feedback in opposition to the rate gyro signal.

Action
Disturbance is initially detected, servo starts to run, and rises to a value such as to substantially
cancel the gyro signal when running at the same rate (speed) as the disturbance. The tacho
opposes the servo amplifier output and modifies the amplifier output so that the servomotor
speed is always proportional to the rate at which the disturbance is caused.
Disadvantages
A rate gyro detects rate of aircraft movement, therefore there will only be a signal present when
the aircraft is either moving away or moving back to the datum. There are two positions when
an aircraft has been disturbed, when there will be either very little aircraft movement or none at
all. When the aircraft is at maximum displacement and the disturbance stopped, the rate gyro
output will be zero until the aircraft starts to move back towards datum. The gyro output will now
reverse in polarity. The second position is just prior to the aircraft returning to datum. The
aircraft has almost been arrested and the rate of movement low. The actual return to the exact
datum position can therefore be slow.
Displacement/Rate System
Previously we have examined displacement and rate/rate systems and noted their
disadvantages. Let us first recap those disadvantages.
Displacement Only
At the beginning of a disturbance displacement output is low. A typical value being 200 mV/Deg
of displacement. Correct action is therefore slow. With large displacements a large corrective
action is produced. The return of the aircraft is accelerated and damping of the action is limited
as the aircraft approaches the datum, overshoot and oscillations can occur.
Rate Only
At the initial stage of disturbance, the gyro output will be high. Corrective action is thus
improved at this stage. However, when the disturbance has been arrested the gyro signal is
zero (no rate of change). Applied control brings the aircraft back to the flight datum but rate
decreases rapidly approaching the datum. Corrective action could be improved at two points:
 At max point of disturbance.
 Approaching flight datum.

Displacement & Rate System

Figure 43-6
Rate and Displacement
The deficiencies of a rate and displacement gyros at certain aircraft attitudes due to a
disturbance are overcome by combining the two systems.
When a disturbance occurs the rate sensor will detect the rate of disturbance and will give a
high output to SP1. At the same time the displacement gyro’s output will be low but will
increase as the disturbance increases. As the aircraft returns to its datum, the rate gyro will
provide the required damping to ensure little or no oscillation of the flying control; this is due to
the rate gyro’s output opposing the displacement gyro’s output

Figure 44-6 shows the output signals from a displacement system and a rate/rate system and
the resultant effect with a combined system.
Note. That signal levels shown are purely theoretical and not based on any particular system.
Output signals for displacement, rate and combined systems

Figure 44-6

Three Rate Gyros System
In some types of autopilots the sensing of aircraft attitude changes are by rate gyros. Rate
gyros are single degree of freedom gyroscopes and therefore if all three axes are to be
detected, three rate gyros must be used. The sensing of a displacement by a rate gyro is by
precession due to movement about an input axis. By suitable positioning three rate gyros
movement can be detected in the rolling, pitching and yawing planes.
Rate Gyro Position to Detect Pitch, Roll & Yaw Displacements

Figure 45-6

Torque Limiting
Mechanical and Electromechanical Torque Limiting
During flight under automatic control precautions must be taken to prevent movement of the
control surfaces from imposing excessive stresses on the structure of the aircraft.
This is especially important where high rates of control are required and to safeguard against
the possibility of Servo runaway when the control surface would be deflected to its maximum
range of movement.
By limiting the torque applied to the servomotors and by allowing them to slip or be disengaged
if preset torque limits are exceeded then the aircraft can be safeguarded against such damage.
A mechanical torque limiter is shown in Figure 46-6 and forms part of the servomotor coupling.
Torque Limiting
Figure 46-6

Practical Mechanical Torque Limiter
Coupling of the input member to the output member is by ball and cone, biased by the Torque
Spring, an intermediate member and by a clutch plate, biased by the Pre-Load Spring.
Under normal torque the rotation of the member is transmitted by the ball and cone plate to the
output member, forming a solid coupling.
Mechanical Torque Limiter (BAe 146)

Figure 47-6
If the torque load is exceeded then the ball and cone reacts, the intermediate member moves
away from the input member and causes the clutch to slip.
BAe 146 is one example of an aircraft that uses the above mechanical torque limiter, it must be
preset to a pre-determined value on replacement.
These typical values are:
 AILERON 7 lbs ft
 ELEVATOR l2lbs ft

Electro-Mechanical Torque Limiter
The electromagnetic clutch of the servomotor is coupled to a spring loaded cam and roller. The
cam transmits the applied torque to the output shaft through a cam follower engaged in the
driving slot
If torque loads become excessive the cam roller moves across the slope of the can, against the
tension of a spring. A point is reached where a switch is operated by a pin in contact with the
lower edge of the cam, breaking the supply to the servomotor clutch solenoid. Spring tension
returns the cam to its normal operating position and the switch contacts close, but re-
engagement of the clutch is prevented by a relay holding the clutch circuit open.
If the clutch does not disengage when the switch is operated then the cam rollers drive further
up the cam slopes and drop into a recess. When this occurs, the cam driving slot is disengaged
from the cam follower on the output shaft. The switch is operated preventing re-engagement of
the servomotor with the aircrafts flight control system.
Electro-Mechanical Torque Limiter

Figure 48-6

Stabilator Actuator & Limit Switches
The stabilator is the most common method of auto trim on large aircraft. Protection of the
stabilator must be provided to prevent auto trim servomotor runaway.
Auto trim Servo Motor Limiting

Figure 49-6
Limit switches are provided to break the electrical supply to the clutch at the desired limits of
travel. If the actuator ball is driven towards the end stops then a micro switch is operated to
disengage the drive to the auto trim servomotor.

Duplex Servomotors - Hard over & Runaway Protection
Some modern executive aircraft jets employ Dual autopilot control for the full flight profile. Hard
over and runaway conditions can be prevented by the use of two independent control systems
whose outputs are fed into a duplex servomotor and differential gearing.
Duplex Servo Motor Systems

Figure 50-6
The pitch and roll servomotors are of equal authority and torque, and their outputs are summed
by their respective differential gearing. The speed monitor detects any runaway condition, with
a response better than 2 milliseconds. This produces a signal to initiate the brake unit to
Lockout the defective channel servomotors via one half of the differential gear. Any further risk
of a hard over condition is reduced as the servo power is now reduced by half, since half of the
system has been locked out. It is common to further reduce the possibility of excessive
commands in the remaining active servomotor by the automatic engagement of torque limiter in
the servomotor output stage.

Example of a Voting System - Boeing 747
When an aircraft is operating in the Autoland Mode two or three autopilot systems are operating
simultaneously in Duplex and triplex systems. The following description is of a duplex system to
simplify the action, but a triplex system would operate in a similar manner.
A mechanical force takes place between both autopilot actuators and a Feel Unit at the actuator
input. If a discrepancy exists between the two autopilots the force balance is such that one of
two actions occur. If both autopilots are commanding manoeuvres in the same direction, the
system responds to the channel calling for the smallest command.
If the autopilots are in opposition, the system moves to the feel mechanism neutral position.
This mechanical force summation is referred to as Autopilot Mechanical Voting.
Versine Signalling
Lift is generated vertically to oppose weight. The amount of lift is dependent on wing design
airflow and wing span. When an aircraft banks. Figure 51-6 shows the effective wing span
decreases, which in turn decreases the lift. This results in the nose dropping if all other factors
remain constant. The greater the bank angle, the greater the loss of lift.
Effective Lift during Roll Manoeuvre

Figure 51-6

Versine Circuit
Figure 52-6 shows an example of a Versine Circuit which is incorporated within a Vertical Gyro.
The object of the circuit is to produce a signal to be fed into the Pitch Channel to apply up
elevator as the aircraft banks. The greater the bank angle, the greater the input into the pitch
channel.
Pitch and roll attitude signals are produced by CX’s attached to the relevant axis of a vertical
gyroscope. The stator of the CX’s is connected to the stator windings of resolver synchros. The
signal induced in the rotor of the resolver is sine and cosine of the transmitted attitude signals.
The sine component signals are fed directly to the appropriate control channels whilst the
cosine signals are fed to a network which places them in opposition.
Vertical Gyro – Versine Circuit

Figure 52-6
When the pitch and roll angles are zero then the cosine of each angle is unity. The signals are
equal and in opposition so the output to the pitch channel is zero.
If the aircraft is banked, then the cosine of the angle will decrease. The cosine of the pitch angle
remains the same as there is no movement in pitch. It can be seen that as the signals are in
opposition then the resulting signal is 1 – Cos  (one is unity i.e. pitch angle,  is the roll angle
in degrees and corresponds trigonometrically of an angle).

The Versine signal is fed to the pitch channel to give the required amount of up elevator needed
in the turn. The cosine of the roll angle decreases as the angle increases, consequently the
Versine signal increases the nose up signal as bank angle is increased.
Alternate Method of Producing a Versine Signal
Analogue systems, with a roll computer, can easily produce a Versine signal from the bank
angle resolver. Figure 53-6 shows the bank angle resolver, with its two outputs of sine and
cosine. The sine output is to provide wings level on engagement. The cosine output is modified
in the Versine network, where the 1 function is electronically added to represent the pitch
attitude. It is then sent to the pitch channel for application to the elevator.
Analogue Versine Circuit

Figure 53-6

Attitude Control
Roll Channel
The roll channel will operate the ailerons and spoilers (where applicable) in order to stabilize the
aircraft in a roll attitude when the autopilot is engaged.
Roll Computer
Figure 54-6
With the autopilot in the off position, the roll angle of the aircraft is detected by the roll axis of
the vertical gyro; this will be input into the roll computer as a control synchro signal. The CT of
control synchro will then give an error signal to the servo loop which will drive the rotor of the
CT to position it at the aircraft’s roll angle (rotor and stator perpendicular to each other = null).
A Resolver synchro is also positioned on the servo loop shaft and will also rotate to give the
aircraft’s roll angle. The stator of the resolver synchro will give the cosine and sine of the roll
angle, only the sine of the roll angle is used which will be anti-phase of the aircraft’s roll angle.
The resolver synchro’s rotor is so positioned that at a zero degree roll angle the rotor will give a
zero voltage output.
Consider an aircraft that is banked 10° left – the vertical gyro will output a 10° roll via the control
synchro. This will set up an error signal of 10° between the CT stator and rotor; this error signal
will go via SP1 to the servo amplifier and operate the motor.
The motor will rotate the shaft to re-position the CT rotor 10° which will null the error signal. At
the same time the resolver synchro will also rotate to give 10° roll left.

When the autopilot is engaged, RL1 and RL2 are energized. The signal from the resolver
synchro is the only signal into SP1 and due to its phase, will now cause the servo to drive the
10° right (wing leveling) so as to reduce the resolver signal to zero. This will also drive the CT
rotor to the 10° right position thus developing an error signal which will drive the transfer valve
to cause the autopilot actuator to drive the ailerons to position the aircraft at 0° roll. As the
aircraft starts to level to 0°, the vertical gyro will detect the roll angle and give a corresponding
signal to the CT which in turn will bring the error signal to zero when the aircraft’s wings are
level.
Turn Control
To give the flight crew control of the roll channel when the autopilot is engaged a Turn Control
knob is provided. To ensure that the roll rate of a commanded turn is not excessive a rate gyro
is also provided which will limit the rate of the demanded turn. Figure 55-6 shows the roll
computer with the addition of a Turn Control and a Rate Gyro.
Roll Computer – Turn Control

Figure 55-6
The operation up to engagement of this system is the same as the system shown in figure 54.
After engagement with the Turn Control in the detent i.e. no turn demanded, the autopilot will
maintain the aircraft in a wings level attitude and be operating as a roll stabilizer system.

Rate Gyro
The rate gyro will only give an output during the time the aircraft roll attitude is changing. It is a
roll rate gyro which detects the changes in roll attitude. The more rapidly the roll attitude is
changing the higher the signal from the rate gyro. It is of one phase when the aircraft is rolling
right and the opposite phase if the aircraft is rolling left. It will provide an anti-phase signal to
SP3 therefore controlling the rate of the demanded turn ensuring a smooth roll maneuver.
Turn Control Knob
The Turn Knob has a detent which will prevent any accidental operation of the knob. Pulling
the know out of its detent will allow it to move either clockwise or anticlockwise which will
produce either a right roll demand or left roll demand. The further the knob is rotated the
greater the demanded bank angle. The servo motor will drive until the resolver synchro’s sine
signal equals that of the demanded turn. The turn knob will normally be limited to give either a
25° - 30° maximum demanded bank angle.

Roll Limiters
To further enhance the operation of a Roll Computer with Turn Control facility and remove the
need for a rate gyro controlled roll limiter, later versions of autopilots utilized accelerometers to
provide roll limiting. Figure 56-6 shows a Roll Computer that utilizes Accelerometers for roll
limiting.
Roll Computer – Accelerometer Limiting

Figure 56-6
Roll Accelerometer
The Roll accelerometers are located near the upper and lower skin of the fuselage near the
aircraft’s centre of gravity and are mounted so that their armatures will detect only lateral
movements. They are connected in phase opposition so that their outputs will cancel each
other when there is lateral movement detected with no roll attitude, i.e. aircraft moving
sideways. Their outputs will not cancel if there is sideways movement with a roll attitude, i.e. if
the aircraft is rolling to the left, the upper accelerometer will see a left disturbance and the lower
will see a right disturbance, therefore their outputs will add.

The output of the accelerometers will be an acceleration signal and not a roll rate signal,
therefore their output requires changing to give the required roll rate signal, and this is achieved
by using a filter network.
Bank Angle Limiter
The main function of the bank limiter is to limit any input signal to a value that can be cancelled
by the resolver sine winding follow-up signal, as required for that particular mode of operation.
The bank angle limiter will be changed automatically as the modes change, e.g. a typical 10°
bank angle limit is used for VOR course mode but for ILS LOC mode it will typically be 15°.
Roll Rate Limiter
The maximum output of roll rate limiter will cause the servo motor to drive its synchro rotors not
faster than is desirable for a particular mode. The rate at which the control synchro rotor turns
is the rate at which the aircraft changes its bank angle. Roll rate limiter outputs typically range
from 1½° per second to 7° per second.
Operation
The turn knob is rotated left to demand a left bank angle. The turn knob signal is reduced by
the bank angle limiter to give a 25° left wing down demand. The roll rate limiter will further
reduce the demand signal to give a 5° per second turn rate (total to demanded bank angle = 5
seconds). As the servo motor rotates anti-clockwise it also drives the tacho generator (velocity
feedback – damping), the resolver synchro sine rotor and the CT rotor. The error signal on the
CT synchro will be fed to the amplifier which in turn will operate the transfer valve to give a roll
left signal to the ailerons.
As the aircraft starts to roll at 5° per second, the accelerometers will detect this rate and give a
corresponding output to limit the roll rate to 5° per second, the tacho generator will also control
the roll rate. The resolver synchro sine rotor will give a position feedback signal which is
subtracted from the demand signal to give the correct error signal into the servo amplifier.
Eventually the error signal will be reduced to zero and the servo motor will stop.
The error signal from the CT rotor will be summed with the aileron’s LVDT and the actuator will
stop when the LVDT signal equals that of the CT rotor. The aircraft will maintain this bank
angle until the turn knob is returned to the detent, i.e. wings level, or either reduced left or a
right bank is demanded.

Versine Compensation
Figure 57-6 shows the operation of the Versine compensation for lift compensation for a bank
angle.
Lift Compensation for Bank Angle (Versine)

Figure 57-6

Roll Computer with Versine Compensation

Figure 58-6
In most modern aircraft the autopilot operates using solid state technology, however the basic
operation of the solid state system is very similar to that of a synchro operated servo system.
The following chapters explain the operation of a roll computer that utilizes solid state (Digital)
technologies; however the concept of operation is the same as for those previously explained.
Boeing 737 Roll Channel (DFCS)
The purpose of the flight control computer roll control is to provide automatic or manual flight
directed control of the aircraft about the longitudinal axis. The system utilises both digital and
analogue inputs for mode control, analogue outputs for automatic aileron control and digital
outputs to an EFIS symbol generator for Flight Director (FD) commands.

Figure 59-6 shows a schematic of the roll channel of a B737 Classic 400 aircraft.
Boeing 737 – Roll Channel (DFCS)

Figure 59-6

Operation
All processing is accomplished with digital computation. Inputs from the inertial reference unit,
flight management computer, air data computer and the mode control panel are connected to
ARINC 429 receivers. Roll data is normally from the offside IRU for A/P processing only. Inputs
from the roll force transducer, VHF navigation receiver and low range radio altimeter (LRRA)
are processed through analogue to digital (A/D) converters. Aileron position sensor and aileron
actuator position transducer (LVDT), are used as feedback signals in the output section directly.
These signals are also processed through A/D converters for monitoring purposes.
Engage logic is processed both in the Mode Control Panel (MCP) and Flight Control Computer
(FCC). Hydraulic solenoids in the A/P actuator are energized to activate A/P control. Mode
selection is determined as a function of both the FCC and the MCP.
The FCC provides outputs to the electronic attitude director indicator (EADI) to inform the pilot
of the mode or status of the system. An interlock signal is sent to the autoflight status
annunciator to display an abnormal or failed condition. The master FCC controls mode
selection. Each mode is processed by the A/P roll command computer. The A/P roll command
computer determines the roll command and roll rate. The roll command is converted to an
analogue signal.
The signal is then amplified and applied to the aileron actuator. Aileron actuator position (LVDT)
is returned as a feedback signal. During initial A/P engagement, the aileron position sensor is
used by the FCC to synchronize the A/P actuator with surface position.
Surface position monitor (SPM) is a dual monitor, monitoring aileron position and A/P actuator
position. Autopilot actuator monitor (AMM) monitors A/P command against A/P actuator
position.
The actuator provides a mechanical input to the Power Control Unit which hydraulically and
mechanically operates the ailerons. This output is also fed through the spoiler mixer which
causes the spoilers to move and assists the ailerons in the lateral control of the airplane. The
“B” FCC has a separate aileron actuator and PCU to provide the same inputs.

Pitch Channel
The pitch channel will operate the elevators in order to stabilize the aircraft in a pitch attitude
when the autopilot is engaged. Figure 60 shows a basic pitch computer.
Pitch Computer
Figure 60-6
With the autopilot in the off position, the pitch angle of the aircraft is detected by the pitch axis
of the vertical gyro; this will be input into the pitch computer as a control synchro signal. The
CT of control synchro will then give an error signal to the servo loop which will drive the rotor of
the CT to position it at the aircraft’s pitch angle (rotor and stator perpendicular to each other =
null).
When the autopilot is engaged, RLA 1 & RLA 2 will energise and the output of the CT rotor will
be fed to the transfer valve, which operates and locks the elevators at the current aircraft’s pitch
angle. Any deviation from the current pitch angle will be detected by the vertical gyro’s pitch
axis and will set up an error signal within the CT, which will be fed to the transfer valve to
operate the elevators and thus bringing the aircraft back to the correct pitch angle. The vertical
gyro will sense the aircraft returning back to the correct pitch angle, nulling the error signal.

Attitude & Altitude Hold Mode
On most modern aircraft there is a requirement for not only an attitude hold mode of operation
but also a mode that will maintain an aircraft’s altitude automatically, thus maintaining the
correct airways height. Figure 61 shows a modified Pitch Computer with an Altitude Hold
mode.
Attitude & Altitude Hold – Pitch Computer

Figure 61-6
The pitch computer will only operate in either Attitude hold or Altitude hold and not both.
Consider the system operating with neither hold modes selected. The pitch angle of the aircraft
is detected by the pitch axis of the vertical gyro; this will be input into the pitch computer as a
control synchro signal. The CT of control synchro will then give an error signal to the servo loop
which will drive the rotor of the CT to position it at the aircraft’s pitch angle (rotor and stator
perpendicular to each other = null). When Altitude hold is selected relay RLB will energise and
the tacho feedback will reduce the speed of the servo motor driving the CT rotor.
Also when altitude hold is selected a signal from the ADC representing the altitude error is
switched in to the system, this is the difference between the altitude at the time Altitude Hold
was selected and the aircraft’s current altitude. This error will cause the transfer valve to
operate and signal the elevator move in order to bring the altitude error to zero.

Altitude Hold Sensor
Figure 62-6 shows an E & I bar transducer application in an altitude hold system.
Altitude Hold Sensor

Figure 62-6
It consists of an evacuated capsule, mechanically coupled to the “I” bar. The capsule is
mounted inside a sealed case connected to static pressure via the aircraft’s static detection
system. As the static pressure changes with altitude, the capsule will expand and contract
producing proportional signals from the E & I bar. The system operation must be considered
prior to selection of the altitude hold mode and when selection has been made.
With the altitude mode unselected, the induced signal is fed to a chaser motor which drives the
“I” bar so that it is repositioned to the central position with respect to the “E” bar, thus reducing
the output signal to zero. The pick-off will be in the zero signal condition (synchronised) at the
prevailing altitude of the aircraft. This becomes the datum from which altitude changes are
detected.

Once Altitude Hold is selected, the servo is taken out of circuit. Any change in altitude away
from the selected datum will be sensed by an “I” bar displacement. This displacement signal is
now fed into the pitch channel of the autopilot to command the aircraft to return back to the
selected datum. As the aircraft returns to datum, the change in pressure will be sensed by the
capsule, which will return the “I” bar to the central position and reduce the signal to zero.
Altitude Hold Transducer

Figure 63-6
Altitude Hold Mode
The autopilot provides automatic attitude control to the barometric altitude existing at the time of
altitude hold mode engagement. The altitude hold function is accomplished by the commanding
pitch attitude changes proportional to altitude error displacement away from the selected datum
height.
With the autopilot engaged and with the pitch mode selected to the vertical speed position,
altitude control may be selected when the desired height is reached. Once Altitude Hold is
selected this becomes the operational datum that the autopilot will hold. Any deviation away
from the datum barometric height, the autopilot will smoothly return the aircraft back to the
selected height.

If manual Glideslope selection is an option, altitude hold will automatically be disengaged on
selection of this mode. If, as is more usual, an automatic approach is selected, Alt Hold will
automatically be disabled when the Glideslope beam is captured.
Figure 64-6 shows a basic altitude hold chaser circuit in the CADC producing an altitude error
signal to command the pitch channel to move the elevator to return the aircraft to the datum
altitude. To fully appreciate the pitch channel action, a step by step response must be identified.
Altitude Hold Schematic

Figure 64-6

Altitude Hold Operation
Referring to Figure 65-6;
1. Altitude error signal produced - results in up elevator. Position feedback cancels altitude
error. Elevator stopped. Aircraft climbing. Alt error = PFB.
2. The VG detects nose up attitude. VG signal takes off elevator. The altitude error signal is
now decreasing and the VG signal becomes dominant.
3. The dominant VG signal now applies down elevator. Position feedback oppose VG signal.
4. Aircraft commences to level out. VG and Alt error decreasing. Position feedback now
dominates and drives elevators to central position.
5. Aircraft attains original altitude with zero demand signal and elevator central.
Altitude Hold Operation

Figure 65-6

Altitude Hold – Integration of Error
When an aircraft is being returned to the altitude datum, two command signals are controlling
the elevator channel. The pitch attitude of the aircraft derived from the attitude reference
source, and the altitude error signal derived from the CADC. As the datum position is
approached, the pitch signal will be attempting to level the aircraft out, whilst the altitude error
signal will be trying to return the aircraft to datum height.
These two signals will reach a level where they are equal in signal amplitude but opposite in
polarity and will oppose each other. The aircraft will now be held, some distance away from the
datum, by a distance proportional to the difference between the pitch command and altitude
error. This error is a long standing error. If one of the opposing signals is allowed to dominate
the other, a return to datum can be achieved. This is easily accomplished by feeding the
altitude error signal via an integrator.
The long standing altitude error causes the integrator to run up to a value of the altitude error
signal. If the integrator signal is now allowed to summate with the altitude error signal, the
combined signals will now dominate the pitch signal and the return to datum altitude is now
obtained. Again a step by step action identifies the problem and explains the solution.
Altitude Hold – Integration of Error

Figure 66-6

1. The CADC produces an altitude error signal of-1 volt.
2. Control applied and the elevator goes down. PFB runs to +1 volt and opposes
altitude error signal.
3. Aircraft pitches nose down and produces a VG signal of +1 volt.
4. The VG signal of +1 volt and the altitude error of -1 volt cancel. The PFB now drives
the elevator to the neutral position.
5. PFB is now reduced to zero, leaving the VG opposing the error signal (+1 volt - 1
volt).
6. Aircraft is descending and altitude error signal is therefore reducing.
7. The positive VG signal now dominates and up elevator is applied. PFB cancels with
a negative signal.
8. Aircraft nose now comes up.
9. The altitude error signal now dominates altitude error and PFB takes off elevator.
10. Eventually the system produces opposing values of attitude and altitude error which
results in a standing error from the datum altitude.
11. The standing altitude error signal is fed via an integrator which runs up to the altitude
error value, this -ve signal is now opposed at SP3 and positions the elevator down.
The aircraft will now return to datum.

Altitude Alerting
The Altitude Alerting System allows the pilot to make changes to the aircraft's altitude and
provide alerts to the pilot when the selected altitude is reached. The pilot sets the required
altitude, from 0 - 50,000 feet, in steps of 10 feet, on the Flight Mode Panel (FMP).
The altitude alerter gives the pilot an alert when the aircraft approaches the selected altitude,
entry alert ("C" Chord) and illuminates a warning lamp. The system will then alert the pilot when
the aircraft does not follow the selected altitude with an exit alert ("C" Chimes) and illuminates a
warning lamp. Figure 66 shows the different alerts.
Alert Levels
Figure 67-6

Vertical Speed Hold Mode
In climbing out after take-off, it is necessary for a particular rate of climb of vertical speed to be
maintained. In order for this to be effected by an autopilot system, a vertical speed reference
signal must be established before engagement. This rate signal is originated by a tacho driven
by the altitude sensor of an Air Data Computer (ADC) and is supplied to the pitch channel of the
control system through a vertical speed select circuit which forms part of the pilots control unit.
Purpose - To maintain the vertical speed existing at the time that the mode is engaged.
When Selected - Usually selected on climb or descent.
Conditions of Engagement
1. Required interlocks are satisfied.
2. Flight Director / Autopilot engaged.
3. Autopilot engaged in command.
4. Turbulence mode out.
5. Glideslope beam not captured.
Circuit Action
Before mode engagement the circuit chases and synchronises to actual vertical speed, much in
the same way as the altitude hold chaser circuit. Actual vertical speed is displayed in the VS
window. An altitude rate signal (VS) from the CADC is applied to the amplifier, the motor runs
and drives the shaft via the Engaged clutch and reduction gears to position the VS Select Pot.
to the aircraft’s present VS. The error detector is fed with the actual VS from the ADC and the
actual VS from the VS Select Pot, therefore the output is zero.
On engagement the clutch is de-engaged which clamps the VS POT. to the VS at that instant.
The VS window indicates the selected VS. This becomes the datum. Any deviation away from
this datum causes an error to be sensed at the error detector. This supplies an outer loop input
into the pitch channel to modify the pitch attitude by elevator application. The vertical speed
select pot. datum can be modified by movement of the pitch wheel, via the override, without the
mode disengaging. Unless engine power is changed, VS commands will be achieved at the
expense of varying speeds. Therefore, IAS Hold cannot be engaged at the same time as
vertical speed, in other words IAS Hold and VS Hold are not compatible.

Vertical Speed Hold Circuit

Figure 68-6
Automatic Release
Automatic release will occur upon the loss of the required interlock or:
1. Go-around.
2. Altitude Hold.
3. IAS Hold.
4. Mach Hold.
5. Turbulence.
6. Glideslope capture.
7. Approach and Land Modes.

Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)
The HSI provides a pictorial plan view of aircraft direction, with respect to magnetic north,
selected course and selected heading, and of aircraft position with respect to a selected VOR
radial, the centre of a localiser beam and the centre of a Glideslope beam. The display
presented by a compass card, selected heading and course pointer and a lateral deviation bar,
move relative to a miniature aircraft symbol on the centre of the instrument glass. Warning flags
are provided to monitor compass, navigation and Glideslope signals.
Aircraft heading is read against a lubber line at the top of the display. Selected heading is
shown by a triangle heading marker set against the compass card and the selected course is
displayed by a course arrow and by a digital course ‘read out’. Both selected heading and
course are manually set by rotating the HDG and COURSE control knobs on the bottom of the
instrument.
The lateral deviation bar represents the VOR or Localiser course and aircraft deviation from the
VOR radial or Localiser beam. It is indicated by a deflection of the bar to the left and right of the
course arrow.
A ‘to-from’ arrow, visible when VOR radial signals are received, indicates the direction to the
station along the course arrow, or along the reciprocal course arrow. A digital MILES ‘read out’
at the top left of the instrument displays slant range distance to the DME transmitter.
A triangular pointer and a scale at the left side of the display, indicates aircraft deviation from
the centre of the Glideslope beam. Both scale and pointer are obscured by the GS flag when
the GS signal is lost or becomes unreliable. A compass warning shutter at the top of the
indicator is retracted to reveal the “COMPASS” warning if compass information is unusable.

Horizontal Situation indicator

Figure 69-6
Operation
A change in aircraft heading causes data from the Magnetic Compass in the form of a three
wire 400 Hz voltage, to the applied to the Stator Windings of the:
1. Heading Error Control Transformer CT1
2. Azimuth Control Transformer CT2
3. Course Error Control Transformer CT3
The error signal induced into the rotor winding of CT2 is fed to the Flight Inst Amp, is amplified
and then reintroduced as the variable phase input to the Compass Card Servo Motor. The
motor drives the Compass Servo Motor Shaft to position the Compass Card and turn rotor CT2
until the error is nulled and the motor stops. The tachogenerator provides rate feedback.

HDG Control Knob
Manual rotation of the HDG Control Knob re-positions the Heading Marker and the Heading
Error Control Transformer Rotor of CT1. A Selected Heading Error Signal is now induced in
Rotor Winding CT1, which is coupled to the Flight System Steering Computer and/or Autopilot.
Course Control Knob
Manual rotation of the Course Control Knob re-positions:
1. Course Arrow.
2. Lateral Deviation Bar.
3. To-From Arrow.
4. Course Display.
5. Rotors of Course Resolver.
6. Course error Control Transformer CT3.
An error voltage - proportional to the difference between selected course and the actual
heading of the aircraft is induced into Rotor CT 3, which is coupled to the Flight Steering
Computer and/or Autopilot.
The resolver at the bottom right of Figure 68 is part of the VOR reference signal phase shifter
circuit in the navigation receiver and its purpose will become evident when the VOR operation is
discussed in more detail at a later date.
Lateral Deviation Bar
The voltage applied to M2, deflects the Lateral Deviation Bar to the left or right of the Course
Arrow. When no voltage is applied, the Bar and Course Arrow remain in alignment.
Glideslope Pointer Coil
Coil M4 is coupled to the Glideslope Receiver and the amount and direction of the Glideslope
Pointer Deviation is determined by the magnitude and polarity of the DC Signals received.
When signals are zero, the pointer is in the centre.
Both GS and VOR/LOC warnings flags are operated by coils M5 and M6, the flags being
exposed when the coils are de-energised.
DME distance data is applied to the synchros X1, X10 and X100 which are positioned to drive
the MILES counter through separate gear trains.
As we have already seen from descriptions of autopilot control panels, it is more than likely that
the heading and course control knobs of modem aircraft are situated on the autopilot panel.
However, the method of producing heading error and course error signals from control synchros
is standard practice, irrespective of where the control knobs are located.
Pre-select Heading Mode
The Pilot will move the HSI Heading Bug to the selected heading. This produces a heading
error signal between actual aircraft heading (CT1 Stator Winding) and selected heading (CT1
rotor winding position).
Heading Mode Operation

Figure 70-6
Autopilot response
The heading error signal is fed to the roll channel as a lateral demand where the signal is gain
changed by a function of speed derived by the CADC. The signal is modified to a bank of 4
degrees / second and a bank angle of 25 degrees (Typical Value). The signal is now applied,
via the servo amplifier, to actuate the ailerons.

Aircraft Response
The aircraft responds to the pre-select heading demand and banks towards the new selected
heading. The bank rate and angle are limited to the set values.
The VG detects the bank angle, opposes and cancels the heading error at the limited bank
angle. The position feedback signal returns the ailerons to neutral. The aircraft is now in a
sustained turn.
The compass is detecting the change in heading as the aircraft turns towards the new selected
heading. The error between actual heading and selected heading at CT1 is decreasing as the
aircraft turns. A point is reached where the VG signal is greater than the heading error signal.
This demands the ailerons to be applied in the opposite direction, which results in the leveling
out of the aircraft at the new heading.
Pre-Select Heading Mode

Figure 71-6
At the pre-selected heading, the command signal will be zero because selected heading and
actual heading are the same. (Note that the heading bug will have been moved under the HSI
lubber line as the compass card is driven round). The VG signal will be zero because the
aircraft is at wings level. Any remaining signal at the summing point will be the position
feedback signal. This will return the ailerons to neutral.

Mode Control Panel (MCP)
The mode select panel is the primary interface between the flight crew and Auto Flight Director
System (AFDS). Other flight crew inputs to the AFDS are; the disconnect switches and the Go-
around (GA) switches. Figure 72-6 shows the Auto Flight Director System (AFDS) mode
control panel for the Boeing 777 aircraft.
B777 AFDS Mode Control panel (MCP)

Figure 72-6
With reference to Figure 72-6:
A/P Engage Switch – Captain’s autopilot engage button, shows white when engaged.
A/T ARM – Left and right autothrottle arm switches.
F/D Switch – Allows the selection of the Flight Director bars for display on the PFD.
CLB CON Switch – Climb continuous thrust switch.
A/T Switch – Engages the autothrottle system.
L-NAV Switch – Engages lateral navigation mode.
V-NAV – Engages vertical navigation mode.
FLCH – Flight Level change engage switch.
IAS/MACH Window – Shows the selected IAS/MACH as selected using the IAS/MACH select
knob.
IAS/MACH Switch – Selects either IAS or MACH as the reference for speed hold mode.
Light Sensor – A photo light sensor on the MCP front panel monitors ambient lighting. It
controls the brightness of the LCD’s on the mode panel.
HDG/TRK Switch – This switch controls the reference for the Heading/Track window.
HDG/TRK Window – The window shows heading or track angle in increments of one degree.
The window range is from 001 to 360. At AFDS power-up, the window shows 360.

A/P DISENGAGE Bar - There are three toggle switches under the disengage bar. The left
switch controls the left AFDS only and the right switch controls the right AFDS. The center
switch controls the center AFDS. The center AFDC cannot do a single autopilot engagement
because it does not connect to any back drive unit. It is there only as a backup for the left or
right. The bar is normally in the up position. Pushing the bar down will disengages all the
AFDS. Figure 73-6 shows the operation of the A/P Disengage Bar.
A/P Disengage Bar

Figure 73-6

Heading/Track Selector Switch – This control has two concentric selectors and one push-
button. The outer selector controls the bank angle, the inner selector controls the value of
heading/track required. The inner selector (push-button) selects between Heading or Track
select modes.
HOLD Push Button – Engages the AFDS into Heading/Track hold mode.
Vertical Speed/Flight Path Angle (V/S/FPA) reference Switch – This switch controls the
reference for the vertical speed/flight path angle window.
Vertical Speed/Flight Path Angle Window - The window shows vertical speed value (range is
+6000 fpm to –8000 fpm). The flight path angle is +9.9 to –9.9.
Vertical Speed/Flight Path Angle selector – Rotate the selector up to decrease the value and
down to increase the value.
VS/FPA Push Button – Engages the VS/FPA mode.
Altitude Window – Has a range from 0 to 50,000ft. The increment is variable. The set altitude
is also the altitude alert value for the caution and warning system. At AFDS power-up the
display is set at 1,000ft.
Altitude Selector – The control has two concentric selectors. The inner selector changes the
reference altitude in the window. If the selector is pushed while in V-NAV, this will activate the
altitude intervention.
The outer selector changes the window increment. With it selected to 1000 position, the inner
selector changes the window at 1000 feet/detent. With the outer selector in the AUTO position,
the window change rate is 100 feet/detent.
HOLD Push Button – Engages the Altitude hold mode.
A/P Engage Switch – First Officer’s autopilot engage button, shows white when engaged.
F/D Switch – Allows the selection of the Flight Director bars for display on the PFD.
LOC Push Button – Engages the ILS LOC mode. Captures and holds the aircraft to a
Localizer flight path.
APP Push Button – Engages the Approach mode. Captures and holds the aircraft to a
Glideslope (vertical descent) flight path.

Flight Director
Flight Level Change Mode
Flight Level Change (FLCH) is a method of changing aircraft altitude. It is a combined autopilot
and autothrottle mode of operation. In previous modes we have seen that to control vertical
speed it was at the penalty of losing or gaining airspeed and vice versa. Therefore, if autopilots
and autothrottles are combined, then the Autopilot can control the aircraft’s speed by the
elevator and the autothrottle controls thrust by engine power. This is sometimes referred to as
speed through elevator (STE) command processing.
When the Flight Level Change Mode is selected, the pitch channel controls the elevators to
capture and maintain the selected IAS or Mach as dialled up on the control panel. The throttles
are used to control the rate of climb or descent. The vertical speed being pre-selected on the
mode control panel.
At the selected altitude the mode will automatically capture that altitude and level off. The
autopilot will transition to altitude hold and the autothrottle will transfer to the IAS / MACH Hold
Flight Level Change
1. Used to climb or descend to new flight Level combines autothrottle & autopilot modes.
2. Throttle advance/retard to achieve climb/descent rate based on altitude change

request.
3. Speed through elevator controls speed to selected IAS / Mach.
4. Automatic transition to altitude hold and autothrottle speed when new altitude
approached.

Flight Level Change

Figure 74-6

Climb and Descent
Vertical Navigation (V.Nav)
V.Nav is a vertical guidance mode of operation. Vertical flight profile guidance is supplied from
the Flight Management System (FMS) based on the Navigation and the Performance Data
bases and the Active Flight Plan. V.Nav is normally used with the autopilot system but is also
available for Flight Director guidance. To appreciate the operation of this mode, a climb out
after take-off, with three separate altitude levels and a descent to Glideslope capture will be
considered
V.NAV Climb Modes
Initial Take off
The sequence starts after take-off by engaging the autopilot to command with the autothrottle
being controlled by the FMC computing N1 Thrust.
Climb One.
L.Nav will now be selected to control the roll channel, a reduction in speed is made from take
off power and V.Nav selected. The autothrottle is now controlled for a FMC computed climb
thrust. Providing the height selected on the autopilot control panel is less than the FMC stored
cruise height, this will be the first target height. Full altitude alerting will take place as the height
is approached, with normal aural and visual indications.
Capture of the new height is obtained in the same manner as the Altitude Select Mode, the
capture point calculated by monitoring altitude rate. The aircraft automatically levels off, the
autopilot is now holding the selected altitude (Alt Hold) and the autothrottle holds Cruise Speed
(CRZ).
Preparation for Climb Two
When ATC gives clearance to climb to cruise altitude, the autopilot Mode Control Panel (MCP)
is set to that of the FMC stored altitude.
Climb Two.
Climb is initiated by pressing V.Nav on the autopilot MCP. Autopilot again controls V.Nav speed
and autothrottle controlled for FMC climb thrust. Automatic capture, levelling and transition to
autopilot Alt Hold and autothrottle Cruise Speed again takes place.
Preparation for Climb Three.
If a new cruise height is desired or instructed from ATC, then both the autopilot MCP and the
FMC cruise page must be set to this height.

V-NAV Climb Modes

Figure 75-6

Climb Three.
Climb is initiated by pressing EXECUTE on the FMC Display Control Unit. The autopilot
changes to V.Nav Speed and the autothrottle changes to N1 Climb. Capture of new height and
transition to altitude hold and cruise speed is as before.
V.Nav Descent Modes
V.Nav descent paths are projected by the FMC during cruise operation. The FMC continually
computes top of descent (TD) start points for descent to altitude constrained waypoints and the
end of descent approach altitudes based on active flight plan and navigation and performance
data bases.
V.Nav descent is almost automatic and its goal is to get the aircraft to the Glideslope capture
point by the most economical means
Initial Conditions.
Select lower altitude on MCP prior to the top of descent (TD) (Top of descent is the FMC
calculated point when descent will automatically start).
Descent One.
A Computed descent path is now initiated at TD, the control being applied through the autopilot
channel only, as during descent the engines will be at idle power. The thrust levers are driven
back to the aft stops and the autothrottle reverts to a stand-by condition (ARM). Altitude Alerting
will be active.
Levelling Off.
The descent path is aiming for a stored waypoint, in the example shown, this is a Lateral
Position in Lat/Long and a Vertical Position of an altitude of 12,000 ft. At the capture point,
automatic levelling takes place, the autopilot transferring to Alt hold and the autothrottle re-
arming to FMC Speed.
Preparation for Descent Two.
Select MCP to a lower altitude. e.g. 7,000’.
Descent Two
The descent and levelling is the same as descent one.

Preparation for Descent Three.
The approach descent height is now dialled up on the MCP, this disengages the V.Nav Mode
(Positive action by the pilot for final descent), the autopilot is in the Alt Hold and the autothrottle
held at the MCP selected speed.
Descent Three.
V.Nav is now pressed and the FMC gives guidance to re-capture the V.NAV path. (If possible).
The aircraft now descends to the approach altitude, automatically levels out and holds selected
height and FMC speed until Glideslope capture.
Glideslope Capture
MCP mode to APP and ILS GS signals will control the aircrafts descent down the Glideslope.

V-NAV Descent Mode

Figure 76-6
Automatic Pitch Trim
Purpose
To stabilise the aircraft in the pitch axis to maintain Longitudinal Stability
Reasons for an out of trim condition
1. Air Turbulence
2. Changes in C of G.
3. Disposition of cargo or passengers.
4. Asymmetric engine power conditions.
5. Movement of secondary control surfaces and undercarriage.

There are various methods of achieving a trimmed aircraft, but in all systems the object is to
obtain the trimmed situation by removing the standing load which the elevators would have to
endure. If trim action was allowed by application of the elevator, then the authority of the
elevator command pitch changes would be lost.
Full authority of the elevator is available if the aircraft can be trimmed by not using the elevator
for trim purposes.

Aircraft without Automatic Pitch Trim
Refer to Figure 77-6, assuming that due to load movement the nose of the aircraft moves down
by 5°, this will be detected by normal vertical gyro signal output and the autopilot will respond to
return the aircraft back to level flight. However, the load changes will still be present and the
nose will tend to go down once more. The autopilot will repeat the action to restore level flight.
In practice the aircraft does not ‘see-saw’ about the lateral axis. The opposing out of trim and
attitude signals eventually results in a constant servo amp output which applies Constant
Elevator to oppose the out of trim condition.
Aircraft Out of Trim Condition

Figure 77-6

Autotrim Actuation
It is the standing load on the elevator that is used to detect the out of trim condition. Detection is
sensed by two methods.
1. A constant output from the servo amp. (Boeing 707 and DC 9)
2. The actual position of the elevator away from the neutral position, measured by the
output from the position feedback LVDT.
Once the standing Load has been detected the autotrim signal is fed to trim level detectors to
determine how much trim is required and in what direction.
Detecting Out of Trim Condition

Figure 78-6

Trim Priority
Three methods of trimming the aircraft are available to the pilot, Figure 79-6.
Methods of Trim
Figure 79-6
Manual Trim
Manual trim is applied by the manual trim wheel and will always take priority over any other trim
system. Movement of this wheel is observed when autotrimming takes place and is a good
indication of how much trim is being applied. This wheel will move very fast when large
amounts of trim are being applied.
Electrical Trim
This method of trimming is applied by pressing both sections of a dual switch, usually found on
the outer horns of the control wheel. It is for use in manual flight and there should not be any
requirement for electrically trimming the aircraft if the autotrim is working correctly. However,
some systems do allow very small adjustments to be applied by this switch to the autotrim.
Application of electrical trim in most systems will automatically disconnect the autopilot.

Autotrim
This is the most common form of trimming but has the lowest priority. It will trim at all times
when the autopilot is engaged. It cannot be engaged without the autopilot and is only found in
the pitch channel, Figure 79 shows a trim system with a trim priority relay. Any pressure applied
to both halves of the electrical trim switch overrides the autotrim. An IAS input from the ADC is
applied to the level detectors to change their gain inversely proportionally to an increase in
airspeed.
Figure 80-6 is a very simplified diagram of an automatic trim system, common to most Boeing
aircraft.
Automatic Trim System

Figure 80-6
The control signal to initiate automatic stabiliser trim is the elevator LVDT. If the level detectors
see an elevator too far from the faired position for several seconds, one of them will operate the
servomotor to trim the stabiliser up or down depending on LVDT output phase. As the stabiliser
is trimming, the need for the autopilot pitch channel to hold the elevator out of the faired position
diminishes. When the elevators get close enough to the faired position, the level detectors stop
their operation.

An airspeed function usually controls the sensitivity of the level detectors. At cruise speeds, as
little as 1/4° away from the faired position will operate the trim system. On approach or take-off
speeds, automatic trimming is not initiated until the elevator is much further away from the
faired position.
Generally, the manual or electrical operation of the stabiliser trim disconnects the autopilot. This
is because if auto trimming is operating correctly, there should be no requirement for any other
trim function.
Practical Autotrim Application
The diagram shown in Figure 80 does not represent any particular system but is designed to
encompass most aspects of automatic trimming.
Motor Drive
In this example the trim motor is a 3 phase hysteresis motor driving an output shaft through a
gear box, coupling into the stabiliser. The drive rotates the stabiliser jack and moves the leading
edge either up or down. The direction that the motor runs is determined by the output phase of
the servo amplifier and detected by the Trim Level Detectors. The level detectors energise
either the nose up relays or the nose down relays. These relays determine the phase input
relationship to the motor which in turn decide which way the motor runs to trim the aircraft.
Alternatively, the standing load of the elevator (out of trim condition) could be detected by the
LVDT position. Again it would be the phase output of the LVDT that would be fed back to the
trim level detectors, resulting in the same action.
Motor Drive Speed
Automatic trimming usually has two operational speeds. Fast and Slow. Under normal cruise
conditions the drive is in the Slow Speed Mode. On selection of flap, the speed change relay is
energised to the Fast position and the supply to the motor is increased. This obviously makes
the automatic trimming more responsive at slower speeds.

Autotrim Operation
Figure 81-6
Motor Brake
It is common to have brakes applied to motors when NO TRIM command is present. This
prevents creeping of the system caused by air pressure loads on the stabiliser. On receipt of a
trim command the brake release solenoid releases the brake, allowing trimming to commence.
Motor Engagement
The motor drive is connected via a clutch when the autopilot interlocks are satisfied.
Neutral Shift Sensor
When stabiliser movement takes place the elevator will no longer be operating on the same
datum line as the stabiliser. Therefore the neutral shift sensor supplies a feedback signal to the
pitch channel as the stabiliser takes up its new trim position. Since the elevator must also take
up a compatible neutral position, the pitch channel receives a signal to align the elevator with
the new stabiliser position. Neutral shift sensors or similar devices are usually synchros that are
repositioned by the control mechanism that moves the stabiliser.

Neutral Shift Sensor

Figure 82-6
Signals from the pitch trim pot are also fed back into the pitch channel to change the threshold
levels of the trim motor operation appropriate to the new trim position of the stabiliser.
Limit Switches
Prevent the stabiliser being driven beyond its pre-set limits in either direction. The limit relays
will disengage the automatic trim, usually accompanied with a warning trim light.
More than one range of limit switches may be found, this allows for varying limits to suit the
appropriate flight profile i.e. Approach, high speed flight etc.

Limit Switches (B737)

Figure 83-6

Mach Trim
Modern aircraft tend to cruise around .8 Mach, at around 35,000 to 40,000 feet, and under
normal conditions control of attitude and trimming is achieved by the autopilot system. Should
the occasion arise for manual control of the aircraft at this speed the pilot could experience
some difficulty in trimming the aircraft. This is due to two basic factors:
The compressibility of the air makes the control surfaces less effective at high Mach and high
altitude. The high speed airflow over the aircraft causes the centre of lift to move rearwards,
this will result in the nose of the aircraft dropping. This is known as “Tuck Under”. The Mach
Trim System is designed to overcome this problem by automatically correcting for tuck under
effect when the autopilot is disengaged, or assisting the autotrim function by anticipating the
tuck under. Trimming can be either by operation of the stabiliser or elevator depending on
aircraft type.
Cause of Tuck Under
As speed increases towards Mach 1, two aerodynamic effects take place, one is Wing Root
Turbulence and the other is a Reduction in Down Wash on the tail.
Wing Root Turbulence
At about 0.7 Mach the airflow around the wing root becomes turbulent. If a portion of the wing
becomes turbulent then the amount of lift generated by the wing reduces. (Turbulent air
produces no lift). Fig 84-6 shows an aircraft with rectangular shaped wings suffering wing root
turbulence and it can be seen that the wing centre of lift moves out towards the wing tip. The
aircraft overall centre of lift however does not move, therefore the stability of the aircraft is not
changed. (In practice of course an aircraft with this type of wing shape would not fly at such a
high speed but it does illustrate the point.)
Figure 84-6

When an aircraft with swept back wings suffers from wing root turbulence, the centre of lift
again moves outwards towards the wing tip. However, because the wings are swept back, the
centre of lift will move backwards, resulting in the nose dropping i.e. Tuck Under. Figure 85-6
demonstrates this affect.
Tuck Under
Figure 85-6
Down Wash Effect
The top diagram of figure 86-6 shows the airflow over a Boeing with a speed of 0.3 Mach. This
air flow causes a large down wash on the tail. At around 0.7 Mach the down wash starts to
reduce. Less down wash force is applied to the tail causes the nose to drop, which again
results in Tuck Under.

Down Wash Effect

Figure 86-6
Independent Mach Trim System
BAC 1-11 Mach Trim System
The BAC 1-11 Mach Trim System is installed to counteract the aircraft nose down pitching
moment experienced at higher Mach numbers, by varying the incidence of the tailplane. It is
only employed in this example when the autopilot is disengaged.
The tailplane incidence is varied by a gear drive from the Mach Trim servo engaging with and
driving through, the autopilot autotrim output.
Relay Box Mach Trim Indicator
The system provides automatic maintenance of correct pitch angle relative to the forward speed
of the aircraft, during manual controlled flight, at high subsonic Mach numbers above a specific
altitude.

Controller
The controller senses the aircraft forward speed and altitude to initiate a control signal that
determines the direction of rotation of the Mach trim actuator. To control the position of the
actuator the controller uses inputs of static and pitot pressure and hence the tail trim incidence.
The controller, via altitude and Mach switches, to render the system inoperative below specific
minimum height and speed parameters, also uses the static and pitot pressures.
Actuator
The actuator drives the tail trim mechanism to operate and vary the tailplane incidence
accordingly.
Relay Box
A Mach trim relay box operates the indicator lamp circuit
Disengage Relay
The disengage relay isolates the Mach trim system when the autopilot mode of flying is
engaged.
Trim Wheel Micro-switch
Trim wheel micro-switches, located one adjacent to each trim wheel on the control pedestal,
isolates the Mach trim system when the trim wheels are moved more than one degree in either
direction. This provides instant manual over-ride of the MACH trim system should malfunction of
the system be observed.

Mach Trim Indicator
An amber indicator located on the centre instrument panel provides indication of Mach trim
operation.
Operation
In the Mach trim system shown at figure 86 will only become operative when selected on, the
aircraft is flying above a specific altitude (9600ft) and the aircraft forward speed is in excess of a
certain Mach number (M0.68).
Operation of the Mach trim system is only possible when the autopilot is not selected.
Engagement of the autopilot causes a disengage relay to remove the supply to the clutch which
decouples the actuator.
Under Mach trim control, the gear wheel pulley of the autopilot tailplane trim is declutched from
its servomotor and is driven instead by the Mach trim actuator through the gear wheel. If the
autopilot is engaged, the driving medium of the tailplane incidence pulley is changed to the
autopilot servomotor and the Mach trim drive becomes free running.
The Mach trim actuator operation is rate controlled and stabilised by a feedback loop, the
signals of which are generated by a synchro unit located on the actuator, the loop being
completed by associated equipment in the controller. The system is effective if the autopilot is
not engaged and there is no load on the trim wheel.
Below a specific altitude or with airspeeds below a set Mach number the output of a control
synchro in the Mach Trim Controller is open circuited by either switch. Above these limiting
values the synchro signal is applied to the amplifier, which produces a pulsed output to
energise either the up or down output relay. When either relay is closed the contact provides
current to the appropriate actuator motor fields, with the phase being split by the capacitor C1.

BAC 1-11 Mach Trim System

Figure 87-6
If the autopilot is not engaged and there is no load on the trim hand wheels the actuator clutch
is energised and the tail trim system operates. Motor movement also adjusts the position of the
transmitting synchro whose signals are sent back to the controller to null the output of the
control synchro when the correct tail trim adjustment has been made.
Movement of either tail trim hand wheel de-energises the clutch solenoid so that the output
shaft turns freely. When the autopilot is engaged the Mach trim relay breaks the clutch circuit
but the lamp remains operative to indicate system serviceability.

Integrated Mach Trim System
The following is an extract from a Boeing 737-200 maintenance manual. It illustrates a typical
Mach trim system.
The Mach trim system automatically trims the aircraft at high Mach. The aircraft is like a
balance, the centre of lift being the fulcrum, the centre of gravity of the aircraft being forward
and balanced by a pressure on the stabiliser. As the aircraft gets nearer to Mach one, the
airflow at the wing root becomes sonic, causing a turbulent zone. This results in a loss of lift
near the wing root and the centre of lift moving aft. The Mach trim system restores balance by
trimming the elevator.
Mach Trim (B737)

Figure 87
The MACH trim system provides automatic displacement of the elevators as a function of Mach
number over the tuck under region. Mach information received from the CADC is used by the
Mach trim coupler to generate a servo position command signal. This signal is then applied to
the Mach trim actuator. The actuator changes elevator position through the elevator feel and
centering unit and the elevator power control unit to maintain the correct attitude. The Mach trim
actuator, which is fastened to the elevator feel and centering unit, rotates the unit with respect
to the stabiliser, and changes the position of the elevator and the column neutral point without
filtering feel/force characteristics. If the pitch channel is engaged, rotation of the elevator feel
and centering unit causes the neutral shift sensor of the autopilot system to command elevator
position.

The MACH trim coupler is self-monitoring and will stop the actuator and turn on a warning light
if failure occurs. A switch on the overhead panel is used as an operational test of the system.
Mach Trim Circuit Operation
The ADC supplies parallel DC signals from two Mach potentiometers. The two signals are
applied to the mach trim coupler command channel and comparator channel respectively.
These channels operate in a similar manner. The detector circuit receives signal voltage from
the ADC Mach potentiometer which is a function of Mach number (speed). The received signal
is monitored and compared for an amplitude that is in the Mach tuck region. When in the Mach
region, one output from the detector is applied to a logic circuit for control of the power to the
motor and brake. A second output is applied to the limiter which removes a ground from the
input signal to the summing point. The third output is the Mach signal which is fed to the
amplifiers.
Mach Trim Circuit

Figure 88-6

The amplifiers shape the signal to provide proper gain and magnitude which is proportional to
the signal level. The amplifiers control and limit the ADC signals to those within the Mach
region. The output from the summing point goes through two limit switches in the actuator.
When the jackscrew is driven by the gear train to either fully extend or retracted position, the
appropriate switch opens and stops the motor. Diodes then allow a signal to drive in the
opposite direction away from the end stop condition. When below the Mach tuck region the
actuator is in the fully extended position.
The signals from the limit switches are applied to an amplifier which is phase controlled to drive
the motor. An AC position feedback from the synchro is routed via a demodulator to provide
damping. The comparator circuit operates from information received from the demodulator and
the limiter. This circuit supplies a 12 volts DC signal to a logic circuit when the difference in the
two input signals is less than a predetermined level. The logic circuit requires Mach Region
Good Input, Mach Good from the CADC, and Comparator Good Input in order to complete the
logic necessary to provide voltage to the brake and motor. With all logic good signals present a
logic good signal is sent to the warning circuits.
Logic and Interlocks
Power to the actuator and brake is provided through power relay contacts in the coupler. The
relay is operated when all the logic is good. If any of the logic requirement fails, the brake will
clamp the actuator and remove the supply to the motor. This will also light the trim warning light.
Summary of Trim Systems
Automatic Trim, as we have seen, can be a very simple system, as on the BAC1-11 and smaller
(Piper) aircraft or can be a very complex system as on the Airbus. The Airbus is a good
example of the integration of Automatic trim, Speed trim, Mach trim and Alpha trim, none of the
trim systems being a total independent system. However, all trim systems trim the aircraft either
by trim tabs, as on small aircraft, or by the stabiliser, to maintain aircraft stability about a fixed
datum.
Trimming usually has two speeds, slow - with flaps up and fast with flaps down.
Protection against runaway trim is provided by trim limit switches mounted on the stabiliser. The
drive to the stabiliser can either be an electric servomotor or a hydraulic motor (B757).
Speed Trim systems are usually employed for the take-off, before the autopilot is engaged, to
maintain the correct stability by modifying the stabiliser position for changes in aircraft speed. It
will also carefully monitor stall conditions to force the nose down if necessary.
Alpha Trim is incorporated into trim systems to monitor angle of attack and flap position. It
protects against high speed stall during flight profile changes and against stall on approach and
landing.
Incidence trimming anticipates trim requirements by monitoring selection of secondary flight

control surfaces and undercarriage. It will start to apply trim before the aircraft actually becomes
untrimmed.

Mach Trim systems in all cases prevent tuck under at the higher speeds of approximately 0.7
Mach and above. Trim is usually applied to the stabiliser but can be applied to the elevator, as
in the case of the Boeing 737. The system can be totally independent of the autopilot, only
being employed if the autopilot fails (BAC1-1 1) or in conjunction with the autotrim to anticipate
trim changes in the Mach trim region. (Airbus).
Figure 90-6 is a simplified diagram showing an example of the application of some of the
various trim systems feeding to a stabiliser.
Figure 90-6

APLHA TRIM
Angle of Attack
The angle of attack of an aerofoil (alpha angle) is important when considering a stall. The alpha
angle is the angle between the chord line and the relative airflow (Figure 90). An alpha input is
required for stall warning, control of the stall and minimum speed protection parameters.
Angle of Attack
Figure 91-6
Sensing
In order to sense the aircraft’s angle of Attack there must be a sensor on the aircraft’s fuselage.
These sensors come in two main types:
1. Moving Vane.
2. Pressure Sensor.
Moving Vane
The vane is connected to a moveable shaft which is attached to a synchro rotor. The vane is
free to move and takes up a position where the air pressure on the top and bottom are equal.
The alpha angle will thus determine the output of the synchro.

Moving Vane Type Angle of Attack Sensor

Figure 92-6
Pressure Sensor
A probe contains two tubes with holes 90 degrees apart. The differential pressure between the
sets of holes will be minimum when both sets face the airstream. If the angle of attack changes
the differential pressure changes and the sensing tube will be driven until the differential
pressure is again minimum. The angular movement of the sense tube is an indication of the
change of alpha.

Alpha Pressure Probe

Figure 93-6
Figure 93-6 shows a complete Alpha system. The pickoff detects the differential pressure and
feeds a signal to the preamp. The output is applied to a servo loop to drive the motor to
reposition the tube so that the pressure differential is zero. The motor also drives the synchro
transmitter. The stator signal output of this transmitter will be proportional to Alpha.

Alpha Pressure Probe Circuit

Figure 94-6
A test facility is provided to test the system on the ground with no air pressure to the probe. The
signal from the self-test amplifier will unbalance the servo loop and cause it to take up a
position where the control transformer output is zero.
The Alpha gauge in the flight deck will show the test position and the stall warning system
should operate as the stall angle will have been exceeded.

Stall Warning
This provides warning of an impending stall. The type of warning varies with the type of aircraft.
It could be a horn, bell or a stick shaker. On some aircraft the control column is pushed forward
(Stick Pushers).
Stall Warning Schematic

Figure 95-6
Stalling speed is affected by the position of landing gear, as well as the flaps and slats position.
If the computer calculates the aircraft is approaching a stall the stick shaker operates and the
pilot should push the stick forward to reduce the alpha angle.

Stall Margin Mode
On some aircraft the autothrottle is used to ensure the angle of attack is kept within limits. In the
stall margin mode the angle of attack equivalent to a computed speed, plus say 30%, is used as
a minimum allowable alpha angle. This mode is usually only used in the landing configuration
and may be switched on automatically when the flaps are extended.
Stall Margin
Figure 96-6
If the computer detects that the angle of attack has been exceeded a command is sent to the
autothrottle to increase RPM. If the speed increases, the lift will be increased, the aircraft rate of
descent is reduced and so is the angle of attack.
Stall margin indication is provided by a slow/fast pointer on the ADI. When the aircraft is at the
computed margin above the stall, the pointer is in the central position. Any deviation will cause
the pointer to move. The pilot can change the pitch attitude and monitor for the stall but the
danger of stalling has been greatly reduced.

Figure 97-6 shows a Boeing 737-300/400 speed trim system with a AoA sensor incorporated
into it.
Speed Trim System

Figure 97-6

Heading Hold
Heading Hold and Heading Synchroniser
The heading hold mode is the normal mode that is automatically selected when the autopilot is
engaged. No mode selection is required other than selecting the autopilot to manual/CWS.
A reference is obtained from the aircrafts compass system which holds the aircraft on the
heading at the time of autopilot engagement. This must not be confused with the pre-select
heading (heading error signal) obtained from either the HSI or autopilot control panel settings.
This signal input will not be available until the pre-set heading mode is selected.
Prior to autopilot engagement, the heading hold circuit must be synchronized to prevent
engagement transients and provide a heading hold datum.
Heading Hold & Synchronisation

Figure 98-6

Synchronisation
Refer to figure 98-6 the aircraft heading is fed to the CT stator windings, where any error
between stator and rotor is fed back to SP1. This signal drives the servo amp and motor, which
re-aligns the CT rotor to the null position. The chasing action of the servo maintains the null
which ensures synchronization and a zero datum. (S3 is closed)
Autopilot Engaged - Heading Hold
On engagement of the autopilot S1 closes, clamping the servo drive and the CT rotor, The CT
rotor is now the heading datum reference. Any heading change will be felt on the CT stator,
which induces a voltage into the rotor. The rotor O/P is now fed into the roll computer as an
autopilot roll command. This returns the aircraft to the original heading. (S3 opens)
Pre-set Heading:
In this mode S2 opens removing the earth from the heading error input, S3 closes, removing
the heading hold signal. The heading error signal now commands the autopilot to fly to any
inputs derived from the heading knob.
CWS Steering/Turn Knob out of detent.
If a demand is made by either the CWS or a turn knob the aircraft will be subjected to a heading
change. Therefore, the heading hold function must revert back to the synchronisation mode
during the turn. When CWS or turn knob is returned to the detent, the heading clamp S1 holds
the aircraft on the new heading.

Automatic Throttle Systems
The autothrottle mode computations control the engines throttles through the auto throttle servo
drive assembly to maintain a selected airspeed. There are speed modes associated with
Autoland and go around plus sub-modes for take-off, over boost and minimum speed protection
and flap speed limits.
A system called total air temp/engine pressure ratio (TAT/EPR) is used for the control inputs to
the auto throttle. The purpose of these various inputs is to move the throttles under different
conditions.
Autothrottle Operation
Figure 99-6

Auto-Throttle Mode Control Panel

Figure 100-6
Control Modes
The three main control modes are selected by push switch / lights on the TAT / EPR limit mode
select panel. They are:
1. EPR.
2. Mach Hold control.
3. Speed control.
There is another control switch related to the mode switch for an associated condition i.e.
1. TOW - Take off wet
2. TOD - Take off dry
3. CON - Constant
4. CLM - Climb
5. CRZ - Cruise
6. GA - Go Around.

 EPR
In this mode the autothrottle commands are such that the engine with the highest EPR is
selected as the controlling unit, to acquire and maintain, via the thrust levers, that value of EPR.
 Mach hold
This mode is normally used in cruise and maintains the Mach number existing at the time of the
mode selection.
 Speed Control
In this mode the auto-throttle maintains a selected airspeed. This is usually used for descent,
holding, approach and landing.
Control Sub Modes
There are four sub-modes
 Take-Off
Maintains EPR until a certain speed is reached.
 Over-boost Protection
This overrides Mach and speed. Halts forward throttle movement if EPR limits are
exceeded.
 Minimum speed protection
This controls a safe angle of attack during Mach and speed modes. This is done by
adjusting the throttles based on angle of attack input signals.
 Flap speed limit
This limits maximum speed as a function of flap position below 15,000 ft.

Related Engine Controls
One of the systems associated with engine control is reverse thrust. On touchdown the engines
would be required to be placed in reverse thrust. There is a baulk mechanism that does not
allow the reverse thrust system to be engaged until the throttles are retarded. The thrust levers
are brought back and then lifted and brought rearwards to engage reverse thrust.
Throttle Box – B737

Figure 101-6
This action disengages the autothrottle. This starts a sequence that requires the reverse thrust
mechanical cycle (movement of engine cowlings to redirect thrust) to be complete before the
throttles are advanced. There are other switches associated with the throttle levers that will
disengage the autothrottle. These will be discussed later.

Sensors
There are many sensors associated with an autothrottle system
1. Air data computer (ADC).
2. Autothrottle switches.
3. Angle of attack sensors.
4. TAT/EPR limit computer.
5. Flap position.
6. Autothrottle speed select panel.
7. Longitudinal accelerometer.
8. Radio altimeter.
 ADC
The ADC is used as the reference for airspeed and Mach number. Any difference between
demanded and actual speeds will produce an error signal that will either advance or retard the
throttles to null out the difference.
 Automatic switches
These switches can be used to activate/deactivate different modes of operation and also control
the maximum operation of the throttles.
 A of A sensors
The sensors are switched in on the approach profile as a result of lowering the flaps. The
output is used to control the throttles to maintain a minimum speed or a stall margin.

 Speed Select Panel
The Speed Select Panel allows the flight crew to select the required airspeed they wish the
Autothrottle system to hold. The ADC will input the actual aircraft’s IAS into the Speed Select
panel and this is compared with the datum airspeed and difference will equal the speed error
signal. This error signal is output to the Autothrottle system to change the thrust settings in
order to achieve the required air speed.
Airspeed Select Panel

Figure 102-6
 Longitudinal Accelerometer
This is used to measure the acceleration/deceleration of the aircraft. The signals are used by
the autothrottle system to dampen the throttle demand.

Longitudinal Accelerometer
Figure 103-6
 Vertical Gyro
The output is used to reflect any change in pitch due to changes in speed. It will then use this
input to carry out any adjustments required.
 Radio Altimeter
This is used when the AFCS is controlling the aircraft down to touchdown. It provides the
reference for the flare mode and throttle retardation during autoland.
Clutch Assembly
There will be a clutch assembly for each throttle control pulley. The clutch assemblies are
connected to the servo drive shaft and via a gearbox to the servo motor.
The individual clutch assemblies are connected to their respective engine throttles by the
advance/retard control cables. They are also coupled to their respective manual control levers.
The clutch assembly permits automatic throttle control via the servomotor with provision for
manual override or adjustment by the pilot.
When the autothrottle system is driving the clutch assemblies the control levers move. They
move in unison since the clutch assemblies are driven by a common servo drive shaft. In
manual operation movement of one lever has no effect on the remaining levers. Figure 102
shows the autothrottle clutch assemblies.

Autothrottle Clutch Assemblies

Figure 104-6

Servomotor
The servomotor drives the throttles and cables via the clutch assemblies. The command signals
from the computer are applied to the motor to drive the output shaft via a reduction gearbox.
The rate generator provides a velocity feedback signal to the autothrottle servo loop.
Servomotor
Figure 105-6
Power to the unit is 115v a.c 400 Hz and comes via the thrust engagement panel. The engage
solenoid holds the engage switch on. The control phase to the motor is from the speed
computer. Note there is only one motor for all of the throttles.
Engagement Power
Figure 106-6

Override and Safety
Some autothrottle systems have cam operated microswitches which provide engine thrust
condition signals to the applicable aircraft systems. The cams are configured to activate
different switches dependant on the position of the clutch assembly.
Maximum thrust limit switches individually controlled by the engine power controls but
electrically connected in series prevent excessive power applications. If any switch is made a
maximum thrust position signal is sent to the autothrottle logic circuit to inhibit further servo
drive action. The autothrottle is not disconnected, only the command signal.
A/T Safety & Override Circuit

Figure 107-6
The switch remains activated until a decreased throttle command drives the controls away from
the maximum limit position.
The auto throttle logic circuit requires that a minimum thrust position signal be received from
any two switches to inhibit the servo drive.

The three idle disconnect switches, Figure 105; automatically disengage the auto throttle after
touchdown. Each switch is activated by a cam as the associated power control is driven to the
idle position. When any two switches are activated the auto throttle engage logic will disconnect
the auto throttle.
The three reverse thrust interlock switches and auto throttle disengage switches are all
electrically connected in series in the auto throttle engage logic. When the power control levers
are placed in the reverse thrust position, cams open the reverse thrust interlock switches,
breaking the auto throttle engage circuit. This ensures that the auto throttle is disengaged
during reverse thrust operation.
The auto throttle disengage switches are normally closed momentary push button types, and
are illustrated in Figure 106. They are used for quick disengagement of the auto throttle. When
the switch is depressed, the auto throttle engage circuit is disabled.
Auto Throttle Disengage Switches

Figure 108-6
Minimum thrust limit switches prevent low thrust settings which result in long acceleration
periods when rapid acceleration is required. Again the servo command signal is disconnected.
However the logic circuit requires a minimum thrust signal from any two switches to inhibit the
servo drive. (On a 3 throttle system.)
The autothrottle disengage switches are used for quick disengagement of the autothrottle
system. When they are pressed the engage circuit is disabled.

Modes of operation
The speed control system controls the speed of the aircraft by either engine thrust via the
throttles or by adjusting the pitch attitude of the aircraft.
The use of throttles is usually in climb, cruise, approach and landing when the throttles are at
less than full power.
The elevators are used in the take-off or go around situation when the throttles are at or near
maximum power setting.
Airspeed Mode
The airspeed mode controls the throttles to maintain the speed selected on the thrust select
panel. Computation is based on the airspeed error signal i.e. the difference between the desired
and actual airspeed. The inputs to the filter network result in a damping signal that prevents
oscillations of the throttle setting.
Airspeed Mode
Figure 109-6

Stall Margin
The throttles will be driven to maintain an angle of attack equivalent to 130% of the stall speed
i.e. stall speed plus 30%.
Stall Margin
Figure 110-6

Flare and Touchdown Mode
During the landing phase the autothrottle retards the throttles at a computed flare rate. The
initiation of flare is a function of radio altitude and the command from the speed computer
causes the throttles to retard.
Flare & Touchdown

Figure 111-6
At touchdown the autothrottle retards the throttles to the idle position at a faster rate than in the
flare mode. When idle is reached the autothrottle disengages i.e. the switch on the engage
panel goes off.

Microprocessor control
On modern aircraft the throttle systems are controlled by computers for fuel conscious
economy. There will be calculated limits set for various modes of operation. The associated
EPR limits and actual EPRs are displayed on the flight deck CRTs.
These systems no longer use the MAX-MIN-IDLE mechanical switches but use instead a power
lever angle transducer that informs the thrust management computer of the throttle position.
PLA Transducer
Figure 112-6

Microprocessor Control
Figure 113-6
The computer output is based on the inputs and its own programme. It will calculate a desired
thrust for the mode selected, compare it with the power lever angle and adjust it accordingly.

Another type of throttle control is one based on an evaluated EPR from a performance data
computer. The computer determines a desired EPR which is compared to the actual EPR
transmitted from the engine. Any EPR error is used to generate a signal to drive the throttle
servo until the actual and desired EPR's are the same.
EPR A/T Control

Figure 114-6

Autothrottle Inputs
The functions of the various inputs are as follows
1. Mach and IAS are used as speed references.
2. The autothrottle is under flight management control. Generally for the most
economical EPR.
3. The input from the mode select panel for the computer to determine which limits to
apply.
4. The bleeding of air from the engines will alter the EPR values.
5. Altitude is used for speed damping in the computer.
6. The ADC is used for actual speed signals.
7. Air-Ground for reverse thrust and touchdown modes.
8. Flap position for go around and stall margin.
9. Power supplies for the thrust management computer.
Figure 115-6 shows a schematic with various inputs associated with autothrottle operation.
Figure 115-6

Autoland
The landing of aircraft under fully automatic control is now a commonplace technique among a
large number of public transport aircraft in current service. In an autopilot approach and
automatic landing the aircraft is in close proximity to the ground and therefore the integrity,
reliability and levels of system redundancy have to comply with stringent requirements
particularly under low to zero visibility conditions.
Requirements
The system must monitor at all times and allow the pilot to take over in the case of a critical
malfunction.
Aircraft cleared for autoland adopt the principle of system redundancy i.e. they use multiple
control systems operating such that a single failure within a system will have little effect on the
aircraft performance during the approach and landing. There are two failure conditions which
can arise and under which systems are allowed to operate:
Fail operational — in which one failure can occur, but leaving the overall system still functioning
and without causing downgrading of performance beyond the limits required for automatic
landing.
Fail passive - where a system can withstand a failure without endangering safety and without
excessive deviations from the flight path.
AFCS Mode Annunciate Panel

Figure 116-6
The modes of operation of the automatic system should be shown at all times.
System Monitoring
As an approach land system has several channels working simultaneously they are able, by
means of cross channel and online monitoring, to ascertain if one signal source is moving out of
limits and to vote that channel out. When just two channels are comparing and there is an out of
limit difference then this is monitored by a comparison warning system.
Flags and blinds covering instrument date are also used to confirm the validity of signals and
information.
The autopilot will disconnect if any of the valid signals for engagement are not met or if the pilot
decides manually to override it. In either case the system will give an audible and visual
warning.
Approach categories
These standards are laid down by the ICAO and relate to the ability of the aircraft to perform
this function with a high degree of safety and that the crew are competent in this feature. The
ground aids i.e. ILS, taxiway lighting etc must be of a standard in keeping with automatic
landing.
There are two terms used in all categories and they are
(1) Decision Height (DH)
(2) Runway Visual Range (RVR)
Decision Height
The decision height is that height in feet which the pilot must not descend below unless the
required visual references have been established. This height is qualified by the radio altimeter.
Runway Visual Range
RVR refers to the maximum distance along the runway where the landing lights can be seen in
the direction of landing. This information is supplied by ATC.

ILS Categories
Low visibility landing capabilities are defined in categories as follows:
Cat 1 Operation down to a minimum of 200ft decision height and runway visual range of 800m
with a high probability of success.
Cat 2 Operation down to a minimum below 200ft decision height and runway visual range of
800m, and to as low as l00ft decision height and runway visual range of 400m with a high
probability of success.
Cat 3A Operation down to and along the surface of the runway, with external reference
during the final phase of landing down to a runway visual range of 200m.
Cat 3B Operation to and along the surface of the runway and taxiways with a visibility
sufficient only for visual taxiing comparable to runway visual range values in the order of 50m.
Cat 3C Operation to and along the runway and taxiways without external visual reference.
ILS Categories
Figure 116-6
Airports around the world will have different runway ILS categories and this, together with the
category of the aircraft and status of the crew, will decide the authority for usage.

The Triplex System
Each channel has three independent computing sub-channels and each of these sub-channels
has sufficient power to control the aircraft.
Autoland Triplex System (Typical)

Figure 118-6
Equalisation is provided in each system to eliminate any discrepancies between the sub-
channels so that if one sub-channel does not have the same demand signal as the other two
then that sub-channel is automatically cut out.
With three separate channels the system can be configured as a simplex, duplex or triplex
system. If any significant discrepancy arises between any pair of signals, indications will latch
and inform the flight deck. Providing the indication shows all three sub-channels are engaged
and there are no faults it means that the system can be used for a Cat 3 level of operation.

The Dual-Dual System
This system uses two independent autopilots. During cruise operation only one of the autopilots
can be engaged but for autoland both can be engaged simultaneously. Each autopilot consists
of two computers, one pitch and one roll, forming one channel for each axis. Each computer is
divided into three computational channels, one cruise and two for approach and land.
Autoland Duplex System (Typical)

Figure 119-6
The cruise computations control all the output functions until the approach/land mode is
engaged. The cruise channel is then switched out and the other two parallel identical channels
control tHe output functions.
If the second autopilot is engaged there will be four separate channels controlling the aircraft.

Cruise Mode Configuration
Attitude reference signals from the Vertical Gyro’s are combined with signals from the cruise
sensors and are processed for autopilot control in the cruise channel of the computers. If one
control channel fails it can be disengaged and the other engaged to provide the same functions.
Each autopilot is capable of one cruise computation but both are monitored for capability. A
failure detected in the engaged system results in either disengagement or tripping the autopilot
to a basic configuration depending on the fault.
Cruise Mode Configuration

Figure 120-6

Autoland Configuration
The Autoland function is performed with both autopilots engaged simultaneously. The autopilot
is in a fault operational status in which four separate computations are performed to generate
the control signals to both the pitch and roll servos.
Autoland Configuration
Figure 121-6
The computed outputs are failure monitored by comparators and fed through voters that select
the best of the computed signals for a command output. The use of comparators and voters
minimises the number of nuisance disconnects due to transients. The fail operational status is
such that the first failure does not result in performance degradation; however the autopilot is
now at fail pressure status. A second failure causes the autopilot to either disengage or revert
to a basic configuration.

Autoland Sequence
The profile illustrated is based on a multiple system that uses triple digital flight control channels
allowing operation in the fail operational and fail passive conditions.
Depending on the number of channels that are armed and engaged the system performs what
are termed LAND 2 status or LAND 3 status Autoland. LAND 2 signifies dual redundancy of
engaged systems whilst LAND 3 signifies triple redundancy.
During cruise and the initial stages of approach the control system acts as a simplex system.
Since multiple channels are required for Autoland then at a certain stage of approach the
remaining two channels are armed by pressing the approach-land switch control panel. The
second autopilot is set to command and the annunciation will show the ARM/CAP status of
Localiser, Glideslope and A/L. All the channels will be continuously supplied with the relevant
outer loop control signals and operate on a comparative basis the whole time.
When the aircraft has descended to l500ft Rad Alt, the Localiser and Glideslope beams have
been captured, the armed off line control channels are automatically engaged. The Localiser
and Glideslope signals maintain the aircraft on the beam and the status annunciation will
display Land 2 or Land 3 depending on the number of channels voted into operation. The
computerised control of flare and align are also armed. The autothrottle is used for approach
speed control.
At 150ft Rad Alt the ALN ARM changes to ALIGN and the autopilot initiates a roll and yaw
manoeuvre to remove any crab angle and align the aircraft with the runway. In some aircraft
this is done at a lower height and only the rudder is used - known as kick-off drift.
On some aircraft at 50ft above decision height an aural tone begins increasing in frequency as
the bug setting is reached. At DH setting the tone stops and the DH light on the radio altimeter
illuminates.
At 50ft Rad Alt the flare mode is automatically engaged. This takes over pitch control from the
Glideslope and the rate of descent is reduced in proportion to height. The autothrottle system is
commanded to reduce engine thrust to the limits compatible with the flight-path.
At a radio height of 5ft the flare mode is disengaged and there is a transition to the touchdown
and roll out mode. The pitch attitude of the aircraft is decreased to about 2 degrees and at
touchdown the elevators lower the nose and bring the nose gear onto the runway and hold it
there during the roll out. (This latter stage is usually carried out by the pilot.)
After touchdown the guidance is by the rudder using the Localiser deviation signal, damped by
yaw rate sensing. As speed falls off so the rudder becomes less effective so the deviation
signal is applied to the steerable nosewheel which is actuated when the nosewheel squat
switch is energised.
The autothrottle automatically disengages when reverse thrust is selected but the automatic
flight control system remains active in roll out mode until disengaged at turn off. Modern aircraft
with fan engines will not go below flight idle unless the aircraft is on the ground.

The radio altimeter is usually set to read zero when the main gear touches the runway and so
as the nosewheel then touches the ground the Rad Alt will typically indicate –6ft.
Ground Roll Instrumentation
In the landing configuration the system would be monitoring the landing and controlling the roll
out sequences. It can also be used for take-off in CAT 3 conditions where it will be supplying
the directional guidance information to the pilot.
There are two systems involved.
1. PVD - Paravisual Display
2. GRM - Ground Run Monitor

Paravisual Display
The system consists of a computer, 2 display units, 2 control panels and a warning light.
PVD System
Figure 122-6
The PVD display units present commands to the pilot for him to follow using the rudder or
nosewheel steering. These commands are presented by way of rotating helical striped poles.
These poles are driven by a servomotor in response to error signals from the PVD computer.
The rotation of these poles gives an impression of movement in one direction of servomotor
rotation. The pilot corrects the error by following the direction of movement of the indicator.
When the error is zero the poles no longer rotate.

If the system is not in use or the control signals are invalid a shutter obscures the poles from
view.
PVD Display Units (Valid & Invalid)

Figure 123-6
The pole rotation signal is a function of Localiser deviation. With the system armed and valid
the lateral steering commands will be displayed after touchdown for roll out guidance should the
autopilot guidance be lost.
Ground Run Monitor
This system presents the groundspeed and runway distance remaining during take-off and
landing. The indicator converts a mainwheel sensor signal into groundspeed and distance to
go.

Ground Run Monitor

Figure 124-6
The sensor monitors the rpm of the wheel and this is converted in the instrument for
presentation.
Prior to a ground run the pilot will set a distance in the distance to go window via the slewing
switch. The distance to go inhibit switch is used if the aircraft has not reached the position for
starting the take-off. When this position is reached the switch is pushed on.
When the aircraft moves the wheel sensors produce pulses which will subtract from the original
set distance and the countdown will continue until zero is reached.
A failure flag covers distance to go under power or failure conditions. A warning light will
indicate sensor failure.

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Book 1 Part 5

Initial Issue © MTC 2015

Initial Issue © MTC 2015

THESE NOTES ARE THE COPYRIGHT OF MILITARY

THIS ISSUE WILL NOT BE UPDATED AND SHOULD

Enquiries regarding the content of this publication should be addressed to:

Head of Aeronautical Engineering

Initial Issue © MTC 2015

Initial Issue © MTC 2015

Change Description Date

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Initial Issue © MTC 2015

Book 1 Part 5 - Contents

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The definition of an autopilot is:

1. Increase in pilot’s response time.

3. Increase in the possibility of human error.

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1. Sense changes in attitude.

2. Compute the amount of control required.

3. Provide the muscle to move the control surface.

An aircraft can be subjected to disturbances about its three control axes.

PITCH: About the LATERAL axis.

ROLL: About the LONGITUDINAL axis.

YAW: About the VERTICAL or NORMAL axis.

PITCH - Controlled by the ELEVATORS.

ROLL - Controlled by the AILERONS.

YAW - Controlled by the RUDDER.

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Autopilot Control Axes

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The autopilot is divided into four main parts:

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Autopilot Basic Operation

Requirement of Practical Autopilot System

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Autopilot Vertical Profile

Autopilot Lateral Profile

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 Lateral Movement – One or more accelerometers mounted on the lateral axis to

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Autopilot System Block Diagram

Autopilot System Schematic

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Autopilot Yaw Damper - Rudder Channel

Dutch Roll Stability

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Causes of Dutch Roll

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Three Axis Autopilot

Two Axis Autopilots

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Types of Yaw Damper

Series Parallel System

Typical Yaw Damping Signal Processing

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Principle of Phase Advance

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