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MARGARET
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And say: "My Lord, increase me in knowledge!"

(Koran 20:114)
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Ibn al-'Arabi's Metaphysics of Imagination

THE
SUFI PATH
OF

KNOWLEDGE

William C. Chittick

STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK PR.ESS


Cover photo courtesy of The Freer Gallery of Art,
Smithsonian Institute, Washington, D.C.

Published by
State University of New York Press, Albany
© 1989 State University of New York
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Design by Sushila Blackman.
No part of this book may be used or reproduced
in any manner whatsoever without written permission
except in the case of brief quotations embodied in
critical articles and reviews.
For information, address State University of New York Press,
State University Plaza, Albany, N.Y., 12246
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Chittick, William C.
The Sufi path of knowledge : Ibn al-'Arabi's metaphysics of
imagination I William C. Chittick.
p. em.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-88706-884-7. ISBN 0-88706-885-5 (pbk.)
1. Ibn al-'Arabi, 1165-1240. 2. Sufism. 3. Imagination-
Religious aspects-Islam. 4. Creative ability-Religious aspects-
Islam. I. Title.
BP80. 12C48 1989
297' .4'0924-dc19 88-7040
CIP

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS

Introduction • ix/ The Life and Works of Ibn al-'Arabl xI The Meccan
Openings xiil Koranic Hermeneutics xvl The Study of Ibn al-'Arabl in the
West xvil The Present Work xx
1 Overview • 1
1. The Divine Presence 31 Finding God 3/ Worlds and Presences 4/ Being and
Nonexistence 6/ The Divine Attributes 8 I The Divine Acts 11/ The
Macrocosm 12/ The Microcosm 16/ Cosmic Dynamics 18/ The Return to God
19/ Assuming the Traits of God 21 I Theomorphic Ethics 22/ The Scale of the
Law 26 I Seeing Things as They Are 28 I Human Perfection 30
2 Theology • 31
2. The Names of God 331 Names, Attributes, and Relationships 33 (1) The
Names of the Names 34 (2) Relationships 35 (3) The Two Denotations of the
Names 36 ( 4) Realities, Roots, and Supports 37 ( 5) Properties and Effects 39/
The Names of Engendered Existence 41/ Secondary Causes 44
J. The Divine Roots of Hierarchy and Conflict 47 I Hierarchy in the Names
47/ Ranking in Degrees 51/ The Names Personified 52 I The Divine Conflict 54/
The Unity of the Essence 56/ Names of Incomparability and Names of Acts 58
4. The Essence and the Divinity 59 I The Divinity 59 I The Unknowability
of the Essence 62/ The Independence of the Essence 64/ The Name "Allah" 66/
The Disputes of the Angels 67 I Incomparability and Similarity 68/ Incomparability
70/ Similarity 72/ Combining Incomparability and Similarity 73
3 Ontology • 77
5. Existence and Nonexistence 791 Being/Existence and the Existent: Wujud
and Mawjud 80/ Possible Things 81 I Entities 83/ Things 88/ Loci of Mani-
festation 89 I Self-Disclosure and Receptivity 91 I Oneness of Being and Effects of
the Names 94
6. The New Creation 96/ Infinite Possibility 96/ Perpetual Renewal 97 I Divine
Tasks 98/ Breaking Habits 99/ Transmutation and Transformation 99/ Never-
Repeating Self-Disclosures 103/ Boredom 105/ The Heart 106/ Nondelimitation
109
Contents

7. Cosmic Imagination 1121 He/Not He 1131 ImaJtination 1151 Dreams


118 I The Manifestation of the Impossible 121
8. The Supreme Barzakh 125 I The Cloud 125 I The Breath of the All-Merciful
127 I Relief Through Mercy 1301 The Real Through Whom Creation Takes
Place 1321 The Universal Reality 1341 Nature 139

4 Epistemology • 145
9. Knowledge and the Knower 147 I Knowledge and Knowledge 147 I The
Usefulness of Knowled,ge 1491 Limits to Knowledge 1531 The Infinity of
Knowledge 156
ro. Acquiring Knowledge 1591 The Rational Faculty 1591 Rejlecti011 1621
Consideration 165 I Following Authority 166 I Unveiling 168
1 1. The Scale of the Law 170 I The Revealed Law 170 I The Scale 172 I Wisdom
a11d Courtesy 174 I The Scale of Reason 179 I Affirming Similarity 181 I
Reactions to the RCI!elation of Similarity 186

5 Hermeneutics • 191
12. Faith and Rational Interpretation 1931 Faith 1931 Interpretation 1991
The Rational Thinkers 202 I Acts of God m1d Acts of Man 205
13. Knowing God's Self-Disclosure 2121 Finding Light 2121 The Lights of
Self-Disclosure 2161 Naming the Perception of Light 2201 Witnessing and
Vision 225
14. Understanding the Koran 231 I The Goal of Rational Inquiry 232 I Reason
versus Unveiling 235 I The Character of Mu~ammad 239 I The Context of the
Koran 242 I The Commentary of the Folk of Allah 2441 Commentary by Allusion
2461 Knowledge of Hadith 250
6 Soteriology • 253
I 5. Weighing Self-Disclosure 255 I Knowledg,e and Practice 256 I The
Inviolability of the Law 258 I Spiritual States 263 I Spiritual Mastery 270
16. Names and Stations 2741 The Divine Form 275 I The Stations of the
Path 278 I Assumi11g the Character Traits of God 283 I Noble and Base Character
Traits 286
17. Pitfalls of the Path 289 I Good aud Evil 2901 The Two Commands 291 I
The Peifection of Impeifection 294 I God's Conclusive Argument 297 I The
Straight Path 301 I Nobility of Character 304
18. Safety in Servanthood 3091 The Servant's Worship of his Lord 3101 The
Perils of Lordship 312 I The Exaltation of Lowliness 317 I The Perfect Servant
321 I Worship Through Free Will Offerings 325 I Obligations and Supererogations
329
7 Consummation • 333
I 9· Transcending the Gods of Belief 335 I The Roots of Belief 336 I WorshipinJt
God and Self 341 I Knowing Self 3441 Paths of Belief 3461 Belief
and the Law 349 I The Belief of the Gnostic 352 I Beatific Vision 354
20. Seeing with Two Eyes 3561 Duality and the Signs of Unity 3581 The
Possessor of Two Eyes 361 I Bein.rz With God Wherever You Are 3641 Two
Perfections 366 I Serving the Divine Names 369 I The People of Blame 372 I
The Station of No Station 375
Notes • 382
Bibliography • 414
Indexes • 419
Introduction
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INTRODUCTION

Somewhere along the line, the West- the true import of a great body of mythic
ern intellectual tradition took a wrong and religious teachings slips from our
turn. Arguments arise over when and grasp.
why this happened. Many important All religious traditions accord a central
thinkers have concluded that the West role to imagination, though not necessar-
never should have abandoned certain ily by this name. The mundus imaginalis
teachings about reality which it shared is the realm where invisible realities be-
with the East. They have turned to the come visible and corporeal things are
Oriental traditions in the hope of finding spiritualized. Though more real and
resources which may help revive what "subtle" than the physical world, the
has been lost and correct the deep psy- World of Imagination is less real and
chic and spiritual imbalances of our civil- "denser" than the spiritual world, which
ization. remains forever invisible as such. In Is-
One result of this ongoing search for a lam, the later intellectual tradition never
lost intellectual and spiritual heritage has tires of discussing the imaginal realm as
been the rediscovery of the importance the locus wherein spiritual realities are
of imagination. In putting complete faith seen in visionary experience and all the
in reason, the West forgot that imagina- eschatological events described in the
tion opens up the soul to certain possibil- Koran and Hadith take place exactly as
ities of perceiving and understanding not described. If on the Day of Resurrection,
available to the rational mind. One of the as reported by the Prophet, "death is
important contemporary thinkers who brought in the form of a salt-colored ram
have pointed in this direction is the late and slaughtered," this is because imaginal
Henry Corbin, who has bequeathed to us existence allows abstract meanings to
the word "imaginal." As Corbin has take on concrete form. And if all the
explained in his works, the "imaginal works we performed during our lives
world" or mundus imaginalis possesses an are placed in the Scales, the good deeds
independent ontological status and must in the right pan and the bad deeds in the
be clearly differentiated from the "imagi- left, this is because imagination brings
nary" world, which is no more than our about the subtilization of corporeal ac-
individual fantasies. Once we lose sight tivities.
of the imaginal nature of certain realities, By granting an independent ontolog-
Introduction

ical status to imagination and seeing concerned. Nevertheless, if his approach


the visionary realm as the self-revela- to Islamic thought is to be understood as
tion of God, Islamic philosophy has reflecting the concerns of his sources, it
gone against the mainstream of Western needs to be tempered by more attention
thought. It offers precious assistance to to the ultimate Unity lying behind the
those in the West who "refuse to relegate theophanic facade of created existence.
imagination to a subordinate role in an At the same time, certain studies of Ibn
epistemological framework." 1 But in al-'Arabi which have been concerned al-
spite of Corbin's prodigious efforts, the most exclusively with his metaphysical
resources of the Islamic tradition have and philosophical teachings have gone to
hardly been touched. Even the teachings the other extreme, failing to emphasize
of Ibn al-'Arabi, to whom Corbin dedi- the essential role which Ibn al-'Arabi ac-
cated his masterly study, Creative Imagi- cords to imagination. In fact, his meta-
nation in the Sufism of Ibn 'Arabi, 2 remain physics cannot be understood without
for the most part unexplored and un- grasping imagination's importance, and
explained. his view of imagination cannot be under-
Corbin performed the great service of stood outside the realm of metaphysics.
introducing the Western world to many The present study is an attempt to bring
uniquely Islamic ways of expressing these two sides of Ibn al-'Arabi's teach-
philosophical positions, but it is beyond ings back into balance. It is hoped that
the capacity of a single individual to just as Ibn al-'Arabi has played an impor-
bring out everything worthy of consider- tant role in reviving imagination as a
ation. Moreover, in his zeal to revive the topic of religious and philosophical con-
honor due to the imaginal realm, Corbin cern in the West, so also he may provide
tended to de-emphasize the cornerstone a pointer toward the One in the midst of
oflslamic teachings, taw~ld, the "declara- imaginal multiplicity.
tion of God's Unity." It is as if Corbin
was so entranced by the recovery of the
imaginal that he had difficulty seeing be-
yond it. The Life and Works of Ibn al-'Arabi
From the point of view of the Islamic
intellectual tradition, the tendency to
become transfixed by the multiple appa- Few Muslim spiritual authorities are
ritions of the One represents a danger in- so famous in the West as MuQ.yi al-Din
herent in the current revival of interest in MuQ.ammad ibn 'Ali ibn al-'Arabi (A.H.
imagination. It is clear, for example, that 560-638/A.D. 1165-1240). In the Is-
certain varieties of Jungianism divinize lamic world itself, probably no one has
the imaginal world, giving to the soul an exercised deeper and more pervasive in-
autonomous status never granted to it by fluence over the intellectual life of the
the great traditions. Man's own domain community during the past seven hun-
of microcosmic imagination is posited as dred years. He was soon called by his
the Real, since "God" is merely the soul's disciples and followers al-Shaykh al-
projection. But this-in the Islamic view Akbar, the "Greatest Master," and few
-is to fall into the error of associating who have taken the trouble to study his
other gods with God (shirk), the opposite works would dispute this title, though
of taw~ld. We are left with polytheistic some would argue over the direction in
multiplicity, and the "gods" are rein- which his greatness lies. 3
stated as real entities possessing insupera- The Shaykh was born in Mursiya
ble differences. in al-Andalus (Murcia in present-day
Corbin never fell into such a position, Spain). His father seems to have been a
which would have betrayed the central government employee in the service of
x teaching of the texts with which he was MuQ.ammad ibn Sa'id Mardanish, the
Introduction

ruler of Murcia. The family must have Ibn al-'Arabi lived in a universe foreign
held a high social position, since his ma- to our own, where the extraordinary and
ternal uncle was ruler of Tlemcen in miraculous were everyday occurrences.
Algeria and he himself was on familiar One of the most obvious of the mi-
terms with several local kings in his later raculous sides to the career of the Great-
life. When the Almohad dynasty con- est Master was his literary production.
quered Murcia in 567/1172, the family Osman Y ahia, in his two-volume his-
moved to Seville, where his father was tory and classification of Ibn al-'Arabl's
again most likely involved with govern- works, estimates that Ibn al-'Arabi wrote
ment service. Ibn al-'Arabi himself was 700 books, treatises, and collections of
employed in the early part of his career poetry, of which 400 are extant. The Fu-
as a secretary to the governor. tu~at al-makkiyya alone will fill a pro-
In 590/1193, at the age of thirty, Ibn jected 17,000 pages in Yahia's critical edi-
al-'Arabi left Spain for the first time, tion. One of the most daunting prospects
traveling to Tunis. Seven years later, a faced by a scholar is to read the whole
vision instructed him to go to the East. Futu~at, not to mention the other works
He made the pilgrimage to Mecca in available in printed editions or manu-
599/1202, and from there traveled exten- scripts. The problem is not simply the
sively in the central Islamic lands, staying sheer volume of his production. His
for various lengths of time in Egypt, whole corpus stands at an extremely high
Iraq, Syria, and Rum (present-day Tur- level of sophistication and demands fa-
key), though he never went to Iran. In miliarity with all the Islamic sciences.
620/1223 he settled in Damascus, where This helps explain why the Shaykh al-
he and a circle of disciples remained until Akbar, in spite of the intrinsic interest of
his death in 638/1240. He spent his life in his works and his wide-spread influence,
study, writing, and teaching. At the has been relatively neglected by modern
same time, he was involved in the social scholars.
and political life of the community. He The Futii~at al-makkiyya is a vast ency-
was on good terms with at least three lo- clopedia of the Islamic sciences within
cal kings, one of whom became well- the context of taw~ld, the profession of
versed in his writings. In a document God's Unity that forms the core of Is-
dated 632/1234, he gives permission to lam. The book includes 560 chapters,
the Ayyubid Mu?:affar al-Din Musa, who several of which would be major books
ruled in Damascus between 627/1229-30 if published separately. Ibn al-'A1rabi dis-
and 635/1238, to teach all his works, of cusses in copious detail the Koran, the
which he lists 290. In the same docu- Hadith, events in the life of the Prophet,
ment, he mentions by name ninety mas- the detailed rulings of the Shari'a, the
ters of the religious sciences with whom principles of jurisprudence, the divine
he himself had studied. names and attributes, the relationship be-
Ibn al-'Arabi provides many details tween God and the world, the structure
of his personal life in his works, and we of the cosmos, the make-up of the hu-
can be grateful that the major scholarly man being, the various human types, the
task of bringing these together and path by which human perfection may be
analyzing them has finally been ac- attained, the stages of the ascent to God,
complished, in a forthcoming book by the ranks and kinds of the angels, the na-
Claude Chodkiewicz-Addas. 4 The best ture of the jinn, the characteristics of
account in English is provided by the au- time and space, the role of political in-
tobiographical descriptions of Ibn al- stitutions, the symbolism of letters, the
'Arabl's meetings with some of his con- nature of the interworld between death
temporaries, Sufis of Andalusia, along and Resurrection, the ontological status
with the translator's introduction. 5 The of heaven and hell, and so on. The list
reader of that work will soon realize that could be extended for pages. x1
Introduction

Though the Futii~iit is but one of Ibn particular knowledge, since man must
al-'Arabi's works, most of the topics always seek after God Himself. Opening
about which he has written are discussed is the type of knowledge given to the
in some detail within it. However, he prophets (though it is not equivalent to
frequently points out that what he knows scripture): They receive it directly from
and could put down in writing if it were God without rational inquiry or reflect-
opportune or necessary to do so bears ive consideration.
no relationship with what he has writ-
ten. As he remarks matter-of-factly- The prophets and the friends among the
Folk of Allah have no knowledge of God
and, one suspects, without exaggeration derived from reflection. God has purified
- , "What we deposit in every chapter, them from that. Rather, they possess the
in relation to what we have, is but a drop "opening of unveiling" through the
in the ocean" (II 578.19). 6 In one ninety- Real. (III 116.23)
chapter section of the Futii~iit, he pro-
vides in each chapter a list of the related If a person wants to achieve opening,
topics which he could have discussed, he must discipline himself according to
and these lists alone will fill more than the norms of the Shari'a and the Tariqa
400 pages of the Futii~iit in its new edi- (the spiritual path) under the direction of
tion. 7 a spiritual master or "shaykh" who has
himself traversed the path. In several
verses the Koran tells us that God may
bestow knowledge upon His servant if
The Meccan Openings He wills. Most commonly, Ibn al-'Arabi
quotes the verse, "Be godfearing and
God will teach you" (2:282). This "god-
What is the significance of Ibn al- fearingness" which prepares the disciple
'Arabl's life and writings for Islamic for God's teaching entails his complete
intellectual history? More specifically, absorption in putting the revealed Law
since this question can be answered from into practice and invoking (dhikr) the
many points of view, how did he and his name of God under a shaykh's guidance.
followers perceive the significance of his Until the disciple reaches opening, he
work? One way to gain a certain insight will have to seclude himself from peo-
into this question is to meditate upon the ple through spiritual retreats (khalwa),
title of his magnum opus, al-Futii~iit al- though after full opening, retreat and
makkiyya, "The Meccan Openings." presence in society (jalwa) are the same.
In Ibn al-'Arabi's technical vocabu- As Ibn al-'Arabi remarks, if a person
lary, "opening" (fittii~) is a near syn- wants to gain knowledge of things as
onym for several other terms, such as they are in themselves, "He should fol-
unveiling, tasting, witnessing, divine ef- low the path of the great masters and
fusion, divine self-disclosure, and in- dedicate himself to retreat and invoca-
sight. Each of these words designates a tion. Then God will give direct aware-
mode of gaining direct knowledge of ness of that to his heart" (I 120.12).
God and of the unseen worlds without "Unveiling comes to them in their
the intermediary of study, teacher, or retreats when the divine lights dawn
rational faculty. God "opens up" the within them, bringing sciences purified
heart to the infusion of knowledge. The of corroding stains" (II 600.3).
word "opening" suggests that this type The knowledge which is opened up
of knowledge comes to the aspirant sud- to the seeker is the knowledge of the
denly after he had been waiting patiently Koran, the Divine Speech. "Nothing is
at the door. It involves neither "self- opened up to any friend of God (wall)
exertion, raising up the gaze, nor seek- except the understanding of the Mighty
xn ing" (II 505.17), that is, seeking after that Book" (III 56.2).
Introduction

The perfect inheritor (wiirith) of the "spirituality" -especially of the "New


Prophet among the friends of God is he Age" variety-is its inability to discern
who dedicates himself exclusively to God the source of inrushes. 9
through His Shari'a. Eventually God will Ibn al-'Arabi's extraordinary spiritual
open up in his heart the understanding of career was marked by many signs, not
what He has sent down upon His messen-
the least of which being the fact that
ger and prophet, MuQ.ammad, through
disclosing Himself to him in his inward he reached opening at a young age in
dimension (bii(in). (I 251.3) the space of an hour or two. His disci-
ple Shams al-Oin Isma'll ibn Sawdakin
Opening is not a goal that every dis- al-Niiri (d. 646/1248) quotes him as fol-
ciple will reach. The least of the neces- lows:
sary qualifications is the "godfearing-
ness" referred to earlier, an attribute I began my retreat at the first light (fojr)
which Muslims have always perceived as and I had reached opening before sunrise.
the epitome of human perfection. As the After that I entered the "shining of the
Koran says, "The most noble among you full moon" 1 " and other stations, one af-
ter another. I stayed in my place for four-
in God's eyes is the most godfearing"
teen months. Through that I gained all
(49:13). Innumerable factors combine to the mysteries which I put down in writ-
make up an individual's preparedness for ing after opening. My opening was a
opening. One disciple may practice sin- single attraction in that moment. ' '
cerely and assiduously throughout his life
and never have his heart opened up to Ibn al-'Arabi experienced this opening
the unseen world. Another may practice while still a youth. His famous encounter
for a relatively short period of time and with the chief judge of Seville, the great
reach the goal. The nature of the open- jurist and philosopher Ibn Rushd (known
ing itself depends largely upon the indi- to the Latin West as A verroes, d. 595/
vidual human nature. Ibn al-'Arabi never 1198), took place after the completion of
tires of reminding us of the saying of this retreat. He tells us that his father, a
Junayd, "The water takes on the color of good friend of Ibn Rushd, had told the
the cup." judge something of his son's experiences.
It should be noted that "opening" in
the technical sense cannot be applied to Ibn Rushd was eager to meet me, be-
any and every sort of "inrush" (wiirid) cause of what he had heard and what had
from a world normally closed to the reached him concerning what God had
psyche. Ibn al-'Arabi, like other Sufis, opened up for me in my retreat .... I was
provides many criteria for distinguishing still a youth (~abl). My face had not yet
put forth a beard, and my mustache had
among different types of paranormal
not yet grown. ' 2 When I entered in upon
perceptions. Like others, he divides the him, he stood up in his place out of love
"incoming thoughts" (khawii(ir) which and respect. He embraced me and said,
reach the heart into four categories: di- "Yes." I said, "Yes." His joy increased
vine (iliihl), spiritual (rn~iinl), ego-centric because I had understood him. Then I re-
(nafsiinl), and satanic (shaytiinl). 8 One of alized why he had rejoiced at that, so I
the tasks of the spiritual master is to dis- said, "No." His joy disappeared and his
cern the source of the incoming thought color changed, and he doubted what he
and give instructions to the disciple so possessed in himself.
that he can maintain his psychic and He said, "How did you find the situa-
tion in unveiling and divine effusion? Is it
spiritual balance. Confusion among the
what rational consideration gives to us?"
different kinds of inspiration poses tre- I replied, "Yes and no. Between the yes
mendous dangers for the soul in this and the no spirits fly from their matter
world and the next. From the Sufi per- and heads from their bodies." His color
spective, one of the most obvious signs turned pale and he began to tremble. He
of the deviation of most contemporary sat reciting, "There is no power and no Xlll
Introduction

strength but in God," since he had under- closed to him after that. Quite the con-
stood my allusion .... trary, his soul was constantly being un-
After that, he sought from my father to veiled by the inrushes of divine wisdom.
meet me in order to present to me what He frequently met with the Prophet
he himself had understood: He wanted to
Mul).ammad and other prophets in the
know if it conformed with or was differ-
ent from what I had. He was one of the
unseen world, and many of the great
great masters of reflection and rational contemporary or past Sufis would appear
consideration. He thanked God that in his to him in the imaginal realm. In the case
own time he had seen someone who had oflbn al-'Arabi at least, once the door to
entered into the retreat ignorant and had the invisible world was opened, it stayed
come out like this-without study, dis- open.
cussion, investigation, or reading. He This brings us to the second element
said, "This is a state that we had con- in the title of the Futu~iit, the adjective
firmed rationally, but we had never seen "Meccan." Ibn al-'Arab1 explains that
anyone who possessed it. Praise belongs
the particular openings which make up
to God, that I should live in the time of
one of its possessors, those who have
the contents of this work began during
opened the locks upon its doors. Praise his pilgrimage to Mecca in the year 598/
belongs to God, who singled me out to 1202. We know that he began writing
see him!" (I 153.34) 13 the Futu~iit in the next year, and he was
not to finish the first redaction until after
Ibn al-'Arabi confirms, though rather settling in Damascus twenty-one years
allusively, Ibn Sawdakin's report that he later. In dedicating the Futu~iit to one of
gained all his knowledge through his his disciples, he alludes to the role of
initial opening and that his writings con- Mecca by mentioning God's "house" and
sisted of the gradual expression of that "sanctuary."
knowledge in verbal form. The Shaykh God set up in my thoughts that I make
al-Akbar does not mention the term known to my dear friend-God preserve
"opening" itself in this account, but he him- some of the gnostic sciences which
alludes to it through mention of "knock- I had acquired in my absence and, like-
ing on the door." He is commenting on wise, that I bestow upon him-God en-
these verses found towards the beginning noble him-some of the pearls of knowl-
of the Futu~iit: edge which I had gained in my exile.
Hence I wrote for him this unique trea-
When I kept knocking on God's door tise, which God has brought into exis-
I waited mindfully, not distracted, tence as an amulet against the impedi-
Until there appeared to the eye the glory ments to knowledge for every pure
of His Face companion, every verifying Sufi, and for
and a call to me, nothing else. my dear friend, blameless brother, and ap-
I encompassed Being in knowledge- proved son, 'Abdallah Badr al-J:Iabashi
nothing is in my heart but God. al-Yamani, the freedman of Abu
(I 10.26) Ghana'im ibn Abi'l-Futiih al-Harrani. 14 I
named it "The Treatise . of the Meccan
Everything we have mentioned after Openings concerning the True Knowl-
that [vision of the glory of God's Face] in edge of the Mysteries of the Master and
all our speech (kalam) is only the differen- the Kingdom." Most of what I have de-
tiation of the all-inclusive reality which posited in this treatise was opened up for
was contained in that look at the One me by God when I was circumambulating
Reality. (II 548.14) His noble House or while I was sitting in
a state of waiting mindfully for Him in
His noble and exalted Sanctuary. (I
Though all Ibn al-'Arabi's knowledge 10.16)
may have been included in undifferen-
tiated form in the initial opening, this The Futu~iit, then, is essentially a com-
XlV does not imply that the door stayed pendium of some of the sciences which
Introduction

were giVen to Ibn al-'Arabi during his tance, too often forgotten in studies of
experience& of opening. He frequently the Shaykh. The "Meccan Openings,"
stresses this point in explaining the man- like the Shaykh al-Akbar's other works,
ner in which he wrote the work. His are nothing if not commentary upon the
words are not the result of any reflective Holy Book.
or rational process, but bestowed by the In order to enter into the universe of
Divine Presence. Ibn al-'Arabi's Koranic hermeneutics,
one must first cast away all preconceived
We are not one to quote the words of notions of how a text should be read.
the philosophers, nor the words of any- In the Shaykh's view, the Koran is the
one else, since in this book and in all our concrete, linguistic embodiment of Real
books we only write that which is given Being, God Himself. At the same time,
by unveiling and dictated by God. (II the revealed Speech is dominated by the
432.8)
attributes of mercy and guidance
This book is not a place for that which
is given by the proofs of the reflective - perfectly in keeping with Being Itself,
powers, only for that which is given by since, according to the famous hadith,
divine unveiling. (II 389.6) "God's mercy precedes His wrath." The
The aim of our book is not to speak Divine Speech guides through its "signs"
about considerative and reflective rela- (ayat) or verses, just as the cosmos
tionships. Its subject is only the sciences -which is also the Speech of God, artic-
of unveiling given by God. (II 655.5) ulated within the "Breath of the All-
The books we have composed-this merciful" -gives news of God through
and others-do not follow the route of its signs, which are the phenomena of
ordinary compositions, nor do we fol-
low the route of ordinary authors. . . . nature. The revealed, written Speech can
My heart clings to the door of the Divine be more readily understood than the re-
Presence, waiting mindfully for what vealed, cosmic Speech. It provides the
comes when the door is opened. My heart key through which "opening" can take
is poor and needy, empty of every know- place-the opening of the door to com-
ledge. . . . When something appears to prehension of the signs within the mac-
the heart from behind that curtain, the rocosm and the microcosm, the universe
heart hurries to obey and sets it down in around us and within us. Ibn al-'Arabi
keeping with the commanded bounds. frequently quotes the Koranic verse, "We
(I 59.12) 15
shall show them Our signs upon the ho-
rizons and in themselves, until it is clear
to them that He is the Real" (41:53).
The revealed Book is the actual, true,
Koranic Hermeneutics authentic embodiment of God's Speech.
Its every letter is full of significance,
since the book manifests the divine reali-
Islamic civilization is clearly logocen- ties in both its form and meaning. It is
tric. Ibn al-'Arabi places himself squarely true that the same thing can be said about
in the mainstream of Islam by basing all the cosmos, but the written Book has the
his teachings upon the Koran and the advantage ofhaving been given a linguis-
Hadith. In this respect he parts company tic form that necessarily corresponds
with the philosophers and proponents of with Absolute Truth, which is God. This
Kalam, who were far more likely to de- linguistic mode of existence appeals di-
rive their sciences from other sources. rectly to the distinguishing feature of hu-
Ibn al-'Arabi confirms his own logocen- man beings, the nutq or "rational speech"
trism by claiming repeatedly that the which makes them "rational animals"
knowledge gained through opening (~ayawan natiq). The Book is the barzakh
pertains to the meaning of the Koran. or isthmus between man's intelligence
This is a point of fundamental impor- and God's knowledge of things as they xv
Introduction

are in themselves. It provides the God- ranic interpretation is a simple one, per-
given and providential means whereby fectly logical once one accepts that
man can come to know things in them- "There is no god but God and Mul]am-
selves, without the distortions of ego- mad is His Messenger": God intends
centrism. every meaning which a speaker of the
If all of Ibn al-'Arabi's works are es- language can understand from the literal
sentially Koranic hermeneutics, this is sense of the text. It is God who created
because ultimate truth can only be per- the speakers of the language, brought the
ceived with the help of divine guidance, language into existence, and revealed the
and divine guidance has taken certain Book. God's purpose in revelation was
specific forms. "Enter houses by their clarification, not obfuscation. "God sent
doors," the Koran commands (2:189). no messenger save with the tongue ofhis
One cannot take God's house by storm. people, that [the messenger] might make
One enters by the door, when invited. clear to them" (Koran 14:4). But God
Any attempt to climb through the win- had to provide a scripture in the language
dows would display blatant discourtesy of the recipients which could guide a
(sit al-adab), an attribute which automat- whole tradition over history, not simply
ically disqualifies the would-be herme- a few tribesmen of one generation. God
neut. spoke in a language which would meet
Because the Book in its actual, re- the spiritual needs of all those who en-
vealed form is the embodiment of the di- counter the Book. Hence, Ibn al-'Arabi
vine mercy and guidance, Ibn al-'Arabi is constantly analyzing the meaning of
displays tremendous reverence for the lit- words as they have been understood by
eral text. The linguistic form of the text the speakers of the Arabic language to
takes precedence over all else. Certain whom the Koran is addressed, though
Western scholars have portrayed Ibn al- not necessarily as the specialists in vari-
'Arabi as a great practitioner of esoteric ous sciences have defined them.
commentary (ta'wil), whereby the literal The Shaykh treats each word of the
meaning of the text becomes a window Koran and the Hadith with the utmost
through which one looks into the invisi- reverence. No word is accidental. God
ble realm. One can agree with this state- and His Messenger never speak without
ment, so long as it is understood that no saying exactly what they mean. We can-
Muslim commentator has been as con- not replace one word with another and
cerned as the Shaykh to preserve the say that this is what was really meant.
Book's literal sense. Ibn al-'Arabi never Nor can we interpret the meaning, by
denies the literal and apparent meaning. "taking the word back" (ta'wil) to its ar-
But he frequently adds to the literal sense chetype in the world of divine realities, if
an interpretation based upon an opening that means denying or denigrating the
which transcends the cognitive limita- literal sense. It is vitally important to un-
tions of most mortals. He often tells us derstand the meaning of each individual
that God may unveil meanings of the word and to realize that each expresses
text to the gnostic which others have in a concrete mode a certain dimension
never perceived, and these unveilings can of the Divine Reality not denoted by any
be trusted as long as they do not gainsay other.
or contradict the literal meaning. They
are additional interpretations which can
add to our understanding of the manner
in which the Divine Reality discloses It- The Study of Ibn al-'Arabi" in the West
self. At the same time, no matter how
true they may be, they can never have
the slightest effect upon the commands A great deal can be learned about
and prohibitions of the revealed Law. Ibn al-'Arabi by showing the sources of
xv1 Ibn al-'Arabi's basic principle of Ko- his teachings in earlier writings. Michel
Introduction

Chodkiewicz's excellent study of "sanc- eral, it aims to clarify the Koranic picture
tity" (waliiya) and related concepts, Le of the major prophets, thereby showing
sceau des saints, provides a sound outline how the earthly career of each prophet
of the type of work that needs to be done manifests a specific divine reality or ar-
for dozens if not hundreds of technical chetype. As a result, the Fu~u~ says a
terms. 16 But it is not the purpose of the great deal about the divine names,
present work to contribute anything to prophetology, ontology, and several
the task of pinpointing the sources of Ibn other important topics of Ibn al-'Arabi's
al-'Arabl's teachings. In spite of the im- immediate concern. But it emphasizes
portance of this task, a second task ap- certain doctrines while leaving out any-
pears even more essential to the present thing but allusions to several major di-
writer, and that is to answer such ques- mensions of Ibn al-'Arabl's overall teach-
tions as the following: What was Ibn al- ings. Moreover, Ibn al-'Arabi makes no
'Arabi actually talking about? What are attempt to explain what he does discuss
his basic teachings? How did he himself with any detail or clarity. Hence the text
perceive the goal of his writings? Implicit has always been read in the Islamic world
in these questions is another: What does with a commentary or a teacher or both.
Ibn al-'Arabi have to contribute to the It is important to grasp the central role
intellectual and spiritual needs of the which the Fu~u~ has played in the Islamic
present age? intellectual tradition. No other book of
Questions such as these underlie the Ibn al-'Arabi has been as widely read or
two most comprehensive works we pos- commented upon. But the tradition,
sess on Ibn al-'Arabl's teachings, the providentially no doubt, took the inter-
aforementioned study by Corbin and pretation of the Fu~u~ in a specific direc-
Toshihiko Izutsu's Sufism and Taoism-A tion, and that direction happens to be
Comparative Study of Key Philosophical one which often appeals to modern intel-
Concepts. 1 7 Both works combine great lectuals cut off from spiritual practice.
erudition with a sympathetic understand- Beginning with the first important com-
ing of their subject. Izutsu's study is mentator on the Fu~u~, Ibn al--'Arabl's
unique for the clarity of the exposition step-son Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi (d. 673/
and the careful attention paid to the lin- 1274), practically all Fu~u~ commentators
guistic nuances of Ibn al-'Arabi's work. have discussed the text largely within the
It is limited by a number of factors, and I context of Islamic philosophy. 19 This,
mention these not to criticize Izutsu's in- of course, is Islamic philosophy, so it
valuable study, but to situate it within a does not contradict the commands and
wider context. First, Izutsu deals almost prohibitions of Islamic Law. All those
exclusively with a single work of Ibn al- commentators about whom anything is
'Arabl, the Fu~ii~ al-~ikam. To understand known were devout practitioners of Is-
the significance of this point, we need to lam and Sufism. They observed the
take a brief look at the Fu~u~. Shari'a with care, and they had no need
The Fu~u~ played a special role among to be reminded of its importance, since it
Ibn al-'Arabl's writings from the begin- was an integral part of their e:veryday
ning. The Shaykh himself tells us in lives. Hence, their special attention to the
its preface that it was handed to him by philosophical dimensions of the text did
the Prophet in a "heralding vision" (mu- not run contrary to other, more spiritual
bashshira). The second generation Fu~u~ and practical dimensions of the text, but
commentator Mu'ayyid al-Din al-Jandi it did tend to obscure them.
(d. 690/1291) informs us that Ibn al- Qunawi, a Persian, had a profoundly
'Arabi forbade his disciples from having different intellectual make-up from his
the Fu~u~ bound along with any other master. For one thing, Qunawi"s works
book. 18 But the Fu~u~ is a short work are crystal clear and eminently system-·
(180 pages in the printed edition) and un- atic, while no one would say the same
dertakes a relatively specific task. In gen- about the works of the Shaykh al-Akbar. xvn
Introduction

Qiinawi was the spiritual inheritor of Ibn fact the instrument whereby an inevitable
al-'Arabi and the guide of a large number process occurred. The study of Ibn al-
of disciples. 20 At the same time he was 'Arabi could not have been reserved for
known as a great master of the religious those who had the requisite spiritual as-
sciences, Hadith in particular, and people piration and "godfearingness." Since Ibn
came to Konya from all over the Islamic al-'Arabi dealt with questions of interest
world to study with him. Not all of to all sorts of scholars, his works were
them, and perhaps not many of them, soon being read by many of the learned,
would have been his disciples on the Sufi not only Sufis. The Shaykh himself con-
path. sciously employed the terminology of
Qiinawi was ·better versed in Peripa- Kalam and philosophy-not to speak
tetic philosophy than Ibn al-'Arabi and of jurisprudence-and he often criticizes
made active attempts to harmonize it the approach of the contemporary au-
with the intellectual expression of Su- thorities of these sciences. The learned
fism. This attempt at harmonization ap- masters could not be blamed for read-
pears in the manner in which he brings ing him or attempting to answer his
the discussion of wujud (B~ing, existence) criticisms.
to the forefront. Philosophy was gener- In short, Ibn al-'Arabi helped bring
ally defined as the study of wujud qua the teachings of Sufism into the main-
wujud. Ibn al-'Arabi frequently discusses stream of Islamic intellectuality, which in
wujud, but there is no special internal any case was moving more toward phi-
reason why his followers would have losophy than Kalam. In addition, from
extracted this particular term from his the 7th/13th century onward, Islamic
writings and placed it at the center of intellectuality tends toward synthesis.
their concerns. This was done as a result Many authors contributed to the harmo-
of various external factors personified nization of divergent intellectual perspec-
by Qiinawi himself. He and his disciples tives, such as Suhrawardi al-Maqtiil (d.
set the stage for the later understanding 587/1191), the founder of the "Illumina-
of Ibn al-'Arabi's works throughout the tionist" school of philosophy, and Na~ir
Islamic world, since the tradition of al-Din Tiisi (d. 672/1274), the first sys-
Fu~u~ commentary goes straight back to tematic Shi'ite theologian and the great
Qiinawi. The first full commentary on revivifier of the teachings of A vicenna.
the Fu,fU.f was written by Jandi, who was It was only logical that Sufism should
Qiinawi's spiritual disciple and who play a major role in this harmonization
undertook the work at the instruction of different intellectual streams. Al-
of his master. Then Jandi's student Ghazali (d. 505/1111) had begun this task
'Abd al-Razzaq Kashani (d. 730/1330) long before Ibn al-'Arabi, and Ibn al-
and Kashani's student Dawiid Qay~ari 'Arabi himself contributed to it by em-
(d. 751/1350) wrote what are probably ploying the terminology of all the intel-
the two most influential commentaries of lectual perspectives. But Sadr al-Oin
the tradition. Qiinawi's influence is clear Qiinawi played an especially important
in all these works. In the case of Qay~ari, role by systematizing Ibn al-'Arabi's
even the Arabic style reflects Qiinawi's teachings and placing emphasis upon
works. In all these commentaries, discus- those dimensions of his thought which
sion of wujud stands at the forefront. could easily be reconciled with the phi-
Qay~ari's long introduction to his com- losophical approach. Especially signifi-
mentary is a masterly summa of philo- cant in this respect is the correspondence
sophical Sufism in an eminently system- which Qiinawi initiated with Tiisi, the
atic style. 21 great Peripatetic. In his Persian letter ac-
Though Qiinawi's influence helped companying the first of the two Arabic
determine the direction in which the treatises which he sent to Tiisi, Qiinawi
xvm Fu~U.f was to be interpreted, he was in tells him that his purpose in posing vari-
Introduction

ous questions concerning the Peripatetic and hermeneutical concerns of the con-
position was to combine the conclusions tinental tradition. Corbin's rhetorical
derived from logical proofs with those flourishes and passion for his subject put
gained by unveiling, opening, and face to his work into a unique category. Few
face vision of the unseen world. 22 would doubt the relevance of Ibn al-
To return to Izutsu's outstanding ' Arabi to modern thought after reading
study of Ibn al-'Arabi's teachings: Izu- Corbin. But Corbin, like Izutsu, has cer-
tsu limits himself to an analysis of the tain limitations. More than lzutsu,
mainly philosophical and metaphysical Corbin is concerned with his own philo-
discussions of the Fu~u~. Moreover, he sophical project, as elaborated in dozens
quotes copiously from the writings of of books, several of which have now
Kashani to explain Ibn al-'Arabi's mean- been translated into English. Any reader
ing, and, as was pointed out, Kashani is a of Creative Imagination soon begins to
third-generation commentator on the wonder where Ibn al-'Arabi ends and
Fu~u~, firmly entrenched in the line of Corbin begins. The lines are not clear,
Qunawi and the movement to bring Ibn especially if one does not have access to
al-'Arabi's teachings into harmony with the Arabic texts. Certainly we come to
philosophy. Hence Izutsu's study is es- realize that Ibn al-'Arabi is a precious
pecially valuable for showing how the larder from which all sorts of delicious
Fu~u~ was read by the later commenta- vittles can be extracted. But most people
tors and how the Shaykh's teachings familiar with the original texts would
were being integrated into the philosoph- agree that Corbin has highly individual
ical tradition, but it does not necessarily tastes. Moreover, like Izutsu, though not
reflect the central concerns of the Fu~u~ to the same extent, Corbin deals mainly
itself, nor, with greater reason, those of with the Fu~u~, making few references to
Ibn al-'Arabi. relevant passages in Ibn al-'Arabii's other
Moreover, Izutsu's personal interests works.
lie mainly in the abstract discussions of While lzutsu places stress on Ibn al-
philosophy, not in the mundus imaginalis, 'Arabi's abstract metaphysical teachings,
nor in the practical sides of Islamic spiri- Corbin emphasizes the Shaykh's depic-
tuality. He is one of the few non-Mus- tion of a visionary pleroma where God
lim scholars who have grasped the tre- reveals Himself uniquely to each spiritual
mendous philosophical and linguistic aspirant, leading him into the mundus
riches waiting to be mined in later Is- imaginalis and beyond. Izutsu stresses
lamic thought, and he has made unique the God who can be understood through
contributions to the study of this tra- reason, while Corbin depicts the God of
dition. 23 But his personal predilections theophany who can be grasped by imagi-
deeply color his perception of Ibn al- nation. Where both authors come to-
, Arabi. The latter is presented not so much gether is in failing to bring out the prac-
as he is in himself, but as one source for tical sides to Ibn al-'Arabi's teachings and
data to be employed in Izutsu's philo- his insistence on weighing all knowledge
sophical project, to which he seems to be in the "Scale of the Law," the norms re-
alluding in the expression, "Toward a vealed through the Koran and the Sunna
Metaphilosophy of Oriental Philoso- of the Prophet.
phies." 24 The only other study of Ibn al-'Arabi
The second vitally important study of which is as firmly grounded in the texts
Ibn al-'Arabi is Corbin's Creative Imagi- and as seminal as these two is Chodkie-
nation in the $ufism of Ibn 'Arabi. Corbin wicz's Le sceau des saints, though it is
has been able to present Ibn al-'Arabi more limited in scope, making no at-
as a thinker worthy of our most serious tempt to provide a broad overview. By
consideration because of the contribu- placing the concept of "sanctity" within
tions he can make to the philosophical its historical perspective and showing xix
Introduction

how Ibn al-'Arab1 understands it, Chod- also avoided making connections be-
kiewicz has contributed important in- tween Ibn al-'Arabi's ideas and those of
sights into both the theoretical and prac- other Sufis, other Muslim intellectual au-
tical sides of Ibn al-'Arabi's teachings. thorities, other religious traditions, and
His stress on the importance of practice the contemporary world, since these are
and the observance of the Shari'a pro- fields of investigation which know no
vides a highly beneficial antidote to limits. Perhaps others will be inspired to
some of the filtered and refined potions follow up the obvious leads.
fed to us by Izutsu and Corbin. But the Some people might object that I
self-imposed limitations of the study should have translated a single work in-
leaves us craving for more. Chodkie- stead of picking and choosing. But there
wicz's forthcoming anthology of the are many drawbacks to that approach,
Futu~iit, with selections in both French especially at the present state of our abil-
and English, promises to be a major step ity to understand the Shaykh's writings
forward in our understanding of the full on the one hand and then to express
range of Ibn al-'Arabi's teachings. 25 them within the confines of an alien uni-
verse of discourse on the other. Ibn al-
'Arabi's Fu~u~ al-~ikam has been trans-
lated into English several times, in each
The Present Work case with mixed results. The best of
these translations, that by R. W.J. Austin,
still leaves a great deal to be desired,
The present study is an attempt to even on the level of conveying accurately
lead the reader into Ibn al-'Arabi's own the sense of the text. 26 In the original
universe in a language accessible to non- Arabic, much of the text is unintelligible
specialists. In writing the book, I tried to without detailed commentary, which
avoid any preconceptions as to what Ibn none of the translators have provided.
al-'Arab1 should be saying or what he has A commentary sufficient to situate the
to offer. Instead, my goal was to trans- work within Ibn al-'Arabi's world view
late or "carry over" his teachings as they and to explain his meaning in every case
are actually found, mainly in the Futu~iit, would be far longer than the Fu~u~ itself.
into a language which does justice to his As with most of Ibn al-'Arabi's major
concerns, not our concerns. I have tried writings, the Fu~u~ contains everything,
to open the door to Ibn al-'Arabi's larder but in such an allusive and undifferen-
and allow the reader to look in, if not tiated form that it is impossible to grasp
actually step inside. Naturally, certain the meaning without detailed expla-
dainties have attracted my attention more nation.
than others, and it is these which I tend One of the advantages of working
to pick out. with the Futu~iit is that Ibn al-'Arab1 is
The form of the book reflects several not afraid to go into detail. If he does not
specific goals, foremost among them explain a topic fully in one passage, he is
the wish to preserve the overall context likely to throw a good deal of light on it
of Ibn al-'Arabi's teachings as he himself elsewhere. The translator can choose the
presents them. This meant that I have clearest and most complete exposition of
tried not to extract the essence of what various points and leave out the allusions
he is saying, in contrast to most other to other teachings not completely rele-
studies. Rather, I have allowed him to vant to the point he is trying to clarify.
express himself in his own words and Perhaps even more importantly, the text
within the context of the particular Ko- of the Futu~iit is available to us in an ex-
ranic verses or hadiths which he is ex- cellent edition. Though originally pub-
plicating at the moment. One cannot lished in Cairo in 1911, it surpasses the
separate out the "interesting teachings" standards of most modern critical edi-
xx without doing harm to the whole. I have tions published in the East. Moreover,
Introduction

Osman Yahia's new edition, with incred- each is an interconnecting link on a chain.
ibly detailed apparatus, is a great boon to When man begins to consider the science
the scholar, though unfortunately, only of the cosmos, he is taken from one thing
ten volumes have appeared (of a pro- to another because of the interrelation-
ships. But in fact, this only happens in the
jected thirty-seven).
science of the Folk of Allah. Their science
It will be a long time before anyone does not follow the canon of those of the
will be able to translate a major work learned who know only the outward ap-
of Ibn al-' Arabi into comprehensible pearances of phenomena. The canon of
English without extensive notes and the Folk of Allah ties together all parts of
commentary, or even with extensive the cosmos, so they are taken from one
notes and commentary. His writings thing to another, even if the scholar of
pose many difficulties. They are full of outward appearances sees no relationship.
allusions to all sorts of esoteric wisdom, This is knowledge of God. . . .
and frequently even the prose takes on a He who knows the Koran and realizes
symbolic and visionary aura that is prac- it will know the science of the Folk of Al-
lah. He will know that their science does
tically impossible to fathom. One of the not enter into limited chapters, nor does it
major difficulties presented even by those follow the canon of logic, nor can it be
passages in his writings which are rela- weighed by any scale. It is the scale of all
tively clear is the interrelationship of all scales. {III 200.26)
discussions with everything else. In order Most people work contrary to this di-
to understand one point, one has to un- rect tasting [of the divine things]. That is
derstand all points. This is why, in tradi- why their speech is not tied together. He
tional circles, it was not uncommon for who considers their speech looks for a
a master to spend several hours com- root to which all their words go back,
but he does not find it. But each part of
menting on each line of the Fu~ii~, and
our speech is interrelated with the other
a single reading of the text could take parts, since it is one entity, while these
many years. things I say are its differentiation. A per-
The interrelatedness of Ibn al-'Arabi's son will know what I am saying if he
teachings helps explain the repetitions knows the interconnection of the verses
which are characteristic of his style and of the Koran. (II 548.15)
which have been preserved in the transla-
tions and my own commentary. But I began this book with the idea of
most repetitions add new nuances and providing a more or less comprehensive
fresh interrelationships not discussed in overview of Ibn al-'Arabi's teachings in
other contexts. Any attempt to avoid the style of my study of Riimi, The Sufi
repetition would mean tearing the ideas Path of Love. Several months of writing
out of context and imposing upon them made it clear to me that I could not pos-
a systematic exposition foreign to the sibly provide a reasonable survey of Ibn
original texts. al-'Arabi's teachings under one cover, so
Ibn al-'Arabi never tires of stressing I divided the topics into several major
the unique characteristics of the knowl- headings, with the idea of publishing a
edge he and other "Folk of Allah"- second volume at a later date. As the
as he refers to his peers- are trying to book originally developed, I wrote ten
impart. Because their science derives chapters on cosmology, anthropology,
from divine opening and not discursive and the cosmic role of perfect man (al-
thought, it is intimately interrelated on insan al-kamil) after Chapter 8, but it
all levels, though reason often fails to see soon became obvious that I could not
the connections. do justice to these topics along with the
other topics which needed to be dis-
In its root, the existence of the cos- cussed. I put those chapters aside with
mos is tied to the Being who is Necessary the hope of coming back to them on
through Himself. Hence each part of the another occasion. In the notes I refer to
cosmos is tied to every other part, and them as Cosmology. 27 xx1
Introduction

I am painfully aware of the inade- the year in Tehran, and in 1972 he gra-
quacies of my own explanations of the ciously accepted to teach the Fu~ii~ to
Shaykh's teachings. I cannot claim to myself and two others. We finally com-
understand everything he is talking about, pleted the text in 1978, when Izutsu was
and in any case I have usually been forced teaching full time at the Imperial Iranian
to oversimplify my own comments, Academy of Philosophy, which had re-
since one cannot keep on qualifying cently been founded under the director-
oneself in every paragraph. The reader ship of Nasr. The late Henry Corbin also
should keep in mind that all my own taught at the Academy, and his intellec-
explanation is tentative, and much of tual presence was always palpable. I also
what Ibn al-'Arabi himself says is modi- had the opportunity to study some of the
fied by what he says in other contexts. In works of Ibn al-'Arabi's followers with
any case, summaries and simplifications t_!J.e sage of Mashhad, Sayyid Jalal al-Din
of his teachings are unavoidable as soon Ashtiyani. To all these teachers I owe a
as we want to gain an overview of his tremendous debt of gratitude, and to all
ideas. Definitions have to be provided of them I submit my apologies for the
for terminology, however tentative these inadequacies which remain in the present
may be. work.
In each chapter I have been torn be- I first conceived of this book in 1983,
tween the wish to do justice to the topic soon after publishing The Sufi Path of
by presenting it in its full context, and Love. At that time I began reading the
the knowledge that the book will have to Futii~iit systematically. As I moved for-
have certain limits to be published and ward in the text, I read more and more
read. More than anyone else, I know that slowly. As my understanding increased,
compromises have been made and that I took detailed notes on passages that
the book represents nothing close to a at first I would have skimmed. Soon I
final statement of Ibn al-'Arabi's posi- was finding unexpected ramifications on
tions. I too have been forced to offer but every page. It began to appear that it
a few table scraps from the Shaykh's in- would take many, many years to finish
exhaustible kitchen. the text. In the meantime I had applied to
the National Endowment for the Hu-
manities for a Fellowship for Indepen-
dent Study and Research to write a book
Though but a preliminary and incom- on Ibn al-'Arabi, and this was granted
plete survey of Ibn al-'Arabi's teachings, for 1986-87. I gratefully accepted this
the present book brings to fruition some generous gift and began writing the book
twenty years of study. I began reading without having finished the Futii~iit, not
Ibn al-'Arabi's works in the original lan- to mention many other works of the
guage at Tehran University, where I Shaykh which I could have consulted.
edited a commentary on one of his trea- Since I am completely convinced of the
tises as a Ph.D. dissertation under the truth of Ibn al-'Arabi's claim that every-
guidance of Seyyed Hossein Nasr, a pro- thing he writes is intimately interrelated,
ject which was completed in 1973 and I have reason to hope that the texts pre-
published in 1977. During those years, sented here will not portray his teachings
Toshihiko Izutsu spent three months of in an unbalanced manner.

xxii
1
OvervieW
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1. THE DIVINE PRESENCE

Finding God 'Arabi's doctrinal position, might also be


translated as the "Oneness" or "Unity of
Finding." Despite the hundreds of vol-
How can I find God? umes on ontology that have been in-
Ibn al-'Arabi maintains that all human spired by Ibn al-'Arabi's works, his main
beings must seek to answer this question. concern is not with the mental concept of
Having answered it, they must then set being but with the experience of God's
out to verify the truth of their answer by Being, the tasting (dhawq) of Being, that
finding God in fact, not in theory. Here- "finding" which is at one and the same
fers to those who have successfully ver- time to perceive and to be that which
ified the truth of their answer as the Peo- truly is. No doubt Ibn al-'Aralbi pos-
ple of Unveiling and Finding (ahl al-kashf sessed one of the greatest philosophical
wa'l-wujud). They have passed beyond minds the world has ever known, but
the veils that stand between them and philosophy was not his concern. He
their Lord and stand in His Presence. wanted only to bask in the constant and
The path they have traversed is open to ever-renewed finding of the Divine Be-
everyone. It is the path brought by the ing and Consciousness. He, for one, had
prophets and followed by the friends of passed beyond the veils, though he was
God (al-awliya'), and it is the path set always ready to admit that the veils are
down in incredible detail in Ibn al- infinite and that every instant in life, in
'Arabi's works. To understand how he this world and for all eternity, represents
conceives of the problem, the path, and a continual lifting of the veils.
the goal is the major task of the present To find God is to fall into bewilder-
study. We begin by examining the ques- ment (~ayra), not the bewilderment of
tion: "How can I find God?" being lost and unable to find one's way,
"Finding" renders the Arabic wujud, but the bewilderment of finding and
which, in another context, may be trans- knowing God and of not-finding and
lated as "existence" or "being." The fa- not--knowing Him at the same time.
mous expression "Oneness of Being" or Every existent thing other than God
"Unity of Existence" (wa~dat al-wujud), dwells in a never-never land of affirma-
which is often said to represent Ibn al- tion and negation, finding and losing,
Overview

knowing and not-knowing. The differ- divine attributes to illuminate the nature
ence between the Finders and the rest of of things and put each thing in its proper
us is that they are fully aware of their place.
own ambiguous situation. They know "How can I find God?" This question
the significance of the saying of the first means: How can I remove the veils that
caliph Abii Bakr: "Incapacity to attain prevent me from seeing God? We dwell
comprehension is itself comprehension." now in the situation of seeing the Not
They know that the answer to every sig- He in all things. How can we also per-
nificant question concerning God and ceive the universe as He?
the world is "Yes and no," or, as the We ourselves are included among the
Shaykh expresses it, "He/not He" (huwa "things" of the universe. So "How can I
Ia huwa). find God?" also means: How can I re-
Chodkiewicz points out that it would move those veils that prevent me from
not be far from the mark to say that Ibn being God in that respect where the "He"
al-'Arabi never writes about anything ex- must be affirmed. "Finding," it needs to
cept sanctity, its paths, and its goals.' repeated, is never just epistemological. It
The saints, a term which will be trans- is fundamentally ontological. Being pre-
lated here in one of its literal meanings cedes knowledge in God as in the world;
as "friends (of God)," have found God nothing knows until it first exists. And
in this life and dwell in His Presence. as the oft-quoted Sufi saying maintains,
Ibn al-'Arabi often refers to them as the "None knows God but God." Both
"gnostics" ('arifon). They see and rec- knowledge and being are finding.
ognize God wherever they look. The
Koranic verse, "Whithersoever you turn,
there is the Face of God" (2:115) has be-
come the description of their spiritual Worlds and Presences
state. Others are prevented from seeing
Him by veils, but God's friends know
that He is the veils and the others. Not The mystery of He/not He begins in
that the friends are muddle-headed. They the Divine Self and extends down
do not say "All is He" 2 and leave it at through every level of existence. In clari-
that. They say, "All is He, all is not He," fying the manner in which God is found
and then proceed to clarify the various -in affirming the "He" in all things-
points of view in terms of which the sit- Ibn al-'Arabi also affirms the Not He and
uation can be perceived. If they happen explains the nature of everything that fits
to be among those friends whom Ibn al- into that category, i.e., "everything
'Arabi considers of the highest rank-the other than God" (ma siwa Allah), which
"Verifiers" (al-mu~aqqiqiin)-they will is how Muslim thinkers define "the
have verified the truth of their vision of world" (al-'alam). He also speaks in detail
God on every level of existence and find- about "worlds" in the plural. These
ing, not least on the level of intelligence might best be conceived of as subsystems
and speech, the specific marks of being of the Not He considered as a single
human. Hence they and Ibn al-'Arabi in whole. Two such worlds are the "greater"
particular will provide sophisticated ex- and the "lesser" worlds, i.e., the mac-
positions of the exact nature of the onto- rocosm (the universe "out there") and
logical and epistemological ambiguity the microcosm (the human individual).
that fills the Void and is commonly re- Three more are the spiritual, imaginal,
ferred to as the "world." The bewilder- and corporeal worlds, referred to in con-
ment of the Verifiers in respect to God as crete imagery as the worlds of light, fire,
He is in Himself never prevents them and clay, from which were created re-
from finding Him as Light and Wisdom spectively the angels, the jinn, and the
4 and from employing the fruits of those body of Adam. In order to distinguish
The Divine Presence

between these two senses of the term est possible sense, leaving out nothing
world, in what follows 'alam in the sense whatsoever of His Reality. Other names,
of the world as a whole will be translated such as Creator, Forgiving, and Venge-
as "cosmos" or "universe," while in the ful, designate Him under certain specific
sense of one world in relation to other aspects of His Reality.
worlds, it will be translated as "world." The Divine Presence is that "location"
When reference is made to "cosmology," where Allah is to be found, or where we
what is meant is the study of the cosmos can affirm that what we find is He. It in-
in the sense defined here, that is, the cludes the Essence (dhat) of Allah, which
study of "everything other than God." In is God in Himself without regard to His
contrast, modern cosmology has in view creatures; the attributes (~ifat) of Allah,
not the cosmos as a whole, but a single also called His names (asma'), which are
one of the many worlds. the relationships that can be discerned
Considered as other than God, the between the Essence and everything
sum total of everything that exists is the other than He; and the acts (aj'iil), which
cosmos or all the worlds. But considered are all the creatures in the cosmos along
as not other than God and as somehow with everything that appears from them.
identical with the He (al-huwa), the ex- Hence the term "Divine Presence" desig-
isting things are more likely to be re- nates God on the one hand and the cos-
ferred to in terms of the "presences" mos, inasmuch as it can be said to be the
(~a4ra). The term "presence" is used to locus of His activity, on the other.
refer to most of the "worlds," though Ibn al-'Arabl most often uses the term
not to "the cosmos" as such. Thus presence to refer to the sphere of influ-
the spiritual, imaginal, and corporeal ence of one of the divine names. For ex-
"worlds" are also referred to as "pres- ample, God is Powerful, so the "Pres-
ences." The sense of the term is that, for ence of Power" is everything in existence
example, the "Presence of Imagination" that comes under the sway of His power,
(~a4rat al-khayal) is a domain in which including the whole of creation. But the
everything that exists is woven out of Presence of Power is more constricted,
images. As a result, all things in this do- for example, than the Presence of
main are "present" with imagination. In Knowledge. No matter how powerful
the same way, all things that reside in the God may be, He cannot make Himself
Presence of Sense Perception (~a4rat al- ignorant of what He knows. This way of
~iss) can be perceived by the senses. Ibn thinking, which infuses Ibn al-'Arabl's
al-'Arabi's followers, beginning with writings, has far-reaching implications
Qunawl, wrote in detail about the "Five for theological speculation.
Divine Presences," by which they meant "Where can I find God?" One obvious
the five domains in which God is to be answer: Wherever He is present. But
"found" or in which His Presence is to how is God present in things? God is cer-
be perceived, i.e., (1) God Himself, the tainly present through the properties of
(2) spiritual, (3) imaginal, and (4) corpo- His Essence, which is He Himself, His
real worlds, and (5) perfect man (al-insan very Being. Allah, God as described by
al-kamil). 3 the all-comprehensive name, has an in-
In the last analysis, there is but a single fluence upon everything in the cosmos.
presence known as the Divine Presence Everything that exists, by the fact of ex-
(al-~a4rat al-ilahiyya), which compre- isting, manifests something of the Divine
hends everything that exists. Ibn al- Presence, which by definition embraces
'Arabl defines it as the Essence, Attri- all that exists. But every name of God
butes, and Acts of Allah (II 114.14). Allah has its own presence, which means that
is known as the "all-comprehensive" God makes Himself present to His crea-
(jami') name of God, since it alone desig- tures in various modalities. In each case it
nates God as He is in Himself in the wid- is God who reveals Himself, who is pres- 5
Overview
ent in the created thing, but God as the another; existence can be said to be their
Abaser (al-mudhill) is not the same as attribute. The house exists and the gal-
God as the Exalter (al-mu'izz). "Thou axy exists in the outside world, the
exaltest whom Thou wilt and Thou green-eyed monster exists in the halluci-
abasest whom Thou wilt" (Koran 3:26). nations of a madman, on the film screen,
God as the Life-Giver (al-mu~yl) is not and on the written page. The modes are
the same as God as the Slayer (al-mumlt). different, but in each case we can say that
God encompasses all things, but some something possesses the attribute of be-
are exalted and some abased, some alive ing there. When Ibn al-'Arabi speaks
and some dead. about any specific thing or idea that can
"Where can I find God?" Wherever be discussed, he uses the term existence
He is present, which is everywhere, since in this general sense to refer to the fact
all things are His acts. But no act is iden- that something is there, something is to
tical with God, who encompasses all be found. In this sense we can also say
things and all acts, all worlds and all that God exists, meaning, "There is a
presences. Though He can be found ev- God."
erywhere, He is also nowhere to be In a second sense Ibn al-'Arabi em-
found. He/not He. ploys the word wujiid when speaking
about the substance or stuff or nature of
God Himself. In one word, what is God?
He is wujiid. In this sense "finding"
Being and Nonexistence might better convey the sense of the
term, as long as we do not imagine that
God has lost something only to have
From the first, Islam's primary teach- found it again. What He is finding now
ing has been that God is one. It did not He has always found and will ever find.
take long before theologians and philoso- Past, present, and future are in any case
phers were struggling with the perennial meaningless in relation to God in Him-
intellectual task of explaining how multi- self, since they are attributes assumed by
plicity could have arisen from a reality various existent things in relation to us,
that is one in every respect. Ibn al-'Arabi not in relation to Him. But "finding" is
sees one explanation in the doctrine of perhaps not the best term to bring this
the divine names, which provides the in- discussion into the theological and philo-
frastructure for most of his teachings. sophical arena where Ibn al-'Arabi wants
But even more fundamental is the ques- it to be considered. We are better off
tion of the nature of existence itself. Be- choosing the standard philosophical term
fore talking about God and His attri- "Being," which has normally been cho-
butes, we can search for Oneness and sen (along with "existence") by Western
uncover the root of multiplicity in the scholars when they have wanted to dis-
nature of existing things. cuss the term wujiid in English. How-
We return to the word wujiid, "find- ever, one needs to keep in mind the fact
ing," "being," or "existence." Ibn al- that "Being" is in no way divorced from
'Arabi employs the term in a wide vari- consciousness, from a fully aware find-
ety of ways. Without getting embroiled ing, perception, and knowledge of the
at this point in philosophical niceties, we ontological situation. Since this point
can discern two fundamental meanings tends to be forgotten when the term is
that will demand two different transla- discussed, I will have occasion to come
tions for a single term. On the one hand back to it, hoping for the reader's indul-
we "find" things wherever we look, both gence.
in the outside world and inside the mind. In what follows, "Being" in upper
All these things "exist" in some mode or case will refer to God as He is in Him-
6
The Divine Presence

self. For Ibn al-'Arabi, Being is in no defining characteristic of each existent


sense ambiguous or questionable, though thing is its absence of Being. Though it
our understanding of Being is something reflects Being in one respect, it is nonex-
else again. Being is that which truly is, istent in another. He/not He.
while everything else dwells in fog and Being or Light is that which by its
haziness. Hence, when we say that some- very nature finds itself, though it cannot
thing-anything other that God-"ex- be perceived-i.e., embraced, encom-
ists," we have to hesitate a little in saying passed, and understood-by "others."
so. The statement is ambiguous, for just First, because there is nothing other than
as a thing pertains to existence, so also it Light that might do the perceiving.
lies in the grasp of existence's opposite, There is only Light, which perceives it-
nonexistence ('adam). Every existent self. Second, because if we accept that
thing is at one and the same time He (Be- certain things "exist," or that there are
ing) and Not He (not-being, absolute rays of light shining in an area which we
nothingness). Only God is Being with- can call the Void, these things or rays can
out qualification, without hesitation, only perceive themselves or their likes,
without doubt. not something infinitely greater than
God is sheer Being, utter Plenitude, themselves of which they are but dim re-
pure Consciousness. Any given entity in flections. The shadow cannot perceive
the cosmos is at best a dim reflection of the sunlight, and the sunlight cannot em-
some of these qualities. Ibn al-'Arabi brace the sun. Only the sun knows the
commonly employs the term "existent" sun. "None knows God but God."
(mawjud) to refer to the existing things, a How does manyness arise from One-
term which, through its derivative gram- ness? Being is Oneness, while nothing-
matical form, suggests the derivative na- ness as such does not exist in any respect.
ture of the existence that is ascribed to But we already know about Being that It
the things. As will become clear when is Light, so It radiates and gives of Itsel£
we discuss the "immutable entities" (al- Hence we have three "things": Light,
a'yiin al-thiibita), this ascription of exis- radiance, and darkness; or Being, exis-
tence to the things is in any case a mode tence, nonexistence. The second cat-
of speaking more than a strict description egory-radiance or existence-is our
of the actual situation. In fact, existence particular concern, since it defines our
is but the reflected brilliance of Being, "location" for all practical purposes. Its
and there is only a single Being, God most obvious characteristic is its ambigu-
Himself. ous situation, half-way between Being
God is Light, as the Koran affirms and nonexistence, Light and darkness,
(24:35). Like so many other Muslim He and Not He. Ibn al-'Arabi sometimes
thinkers, at least from the time of al- calls it existence, and sometimes nonex-
Ghazali, Ibn al-'Arabi identifies Light istence, since each attribute applies to it.
with Being and employs the symbolism "Nonexistence" can thus be seen to be of
of visible light to explain the relationship two basic kinds: Absolute nonexistence
between Being and nonexistence. God is (al-'adam al-mu(laq), which is nothingness
Light and nothing but Light, while the pure and simple, and relative nonexis-
things are so many rays reflected from tence (a!-'adam al-i4iift}, which is the state
Light's substance. In one respect they are of the things considered as Not He.
Light, since nothing else can be found; in Our classification of the kinds of real-
another respect they are darkness, since ity has gradually become more complex.
they are not identical with Light itself. We began with Being and existence, then
But darkness has no positive reality of its looked at Being and nonexistence, then
own, since its defining characteristic is at Being, existence, and nonexistence,
the absence ofLight. In the same way the and now we tum to a fourth picture of
7
Overview

the basic structure of reality: Being, rela- Existence or the cosmos is a vast pan-
tive nonexistence, and absolute nonexis- orama of ranking in degrees in every
tence, the last of which we can call conceivable quality and attribute. No
"nothingness." Only Being truly is, two things are exactly the same. Two
while nothingness has no existence ex- things must differ in at least one attri-
cept of a purely speculative and mental bute, or else they would be the same
kind. So "everything other than God"- thing. The attributes depend upon Be-
the cosmos-is relative nonexistence. ing, though they gain specific coloring
But anything which is relatively nonex- from nothingness. Without first existing,
istence is also relatively existent. a thing cannot be large or small, intelli-
Plurality and manyness arise from the gent or ignorant, living or dead. Without
very nature of existence (we could also light, there can be no red or green or
say, from the very nature of nonexis- blue. Everywhere we look we see hier-
tence, but then the discussion would take archies of attributes. If someone knows,
a different turn; that perspective will someone else knows more, and someone
come up in due time). It is plain to ev- else less. No two existents know exactly
eryone that "brightness" is not all of a the same thing or the same amount. If
single intensity. Some brightness is we shared in God's infinite knowledge,
stronger, some weaker; some is closer to we would be able to discern a hierarchy
light, some farther away. We can also of the knowing things in creation for all
say that some existents are more intense eternity from the least knowledgeable to
than others, but here the point is not so the most knowledgeable. Each individual
obvious. To make the point clear, it is thing at any point in the trajectory of its
best to talk not about Being itself but existence would fit into a specific niche
about the attributes of Being, i.e., those in the hierarchy. And the same thing can
qualities that are denoted by the divine be said about every attribute that pertains
names, and examine how they arc re- to Being as well as about that global
flected in existence. unity of Being's manifest attributes
Take "finding," for example, which is known as "existence." There is a grada-
identical with consciousness and self- tion in the intensity of existence-or
awareness, or with "knowledge" as a di- light-to be perceived in all things. No
vine attribute (and also as a human at- two things are exactly the same in the
tribute in the context of Sufi texts). It degree or mode of their existence.
should be obvious that some people arc
more aware than others, some rnore
knowledgeable than others. This is Ibn
al-'Arabi's doctrine of tafo4ul, "ranking The Divine Attributes
in degrees of excellence," or "some being
preferred over others," or "some sur-
passing others." The term is derived "Allah," the all-comprehensive name,
from such Koranic verses as, "God has refers to all attributes of Being at once. It
caused some of you to surpass others in also alludes to Being's relationship with
provision" (16:71). Knowledge is among the whole hierarchy of existence that re-
the greatest bounties which He has pro- flects Its attributes in varying intensities,
vided for His creatures, but He has not a hierarchy that is called, in the language
given it to everyone equally. The Koran of the theologians, the "acts of God."
says, "We [God] raise in degrees whom- Other divine names refer to relatively
soever We will, and above each one who specific attributes of Being, such as Life,
possesses knowledge is someone who Knowledge, Desire, Power, Speech,
knows [more]" (12:76). 4 And it asks, Generosity, and Justice. According to a
"Are they equal-those who know and saying of the Prophet, there arc ninety-
8 those who know not?" (39:9). nine of these "most beautiful" divine
The Divine Presence

names, though other names are ex- though the modalities of existence may
pressed or implied in the Koran and vari- be largely incomparable. Many scholars
ous prophetic sayings. Each name enun- have employed the terms "transcen-
ciates an attribute of God, Sheer Being. dence" and "immanence" (or "anthro-
The effect (athar) or property (~ukm) of pomorphism") in referring to these two
each name can be traced within exis- ways of conceptualizing God's relation-
tence, if, that is, we are given the insight ship with the cosmos, but I will refrain
and wisdom to do so. This in fact is the from using these words in an attempt to
task that Ibn al-'Arabi undertakes in the avoid preconceptions and capture the nu-
Futu~at, though he is fully aware that ances of the Arabic terminology.
every book in the universe would be in- When Ibn al-'Arabi speaks about the
sufficient to record all the properties of Essence as such, he has in view God's in-
the divine names, all the "words" of comparability. In this respect there is lit-
God. As the Koran puts it, "Though all tle one can say about God, except to
the trees in the earth were pens, and the negate (salb) the attributes of created
sea-seven seas after it to replenish it- things from Him. Nevertheless, the Es-
[were ink,] yet would the words of God sence is God as He is in Himself, and
not be spent" (31:27). God must exist in Himself before He re-
As was pointed out earlier, the name vealls Himself to others. Both logically
Allah refers to God's Essence, attributes, and ontologically, incomparability pre-
and acts. The Essence is God in Himself cedes similarity. It is the ultimate refer-
without reference to anything else. As ence point for everything we say about
such God is unknowable to any but God. A great deal can indeed be said
Himself. He is, as Ibn al-'Arabi quotes about Him-that, after all, is what reli-
constantly, "Independent of the worlds" gion and revelation are all about- but
(Koran 3:97), and this includes the once said, it must also be negated. Our
knowledge possessed by the worlds. God doctrines, dogmas, theologies, and phi-
as the Essence is contrasted with God in- losophies exist like other things, which is
asmuch as He assumes relationships with to say that they also are He/not He. Dis-
the cosmos, relationships denoted by cerning the modalities and relationships,
various divine names, such as Creator, distinguishing the true from the false and
Maker, Shaper, Generous, Just, Exalter, the more true from the less true, is the
Abaser, Life-Giver, Slayer, Forgiver, Par- essence of wisdom.
doner, Avenger, Grateful, and Patient. When Ibn al-'Arabi speaks about
Inasmuch as God's Essence is Indepen- God's attributes and acts, he has in view
dent of the worlds, the cosmos is Not the divine similarity. In this respect
He, but inasmuch as God freely assumes many things can be attributed leo God,
relationships with the worlds through at- although it is best to observe courtesy
tributes such as creativity and generosity, (adab) by attributing to Him only that
the cosmos manifests the He. If we ex- which He has attributed to Himself in
amine anything in the universe, God is revelation. What He has attributed to
Independent of that thing and infinitely Himself is epitomized by His names and
exalted beyond it. He is, to employ the attributes, the discussion of which delin-
theological term that plays a major role eates Ibn al-'Arabi's fundamental ap-
in Ibn al-'Arabi's vocabulary, "incompa- proach to the exposition of the nature of
rable" (tanzlh) with each thing and all things. The attributes are reflected in the
things. But at the same time, each thing acts, i.e., all things found in the cosmos.
displays one or more of God's attri- God's "power" is reflected passively in
butes, and in this respect the thing must everything He has made and actively in
be said to be "similar" (tashb!h) in some suns, volcanoes, seas, bees, human be-
way to God. The very least we can say ings, and other creatures. His Hearing is
is that it exists and God exists, even found in every animal and pe~rhaps in 9
Overview

plants as well. His Speech is certainly re- quality in question. What is it about God
flected in the cries, calls, and chirps of -Allah, the all-comprehensive Reality-
animals; but only in the same way that a that allows such a quality to be mani-
glowing ember may be said to manifest fested in existence in the first place and
the light of the sun. Only in the human then to be assumed by a human being? In
being, the crown of that creation with a few cases the answer is immediately
which we are familiar, can speech reach a clear. "Love" is attributed to God in
station where it expresses intelligence many places in the Koran, so the love
and truth and, in prayer, becomes dis- that the spiritual traveler acquires must
course between man and God. "Call be a reflection of that divine love. But
upon Me," says God in the Koran-to in most cases the divine root can only
man, not to monkeys or parrots- "and I be brought out by a subtle analysis of
will answer you" (40:60). Koranic verses and hadiths. Invariably,
For Ibn al-'Arabi the divine names are these analyses circle around the names
the primary reference points in respect to and attributes that are ascribed to God in
which we can gain knowledge of the cos- the revealed texts.
mos. In the Futu~iit he constantly dis- It must be concluded-from the
cusses words and technical terms that above and a great deal more evidence
were employed by theologians, philoso- that will present itself naturally in the
phers, and Sufis before him. For exam- course of the present book-that the di-
ple, he has chapters devoted to many of vine names are the single most important
the states (a~wiil) and stations (maqiimiit) concept to be found in Ibn al-'Arabi's
that are discussed in detail in Sufi works. works. Everything, divine or cosmic, is
These represent the psychological, moral, related back to them. Neither the Divine
and spiritual attributes and perspectives Essence nor the most insignificant crea-
that mark degrees of spiritual growth ture in the cosmos can be understood
which travelers on the path to God must without reference to them. It is true that
experience, assimilate, and in most cases the Essence is unknown in Itself, but it is
pass beyond. Examples include attributes precisely the Essence that is named by
that are paired and usually must be actu- the names. 6 There are not two realities,
alized together, such as hope and fear, Essence and name, but a single reality
expansion and contraction, intoxication -the Essence-which is called by a spe-
and sobriety, annihilation and subsis- cific name in a given context and from a
tence; and other attributes which are particular point of view. A single person
viewed as marking a kind of ascending may be father, son, brother, husband,
hierarchy, such as awakening, repen- and so on without becoming many peo-
tance, self-examination, meditation, as- ple. By knowing the person as "father"
cetic discipline, abstinence, renunciation, we know him, but that does not mean
desire, refinement, sincerity, confidence, we know him as brother. Likewise, by
satisfaction, gratitude, humility, joy, knowing any name of God we know
certainty, courtesy, remembrance, good- God, but not necessarily in respect of an-
doing, wisdom, inspiration, love, jeal- other name, nor in respect to His very
ousy, ecstasy, tasting, immersion, reali- Self or Essence.
zation, and unity. 5 Ibn al-' Arabi devotes In the same way, God's creatures
about 200 chapters of the Futu~iit to such must be known in terms of the divine
terminology. The point to be made here names for any true knowledge to accrue.
is that his characteristic mode of ap- Every attribute possessed by a creature
proach is to discuss briefly what previous can be traced back to its ontological root,
masters have said about these qualities God Himself The existence of the crea-
and then to bring out what he calls the ture derives from God's Being, its
"divine root" (al-a~l al-iliihl) or the "di- strength from God's power, its aware-
IO vine support" (al-mustanad al-iliihl) of the ness from God's knowledge, and so on.
The Divine Presence

Obviously there are many more attri- tence itself stands in an intermediary situ-
butes in creation than those delineated by ation. Nevertheless, we can contrast "ex-
the ninety-nine Most Beautiful Names. istents" with "nonexistents" (ma'diimat),
So the task of explaining the divine root in which case a clear distinction must be
of a thing through language is not at all drawn. Here the point is that there are
straightforward. 7 If it were, the Futii~at degrees of participation in the light of
would fill 100 pages instead of 17,000. Being.
However this may be, it is sufficient for Those things that are "existent" can be
present purposes to realize that the Es- "found" in the outside world through
sence manifests Itself in the divine our senses. But those things that are
names, and the names in turn are re- "nonexistents" cannot be found. How-
vealed through the divine acts. ever, they are not pure nothingness,
since "nonexistence" is an ambiguous
category, not too much different from
existence. The nonexistence of the things
The Divine Acts is clearly a relative (iqafi) matter. For ex-
ample, a person may claim that galaxies
are nonexistent, and in relationship to his
The term "acts" has many synonyms understanding, this may be a true state-
that Ibn al-'Arabi is more likely to em- ment. On another level, your fantasies
ploy, though each synonym has its own are nonexistent for me, existent for you.
connotations and nuances that can only On the cosmic level, any creature which
become clear when it is explained in de- can be found in the outside world is exis-
tail and employed in context. Acts are tent as long as it continues to be found
found in the intermediate domain known there. But when it is destroyed or dies or
as existence, so their state remains for- decays, it ceases to be found in its origi-
ever ambiguous. To what extent they re- nal form, so it is nonexistent.
flect the light of Being is always at issue. Any creature that God has not yet
The word acts itself implies their exis- brought into existence is also nonexis-
tence, since the acts pertain to the Divine tent, though it certainly exists in some
Presence, and by definition God is Sheer mode, since it is an object of God's
Being. In a similar way the synonymous knowledge. It is "found" with God. He
term "creatures" (khalq, makhliiqat) de- knows that He will bring it into the cos-
mands that the acts be the result of the mos at a certain time and place, so it ex-
activity of the divine name "Creator" ists with Him, but is nonexistent in the
(khaliq), whose business is to bring cosmos.
things out from nonexistence into exis- Ibn al-'Arabi employs the term "ob-
tence. Here also, the term emphasizes the jects of [God's] knowledge" (ma'liimat)
light of Being reflected in the things of synonymously with the term "nonexis-
the cosmos. Another common term tent things." Both terms denote things or
applied to anything in the cosmos is creatures as found with God "before" or
"form" (~iira). As Ibn al-'Arabi says, "after" they have existed in the cosmos.
"There is nothing in the cosmos but However, it needs to be kept in mind
forms" (II 682.20). But the term "form" that these things never "leave" God's
normally calls to mind a second reality knowledge, so everything existent in the
which the form manifests. X is the form cosmos at this moment is also a "nonex-
of y. This second reality is often called istent object of knowledge." Here again
the "meaning" (ma'nti) of the form. its situation is ambiguous.
At first sight the term "existents" One of the more common and proba-
(mawjiidat) clearly affirms the reality of bly best known terms that Ibn al-'Arabi
the created things, but a more careful employs for the nonexistent objects of
analysis makes it ambiguous, since exis- God's knowledge is "immutable entity" I I
Overview

('ayn thabita). Entity here is synonymous be applied to anything else, we can only
with "thing" (shay'), and "thing," as know It by negating from It all the am-
should be apparent from the way I have biguities of "that which is other than Be-
been employing the term all along, is ing." Things, immutable entities, exis-
"one of the most indefinite of the indefi- tent entities, acts, creatures, existents,
nites" (min ankar al-nakirat), since it can nonexistents, possible things, and any-
be applied to anything whatsoever, exis- thing else we can name are in themselves
tent or nonexistent (though it is not nor- "Not He." This is what might be called
mally applied to God as Being). The "ex- God's radical transcendence, His utter
istent things" are the creatures of the and absolute incomparability. From this
cosmos (though never ceasing to be non- point of view, true knowledge of God
existent objects of God's knowledge). can only come through negation. This is
The "nonexistent things" are objects of the classical position of much of Islamic
knowledge, also called the "immutable theology, but, however essential and
entities." These things or entities are im- true, it must be complemented-in Ibn
mutable because they never change, just al-'Arabi's view-with the acknowledg-
as God's knowledge never changes. He ment that the acts do possess a certain
knows them for all eternity. Here of derivative actuality and existence, all the
course we enter onto the very slippery more so since we are situated in their
ground of free will and predestination, midst and cannot ignore them. Every-
one of Ibn al-'Arabi's favorite topics. thing other than God is Not He, which
When discussing wujud, the central means that everything other than God is
concern of the Muslim Peripatetics such not Reality, not Being, not Finding, not
as A vicenna, Ibn al-'Arabi often borrows Knowledge, not Power, etc. Neverthe-
the Peripatetic term wajib al-wujud, Nec- less, we do "find" the effects of these at-
essary Being, that which by its very na- tributes in the existent things, and this
ture is and cannot not be; this is what we lets us know that He is present. "We are
have been referring to as "Being." In this nearer to [man] than the jugular vein"
context the entities are called the "possi- (Koran 50:16). "Whithersoever you turn,
ble things" (mumkinat), since they may or there is the Face of God" (2:115).
may not exist in the cosmos. In respect
to their own possibility, which is their
defining characteristic, their relationship
to existence and nonexistence is the The Macrocosm
same. An "immutable entity" is a nonex-
istent possible thing. If God "gives pre-
ponderance" (tatjl~) to the side of exis- The existent things are not scattered
tence over nonexistence, it becomes an randomly, in spite of their ambiguous
existent entity, an existent possible thing. status. God is the Wise, and wisdom
Like "entity" and "thing" and unlike (~ikma) discerns the proper place of
"existent," the ontological status of a things and puts them where they belong.
possible thing has to be specified. God is also "Uplifter of degrees" (raft' al-
These few words that are employed in darajat), so He arranges all things accord-
various contexts as synonyms for the ing to the requirements of their own at-
term "acts" all share a certain ambiguity tributes and qualities. This is the source
in terms of their referents. To repeat, this of the "ranking in degrees" (tafoqul) al-
is because they are used to describe the ready mentioned. These names provide
domain of existent things, which is am- important theological roots for the vari-
biguous by nature. Only Being-the ous cosmological teachings found in the
Necessary Being-is absolutely unques- works of Muslim authors. Like many
tionable and unambiguous. But since It is other Muslim cosmologists, Ibn al-
12 utterly free of every limitation that can 'Arabi bases his scheme largely on the
The Divine Presence

data of the Koran and the. Hadith. In the are other creatures who are dark in rela-
present work I can only provide a brief tion to the angels, since they have been
outline of the cosmos as he pictures it. made out of clay. These things cannot be
The Koran and Hadith are full of pure and utter darkness, since they exist.
terms, many of them presented as com- Their light or existence is obscured by
plementary pairs, that suggest the di- their distance from the Absolute Light
mensions of the cosmos: Light and dark- which is the source of cosmic light, but it
ness, the heavens and the earth, this is real light. These creatures created out
world and the next world, the origin and of relative darkness-that is, extremely
the return, spirit and body, life and dim light-inhabit the earth, which itself
death, sun and moon, day and night. All is basically "clay" (earth and water),
these Koranic pairs find an appropriate though the more luminous elements, air
place in Ibn al-'Arabi's cosmology. To and fire, also play important roles (the
them must be added various sets of terms four elements are known as the "pillars"
such as stars, planets, and mansions of [arkan] of terrestrial existence).
the moon; earth, air, water, and fire; ani- The slightest meditation on the rela-
mals, plants, and inanimate objects; and tionship between light and darkness
so on throughout the natural universe. It shows that they are relative things. In a
is well known that few if any sacred texts dark room, a candle is a bright light, but
pay as much attention as the Koran to in the desert at noon it is virtually nonex-
natural phenomena, which the Koran istent. Fireflies fill the nights ofJune with
calls the "signs" (ayat) of God. Add to radiance, but no one finds them in the
these texts the indigenous knowledge of daytime. The moon is a marvelous lamp,
the Arabs and the Greek and Persian leg- but it quickly flees the scene when the
acies that were very early taken over by sun appears. Much of the terminology
the Muslims, and one begins to have an that Ibn al-'Arabi employs in referring to
idea of the rich sources of Islamic cos- existent things possesses this same rela-
mology. tivity, and indeed one can say that every
To gain an overview oflbn al-'Arabi's attribute that is applied to every existing
system, it may be best to suggest some thing in the universe has to be under-
of the implications of one of the most ba- stood in relative terms. This type of rela-
sic and suggestive of all pairings, that of tivity fits into the category of "ranking in
"light" (niir) and "darkness" (;;ulma). We degrees" or tafo4ul. If an angel is made
have already seen that God is the Light of out of light, it is nevertheless dark in re-
the heavens and the earth, and that Light lation to God. If a stone is dark, it is nev-
is synonymous with Being. The "dark- ertheless light in relation to nothingness.
ness" which stands opposite this uncre- If one person is intelligent, someone can
ated Light of God is "nothingness," ab- always be found who is more intelligent.
solute nonexistence. But there is also a The only absolutes are the Divine Es-
created light that pertains to the cosmos. sence on the one hand and "nothingness"
Niir, like wujiid, is applied to both God on the other. These are the two poles be-
and the creatures. The angels (mala'ika), tween which the cosmos takes shape.
for example, are-according to the All the basic terms that Ibn al-'Arabi
Prophet-created from light, which is to employs to describe the structure of the
say that their very substance is woven cosmos must be viewed in relative terms.
from light. This is not the Light which is When we say that there are "two" basic
God, for God in Himself is infinitely in- kinds of existent, those made of light and
comparable, even with the greatest of the those made of clay, this means that pure
angels, all of whom are His creatures. So created light and pure clay are, relatively
the light out of which the angels have speaking, two cosmic poles. Between
been shaped and formed is the immediate them all the existent things in the cosmos
radiance of Light or Being. Then there are arranged according to any attribute 13
Overview

that one wants to take into account. or earthy element). But viewed as a con-
When Ibn al-'Arabi speaks about the "hi- tinuous hierarchy, the existent things are
erarchy of the cosmos" (tartlb al-'alam), as ranged between the most intense created
he does in great detail in many passages light and the most intense darkness ( =
of the Futu~at, he has in view the various the least intense light), and this tells us
degrees of existence or finding, the "on- that there must be innumerable degrees
tological levels" (maratib al-wujua) of the of intermediate creatures between "pure"
universe, or in other words, the various light and "pure" darkness. In this con-
degrees in which the creatures participate text, it needs to be remembered, "pure"
in the Divine Presence. But when he has means the most intense in existence; it
in view the various positive divine attri- does not signify absolute, since Absolute
butes such as knowledge, power, or gen- Light is God, while absolute darkness is
erosity, then he uses the term ta.fo4ul or sheer nothingness. 8 These intermediate
ranking in degrees to describe how each degrees are known as barzakhs (literally
creature reflects or participates in these "isthmuses").
attributes to a different extent. A barzakh is something that stands be-
Some of the most important pairs of tween and separates two other things,
terms that are used to relate the existent yet combines the attributes of both.
things to the two poles of the cosmos are Strictly speaking, every existent thing is
luminous (nuranl) and dark (?ulman!), a barzakh, since everything has its own
subtle (latff) and dense (kathif), spiritual niche between two other niches within
(rn~anl) and corporeal (jismanl), unseen the ontological hierarchy known as the
(ghayb) and visible (shahada), high ('ulwl) cosmos. "There is nothing in existence
and low (sujll). Each term designates a but barzakhs, since a barzakh is the ar-
relative situation. What is subtle in rela- rangement of one thing b~tween two
tion to one thing is dense in relation to other things . . . , and existence has no
another. When it is said that the angels edges ((araf)" (III 156.27). Existence itself
are luminous, subtle, spiritual, unseen, is a barzakh between Being and nothing-
and high, a relationship is envisaged with ness. In the hierarchy of worlds which
all those things that are dark, dense, cor- makes up the cosmos, the term barzakh
poreal, visible, and low. It is not forgot- refers to an intermediate world standing
ten that the angels are in fact dark and between the luminous or spiritual world
dense in relationship to the infinite Light and the dark or corporeal world. The
of God. term is relative, like other cosmological
Viewed in the context of relative con- terms, but it helps us to situate existent
trast and conflict, each attribute is taken things in the cosmos with a bit more pre-
to be incompatible with its opposite. cision. Instead of saying that things are
This means that the angels have no direct either spiritual or corporeal, we can now
relationship with the things of the corpo- say that they may also be barzakhl, that is
real world. Light does not perceive the to say, neither spiritual nor corporeal but
darkness, nor does darkness comprehend somewhere in between.
the light. The angels are pure unitive The term barzakh is often used to refer
awareness, while the corporeal things, as to the whole intermediate realm between
such, are conglomerations of uncon- the spiritual and the corporeal. In this
scious parts and conflicting bits. Each sense the term is synonymous with the
part, which may be viewed as a relatively World of Imagination (khayal) or Images
independent corporeal thing, has come (mithal). From this perspective, there are
into existence through a temporary mar- basically three kinds of existent things:
riage of the four elements in a specific spiritual, imaginal or barzakhl, and cor-
balance that gives it its elemental charac- poreal. The imaginal world is more real
teristics (e.g., the ascending or fiery ele- than the corporeal world, since it is situ-
14 ment may dominate over the descending ated closer to the World of Light, though
The Divine Presence

it is less real than the spiritual and lumi- the luminosity of our own conscious-
nous realm of the angels. "Imaginary" ness, yet they are presented to us as cor-
things possess a certain kinship with ima- poreal and dense things, not as disem-
ginal things, but only as a sort of weak bodied spirits. Since the World of Spirits
reverberation. Nevertheless, we can gain manifests directly the unity of the: divine,
help in understanding the nature of the angels have no "parts," while the world
World of Imagination by reflecting upon of corporeal things appears to us as in-
our own mental experience of imagina- definite multiplicity. But the world of
tion. dreams combines unity and multiplicity.
The most specific characteristic of the A single dreaming subject perceives a
things found within the domain of imag- multiplicity of forms and things that in
ination, on whatever level it is consid- fact are nothing but his own single self.
ered, is their intermediary and ambigu- Their manyness is but the mode that the
ous status. When we understand the pairs one consciousness assumes in displaying
of terms mentioned above as extreme various facets of itself.
"poles" or as relatively absolute ontolog- It was just said that the most specific
ical situations, then we can see that noth- characteristic of imaginal things is their
ing found on the imaginal level corre- intermediary and ambiguous situation.
sponds to one or the other of the two From everything we have said about ex-
poles. Imaginal existents are neither lu- istent things in general, it should be clear
minous nor dark, neither spiritual nor that all existent things share in a similar
corporeal, neither subtle nor dense, nei- ambiguity, since they are neither Being
ther high nor low. In every case they arc nor nothingness, but somewhere in be-
somewhere in between, which is to say tween. Existence as a whole, as was said
that they are "both/and." When we con- above, is a barzakh, an intermediary
sider the pairs of terms which denote the realm between Being and nothingness.
extremes as relative terms, then all of Hence existence as a whole can be called
them apply to imagination, depending "imagination." When Ibn al-'Arabi uses
on the perspective. Imaginal things are the term imagination, he most often has
subtle in relation to the corporeal world, in mind the intermediary realm between
but dense in relation to the spiritual the spiritual and corporeal worlds. But
world. They are luminous in relation to sometimes he means existence per se. In
visible things, but dark in relation to un- a f(;w passages he clarifies the distinction
seen things. Ibn al-'Arabi often employs between the two kinds of imagination by
expressions like "corporealization of the calling the cosmos "nondelimited imagi-
spirits" (tajassud al-arwa~) and "spirituali- nation" (al-khayal al-mutlaq) and the im-
zation of the corporeal bodies" (taraw~un aginal world "delimited imagination" (al-
al-ajsam) to explain what sorts of events khayal al-muqayyad). The accompanying
take place in the imaginal realm. It is diagram shows the overall structure of
here, he says, that the friends of God Ibn al-'Arabi's most elementary cosmo-
have visions of past prophets or that, af- logical scheme. Note that there are two
ter death, all the works of a person will intermediary domains, existence as such
be given back to him in a form appropri- ( = nondelimited imagination), which
ate to the intention and reality behind the stands between Being and nothingness,
work, not in the form of the work itself. and the imaginal world ( = delimited
Those Muslim thinkers who deal with imagination), which stands between the
the imaginal world-and there are spiritual and the corporeal worlds.
many, as Corbin's researches have helped It needs to be kept in mind that the
to show9 -love to point to dreams as cosmos is "imagination" only in the spe-
our most direct and common experience cific sense of the term as defined above.
of its ontological status. In the dream In no sense does this imply that things
world, the things we perceive share in "out there" are imaginary, any more I:S
Overview

Being that His Essence in Itself remains forever


unknown to the creatures, while He is
Manifest inasmuch as the cosmos reveals
something of His names and attributes.
The question arises as to which divine at-
tributes are revealed by the divine acts.
The answer is that, generally speaking,
every name of God has loci of manifesta-
tion (ma:?ahir; sing.: ma:?har) in the cos-
mos, some obvious and some hid.den.
The The universe as a whole manifests all the
W::lrld
of names of God. Within the existent things
Imagination is found every attribute of Being in some
mode or another. Even such attributes as
------ incomparability and unknowability that
apply in a strict sense only to the Essence
can be found in a relative sense among
The Corporeal World the possible things. Or again, one could
say that every divine attribute is found in
an absolute sense in God alone, but in a
relative sense in the creatures. The cos-
mos considered as a single whole is the
locus of manifestation for all the divine
names, or what comes down to the same
thing, for the name Allah, which is the
Nothingness name that brings together all the other
names. Hence, says Ibn al-'Arabi, God
Nondelimited Imagination. (Ibn al-'Arabl de- created the cosmos in His own image,
scribes nondelimited imagination as a "horn
or, to use a better translation of the Ara-
made out of light" [I 306, translated in Chap-
ter 7]) bic term sura, in His own "form." So
also, as th~ Prophet reported, "God cre-
ated Adam upon His own form." Hence
than we ourselves are imaginary. We the universe is a great man (insan ka-
ourselves are part of the cosmos and par- blr), 10 while man is a "small universe"
take of its ontological status, and it pro- ('alam ~aghlr).
vides our only path to true knowledge of
ourselves and of God. Moreover, the
cosmos is God's imagination, not our
imagination. He imagines everything
other than Himself, but by so doing, He The Microcosm
gives all things a certain mode of real and
seemingly independent existence. This
nondelimited imagination of God is also So far we have been leaving human
God's self-manifestation (~uhur) or self- beings out of the picture. The reason
disclosure (tajalll), terms that will be dis- should be obvious: They do not fit neatly
cussed in detail as we go along. For now, into any of the categories discussed so
it is sufficient to look at one implication far. Are they corporeal things? Yes, but
of the term "self-manifestation." they also have a spiritual dimension. Are
According to the Koran (57:3), God is they dense, dark, low? Yes, but also-in
the Outward or Manifest (~ahir) and the their inward dimensions, at least poten-
Inward or Nonmanifest (ba(in). It can be tially-subtle, luminous, and high. In
16 said that God is Nonmanifest in the sense other words, human beings can be de-
The Divine Presence

scribed by most if not all of the attributes of the world with which it is put in
that are attributed to the cosmos. Speak- touch in a never-ending process of self-
ing about the general human situation discovery and self-finding. Ultimately it
without reference to specific individuals, may attain to complete harmony with
it can be said that human beings embrace the spirit.
a hierarchy of all things within existence, The soul is luminous and dark, subtle
from the most luminous to the darkest. and dense, one and many. In some hu-
They were created from God's Spirit man beings its luminous or ascending
breathed into the clay of this world tendency dominates, in others its dark or
(Koran 15:28-29, 32:7-9, 38:71-72), descending tendency. Here the Koranic
so they combine the most intense light revelation uses the language of guidance
of existence and awareness with the and misguidance, prophets and satans.
dullest and most inanimate dust of the Without discussing this question, it is
universe. easy to see that there must be a vast hier-
The microcosm reflects the macro- archy of souls, ranging from the most
cosm in two ways which are of particular spirit-like luminosity to the most clay-
significance for Ibn al-'Arabi's teachings: like darkness. The soul-that is to say
as a hierarchy of existence and as a divine our own self-awareness-represents an
form, a theomorphic entity. The three unlimited possibility for development,
basic worlds of the macrocosm-the whether upward, downward, or side-
spiritual, imaginal, and corporeal-are ways.
represented in man by the spirit (rn~). Just as the soul can be spoken about in
soul (nafs), and body (jism). That the terms of the single divine and cosmic at-
spirit should be spiritual and the body tribute of light, so also it can be dis-
corporeal presents no difficulties. But cussed in terms of every name of God.
what does it mean to say that the soul "God created Adam upon His own
pertains to the imaginal world? form" means that He placed within man
The human spirit is also God's spirit. every one of His own attributes, just as
The Koran attributes the spirit breathed He placed all of His attributes within the
into Adam to God with the pronouns cosmos. But in the cosmos they are scat-
"His" (32:9) and "My" (15:29, 38:72). tered and dispersed, while in man they
Hence this spirit is called the "attributed are gathered and concentrated. In the
spirit" (al-rn~ al-iqafi), i.e., attributed to cosmos the divine names are relatively
God, a term which suggests its ambigu- differentiated (mufa~~al), while in man
ous status, both divine and human at they are relatively undifferentiated (muj-
once. The spirit possesses all the spiritual mal). The growth of the human soul, the
or angelic attributes, such as luminosity, process whereby it moves from darkness
subtlety, awareness, and oneness. Clay to light, is also a growth from death to
stands at the opposite pole of the existent life (~ayat), ignorance to knowledge
cosmos: dark, dense, multiple, dispersed. ('ilm), listlessness to desire (irada), weak-
No connection can be established be- ness to power (qudra), dumbness to
tween the one and the many, the lumi- speech (kalam), meanness to generosity
nous and the dark, without an intermedi- (jud), and wrongdoing to justice (qis().
ary, which in man's case is the soul, the In each case the goal is the actualization
locus of our individual awareness. The of a divine attribute in the form of
spirit is aware of God, though not of which man was created, but which
anything less than God. But we-at least remains a relative potentiality as long
before we have refined our own souls as man does not achieve it fully. All the
-have no awareness of the spirit. Clay "states" and "stations" mentioned earlier
is unaware of anything at all. The soul, can be seen as stages in the process of
which develops gradually as a human be- actualizing one or more of the divine
ing grows and matures, becomes aware names. 17
Overview

Cosmic Dynamics same-since each fits into its own partic-


ular niche on each of the cosmic hier-
archies that are defined by luminosity,
In most of the previous discussion, the knowledge, power, and the other divine
macrocosm and microcosm have been attributes-so also no single thing con-
envisaged as relatively static entities. But sidered temporally is exactly the same in
a little meditation upon the human state two successive moments. This is Ibn al-
has been sufficient to remind us that the 'Arabl's well-known doctrine of the "re-
microcosm hardly stands still. Humans newal of creation at each instant" (tajdld
may be made of three worlds, but the re- al-khalq .fi'l-iiniit), a term derived from
lationship among the worlds does not re- such Koranic verses as, "No indeed, but
main the same throughout a person's life. they are in confusion as to a new creation
People may have been created in the di- (khalq jadld)" (50:15).
vine form, but there is an immeasurable All things change constantly because
difference between someone who has none of them is the Essence of God,
brought out the divine knowledge and which alone is absolutely changeless and
power which had previously been latent eternal. Certain angelic or other creatures
within himself and someone else who has may survive for countless aeons and
remained ignorant and weak. And just as from our point of view appear to be
the microcosm represents a gradual man- "eternal," but in the end, "Everything is
ifestation of the divine names, so also annihilated except His Face" (Koran 28:
does the macrocosm. 88). Compared to Eternity, the longest
The outstanding feature of the cosmos duration imaginable is but the blink of an
is its ambiguous status, the fact that it is eye. Moreover, no angel remains fixed in
He/not He. In other terms, the cosmos is its place. Angels have wings-two,
imagination, and imagination is that three, and four according to the Koran
which stands in an intermediary situation (35:1)-so they flap them. Every flap
between affirmation and denial. About it takes them to a new situation. Galaxies
one says "both this and that," or, "nei- may last from one "big bang" to the
ther this nor that." The universe is nei- next, or the universe may exist "steadily"
ther Being nor nothingness, or both Be- and "forever." But one glance allows us
ing and nothingness. It is "existence" in to understand that physical reality is con-
the way this term has been defined. This stantly changing, slowly or quickly. If
description of the cosmos is basically we need the tools of modern physics, we
static and nontemporal. What happens can employ them to convince ourselves
when we take time into consideration? that "solidity" and permanence are but il-
Another dimension of ambiguity is lusions. When the veil is lifted, says the
added. In other words, if we take an ex- Koran, "You will see the mountains, that
istent thing at any moment in time with- you supposed to be fixed, passing by like
out reference to past or future and try to clouds" (27:88).
define its situation, we will come up All things change constantly because
with a hazy sort of definition, a not very "Each day He is upon some task" (Koran
successful attempt to pinpoint its situa- 55:29). God's tasks (shu'iin), says Ibn al-
tion between Being and nothingness and 'Arabl, are the creatures, and His "day"
in relation to the divine names. But if we (yawm) is the indivisible moment (iin).
look at that thing in the next moment in Each instant God's relationship to every
time, ambiguity has increased, since the existent thing in the cosmos changes,
situation has changed, relationships have since each instant He undertakes a new
altered, and we need a new definition in task. To employ another of Ibn al-
order to take the changes into account. 'Arabl's favorite expressions, "Self-dis-
Just as no two things in the cosmos con- closure never repeats itself" (Iii takriir fi'l-
I 8 sidered synchronistically are exactly the tajalll). In the traditional Islamic world,
The Divine Presence

brides were kept veiled from their hus- view the direction of the movement is
bands until the wedding night. Then away from the Center, just as light
came jilwa, "the removal of the bride's shines out only to dissipate itself in indef-
veil." From the same root we have the inite distance, and words are uttered only
word tajalll, "self-disclosure" or "God's to dissolve into space. It is true that ev-
unveiling Himself to the creatures." The erything returns to God. This is a Ko-
cosmos, made upon God's form, is His ranic leitmotif and a principle of Islamic
unveiling, and He never repeats the man- belief. But the mode of return is different
ner in which He shows His Face, for He from the mode of appearance. As Ibn al-
is infinite and unconstricted. The Divine 'Arabi points out, the corporeal universe
Vastness (al-tawassu' al-ilahl) forbids rep- continues moving down and away from
etition. its spiritual root. 11 Nevertheless, things
The evanescent and changing nature disappear only to be taken back to God.
of existence, or the cosmos as ever-re- The Return takes place in a "dimension"
newed creation and never-repeated di- of reality different from that of the Orig-
vine self-disclosure, is evoked by one of ination. Ibn al-'Arabi declares that every-
Ibn al-'Arabi's best-known names for the thing which disappears from manifesta-
substance of the universe, the "Breath of tion goes back to nonmanifestation from
the All-merciful" (nafas al-ra~man). God whence it arose. Every death is a birth
breathes out, and while breathing, He into another world, every disappearance
speaks. But only His Speech is eternal, an appearance elsewhere. But the overall
not His spoken words as words. Every movement never reverses itself, since the
word appears for an instant only to dis- cosmic roads know only one-way traffic.
appear from the created cosmos forever To return to "there" from "here," we
(though it remains immutably present in have to take a different route than the
His knowledge). Every part of every ex- one by which we came.
istent thing is a "letter" (~arf) of God.
The creatures are words (kalima) spelled
out by the letters, the trajectory of a
creature's existence is a sentence (jumla), The Return to God
and each world a book (kitab). All the
words and all the books are uttered by
the All-merciful, for God "embraces all All things return to God, but most of
things in mercy and knowledge" (Koran them go back in roughly the same form
40:7). Through knowledge He knows all in which they came. Speaking for the an-
things, both in their nonexistent state as . gels, Gabriel is quoted as saying, "None
immutable entities and in their existent of us there is but has a known station"
state as things in the cosmos. Through (Koran 37:164). Ibn al-'Arabi remarks
mercy He has pity on the nonexistent that his words apply in fact to every kind
things by answering their prayers to be of creature except two: human beings
given existence. For possibility (imkan) is and jinn. 12 A pear tree enters this world
a prayer, a call to the Necessary Being, as a pear tree and never leaves as a pump-
who at every instant recreates the cosmos kin. A rhinoceros does not become a
in a new form as the sun throws out monkey or a mouse. Only human beings
fresh light. His infinite Mercy-identi- (leaving jinn out of the picture) come
fied by Ibn al-'Arabi's followers explic- into the universe as a tremendous poten-
itly with Being Itself-answers every tiality for growth and maturation, but
prayer for existence. also for deviation, degradation, and de-
When considering the transformations formation. Outwardly they remain hu-
and transmutations undergone by the man as long as they stay in this world,
cosmos at each instant, it is well to re- but inwardly they may become almost
member that from a certain point of anything at all. They come in as men, 19
Overview

but they may leave as pumpkins or mon- mains to sort out the different perspec-
keys or pigs. tives from which our ambiguous situa-
On the one hand, human beings re- tion can be understood. For the present,
turn to God by the same invisible route we will look only at the freedom that
followed by other creatures. They are sets human beings apart from other crea-
born, they live, they die, and they are tures and allows them to "choose" their
gone, no one knows where. The same route of return to the Divine Reality.
thing happens to a bee or an oak tree. Later Ibn al-'Arabi will be quoted on the
This is what Ibn al-'Arabi and others call subtleties of various divine relationships
the "compulsory return" (rujii' iq(iriirl) to which counterbalance the appearance of
God. Whether we like it or not, we will freedom. But we need to begin with the
travel that route. "0 man, you are labor- fact that human beings experience them-
ing toward your Lord laboriously, and selves as free agents and that their free-
you shall encounter Him!" (Koran 84:6). dom is sufficiently real in the divine
On the other hand human beings possess scheme of things for God to have sent
certain gifts which allow them to choose thousands of messengers warning human
their own route of return (this is the beings to make proper use of it.
"voluntary return," rujii' ikhtiyiirl). Man The divine root of human freedom
can follow the path laid down by this and of the fact that we· choose the route
prophet or that, or he can follow his own by which we return to God is the fact
"caprice" (hawii) and whims. Each way that God created man upon His own
takes him back to God, but God has form. In its primordial nature (fitra)
many faces, not all of them pleasant to every human microcosm is the outward
meet. "Whithersoever you turn, there is form (~iira) of an inward meaning (ma'nii)
the Face of God" (2:115), whether in this that is named "Allah." Allah, the all-
world or the next. If we want to know comprehensive name, denotes not only
what these faces are like, we can get a the Essence of God but also the sum total
rough idea by meditating upon the "di- of every attribute that the Essence as-
vine roots" of all things, God's names. sumes in relationship to the creatures.
He is full of Mercy (ra~ma), but He is not However, human beings do not enter the
above showing His Wrath (ghaqab). He is world as full-fledged divine forms. They
the Forgiver (al-ghafor) and the Blessing- start out as a sort of infinite potentiality
giver (al-mun'im), but He is also the for actualizing the all-comprehensive
Avenger (al-muntaqim) and the Terrible in name. At the beginning they are only
Punishment (shadld al-'iqiib). Each of empty shells, the dimmest of apparitions
these names represents a "face" of God, dancing on the farthest of walls. Between
and no one can think that the properties the apparition and Absolute Light stands
(a~kiim) of each name are the same. Para- a yawning chasm, an endless void. True,
dise, says Ibn al-'Arabi, is the locus of the apparition in relation to absolute
manifestation for God's mercy, while darkness is light, but in effect it is
hell is the locus of manifestation for His shadow. To connect the apparition to the
wrath. Light which it manifests is the human
What will decide the divine face to task. This involves a process through
which a person returns? This is one of which light is intensified and darkness
the most complex of all issues, not least overcome. The dim apparition remains
because it immediately moves us into the on the wall for all to see-the body re-
realm of free will and predestination, one mains a fixed reality until death-but the
of the most puzzling of all questions that human consciousness travels in the direc-
arise when the divine things (al-iliihiyyiit) tion of the Light.
are discussed. The brief answer to the Different people make different
question, "Are we free?" (or, "Are we choices. Some prefer to play with appari-
20 predestined?") is "Yes and no," and it re- tions, some seek out various degrees of
The Divine Presence

light, some turn their gaze to the Abso- ings as found in the word khuluq, which
lute Light and can be satisfied with noth- may be translated as "character" in a gen-
ing less. The degrees of light's intensity eral sense or "character trait" in a specific
are practically limitless. Every degree can sense. Its full connotations cannot be un-
become a person's waystation (manzil), derstood without reference to a few of its
but a "waystation" exists only for the antecedents in the tradition.
traveler to move on to the next. The In the most important scriptural use
journey goes on forever. How can the fi- of the term, the Koran addresses the
nite encompass the Infinite? Prophet, telling him that he has a "khuluq
All paths do not lead in the direction 'a?lm" (68:4). English translators have
of Absolute Light. A person may con- rendered the expression as "mighty mo-
tinue to wander in apparitions in this rality" (Arberry), "sublime nature" (Da-
world and the next, or become transfixed wood), "tremendous nature" (Pickthall),
by one of the innumerable barzakhs or "sublime morals" (Muhammad Ali),
interworlds that fill the chasm. Here we "sublime morality" (Habib), "tremen-
meet the imponderables of human des- dous character" (Irving), etc. These
tiny. Few are the human beings who translations show an attempt to bring out
have witnessed the interworlds with the the term's moral and ethical connotations
clarity and perspicacity of Ibn al-'Arabi on the one hand and its ontological roots
and returned to map them out. on the other, for it is separated only by
When human beings return to God, pronunciation (not in the way it is writ-
whether by compulsion or their own free ten) from the term khalq, "creation." For
choice, they go by way of the intermedi- an Ibn al-'Arabi, the "tremendous char-
ate worlds. The general characteristics of acter" of the Prophet has to do not only
these worlds have to be sought out in the with the way he dealt with people, but
divine names which they manifest. The also with the degree to which he had re-
Koran tells us to pray, "Guide us on the alized the potentialities of his own pri-
straight path" (1:5). Just as this straight mordial nature, created upon the form of
path of return can be imagined as an as- God. Qualities such as generosity, jus-
cent through an ever increasing intensity tice, kindness, benevolence, piety, pa-
of light that opens up into the Infinite tience, gratitude, and every other moral
Light of God, so also it can be envisaged virtue are nothing extraneous or super-
in terms of many other divine attributes. added to the human condition. On the
To increase in light is to increase in life, contrary, they define the human condi-
knowledge, desire, power, speech, gen- tion in an ontological sense. Only by
erosity, justice, and so on. This is the actualizing such qualities does one partic-
process of actualizing all the divine ipate in the fullness of existence and
names that are latent within the primor- show forth the qualities of Being.
dial human nature by virtue of the divine Just as a person's character is referred
form. to by the term khuluq, so also each of his
moral traits, whether good or bad, is
called by the same term. The word's plu-
ral, akhlaq, may be translated as "moral
Assuming the Traits of God traits," though in a philosophical context
it is usually rendered as "ethics." A few
of the hadiths in which this term is em-
One of the most common terms that ployed can suggest some of the conno-
Ibn al-'Arabi employs to describe the tations it carries in the tradition. The
process whereby man comes to manifest Prophet was asked, "Which part of faith
the divine attributes is takhalluq, "assum- is most excellent?" He replied, "A beau-
ing the traits." The term must be under- tiful character." "The most perfect of the
stood in relation to one of its root mean- faithful in faith is the most beautiful of 21
Overview

them in character." "The best thing in attributes. Especially significant here is


the Scale on the Day of Judgment will be the degree to which humans display the
a beautiful character." "Every religion attributes of knowledge (or intelli-
has its moral character, and the moral gence'4) and speech, since these are fun-
character of Islam is modesty (al-~aya')." damental in setting them apart from
"The Prophet used to command people other creatures. The presence of the qual-
to observe noble character traits (makarim ities just mentioned (leaving aside for a
al-akhlaq)." "I was sent [as a prophet] to moment the question of the intensity of
complete the beautiful character traits their manifestation) is the mark of thea-
(~usn al-akhlaq)." "Among the best of morphism and the sign of being human.
you is the most beautiful in character But a person who aspires to become
traits. " 13 more than a human animal will have to
It is not difficult to see the connection actualize other divine qualities which are
between good character traits and the di- likely to remain latent in the "natural"
vine names. Note first of all that the ad- human state, that is, those traits which
jective "beautiful" employed in many of have a specifically moral connotation,
these hadiths is the same as that which is such as generosity, justice, forbearance,
applied to the "Most Beautiful Names." and gratitude.
Many moral traits are also divine attrib- It must always be kept in mind that
utes, such as repentance (corresponding Sufi ethics, Ibn al-'Arabl's in particular,
to the name al-tawwah), faith (al-mu'min), is grounded in ontology. In other words,
generosity (al-karlm), justice (al-'adl, al- noble character traits are not extraneous
muqsit), forgiveness (al-ghaffiir, al-gha- qualities that we might acquire if we as-
for), pardon (al-'afo), patience (al-~ahur), pire to become good human beings but
gratitude (al-shakur), forbearance (al-~a­ which have no real bearing upon our
llm), wisdom (al-~aktm), love (al-wadud), mode of existence. On the contrary, they
dutifulness (al-harr), and clemency (al- define our mode of existence, since they
ra'uf). Moreover, if the question is asked, determine the extent to which we partici-
"What are God's 'character traits'?," one pate in the fullness of the Light of Being.
can answer only by listing His names. It is easy to conceive of existence as light
For Ibn al-'Arabi, the expressions "as- and to understand that a more intense
suming the character traits of God" (al- light is a more intense existence, and that
takhalluq hi akhlaq Allah) and "assuming absolute Light is Sheer Being. But one
the traits of God's names" (al-takhalluq hi must also understand every divine attri-
asma' Allah) are synonymous, and they bute and moral trait as a mode-or color,
are identical with the spiritual path of the if you like-of light. Absolute Being is
Sufis. sheer generosity. To gain proximity to
Being by increasing the intensity of one's
existence is to become more generous by
the very nature of things. Greed, impa-
Theomorphic Ethics tience, injustice, cowardice, arrogance,
and avarice are not only moral faults but
also ontological lacks. They mark ·the
In Ibn al-'Arabl's way of looking at weakness of the reflected Light of Being
things, human beings assume many of in the human individual. 15
the traits of God, to a certain degree and Everyone who has studied traditional
more than any other terrestrial creatures, ethics knows that one cannot become
as a matter of course by the fact of living virtuous and ethical through wishy-
a life in the divine/human form. A nor- washy do-goodism. A work like Na~Ir
mal child cannot grow up without mani- al-Oin Tusl's Nasirean Ethics makes abun-
festing life, knowledge, desire, power, dantly clear that a key ingredient in the
22 speech, hearing, sight, and other divine virtuous human soul is equilibrium
The Divine Presence

among the moral traits, and this depends the Breath of the All-merciful. Wrath,
on an intelligent and wise discernment of then, is an offshoot of mercy in relation
relationships and aspects. 16 Too much to certain creatures. However, it may
justice without generosity will end up in take aeons before those creatures realize
tyranny, and too much forgiveness with- that the wrath they had been tasting in
out justice will lead to chaos. In ethics the concrete form of infernal punishment
and morality, balance is everything. So was in fact mercy. From the human per-
also is the case, Ibn al-'Arabi would add, spective, there is a real and fundamental
in assuming the traits of the divine diff'erence between mercy and wrath,
names, which is what ethics and morality even if, in the divine overview, wrath
are all about. It is especially difficult to derives from and leads back to mercy. In
assume the traits of the names because all short, mercy pertains to the very nature
the names do not stand on the same of Being Itself, so it encompasses "all
level. Hence, some must be displayed be- things" (as the Koran insists [7:156,
fore others, and some must even be 40:7]), but wrath is a subsidiary attribute
avoided until God bestows them on man of Being assumed in relation to specific
in accordance with His wisdom. existents for precise and determined rea-
It is clear that a certain hierarchy exists sons.
among the names. For example, God A similar analysis could be made of
does not do something (power) without many corresponding pairs of divine at-
wanting to (desire). He cannot desire to tributes, such as forgiveness and ven-
do something without discerning its situ- geance. Several sets of contrary divine
ation (knowledge). And He cannot have names describe the faces of Being turned
knowledge without existing in the first toward the creatures. These attributes
place (life). Human attainment to gener- can be divided into two broad categories,
osity and justice presupposes a certain the names of beauty (jamiil) and the
degree of intelligence and speech. But names of majesty (jaliil), or the names of
where this question takes on special im- gentleness (luif) and the names of sever-
portance is in divine names such as Mag- ity (qahr). The created properties of these
nificent (al-mutakabbir), Overbearing two sets of attributes provide a signifi-
(al-jabbiir), Overwhelming (al-qahhiir), cant parallel with the two fundamental
Inaccessible (al-'azlz), Tremendous (al- perspectives on the Divine Being dis-
'a?lm), and All-high (al-'ali). In Ibn al- cussed earlier: incomparability and simi-
'Arabi's view, the person who actualized larity.
these qualities most patently was the Inasmuch as God is incomparable
Pharoah of the Koran, who said, "I am with all created things, He can only be
your lord the most high" (79:24). But we understood in terms of the attributes
do not have to search that far, since most denoting His distance, transcendence,
any office has its own would-be pharoah. and difference. In this respect, human be-
Obviously these divine qualities cannot ings sense the majesty and tremendous-
be displayed in isolation from other qual- ness of God and perceive Him as Mag-
ities, or moral disaster ensues. nificent, Overbearing, Overwhelming,
The general principle that determines Inaccessible, All-high, Great, Slayer,
which names should be acquired and King. These attributes demand that all
which should be avoided derives from created things be infinitely far from Him.
the relative ontological status of the The things are totally Not He; He is Be-
names. It can be stated succinctly in ing and they are nonexistence. To the ex-
terms of the well-known prophetic say- tent any relationship can be envisaged
ing, "God's Mercy precedes His Wrath." between the Creator and His creature,
This means that Mercy always takes pri- He is the stern and distant father (though
ority over Wrath within the divine acts. Islam avoids this particular analogy be-
The whole of the cosmos is nothing but cause of its Christian connections). The 23
Overview

human situation in this respect is total timate identity of all existence with Be-
slavehood or servanthood ('ubudiyya). ing. Incomparability says Not He, simi-
God is self-sufficient and independent (al- larity says He. And He is more real than
ghanl), while man is utterly poor (al- Not He. The attributes of similarity and
faqlr) toward Him. Man cannot aspire to beauty overcome those of incomparabil-
assume the divine traits of majesty or ity and majesty in the same way that
even to gain proximity to them, since light erases darkness, mercy overcomes
they mark the difference between God wrath, and nearness negates distance.
and creation, between Being and nonex- But man cannot claim light and near-
istence. To claim such attributes for one- ness for himself. His first task is to be
self is, in effect, to claim divinity, an God's servant, to acknowledge His maj-
unforgivable sin. esty and wrath, and to avoid any attempt
When God's similarity with the crea- to assume as his own those attributes
tures is affirmed, the situation appears in which pertain to incomparability. He
a different light. In respect of His simi- must seek out mercy and avoid wrath. It
larity, God is seen as immanent and near. is true that man is a theomorphic entity,
He appears in the guise of gentleness, made upon the form of all the divine
mercy, beauty, generosity, love, forgive- names, but there is a right way and a
ness, pardon, bestowal, and beneficence. wrong way to assume the divine traits.
Because He possesses these attributes, the Once a human being has been infused
existence of every individual creature is a with the divine mercy and filled with its
matter of His immediate concern. In this light, the attributes of majesty appear
respect one might say that "She" is a within him as a matter of course. But
compassionate mother who never fails to they always present dangers. The sin of
look out for the welfare of Her chil- Iblis (Satan) was to perceive that the light
dren. 17 The human response to this rela- within himself was more intense than in
tionship is love, devotion, and the desire Adam and to say as a result, "I am better
to move nearer to the Source of light. It than he- Thou created me of fire and
is in this respect that human beings are him of clay" (Koran 7:12, 38:76). As a
created upon God's form and can actual- result he claimed a greatness which did
ize the fullness of their theomorphic na- not in fact belong to him. Or, as Ibn al-
ture. If in the first respect man is God's 'Arabi might say, he came to manifest
slave, in the second respect he may be- the divine name Magnificent outside of
come His "vicegerent" (khalffo) and its proper limits within the created
"friend" (wall)-two important technical world. He claimed incomparability for
terms. himself and as a result came face to face
Incomparability and the names of maj- with the divine Wrath. The only thing a
esty are demanded by the fact of God's person can ever claim for himself is non-
Being and our nonexistence. But our existence, which, in religious terms, is to
nonexistence is somehow woven with be God's servant. Indeed, Ibn al-'Arabi
existence. The dimmest light is neverthe- places servanthood at the highest level
less light. And the dimmest light is more of human realization. After all, it was
real than total darkness. Mercy-which through his servanthood that MuQ.am-
is Being and Light-pervades everything mad was worthy to be God's Messenger
that exists. In contrast, Wrath is like the ('abduhu wa rasuluhu). Total obliteration
repercussion of nothingness. It is God's before the divine incomparability results
answer to a nonexistent thing which has in a full manifestation of the divine simi-
been given existence through generosity larity. Not He is simultaneously He.
and compassion, and yet claims a right to The priority of mercy over wrath can
exist. Incomparability affirms the reality also be explained in terms of the prece-
of Being in the face of everything that is dence of unity over multiplicity. God in
24 not-being, but similarity affirms the ul- Himself is One Being, while existence
The Divine Presence

appears as an indefinite multiplicity of other points on the circle .. When light


things. The divine names stand as a kind shines upon the moon, the moon illumi-
of barzakh between Oneness and many- nates the night sky. When any attribute
ness. There is but a single Being, ;yet the of Being displays its properties within a
names represent a multiplicity of faces given existent, those properties are re-
that Being assumes in relation to the cre- flected in the direction of other existent
ated things. The Essence Itself, or Being things in an indefinite concatenation of
considered without the names, is what relationships.
Ibn al-'Arabi sometimes calls the Unity This cosmos of interrelating '''points,"
of the One (a~adiyyat al-a~ad) in contrast each reflecting the Center in its own
to Being considered as possessor of the unique fashion, is by no means static. All
names, which is the Unity of Manyness sorts of movements can be discerned on
(a~adiyyat al-kathra). God as such, taking any given concentric circle or between
both perspectives into account, is then the the various circles, the ultimate signifi-
"One/Many" (al-wa~id al-kathlr). Here cance of which can only be judged in
Oneness precedes manyness, since, with- terms of the changing relationship with
out Being the many things cannot exist. the Center. But this much is relatively
In the same way, light precedes the col- clear: The "precedent attributes"' of God
ors, and mercy precedes wrath. display their properties ever more clearly
From the perspective of Unity and as one moves toward the Center, while
multiplicity, the Divine Presence appears tht~ secondary and subsidiary attributes
as a circle whose center is the Essence become stronger as one moves toward
and whose full deployment is the acts in the periphery. Where is mercy? With Be-
their multiple degrees and kinds. The ing, Light, Knowledge, Unity. Where is
concentric circles surrounding the Center wrath? With nonexistence, darkness, ig-
represent the ontological levels, each suc- norance, multiplicity, dispersion.
cessive circle being dimmer and weaker The dispersive movement toward the
than the preceding circle. Here the divine periphery is a positive creative force.
names are the relationships that the Cen- Without it, Light would not shine and
ter assumes in respect to any place on the the cosmos would not come into exis-
circle. Each "place" can be assigned coor- tence. The divine attributes manifest
dinates in terms of its distance from the themselves in an undifferentiated mode
Center (i.e., its degree on the ontological (mujmal) at the level of the intense light
hierarchy) and its relationship with other of the angels and in a boundlessly differ-
points situated on the same concentric entiated mode (tafi.ll) at the level of the
circle (i.e., its relationship with things in sensory cosmos in its full spatial and
its own world). But the situation is made temporal extension. But once this full
incredibly complex because of the nature outward manifestation is achieved, it is
of the Center, which can be viewed in time for the unitive movement to take
respect of any ontological attribute-any over, and an active and conscious partici-
name of God. The Center is not only Be- pation in this movement is the exclusive
ing, it is also Absolute Life, Knowledge, prerogative of human beings.
Desire, Power and so on. The Center is Man enters into the corporeal world
One, yet it assumes a relationship with where the differentiated attributes of Be-
each location on the circle in terms of ing begin their reintegration into an all-
each attribute. Desire has one effect upon comprehensive unity, since he is created
each specific point, while Power has an- upon the divine form even as an infant.
other effect. By the same token, each The attribute which rules over the return
point is both passive (in relation to the to the center is "Guidance" (hidaya),
activity of the attribute) and, to the ex-· while the dispersive movement within
tent that it is colored by the attribute and th~~ human sphere that prevents and pre-
displays it as its own, active toward cludes the return toward the Center is 25
Overview

called "Misguidance" (iqliil). The unitive have faith in Our signs, those who fol-
movement finds its fullest human expres- low the Messenger" (7:156). The first
sion in the prophets and the friends of mercy manifests itself even in chastise-
God, who are the loci of self-disclosure ment and infernal wretchedness, while
for the divine name the "Guide" (al- the second displays itself only as felicity.
hiidl). The dispersive movement finds its
greatest representatives in Satan and his
friends (awliyii' al-shay(iin), who manifest
the divine name "Misguider" (al-muqill). The Scale of the Law
Misguidance is closely allied to Wrath
and therefore must be considered a
branch of mercy and guidance, but the By way of the voluntary return man
positive effects of the attribute in the strives to assume God's character traits,
long run-taking perhaps innumerable or to manifest the divine names in whose
aeons-cannot obviate the negative ef- form he was created. But what are the
fects in the relatively short run, effects divine names? What is "manifestation"?
which the Koran refers to as punishment, How can it be achieved? How can an ap-
chastisement, and the pain of the Burn- parition on an infinitely distant wall get
ing. up and walk back to the sun? How can
The prophets present guidance to darkness, which has no real taste or un-
mankind in the form of the divine mes- derstanding of light, become light? How
sages, which frequently appear as scrip- do we, blind and ignorant shadows of
tures. In order to achieve full humanity, existence, discern the difference between
people must move toward the mercy, Being and nothingness? Can ignorance
light, and unity which stand at the center become knowledge, listlessness desire,
of the circle of existence. Guidance is the weakness power, dumbness speech,
only door which leads in that direction. greed generosity, wrongdoing justice?
If human beings ignore the message of How can a bare specter woven of ambi-
the prophets, they will fall into one of guities be transformed into clarity, dis-
the innumerable paths laid down by the cernment, wisdom, certainty? How can
satans, all of whom manifest misguid- we distinguish the properties of mercy
ance. Hence they will remain in disper- from the properties of wrath within the
sion and come under the sway of the di- created universe, where all things appear
vine wrath. Though mercy precedes confused? Once having seen how God's
wrath and manifests itself even in the mercy and love manifest themselves,
midst of wrath, there is a more specific how do we ourselves become mercy and
kind of mercy which leads to happiness love? Ibn al-'Arabi answers these and
and felicity immediately after death and similar questions the same way other
at the Resurrection and which can only Muslims answer them: Stick to guidance
be actualized through putting oneself and avoid misguidance, follow the
into harmony with guidance. Hence Ibn prophets and flee the satans.
al-'Arabi distinguishes between the Like all Muslims Ibn al-'Arabi consid-
"mercy of free gift" and the "mercy of ers prophecy and revelation facts of hu-
obligation." God gives the first to all man existence, phenomena that have
creatures without distinction, while He been observed wherever there have been
has obliged Himself to confer the second people, from the time of Adam-the
only on the "godfearing." Both mercies first prophet-down to Mu}:!.ammad, the
are referred to in the Koranic verse, "My last of the prophets. All human beings
mercy [of free gift] embraces all things, have access to and are required by their
but I shall prescribe it [in specific in- very humanity to follow the revealed
stances] for those who are godfearing guidance. The Shaykh discusses the na-
26 and pay the alms, and those who indeed ture and function of prophecy (which has
The Divine Presence

now come to an end) and the process of main forever swimming in a shoreless
becoming a "friend of God" (which will ocean of ambiguity. Only the Scale can
continue until the end of time) in volu- provide a point of reference in terms of
minous detail. For the full significance of which knowledge and all human endeav-
the whole range of his teachings to be ors may be judged. The Law makes it
understood, they must always be tied possible to move toward the Center and
back to the reality of prophecy and avoid wallowing in indefinite dispersion,
friendship, as Chodkiewicz has illustra- overcome by ignorance, multiplicity,
ted so well in Le sceau des saints. and misguidance.
One of the most common terms that One might say that the function of the
Ibn al-'Arabi employs in referring to rev- Law is to sort out relationships and put
elation in both a general sense and the things in their proper perspective, thus
specific sense of the Koran and the Sunna providing a divine norm for human
is shar', which will be translated as knowledge and action. Faced with He/
"Law" and from which the well-known not He wherever they look, human be-
term Shari'a, the revealed law oflslam, is ings cannot possibly search out the He
derived. The original sense of the term is and cling to light without a discernment
"to enter into the water to drink of it," deriving from Light Itself. No doubt ev-
said of animals. Secondarily it means a eryone has an inner light known as intel-
clear and open track or path. It came to ligence, but that also needs correct guid-
be applied metaphorically to the clear ance to grow in intensity and begin
and obvious path which leads to God, or functioning on its own. Only the friends
in other words, the Law which God re- of God have reached the station where
vealed as guidance to mankind. Ibn al- they can follow the inner light without
'Arabi often speaks of revealed Law in reference to the outer Law. But this, as
general terms, showing plainly that he Ibn al-'Arabi would say, is a station of
means revelation in a universal sense, great danger (khatar). Iblis and countless
given to all peoples throughout history, "spiritual teachers" have been led astray
down to Mul).ammad. But when he turns by it. The law remains the only concrete
to specific applications and interpreta-· anchor.
tions of principles, he always remains It was said earlier that in "ethics" or
within the Islamic universe. He discusses assuming the character traits of God-
Jesus, Moses, Abraham and other proph-· which, precisely, is the Sufi path-equi-
ets in detail, sometimes even telling of librium is everything. The divine names
his own encounters with them in the in- must be actualized in the proper relation-
visible world. But these are Muslim ships, the names of beauty preceding
prophets through and through, their those of wrath, generosity dominating
qualities and characteristics defined over justice, humility taking precedence
largely by the picture of them drawn in over magnificence, and so on. The per-
the Koran, the Hadith, and the Islamic fect equilibrium of the names is actual-
tradition in general. No Christian or ized by the perfect assumption of every
Jew, if given the chapter on Jesus or Mo- trait in the form of which human beings
ses from the Fu~ii~ al-~ikam without be- were created. In a word, perfect equilib-
ing told the author, would imagine that rium is to be the outward form of the
it had been written by an authority of his name "Allah," the Divine Presence. The
own tradition. person who achieves such a realization is
According to Ibn al-'Arabi, the Law is known as perfect man (al-insan al-kamil),
the scale (al-mlzan) in which must be one of the most famous of Ibn al-'Arabi's
weighed everything having to do with technical terms.
God, knowledge, love, spiritual realiza- There are many different types of per-
tion, and the human state in general. fect men. Briefly stated, all of them rep-
Without the Scale of the Law, we will re·- resent full actualizations of the name Al- 27
Overview

lab, which is the "meaning" (ma'na) or on the path of achieving human thea-
innermost reality of every human form. morphism that manifests the qualities of
But each human being is different, which Moses. Dozens of chapters in the Futii~iit
is to say that "the divine self-disclosure dealing with the visions of the lights of
never repeats itself" The Divine Pres- Being and interpretations of the nature of
ence manifests itself in different modes to the realities that fill the cosmos are la-
each individual. Some of these modes are belled by the expressions "From the
designated by names close to Unity, oth- Presence of Mul).ammad," "From the
ers by names that relate to dispersion, Presence of Moses," and "From the Pres-
and most to names that are outside the ence of Jesus" to indicate the particular
scope of the ninety-nine Most Beautiful cognitive and revelational perspective
Names. The prophets and great friends that is being taken into account.
of God, as human beings, manifest the
name Allah in its relative fullness. Then,
in their specific functions, they display
one or more of the Most Beautiful
Names. They are exemplars who dis- Seeing Things as Th,ey Are
close the possibilities of the human theo-
morphic state. Each is a model of per-
fection. Perfect man alone is able to see all
The connection between the divine things in their proper places. He is the
names and the prophets can be seen divine sage who has so thoroughly as-
clearly in the structure of the Fu~ii~ al- similated the Scale of the Law that he
~ikam, where each of the twenty-seven witnesses through his very nature the
chapters is dedicated to a single prophet correct relationships among things. This
and a corresponding divine attribute. 18 discernment of relationships is the most
The first chapter is dedicated to "the wis- difficult of all human tasks, because of
dom of the Divine Presence as embodied the intrinsic ambiguity of existence.
in Adam," by whom, Ibn al-' Arabi There is no absolute point of reference
makes clear, he means the human being to which man can cling, since "None
as such. Then the succeeding chapters are knows God but God." Instead there are
dedicated to various prophets and their numerous "relatively absolute" stand-
attributes, it being understood that each points in respect of which knowledge can
of the prophets, as a human being, also be acquired. But some of these may lead
manifests the name Allah. By dealing to felicity, and some may not. Ibn al-
with the prophets as human individuals, 'Arabi's deconstruction of all doctrinal
Ibn al-'Arabl is able to investigate the absolutes must be grasped from the out-
properties of the divine attributes when set, or one will constantly be tempted to
manifested in the cosmos in specific provide a definitive statement of "what
cases. Each prophet himself becomes a Ibn al-'Arabl believes" without defining
kind of divine name, manifesting the Di- his standpoint on the question at issue.
vine Presence through his earthly career. The Shaykh accepts no absolutes other
This is one reason that Ibn al-'Arabi than the Essence of the Real- Being in
makes extensive reference in the Futii~iit Itself-on the one hand and pure and
to the "presences" of the prophets in ex- simple nothingness on the other. None
actly the same sense that he talks about knows the Essence of the Real but the
the "presences" of the names. If the Pres- Real, which is to say that there is no
ence of Power embraces everything in point of view within the contingent uni-
existence wherein the name Powerful ex- verse which allows us to speak for the
ercises its effects and displays its proper- Essence Itself. In other words, there are
ties, so also the "Presence of Moses" (al- no absolutes in the cosmos or in the uni-
28 ~a4rat al-miisawiyya) embraces everything verse of discourse. Every formulation
The Divine Presence

which attempts to describe the real must ophany or self-disclosure in all that ex-
assume a delimited, defined, and relative ists.
standpoint. What is accepted from one The rational faculty cannot perceive
point of view may have to be denied how God can disclose Himself in the cos-
from a second point of view. The Es- mos, since, if He were similar to His
sence alone is absolutely Real, but the acts, He would have to assume attributes
Essence is forever beyond our grasp and which can only be applied to created
understanding. Each standpoint in re- things. But a healthy and sound rational
spect of which God and the cosmos are faculty will grasp its own limitations and
perceived becomes a "relative absolute" accept the truth of revelation. It will real-
or a "presence" (~aqra) from which cer- ize that God knows perfectly well what
tain conclusions can be drawn, conclu- He is talking about, even if it cannot
sions which will be valid for that point of fathom what He means. Hence it will ac-
view. But Ibn al-'Arab1 is constantly cept the literal significance of the re-
changing his points of view, as is clearly vealed texts. It will say: "Yes, God has
indicated by the structure of many of his hands, eyes, and feet, just as the Koran
works, the Fu~ii~ in particular. Each of and the Hadith have reported. He laughs,
the divine wisdoms incarnated in each rejoices, forgets, and sits down. The
of twenty-seven prophets speaks in a revealed texts have said this and God
unique language, thus throwing new speaks in accordance with the tongue of
light on the self-revelation of the Un- the people, so God no doubt means what
known. Each revelation provides a He says. If He did not mean this, He
unique way oflooking upon God and the could have said something else. I accept
cosmos. So also, the spiritual "stations" it as true, but I do not ask 'how' (kayf) it
(maqiimiit) themselves, like the "waysta- is true." This is the limit of the knowl-
tions" and similar concepts, all go back, edge reason can attain-and only with
in Ibn al-'Arabl's way of seeing things, the help of revelation.
to unique perceptions of reality, delim- Imagination understands in modes
ited and defined by certain relationships foreign to reason. As an intermediate re-
and constraints. But none of these is ab- ality standing between spirit and body, it
solute, so each can be contradicted by perceives abstract ideas and spiritual be-
other points of view. The human re- ings in embodied form. Since in itself it
sponse to these constant shifts in per- is neither the one nor the other, it is in-
spective may well be "bewilderment," trinsically ambiguous and multivalent,
which, Ibn al-'Arab1 tells us, is the sta- and it can grasp the self-disclosure of
tion of the great friends of God. The Ab- God, which is He/not He. Reason de-
solute allows for no absolutizing of any- mands to know the exact relationships in
thing other than Itself, which is to say the context of either/or. But imagination
that everything other than God is imag- perceives that self-disclosure can never be
ination. known with precision, since it manifests
This having been said, it is still fair to the Unknown Essence.
maintain that perfect man's visiop. com- In the case of perfect man, spiritual re-
bines the two basic points of view of in- alization has opened up the imagination
comparability and similarity, while he to the actual vision of the embodiment of
vacillates between them in expressing his God when He discloses Himself in the-
perception of reality. The first represents ophany. He does not know "how" God
the point of view of the rational faculty, discloses Himself, but he sees Him doing
which declares God's Unity (taw~ld) and so. He understands the truth of God's
is perfectly able to grasp that the cosmos similarity with all things through a God-
is ruled by a God who must be One. The given vision, seeing clearly that all things
second represents the point of view of are neither/nor, both/and, but never ei-
imagination, which perceives God's the- ther/or. 29
Overview

Perfect man has submitted to the lit- world, perfect man may not appear dif-
eral sense and the legal injunctions of the ferent from other human beings, cer-
Divine Book. He has taken God's com- tainly not in the eyes of the deniers and
mand, "Be godfearing and God will misbelievers. The Koran reports the
teach you" (2:282), literally, and he has words of some of Mul).ammad's contem-
been taught the meaning of the text, the poraries as, "What ails this Messenger
meaning of the cosmos, and the meaning that he eats food and goes into the mar-
of his own soul. Hermeneutics is not a kets?" (25:7). But the corporeal world is
rational process, but an encounter with but the distant Sun reflected in dust. The
the divine self-disclosure, an opening of real fullness of perfect man's existence
the heart toward infinite wisdom. must be sought in the inward domains,
the innumerable intermediate worlds that
lie between his sensory shell and his di-
vine kernel. He is in fact the "Barzakh of
barzakhs" (barzakh al-bariizikh), the inter-
Human Peifection world who encompasses all interworlds,
the intermediary who fills the gap be-
tween Absolute Being and absolute noth-
Nondelimited Being is one in Its Es- ingness. His cosmic function is every-
sence and many through Its self-disclo- thing, because he is in effect identical
sures. It is both incomparable with all with the cosmos. In perfect man the mic-
existent things and similar to every crea- rocosm and the macrocosm have become
ture. It finds its fullest outward expres- one through an inner unity. In other
sion in perfect man, who manifests terms, the macrocosm is the body, per-
God's names in their total deployment. fect man the heart. In him all things are
Just as God is perfect in His Essence and brought together, whether divine or cos-
perfect through His names, so also per- mic. Just as Allah is the "all-comprehen-
fect man displays human perfection sive name" (al-ism al-jiimi'), so perfect
through his essential reality, as the form man is the "all-comprehensive engen-
of the name Allah, and through his acci- dered thing" (al-kawn al-jiimi') in which
dental manifestations, as the outward the divine names receive their full mani-
display of all the individual divine names festation on every level of the cosmos.
in the appropriate circumstances. The In perfect man can be seen the unity of
perfect men are fixed in their essences, the dynamic and static dimensions of Ibn
which are not other than the Being of al-'Arabl's cosmology. As an existent
God. But they undergo constant trans- thing who lives at once on every level of
formations and transmutations by partic- the cosmos, perfect man embraces in
ipating in God's ceaseless and never-re- himself every hierarchy. But as a human
peating self-disclosure. individual who has come into existence
God created the universe to manifest and then returned to his Creator, he has
the fullness of His generosity and mercy. tied together the Origin and the Return.
Through the cosmos, Being displays the He lives fully and consciously on all the
infinite possibilities latent within Itself. levels of the descent through which light
But It only manifests Itself in Its fullness becomes separate from Light and on all
through perfect man, since he alone actu- the levels of the ascent through which
alizes every divine character trait, or light retraces its steps and human intelli-
every quality of Being. He is the human gence rejoins divine knowledge. He is
individual who has attained to the total the part and the Whole, the many and
actualization of his theomorphism, such the One, the small and the Great, every-
that the name Allah shines forth in him thing and All. Just as he turns round
in infinite splendor. about God, so the cosmos turns round
30 On the level of the outward, corporeal about him.
2

Theology
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2. THE N A ME S 0 F G 0 D

The connecting thread of the Koran is thing he writes. 1 But this theme is far
not the stories of the prophets, the legal too fundamental for us merely to point
injunctions, the threats of punishment to its importance and refer to it in pass-
and promises of reward, or the descrip- ing as we go along. As the basis of the
tions of nature and the cosmos, but the Shaykh's dialectic, it needs thorough ex-
Most Beautiful Names, which are men- position at the outset. In order to under-
tioned singly, often in pairs, and some- stand the role of the divine names, how-
times in groups throughout the text. ever, we have to become familiar with
Most of Islamic theological thinking re- the many technical terms which are em-
volves around the names revealed in the ployed synonymously, such as attributes,
Koran. The proponents of Kalam or relationships, realities, roots, and sup-
dogmatic theology (the Mu'tazilites and ports. In the same way, since names es-
Ash'arites) commonly used the term tablish a bridge between the phenomenal
"attribute" instead of "name," but the and the Nonphenomenal, it is necessary
upshot was the same. The names-or to look at some of the words used to
attributes-summarize what can be un- describe the realities of the phenomenal
derstood about God. Even the Peripatetic world in terms of the names, such as
philosophers, who tended to avoid Ko- properties, effects, veils, and secondary
ranic references in their strictly philo- causes. And ultimately, we need to un-
sophical works, often spoke about God derstand how the phenomena themselves
in Koranic terms. How can one discuss are names of God.
reality without referring to knowledge,
desire, power, life, priority, and many
other attributes attributed to God in the
Koran? Names, Attributes, and Relationships
When Ibn al-'Arabi places the divine
names at the center of the stage, he is
merely bringing out what is implicit in The Divine Presence comprises the
Islamic thought. Several scholars who Essence, the Divine Attributes, and the
have studied his works have pointed out Divine Acts, thus embracing all that is.
the importance of the theme to every- The Essence is God in Himself without
Theology

reference to the relationships that can be forms of the cosmos reflect the name
envisaged between Him and the existent "All-merciful" (al-ra~man), whose Breath
or nonexistent things. The acts are the (nafas) is the underlying stuff of the uni-
created things. The attributes or names verse. God as the All-merciful breathes
are the barzakh or isthmus between the out while speaking, and the words that
Essence and the cosmos. The names are take form in His Breath are the existent
"called 'names' by the Law (shar'), 'rela- things of the cosmos and the scriptures
tionships' by sound rational faculties, and through which true knowledge of the
'attributes' by imperfect rational faculties nature of things is imparted to human
[that is, by the proponents of Kalam]" beings. The names of the names thus
(III 289.4). 2 The names provide the only possess a dual ontological reality: On the
means to gain knowledge of God and the one hand they are creatures, or the mani-
cosmos. festations of the divine names within the
What are God's names? Several points Breath of the All-merciful, and on the
need clarifying: (1) The names are differ- other they are the words naming God
ent from the words which we employ and revealed in the scriptures.
in referring to them. (2) The names are
relationships, not entities or existing God says, "Call upon Allah or call
things. (3) Each name denotes both the upon the All-merciful; whichever you call
Essence and a specific meaning pecu- upon, to Him belong the most beautiful
liar to itself. (4) The specific meaning names" (Koran 17:110). Here God makes
of a name can be called its "reality" or the Most Beautiful Names belong equally
"root." (5) The reality of the name deter- to both Allah and the All-merciful. But
mines the "effects" or "properties" of the notice this subtle point: Every name has a
name within the cosmos. meaning (ma'nif) and a form (~ura). "Al-
lah" is called by the name's meaning,
while the "All-merciful" is called by the
name's form. This is because the Breath is
(1) The Names of the Names ascribed to the All-merciful, and through
the Breath the divine words become man-
The words which we call divine ifest within the various levels of the Void,
names are not, strictly speaking, the which is where the cosmos becomes man-
ifest. 3 So we only call upon God by
names themselves, but the "names of the
means of the form of the name.
names" (asma' al-asma') which have been Every name has two forms. One form
revealed by God to His servants through is with us in our breaths and in the letters
the Koran and other scriptures. we combine. These are the names by
which we call upon Him. They are the
You should know that the divine names "names of the divine names" and are like
which we have are the names of the robes upon the names. Through the
divine names. God named Himself by forms of these names in our breaths we
them in respect to the fact that He is the express the divine names. Then the divine
Speaker (al-mutakallim) (who reveals by names have another kind of form within
means of His Speech]. (II 56.33). the Breath of the All-merciful in respect
of the fact that God is the Speaker (al-
Revelation, through which we learn qii'il) and is described by Speech (al-
the names of the names, makes known kaliim). Behind these forms are meanings
the nature of things; without it, true which are like the spirits of these forms.
The forms of the divine names through
knowledge of existence is impossible.
which God mentions Himself in His
Revelation is an outward form (.riira), Speech are their existence within the All-
while God's own knowledge of Himself merciful. Therefore "To Him [the All-
and the cosmos is the inner meaning merciful] belong the most beautiful
(ma'na), the spirit and life behind the names." But the spirits of those forms,
34 form. In a parallel manner, the outward which belong to the name "Allah," are
The Names of God

outside of the control of the Breath, not iqiifiit) that are envisaged between God
being described by any quality. So these and the cosmos.
"spirits," in relation to the forms of the As soon as we juxtapose God and the
names within the Breath of the All- cosmos, we perceive a relationship be-
merciful, are like meanings in relation to tween the two. The relationship may be
words. (II 396.30)
expressed by saying that God created the
cosmos, so He is its Creator (al-khiiliq)
The names of the names, revealed in and Author (al-biiri'). He also "made"
the scriptures, are as worthy of reverence and "originated" the cosmos, so He is its
and respect (~urma) as the names which Maker (al-~iini') and Originator (al-
they denote. mubdi'). By bringing the creatures into
existence He shows mercy to all of them,
In respect of the fact that the Real (al-
so He is the All-merciful. By guiding
~aqq) is the Speaker, He mentions Him-
self by names. . . . These names them- some on the straight path of religion, He
selves have names with us in the language is the Guide (al-hiidl) and the Benefactor
of every speaker. In the Arabic language (al-mun'im). By the fact that He stands
the name by which He named Himself in infinitely beyond the grasp of the crea-
respect of being the Speaker is "Allah," in tures, He is the Transcendent (al-muta'iili),
Persian "Khuday," in Ethiopian "Waq," the Glorified (al-subbu~), and the All-holy
in the tongue of the Franks "Creator" (al-quddus). In every case where a name
(kray(ur), and so on in every language. • of God is mentioned by the Koran, a
These are the names of those names. relationship can be envisaged with the
They are many because of the plurality of
creatures.
relationships. Every group venerates these
names in respect of what they denote.
That is why we [Muslims] are forbidden
Once God has created the cosmos, we
to travel to the lands of the enemy with a
see that it possesses diverse levels (mariitib)
Koran, even though it is but a script in
and realities (~aqii'iq). 5 Each of these de-
our hands, pages written by the hands of
mands a specific relationship with the
temporally originated creatures with ink
Real. When He sent His messengers, one
compounded of gall nuts and vitriol. If
of the things He sent with them because
not for the denotation, the book would of those relationships were the names by
neither be venerated nor despised .... So which He is named for the sake of His
we have nothing in our hands but the creatures. These names allow us to under-
names of the names. (II 683.29) stand that they denote (daliila) both His
Essence and an intelligible quality (amr
ma'qul) which has no entity in existence.
But the property of the effect (athar) and
reality manifest within the cosmos be-
(2) Relationships longs to the quality. Examples of these
intelligible qualities include creation, pro-
In the previous passage, the Shaykh vision, gain, loss, bringing into existence,
alludes to the plurality of the names. specification, strengthening, domination,
Why, one might ask, does One God severity, gentleness, descent, attraction,
have many names? Does not the plurality love, hate, nearness, distance, reverence,
of names demand some sort of plurality and contempt. Every attribute (~ifa) mani-
in the Divinity? Ibn al-'Arabi answers fest within the cosmos has a name known
this question in many ways. For exam- to us through the Law (al-shar'). (III
441.31)
ple, he points out that the names are not The divine names allow us to under-
existent entities (a'yiin). They are not like stand many realities of obvious diversity
the creatures of the universe, which can (ikhtiliif). The names are attributed only
be placed next to God as separate things. to God, for He is the object named by
Rather, they are relationships, attribu- them, but He does not become multiple
tions, ascriptions, or correlations (nisab, (takaththur) through them. If they were 35
Theology

ontological qualities (umur wujudiyya) sub- merciful, the Creator, the Knowing, the
sisting within Him, they would make Alive, the Desirer, the Powerful? In all
Him multiple. cases the answer is God Himself, that is,
God knows the names in respect of the Essence, or He who is named by the
the fact that He knows every object of names (al-musamma). But to say that God
knowledge, while we know the names
is Alive is clearly not the same as to say
through the diversity of their effects
within us. We name Him such and such that He is Powerful, since the two names
through the effect of what we find within denote specific qualities that differ in im-
ourselves. So the effects are multiple portant respects. This becomes especially
within us; hence the names are multiple, clear when we contrast divine names that
while God is named by them. So they oppose each other. God is both Forgiv-
are attributed to Him, but He does not ing (al-ghafor) and Vengeful (al-mun-
become multiple in Himself through taqim), Life-giver (al-mu~yl) and Slayer
them. (III 397.8) (al-mumlt), Exalter (al-mu'izz) and Abaser
(al-mudhill). In all cases the names refer
As relationships the names and attri- to the Divine Essence and to diverse
butes are contrasted with existent "enti- qualities, but there are never two entities
ties" (a'yan; sing. 'ayn), that is, the things involved. The Slayer is the Essence .and
which actually exist, whether within the so is the Life-giver.
cosmos (the created things, everything
other than God), or outside the cosmos
(God Himself, the Essence or "Entity" The names of the names are diverse
only because of the diversity of their
named by the names). meanings (ma'na). Were it not for that,
we would not be able to distinguish
Relationships are neither entlttes nor among them. They are one in God's eyes,
things. In respect to the realities of the re- but many in our eyes. (IV 419. 7)
lationships, they are nonexistent qualities Were it not for the distinction, each di-
(umiir 'adamiyya). (II 516.34) vine name would be explained exactly as
Relationships are not ontological enti- the next divine name in every respect.
ties, nor do they become qualified by ab- But the "Exalter" is not explained the
solute nonexistence, since they are intel- same as the "A baser," and so on, though
ligible. (II 684.13) the two are identical in respect of Unity
Relationships are non-entities within (al-a~adiyya). Thus, it is said that each
entities (la 'ayn fi 'ayn), since they have name denotes both the Essence and its
no entities, but their properties rule over own reality in respect of itself. The
existence .... They have no existence ex- Named is one, so the Exalter is the Aba-
cept through their properties. (III 362.5) ser in respect of what is named. But the
One of the characteristics of an "attri- Exalter is not the A baser in respect of it-
bute" is that it cannot be conceived as self and its own reality. (Fu~u~ 93)
having any existence except in that to
which it is ascribed (al-maw~uj), since it
does not subsist in itself. ... It has no ex- In the last analysis, every name de-
istence in its own entity, since it denotes notes all the names, since each name is
that to which it is ascribed. (II 300.35) identical with the Essence. In the Fu~ii~
al-~ikam Ibn al-'Arabi provides a succinct
summary of these points while explain-
(3) The Two Denotations of the ing a saying of the Sufi Abu'l-Qasim ibn
Names Qas1: 6

Every divine name signifies or denotes Abu'l-Qasim alluded to this point in his
(dalala) two realities: the Divine Essence Khal' al-na'layn when he said, "Each di-
and a quality specific to itself that sepa- vine name is named and described by all
rates or "distinguishes" (tamayyuz) it the divine names." This is because each
36 from other divine names. Who is the All- name denotes both the Essence and the
The Names of God

meaning which it conveys and demands. (4) Realities, Roots, and Supports
In respect of its denotation of the Essence
it possesses all the names, but in respect Ibn al-'Arabi and others employ the
of its denotation of the meaning which word "reality" (~aqlqa) in a number of
belongs to it alone, it becomes distin- senses, some of which will be met in
guished from other names, as in the case
of Lord (al-rabb), Creator (al-khiiliq),
coming chapters. In the present context
Form-giver (al-mu~awwir), etc. Hence the the Shaykh often employs it more or less
name is the Named in respect of the Es- synonymously with name. A reality is
sence, but it is different from the Named the Divine Essence considered in respect
in respect of the specific meaning which it of a particular relationship which It as-
conveys. (Fu~ii~ 79-80)' sumes with the creatures. This relation-
ship may be specified by a revealed
name, in which case the name denotes
In the Futu~at the Shaykh makes the the reality. Strictly speaking, the reality
same point in reference to a saying of the is then the name itself, while the revealed
famous Sufi Abii Yazid Bastami (d. ca. name is the "name of the name." The re-
261/874). lationship may also be specified by a
Koranic verse or hadith describing God
Abii Yazid heard a Koran reciter re- but not mentioning a specific name. In
citing the verse, "On the day when We this second case, the term reality is
shall muster the godfearing to the All- broader than name, since it can be ap-
merciful in droves" (19:85). He wept until plied to all revealed references to God.
his tears drummed upon the pulpit. It is
also said that blood flowed from his eyes There is no existent possible thing in
until it struck the pulpit. He cried out, everything other than God that is not
saying, "How strange! Where will he connected to the divine relationships and
who is sitting with Him be mustered?" • lordly realities (al-~aqaiq al-rabbiiniyya)
When it came around to our time, I known as the Most Beautiful Names.
was asked about that. I replied: There is Therefore every possible thing is in the
nothing strange except the words of Abii grasp (qabqa) of a divine reality. (II
Yazid. You should know that the reason 115.27)
for this is that the "god fearing servant" Every divine reality has a property
(al-muttaql) is sitting with the Overbear- within the cosmos that does not belong to
ing (al-jabbiir), so he fears His chastise- any other. These realities are relation-
ment (satwa). But the name All-merciful ships. The Knowing has a relationship to
has no chastisement in respect of its being the reality of knowledge different from
the All-merciful, since the All-merciful its relationship to the reality of power.
bestows mildness, gentleness, pardon, The property of knowledge possessed by
and forgiveness. Therefore the godfearing the Knowing has no interrelationship
servant is mustered to it from the name with the object of power (al-maqdiir); the
Overbearing, which bestows chastise- Knowing is related only to the object of
ment and awe (hayba) and which sits with knowledge (al-ma'liim). Moreover the
the godfearing servant in this world in re- object's situation in respect of being an
spect to the fact that he has fear of Him. object of power differs from its situation
You should take every divine name in in respect of being an object of knowl-
this manner whenever you aim to under- edge. (II 665.23)
stand its reality and its distinction (tamay-
yuz) from other names, since this is how Everything in the cosmos can be
you will find the names wherever they
have been mentioned in the tongues of traced back to the divine realities or
the prophecies. Each name has two deno- names. Hence Ibn al-'Arabi often refers
tations: a denotation of the Named and a to a reality as a "root" (a~l) or "support"
denotation of its own reality through (mustanad) and speaks of the phenomena
which it is distinguished from every other of this world as being "supported" (is-
name. So understand! (I 210. 7). tinad) by the names. Reality, root, and 37
Theology

support may sometimes be employed guises. The "root" of this, he says, is the
synonymously with the divine names, power of "transmutation" (ta~awwul),
but more often they have a broader which is attributed to God in a hadith
sense, since, strictly speaking, there are a found in Muslim about the Day of Res-
limited number of revealed names that urrection: God appears to people in dif-
can be attributed to God (a point ex- ferent guises, but they keep on denying
plained in more detail below), while ev- Him until He presents Himself to them
erything and every event in the cosmos according to a mark by which they rec-
can be traced back to a "reality" prefig- ognize Him. Then "He transmutes Him-
ured by the Divine Essence. Using terms self into the form in which they saw Him
such as reality, root, and support, the the first time." 9
Shaykh does not have to worry about
specifying one of the revealed names but
Were it not for this divine root [i.e.,
can refer to various Koranic verses or
transmutation] and the fact that God pos-
hadiths. sesses it and owns it in Himself, the real-
ity [of transmutation 1 could not become
There is no property in the cosmos engendered in the cosmos, since it is im-
without a divine support and a lordly at- possible for there to be something in the
tr.ibute. (IV 231.21) cosmos whose very form is not supported
The root of the existence [of dispute by a divine reality. If there were such a
among the angels] in the cosmos is the thing, there would be something in exis-
property of those divine names which tence outside of God's knowledge. But
have contrary properties, nothing else. He knows the things only through His
This is its divine support. (III 137.23) knowledge of Himself, and His Self (nafs)
God has made each of the four elements is His knowledge. In His knowledge we
both producer of effects and receptive to- are like forms in a dust cloud (habii'). (III
ward effects. The root of this in the di- 44.24)
vine knowledge is His words, "When My
servants question thee concerning Me-
surely I am near. I respond to the call of Since God's knowledge is identical
the caller when he calls to Me" (Koran with His Essence (or else knowledge
2:186). (II 453.16) would be an independent entity), and His
The support of the "present moment" Essence does not change, realities and
(waqt) in the divine things is the fact that roots also do not change. They represent
He describes Himself with the words, the way things are in truth, that is, as
"Each day He is upon some task" (55:
they are known by God Himself.
29). (II 539. 2)
[One of the sciences which the traveler
gains in this spiritual station] is the science How can a human being cease being a
of the differentiations among affairs and human being or an angel stop being an
that to which these go back. Do they go angel? If this could happen, the realities
back to a root, i.e., the divine names, or would be overthrown (inqilab), God
to the receptacles, i.e., the entities of the would cease being a god, the Real would
possible things, or to both? (III 126.33) become the creatures and the creatures the
Real, no one could depend upon knowl-
Realities, roots, and supports arc all edge, the necessary would become possi-
reducible to the things and situations ble, the impossible would become neces-
known by God, that is, the objects of the sary, and Order (al-ni;;:am) "would be
divine knowledge (ma'/Umiit). In one corrupted. So there is no way in which
the realities can be overthrown. (III
passage Ibn al-'Arabi explains this point
53.22)
while discussing the power of certain of It is impossible for the realities to
God's friends to enter into the World change, so the servant is a servant and the
of Imagination and appear to different Lord a Lord; the Real is the Real and the
38 people or even to the angels in various creature a creature. (II 371.5)
The Names of God

(5) Properties and Effects 28:88, as explained in the fifth passage


quoted below.
If the names, realities, roots, and sup- The "effects" or "properties" of the
ports denote the Essence in terms of rela- divine names are the phenomena of the
tionships, they also point to things and cosmos. In other words, they are the crea-
phenomena within the cosmos, relating tures-the things, the entities, the forms
them back to God. The names are an in- -considered inasmuch as they make the
termediate stage between God and the divine names manifest. In the Shaykh
universe. Though they have no existence al-Akbar's vocabulary the word "crea-
separate from God and cannot be under-· ture" immediately calls to mind "Crea-
stood correctly except as relationships, tor," "existent entity" conjures up "im-
they provide our only means of grasping mutable entity," and "form" implies
the connection between man and God. In "meaning." In the same way, "proper-
Ibn al-'Arabi's terms, they are a barzakh ties" and "effects" bring to mind the
or isthmus between God and the cosmos. names, realities, and roots. Or rather, to
see the properties and effects is to see the
The divine names are the barzakh be- names and realities exercising their influ-
tween us and the Named. They look ence and determining the nature of the
upon Him since they name Him, and they cosmos. And to see the names and reali-
look upon us since they bestow upon us ties is to see the manifestation of the
effects attributed to the Named. So they Essence Itself.
make the Named known and they make
us known. (II 203.3) No property becomes manifest within
existence without a root in the Divine
Ibn al-'Arabi employs two terms al- Side (al-janiib al-iliihf) by which it is
most synonymously to refer to the man- supported. (II 508.5).
ner in which the divine names are re- The "divine support" is the fact that the
divine names are the support for the loci
flected within the cosmos: "effect" (athar, (ma~iill) wherein their own effects exist,
pl. athar) and "property" (~ukm, pl. a~­ so that the levels of the names may be-
kam). The literal sense of athar is re- come designated (ta'yfn). (II 654.16).
mainder, trace, mark, sign, vestige. The If not for the possible things, no ef-
word is employed in such Koranic verses fect of the divine names would become
as "Behold the effects of God's mercy: manifest. And the name is identical with
How He brings the earth to life after it the Named, especially when what is
was dead" (30:50). The word ~ukm is meant is the divine names. (III 317.12)
frequently employed in the Koran in the That which turns its attention toward
sense of judgment or decision. It soon bringing "everything other than God"
(mii siwii Alliih) into existence is the
came to have significance for several of Divinity (al-ulaha) through its proper-
the sciences, such as jurisprudence (fiqh), ties, ' 0 relations, and attributions; it is
where it means ruling, statute, pre- these which call for effects. It is impossi-
scription. The Shaykh employs the term ble that there might be one that overpow-
in these meanings, but in the present ers (qiihir) without something overpow-
context he uses it to refer to what might ered (maqhur), or a powerful (qiidir)
be called the ruling power or the govern- without an object of power (maqdur). (I
ing control of the divine names in the 41.34)
cosmos. Here the term will be translated God says, "Everything is annihilated
except His Face." He continues the verse
as "property," though on occasion it will with His words, "To Him belongs the
be necessary to add a modifier to get the property," which is what becomes man-
sense across, such as "ruling property" ifest within the things themselves. Then
or "determining property." The Shaykh He says, "And to Him you shall be re-
understands the term hukm in this sense turned" (28:88). In other words: You will
from several Koranic . verses, especially return, after having been "others," to Me. 39
Theology

The property of the "other" will go, since names will have a stronger effect and
there is nothing in existence but Me. greater property than the others, and
We can explain this with, for example, therefore that thing will be attributed
the name "human being" (al-insiin), with (nisba) to it. In the same way [in astrol-
all its differentiations and its different ogy] Sunday is attributed to the planet of
properties, such as life, sensation, facul- the seventh sphere, Monday to that of the
ties, organs with diverse motions, and fourth sphere, and so on for each day.
everything that belongs to this thing Nevertheless, each planet has a property
named "human being." The entities and an effect in each day. But the specific
within which these properties become planet to which the day is attributed has a
manifest are nothing other than the hu- greater and stronger property than the
man being. Hence "To the human be- other planets. (II 468.3)
ing these properties shall be returned."
In the case of the Real, the "properties"
In one passage Ibn al-'Arabi sets
are nothing other than the forms of the
entire cosmos-that part of the cosmos out to explain that even attributes like
which has become manifest and will "poverty" (iftiqar), which cannot be
become manifest. The properties derive attributed to God, have their roots in the
from Him. Hence He says, "To Him divine names. For the reality of poverty
belongs the property" (28:88). Then all is need, and it can be said that God-in
of them return to being identical with respect of certain names-has need of
Him. (III 419.25) the cosmos. In the process of explaining
Were it not for the names, we would this, the Shaykh brings together much of
not fear, hope, give, worship, listen, what has been said about the names to
obey, or be addressed, nor would we
this point.
address the Named. Were it not for the
properties which they possess-that is,
the effects-you would not know the Someone may object: You have stated
names. . . . The properties of the names that there is no reality and no relationship
beautify the names and dress them in in the cosmos that does not emerge from
splendor (bahii'), while the names beautify a divine relationship. But among the
the Named and dress Him in splendor. relationships is poverty. And Abu Yaz!d
Through us the names become desig- -who, moreover, is one of the People of
nated, so we dress Him in the form of Unveiling and Finding-said that God
splendor. Within Him the names become said to him in one of his visions: "Ap-
manifest, so splendor subsists in Him, for proach Me through that which I do not
He is the Named. (IV 419.3) possess-lowliness (dhilla) and pov-
The divine name is the spirit of its erty."''
effect, while its effect is its form. Sight [My answer is as follows:] You should
cannot see the name, only its effect, know, 0 seeker of truth, that the Real
which is its form. Thus, when a person possesses mercy, pardon, generosity, for-
sees the corporeal form of Zayd, he can giveness and other things of this sort
say correctly that he saw Zayd, without which have been mentioned as His Most
any interpretation (ta'wll). His words are Beautiful Names. He possesses these in
true, even though Zayd has an unseen reality. He also possesses vengeance
governing spirit (rii~ mudabbir), while that (al-intiqiim) and terrible assault (al-batsh
spirit has a form which is his corporeality. al-shadld). So He is Compassionate, Par-
So the effects of the divine names are the doner, Generous, Forgiver, and Possessor
forms of the names. He who witnesses of Vengeance. It is impossible that the
the forms says truly that he has witnessed effects of these names be found within
the names. (II 499.13) Him or that He be a locus (ma~all) for
No possible thing is brought into exis- their effects. So toward whom is He
tence without there being found with- compassionate? Whom does He pardon?
in it the effects of those divine names that To whom is He generous? Whom does
are connected (muta'allaq) to the engen- He forgive? From whom does He exact
dered things (al-akwiin). However, within vengeance? Hence one has to say that
that specific possible thing, one of the God the Creator demands created things
The Names of God

(makhlaq) and the created things demand is many in His properties. He possesses
the Creator. . . . Therefore there must be the Most Beautiful Names, and each
a cosmos, since the divine realities de- name is a mark ('alama) upon an intelli-
mand it. 12 gible reality which is different from other
We have already explained that God as realities. When the cosmos comes from
an essence cannot be understood in the nonexistence into existence, its faces are
same way as God as a god. Therefore many, and these seek the names-1 mean
there are two different levels (martaba), the objects named-, even though the
though there is nothing in entified exis- Entity is One. In the same way, the
tence (al-wujiid al-'aynl) save the One cosmos, in respect of being a cosmos, is
Entity. In respect of Himself, He is "In- one, but it is many through its properties
dependent of the worlds," 13 but, in re- and individuals. (III 368.27)
spect of the Most Beautiful Names which
demand the cosmos because of its possi-
bility (imkan) 14 in order for their effects
to become manifest within it, He de-
mands the existence of the cosmos. If the The Names of Engendered Existence
cosmos already existed, He would not
have sought its existence. So the names
are like a family dependent upon Him,
and the master strives for the sake of his The engendered things (al-kainiit,
dependents. The creatures arc His ex- al-akwiin, al-mukawwaniit) are the ex-
tended family, while the names are the istents or the acts, the creatures which
immediate household. The cosmos asks have been brought into existence by the
from Him because of its possibility, while Divine Command "Be!" (kun) and which
the names ask from Him in order for their will pass out of existence when their stay
effects to become manifest .... in this world is over. Many names are
This is what is given by the realities attributed to them. Every noun that
in themselves, and they do not change. denotes something existing in the cos-
If the realities changed, Order would
mos in every language in the world is a
be destroyed and there would be no
knowledge whatsoever, no Real, and no
name of an engendered thing. How
creation. (III 316.27) many of these names can also be attrib-
uted to God?
Ibn al-'Arabi provides a definition The first answer to this question is
of the divine names employing much of that only those names can be attributed
the above terminology in a context to God which have been attributed to
which reminds us that, although he Him by Himself in His revelations. This
expresses his ideas philosophically, he is the theological principle of "condition-
did not think them out in the phi- ality" (tawqif), which is based among
losophical manner, since they are the other things on the courtesy (adab) that
fruit of unveiling and opening. must be observed toward God.

While writing the present section, In terms of their ascription (itlaq) to


fell asleep and saw a heralding vision Him, His names arc conditional upon
(mubashshira), 1 5 in which it was re- having come from Him. So He is not
cited to me, "He has laid down for you named except as He has named Himself,
as Law what He charged Noah with, even if it be known that a name desig-
and what We have revealed to thee [0 nates Him, since conditionality in ascrib-
Mul).ammad], and what We charged ing the names is to be preferred. God
Abraham with, and Moses, and Jesus: decreed all of this only so that the crea-
'Perform the religion, and scatter not tures would learn courtesy toward
regarding it.' Very hateful is that for the Him. (II 232.28)
idolaters-that to which thou art calling
them" (Koran 42:13), that is, the Oneness But the Shaykh also points out that
to which thou art calling them, since God in the last analysis all names must be 41
Theology

ascribed to God, smce the acts of God calling Him by certain names, even
denote Him inasmuch as they are the many names that are implied by the text
properties and effects of His names. of the Koran. For example, the Koran
says, "They deceived God and God
Every name by which something is deceived" (3:54), "God mocks them"
named and which expresses a meaning is (2:15}, and so on. Can we call God the
God's name. However, it should not be Deceiver and the Mocker? No, says the
ascribed to Him-and this either because Shaykh:
of the Law, or because of courtesy toward
God. (III 373.1) Among the names are those which can
The names become intelligible through appropriately be designated and those
that which is demanded by engendered which cannot. For example, the Splitter
existence. But engendered existence (al- [of the Dawn] (al-foliq) and the Appointer
kawn) never ceases coming to be, so there (al-jci'il) have been designated, but the
is no end to the names. (II 69.32) "Mocker" and the "Derider" have not
"God has ninety-nine names." . . . been revealed. Nevertheless, it is He who
These are "mothers," 16 like the [360] mocks whomsoever He will of His ser-
degrees of the celestial sphere. Then every vants. He deceives and derides whomso-
possible entity has a specific divine name ever of them He will, since He has men-
which gazes upon it. The name gives the tioned this [in the Koran]. Yet He is not
entity its specific face, through which it named by anything of this sort. (IV
becomes distinguished from every other 319.5)
entity. The possible things are infinite, so
the names are infinite, since relationships In the text of the Futuhiit Ibn al- 'Arabi
come into temporal existence along with
sometimes denies that the names of the
the temporal origination of the possible
things. (IV 288.1) engendered things (asmii' al-kawn or al-
The names of God are infinite, since asmii' al-kawniyya) can be attributed to
they become known from that which is God. When he does so, he is observing
engendered from them, and that is in- courtesy and the principle of condition-
finite, even though the names are reduci- ality. More commonly he maintains that
ble to finite roots which are the "Mothers the names of all things must, in the last
of the Names" or the "Presences of the analysis, be attributed to the One Reality
Names." In reality one single Reality ac- which is their root, support, and source.
cepts all these relationships and attribu-
tions which are alluded to as the divine There are names that are ascribed to the
names. Moreover, this Reality demands servant but not to the Divine Side, even
that every name that becomes manifest, though their meaning includes that. For
ad infinitum, possess a reality that distin- example, the "miser" (al-bakhfl) is as-
guishes it from every other name. This cribed to the servant but not to the Real.
reality by which the name becomes dis- But miserliness is a kind of holding back,
tinguished is the name itself; that which is and one of His names is "He who holds
shared [with the other names] is not the back" (al-mcini'). A person who is miserly
name. (Fu~ii~ 65) has held back. This is true, but we ask for
another way to approach the question, so
On the one hand the principle of con- we say: Every miserliness is a holding
ditionality demands that a name must back, but not every holding back is a mi-
have been revealed by God in order for serliness. He who holds back the rightful
us to employ it. On the other hand the due (~aqq) of him to whom it belongs has
been miserly; but the Real has recorded
nature of things allows us to understand
the words of Moses that God "gave each
that every name refers to the divine acts; thing its creation" (Koran 20:50). He who
and the acts are embraced by the Divine has given you your creation and accom-
Presence. So God is present in all things plished your rightful due has not been mi-
and named by them. Nevertheless, serly toward you. So to hold back that of
42 courtesy demands that we refrain from which the creatures are not worthy is not
The Names ofGod

the holding back of miserliness. To this to the creatures. The position of the ma--
extent we will make a distinction here be- jority (al-jamaa) is that this is only true
tween the two meanings. for specific names, that is, the Most Beau-
In the same way the name "liar" (al- tiful Names. (III 147.16)
kadhib) pertains specifically to the servant
and cannot properly be ascribed to the Ibn al-'Arabi clarifies his own posi-
Real, since He tells the truth in every re- tion on the names of engendered exis-
spect .... tence in the context of explaining how
Likewise the name "ignorant" (al-jahil)
the lover of God travels to God through
is one of the names of engendered exis-
His names. In the process he refers to the
tence and it is not appropriate for the Di-
vine Side. . . . (II 242.20, 28) fact that the friends of God assume His
One of the ways [of looking at the na- character traits (takhalluq) by gaining
ture of things is to speak of] the creatures nearness to Him.
becoming manifest in those attributes of
the Real that are generally distinguished God discloses Himself (taja//{) to the
as attributes of the Real by the common lover in the names of engendered exis-
people, 17 like the Most Beautiful Names tence and in His Most Beautiful Names.
and such things. This is the extent of the The lover imagines that His self-dis-
knowledge of the common people. But closure through the names of engendered
for us and for the elect, all attributes existence is a descent by the Real for his
belong to God at root (bi'l-a~ala). Those sake. But from His horizon, this :is not so.
attributes which are attributed to the crea- When the lover assumes the traits of
tures-and which, according to the com- His Most Beautiful Names, he is over-
mon people, descend (nuzul) from God come by the same assumption of traits
toward us-we call "attributes of the that takes place in the path of the Folk
Real." The servant's station with God of Allah. 211 The lover imagines that the
rises until he becomes adorned (ta~allt) by names of engendered existence were cre-
them. 1 " For the common people they are ated for him and not for God and that the
names of imperfection (naq~), but for us station of the Real in them is like the sta-
they are names of perfection (kama/), since tion of the servant in His Most Beautiful
none is named at root but God. Names. 21 The lover says: "I will enter in
When He made the creatures manifest, upon Him (dukhul 'alayh) only through
He bestowed upon them those names my own names. Then when I come out
which He willed to bestow and actual- again to the creatures, I will come out to
ized the creatures through them. Crea- them having assumed the traits of His
tion stands in the station of imperfection Most Beautiful Names." Then, when he
because of its possibility (imkan) and its enters in upon God through what he
poverty (iftiqar) toward someone to give supposes to be his own names-i.e.,
preponderance [to its existence over its those things he calls the "names of en-
nonexistence] (al-murajji~). 19 Hence peo- gendered existence"- he sees the signs
ple imagined that imperfection is their (iiyiit) which the prophets saw in their
root and their right (~aqq), and they spiritual journeys (isra') and ascensions
judged themselves accordingly. They (mi'riij) "upon the horizons and in them-
judged that these creaturely names (al- selves" (Koran 41:53). Hence he sees that
asmii' al-khalqiyya) are imperfect. When all are His names and that the servant
they heard that the Real had named Him- has no name of his own. Even the name
self by them, they made this a "descent" "servant" does not belong to him. On
from the Real to them through their at- the contrary, he has assumed it as a trait,
tributes. They did not know that these are like all the Most Beautiful Names. He
names of the Real at root. comes to know that traveling to Him, en-
According to our position (madhhab) tering in upon Him, and being present
concerning the creatures' becoming man- (J]uqur) with Him take place only through
ifest in the attributes of the Real, the His names and that the names of engen-
names include all creatures. Every name dered existence are His names. So he cor-
the creatures possess belongs truly (~aqq) rects his error after missing what he had
to the Real and metaphorically (musta'iir) missed. 43
Theology

This witnessing (shuhiid) makes up for He explains what he means in many


everything that had slipped away from passages of the Futu~at, most often in the
the lover when he differentiated between context of describing the "secondary
the worshiper (a!-'iibid) and the worshiped causes" (asbab) that fill the cosmos. The
(al-ma'biid) . . . . I have not seen that this
word sabab, singular of asbab, means
station has been tasted (dhawq) by any of
God's friends, only the prophets and
literally "rope" or "cord," and by ex-
messengers. In respect of this locus of tension is applied to connecting things
divine disclosure they described Him by or factors. Hence it also refers to a way
what exoteric knowledge ('ilm al-ru- or means of access, or to any "means"
siim) '' calls the "attributes of similarity" for accomplishing an end. In the Islamic
(~ifot al-tashbrh). People imagined that the sciences the term came to mean "cause,"
Real described Himself with the attributes usually in the incomplete or incidental
of the creatures, so they interpreted that sense that might best be translated "occa-
away (ta'wll). But this locus of witnessing sion" or "mediate cause." Often a dis-
(mashhad) shows that the root of every tinction was drawn between the apparent
name possessed by engendered existence
belongs in reality to the Real. Applied to
or secondary cause of a thing and the real
the creatures, the name is a word without cause, known as the Causer of Secondary
meaning, though the creatures assume its Causes (musabbib al-asbab), i.e., God. In
traits. (II 350.23) the sense of "secondary causes," espe-
cially in the plural, the term becomes a
common expression in Sufi writings to
refer to the causes that seem to be at
work in the cosmos. Since each thing in
Secondary Causes the universe is the cause of, or occasion
for, other things, asbab was soon a term
used to refer to the existent things in
In order to prove that God is named general, to all the phenomena, which, in
by all things, Ibn al-'Arabi often analyzes the general Islamic view, could only be
the poverty and need (faqr, iftiqar) of all the outward forms of unseen realities or
creatures. Every engendered existent has "noumena." Many Sufis held that it was
need of God both for its existence and its blameworthy to take the asbab or "sec-
attributes, which are nothing but the ondary causes" seriously, since this
properties and effects of the names. This, would mean turning one's gaze away
according to the Shaykh, is the meaning from the Causer of Secondary Causes.
of the Koranic verse, "0 people, you are But Ibn al-'Arabi reinstates the secondary
the poor [or, the needy] toward God, causes as fundamental constituent cle-
and God-He is the Independent [or, the ments of the cosmos. God Himself estab-
Wealthy], the Praiseworthy" (35:15). In lished (waq') the secondary causes, so
one passage, the Shaykh tells us that they play an important role in His plan.
none of the lists of the ninety-nine names "God did not establish the secondary
which have reached us is reliable, and causes aimlessly" (II 208.16).
he quotes approvingly the opinion that The secondary causes are important be-
only eighty-three of the ninety-nine can cause they are names of God through
be known with certainty. After listing which we come to know Him. Without
these, he writes: them we would have no access to Him.
Here one has to understand that
But he who truly wants to become "secondary causes" is merely another
aware of the names of God should medi- name for existent things, creatures, or
tate upon His words, "0 people, you are divine acts. However, the term implies
the poor toward God!" In reality there is that something is hidden from sight,
nothing in existence but His names. (II since secondary causes conceal the First
44 303.13) Cause. Hence the term is used more
The Names of God

or less synonymously with "forms" thing whose existence He desires. Hence


(~uwar)-a word which always implies the existence of the locus is a secondary
that there are "meanings" behind the cause for the existence of the desired thing
forms-and with "veils" (~ujub), that is, to which God's desire has become con-
the things inasmuch as they prevent us nected. . . . Hence it is known that sec-
ondary causes have properties within the
from seeing God, though they alert us to things that are caused. They are like the
the fact that God is hidden behind them. tools of an artisan (~ani'). The art (~an'a)
and the artifact (ma~nii') are attributed to
God established the secondary causes the artisan, not to the tools. (III 134.25)
and made them like veils. Hence, the sec-
ondary causes take everyone who knows
that they are veils back to Him. But they All secondary causes brought into
block everyone who takes them as lords existence by God are forms and veils, or
(arbab). (III 416.19) effects and properties of His names. In
Through the secondary causes that He the last analysis the secondary causes
has set up, He made us blind to His at- denote only the Causer. They must be
tentiveness (tawajjuh) toward bringing
considered His names. This is the point
the things into existence. He sent down
the rain, so it fell. People tilled the earth Ibn al-'Arabi wants to explain in the
and sowed the grain, and the sun spread context of the "poverty and need"
its rays. The grain sprouted and was (iftiqar) of all things toward God. His
harvested, milled, made into dough, reasoning goes something like this: God
chewed with teeth, swallowed, and di- has said in the Koran that all people are
gested by the stomach. Then the liver poor toward Him, so this is a reality that
took over and made it into blood. Then cannot be denied. Because of His testi-
it was sent through the veins and divided mony, we know that poverty toward
among the parts of the body. Then a va- Him is an intrinsic dimension of human
por (bukhar) rose up from it, and it be-
came the life of the body for the sake of
nature which cannot be left behind in any
the soul. These are the "mothers" of the situation. However, when we look at
secondary causes, along with the move- people, we see that they arc poor and
ment of the spheres, the traveling of the needy toward all sorts of things, such as
planets, the shining of rays. . . . All of food, water, shelter, and other secondary
these are established veils (~ujub maw4ii'a), causes. But at best this poverty is an
the mothers of the minute secondary extrinsic and accidental need, since we
causes below them. A person's ears must are intrinsically and essentially poor only
rend all these veils to hear the word toward God. Therefore, in fact, when
"Be!" 23 Therefore He creates in the be- we have need of the secondary causes,
liever the power of faith (al-lman). It per-
vades his hearing, so he perceives the
we have need of God. The forms and
word "Be!", and it pervades his sight, so phenomena are merely veils hiding God's
he witnesses the Engenderer of Secondary Reality, or rather, various names that He
Causes (mukawwin al-asbab). (II 414.1) assumes in disclosing Himself to His
If secondary causes had no effect in that creatures. Poverty toward secondary
which is caused, God would not have causes is in truth poverty toward the
brought them into existence. If their First Cause.
property were not intrinsic (dhatf) to the Though this argument might sound
caused things (al-musabbabat), they would like sophistry to some people, it is
not be causes and it would not be true to strongly grounded in the Shaykh's on-
call them causes. This situation is known,
for example, when something can only
tology, a point that will become clear as
accept existence in a locus, while there is we move along. It is intimately con-
no locus, though the Giver of Existence nected with the "inherent worship" (al-
(al-miijid) desires to bring the thing into 'ibadat al-dhatiyya) that is a property of all
existence. Hence He must bring a locus things, as opposed to the "accidental
into existence for the existence of that worship" (al-'ibiidat al-'araqiyya) that hu- 45
Theology

man beings perform when they follow a God. Hence, one of His names is this
religion. 24 very thing, that is, the form of that food,
which takes the place of the spoken or
God says, "0 people, you are the poor written form of the divine name. (III
toward God" (35:15). Through address- 208.7)
ing people in this way, God names Him-
self by every name possessed by some- To be poor toward all things is hardly
thing toward which there is poverty. This something to be despised. In fact, Ibn al-
is a kind of Divine Jealousy (al-ghayrat al- 'Arabi calls it the station of perfect man
ilahiyya) so that no one should be poor (al-insan al-kamil).
toward any but Him. 25 (II 601.11)
To Him who is named by the name Know that all the levels are divine at
"Allah" belongs-in respect of the fact root, though their properties become
that "To Him all affairs shall be returned" manifest within engendered existence.
(Koran 11:123)-the name of every The highest divine level becomes manifest
named thing toward which there is pov- within perfect man, and the highest level
erty, whether mineral, plant, animal, is that of independence from all things.
man, celestial sphere, angel, or any such But that level is only appropriate for God
thing, whatever name is applied to it .... in respect of His Essence. The highest
Hence He is named by every name which cosmic level is independence through all
is possessed by every named thing in the things; or if you want, call it "poverty to-
cosmos and which has an effect within ward all things." This is the level of per-
engendered existence-and everything fect man, for everything was created for
has an effect in engendered existence. him and for his sake and was subjected
(IV 196.31) (taskhlr) to him, 26 since God knew of his
The possible things are poor in their need toward all things. So he has no inde-
very essences. Poverty never ceases to ac- pendence from anything.
company them perpetually, since their es- But one can only have need for him in
sences are perpetual. So God established whose hand is the accomplishment of the
the secondary causes through which the need, and that is only God, "in whose
possible things can acquire that toward hand is the dominion of all things" (Ko-
which they are poor. Hence the possible ran 36:83). Hence God had to disclose
things are poor toward the secondary Himself to this perfect man in the form of
causes. Then God made the secondary each thing. Thereby God delivers to him,
causes themselves names for Himself. through the form of the thing, that to-
Hence the names of the secondary causes ward which he has need and which can
are among His names, and as a result only subsist through God.
there is no poverty except toward Him. Since God qualified Himself by jeal-
. . . The People of Unveiling see no dif- ousy before His servants, He made mani-
ference, in respect of being names of God, fest the property of jealousy. 27 Hence He
between those names that in common us- made clear to them that it is He who dis-
age (al-'urj) and the Law are said to be the closes Himself in the form of everything,
names of God and the names of the sec- so that there should be no poverty except
ondary causes. For God says, "You are toward Him specifically. For He said, "0
the poor toward God." But in fact we ob- people, you arc the poor toward God."
serve poverty toward the secondary So you should understand and verify the
causes. So the names of the possible reliance of people upon the forms of the
things must be the names of God, and we secondary causes and their poverty to-
call upon Him by means of them. How- ward them, while God has affirmed that
ever, this call is made by our state (du'a' people are poor toward Him, not toward
al-~a/), not our words. When hunger anything else. Thus He makes clear to
touches us, we hurry to the food which them that it is He who discloses Himself
takes away the pain of hunger. So we arc in the forms of the secondary causes, and
poor toward it, while it is independent of that the secondary causes-which are the
us. But we are not poor toward any but forms-are a veil over Him. (II 469.2)
The Divine Roots of Hierarchy & Conflict

3. THE.DI VINE ROOTS OF HIERARCHY AND


CONFLICT

Several times in the previous chapter guish between the names of incompara-
the term "level" (martaba) was employed bility, which pertain exclusively to God,
without explanation. In the last quota- and the names of similarity, which God
tion we learned that the "highest divine shares with the creatures.
level becomes manifest within perfect
man" and that it consists of "indepen-
dence from all things." For present pur-
poses, a single point needs to be clarified Hierarchy in the Names
in some detail: the nature of the "divine
levels," of which independence is the
"highest" (independence itself will be The word martaba or "level" derives
discussed in the next chapter). from the root r.t.b., the basic meaning
The divine levels go back to the fact of which is to be constant, firm, and
that the divine names denote the Essence motionless. A martaba or rutba (from
on the one hand and a specific reality on the same root) is a locus wherein some-
the other, a reality which allows us to thing is fixed, hence a "degree, grade,
differentiate between one name and level, rank, standing, station, class." The
another. The highest level pertains to most common verbal noun from the root
the name which designates the widest is tartw, which means to arrange or to
and greatest of these specific realities. In place in degrees, grades, levels, etc., and
other words, the highest level belongs to which will usually be translated as "hier-
the name Allah, which denotes the "Di- archy," as in tarfib al-'iilam, the "hierar-
vinity." Levels lower than the Divinity chy of the cosmos."
pertain to other names, each of which re- A level becomes established in rela-
fers to a reality more limited and specific tion to other things or other levels, so it
than Allah, such as Knowing, Powerful, is a relationship. As we saw above, rela-
Forgiving, Vengeful, and so on. The tionships pertain to nonexistence (umiir
names can be ranked in degrees in terms 'adamiyya), since they are not entities.
of the scope of the realities which they They can be perceived only in respect to
designate, and this ranking is the "root" different things or between the things
of every hierarchy that can be perceived and God. For example there is a relation-
in the cosmos. ship between a father and his son based
Many of the names exercise properties on the fact that the son has come into ex-
that are mutually incompatible, such as istence through the father. The "level"
Forgiving and Vengeful, and these names here is fatherhood on the one hand and
also display their effects within the cos- sonhood on the other. Both fatherhood
mos. These effects are the root of diver- and sonhood are relationships, not exis-
sity and conflict. But in spite of the fact tent entities. Examples could be multi-
that the names yield multiplicity and plied indefinitely. It is only necessary to
contradictory properties in the universe, look at two things and then rank them in
each of them denotes the One Essence, respect to relationship: higher and lower,
which remains incomparable with all cre- larger and smaller, brighter and darker,
ated things. Many of the names, in fact, more intense and less intense, and so on.
denote various aspects of this incompara-
bility, and in classifying the names into Relationships pertain only to nonex-
different categories, it is useful to distin- istence. This is self-evident in the prop- 47
Theology

erties of levels, as for example the level fact] divine. So there is no level that is not
of a sovereign and the level of a subject uplifted, and ranking in degrees (tafo4ul) is
among human beings. The sovereign found in the uplifting (rifa) . ...
rules over the subject according to what You should also know that, were there
is demanded by the level of sovereignty. no forms, no entity would become dis-
But sovereignty has no entified existence tinguished from any other. And were
(wujud 'ayni). So the ruling property there no levels, the measures (maqiidfr)
(~ukm) belongs to the levels. (III 452.12) of things could not be known and no
Things arc only witnessed in respect of form could take Ufl residence in its way-
their levels, not in their entities. For ex- station (manzila). 'A'isha [the wife of the
ample, there is no difference between the Prophet] alluded to that waystation with
king and his subjects in humanity. Hence her words, "God has placed the people
the [parts of the] cosmos only become in their waystations." The levels make
distinct through the levels. Only in re- known that which is ranked higher (al-
spect to the levels are some parts more fo4il) and that over which it is ranked (al-
excellent than others. maf4ul). The levels distinguish (tamyfz)
He who knows that excellence (sharaj) between God and the cosmos and they
pertains to the levels-not to his own manifest the realities of the divine names
entity-will never deceive himself into in terms of their more inclusive and less
thinking that he is more excellent than inclusive connections [with the crea-
anyone else, though he may say that one tures]. (II 468.35, 469.11, 17)
level is more excellent than another level.
This is the station of the intelligent, the
The term "connection" (ta'alluq) sig-
gnostics. The Messenger of God said a
great deal in respect to this station con- nifies the relationship between an attri-
cerning himself in order to teach us. bute and its object, or a name and its
[For example, God says to him in the Ko- effect. Thus theologians speak of the "con-
ran, "Say,] 'I am but a mortal like you'." nection" of knowledge to the known,
Hence, he did not see himself superior to desire to the object desired, power to the
us. Then he mentioned the level, for he object over which it is exercised, and so
said, "To me it has been revealed . . . " on. It is one of several terms the Shaykh
(41:6). (III 225.32) employs to refer to the relationship be-
tween a divine name and the effects it ex-
Ibn al-'Arabi finds a clear reference ercises in the cosmos. He often points
to the divine root of the cosmic levels in out that the "connections" of the names
the name "Uplifter of Degrees" (raJ I al- vary in scope (~l(a) or inclusiveness
darajiit, Koran 40:15). In discussing its ('umum). The "connection" of the name
properties, he says that its attentiveness Knowing to the things is more inclusive
(tawajjuh)-that is, the manner in which than that of Powerful, since the Know-
it exercises its properties and displays its ing knows all things, existent or non-
effects-is limited to existent, while the Powerful becomes
connected only to those things which
the designation (ta'yfn) of the levels, not enter into existence. Hence the scope of
bringing them into existence. For the lev- some names is greater or more inclusive,
els are relationships; they do not become
qualified by existence, since they have no
that of others narrower and less inclu-
entities .... sive.
Moreover, you should know that every
divine name has a level not possessed by The divine names that arc attributed to
any other. And every form in the cosmos the Real have various levels in attribution.
has a level not possessed by any other. So Some of them depend (tawaqquf) upon
the levels arc infinite, and they are the others, some of them supervise (muhaymi-
"degrees." Some degrees have been up- niyya) others, and some have a more in-
lifted, and some have been uplifted even clusive connection to the cosmos and
more, whether they arc divine or cngen- more effects within it than others. The
48 dercd, for the engendered levels are [in whole cosmos is the loci of manifestation
The Divine Roots of Hierarchy & Conflict

(ma:?ahir) for these divine names. (II frequently uses the latter term in dis-
34.1). cussing what it means to be a god. It
will usually be translated as "god" with
When Ibn al-'Arabi ranks the names in lowercase g, or with capital letter when
degrees, most commonly he has in view accompanied by the definite article, i.e.,
the difference in scope among the names. "the God." The name Allah often has a
In the following passage he is discussing specific technical significance, in which
the divine root of the fact that God is case it will be retained in translation. In
"Uplifter of degrees." other cases it is merely the vaguest and
most general name that can be applied to
We know that some names-which- the ultimate Reality, synonymous with
ever they might be-are uplifted above al-~aqq, "the Real." The latter name is
others in degrees, so that some may sometimes employed to contrast with the
make use (ittikhadh) of others. We know term al-khalq ("creation" or "the crea-
that the degree of the Alive (al-~ayy) is tures"), and sometimes it is used as the
the most tremendous degree among the most general of divine names to avoid
names, since it is the precondition (al- mentioning a specific relationship. Thus,
shart) for the existence of the names. 1 Ibn al-'Arabi commonly employs al-~aqq
We also know that the knowledge of the
in a sentence like, "The Real can be
Knowing (al-'alim) is more inclusive in
connection and more tremendous in com- viewed in respect of the Essence or in
pass (i~afa) than the Powerful (al-qadir) respect of the name Allah."
and the Desiring (al-murld), since names As stated earlier, the terms Essence
like these have less inclusive connections and Divinity are applied to the same
than the Knowing. They are like gate- Reality, but from different points of
keepers (sadana) for the Knowing .... view. In respect of the Essence, nothing
There is a similar situation to be seen in positive can be said about God; attributes
the fact that the degrees of the Hearing must be negated from Him. But in re-
(al-saml), the Seeing (al-ba~lr), the Thank- spect of the Divinity, all names can be
ful (al-shakiif}, and the rest of the names-
including the Clement (al-ra'iif), the
ascribed to Him. In other words, God
Compassionate (al-ra~lm), and the other cannot be understood in a positive, af-
names -are less inclusive in connection. firmative way in respect of His Essence,
All of them stand lower than the Know- but He can be understood so in respect of
ing (al-'allm) in degree. (IV 228.12, 18) His names. In the same way, levels-
which, like the names, are relation-
ships-can only be discerned in respect
Though Ibn al-'Arabi states in the pas- of the Divinity, not in respect of the
sage quoted at the end of the last chap- Essence. So the Essence itself is not a
ter that the highest level is "indepen- level, and the first level that can be dis-
dence," elsewhere he speaks of "divinity" cerned in all that exists is God as Divin-
(al-ulUha or al-uliihiyya) as the highest, ity. Hence Ibn al-'Arabi often talks about
since the two levels are in fact practically the "Essence" and the "Level" as con-
synonymous. The Divinity is the highest trasting points of view in respect to the
level and the Essence stands "beyond" Real.
the Divinity, which is to say that the
Essence is not a level. Or rather, Divin-
ity is the Level of the Essence. This is a In respect of His Essence, "Allah is In-
dependent of the worlds" (Koran 3:97), so
key theme in the Shaykh's metaphysics
we speak about Him only inasmuch as He
and deserves a good deal of attention. is a god. Hence we speak about the Level,
"Divinity," it should be noted at the not about the Entity. In the same way we
outset, is the verbal noun connected both speak about the sovereign in respect of
to the proper name Allah and to the ge- the fact that he is a sovereign, not the fact
neric term iliih, "god." Ibn al-'Arabi that he is a human being. There is no 49
Theology

profit in speaking except about the reali- intelligible quality and a known relation-
ties of the levels, since it is through them ship through which properties are exer-
that ranking in degrees is understood cised and which possesses properties. This
among the entities. (I 441.15) is one of the most marvelous of things:
The divine names-that is, the level that the nonexistent (al-ma'dum) displays
which is called a "god" -possess free effects! 3
disposal (al-ta~rif) and exhibit properties The property may also subsist through
within those things described by them something that exists other than God, ei-
[that is, those creatures which display the ther as an ontological quality or as a rela-
effects of the names in the cosmos]. (III tionship. So nothing exercises effects ex-
317.15) cept the levels.
The names do not become intelligible In the same way servitude ('ubuda) has
unless relationships become intelligible, properties, each of which has a level. The
and relationships do not become intelli- property may subsist through the ser-
gible unless the loci of manifestation (al- vant's self, so that nothing exercises prop-
ma;;;:iihir) known as the "cosmos" become erties upon him except himself. Then he
intelligible. Hence the relationships are is like the deputy of the level, which has
temporally originated (~uduth) through made this property incumbent upon him.
the temporal origination of the loci of Or he exercises the property upon his like
manifestation .... So the relationships arc (mithl) or upon some other (ghayr). For
temporally originated, and the names are the servant, there is nothing but the like
subordinate (tiibi') to them. But the names or the other.
have no existence, though their properties In the case of God, there is nothing but
are intelligible .... That which is denoted the other, not the like, since He has no
by the name Allah demands the cosmos like. 4 As for the properties that return
and everything within it. So this name is to Him because of the properties of the
like the name "king" or "sovereign." Level, these are: the Necessity of His Be-
Hence it is a name of the Level, not the ing through His Essence, the judgment
Essence.' (II 57.1, 10) that He is Independent of the cosmos, His
obligating (ijiib) Himself to help the faith-
There are two fundamental levels: ful through mercy, and all the attributes
God and the cosmos, independence and of majesty (nu'ut al-jaliil) required by the
poverty, or Lordship (rububiyya) and profession of incomparability and the ne-
gation of likeness (naJY al-mumiithala).
servanthood (al-'ubudiyya). All the other
As for the properties which are re-
levels have to do with the various modal- quired in their essences by His demanding
ities that tie these two basic levels to- the other (!alab al-ghayr), these are things
gether. like all the attributes of creatures. They
include attributes of generosity (karam),
Know that the wisdom (al-~ikma) in all bountifulness (ifqiil), munificence (jud),
things and in every single affair belongs and bestowing existence (ijiid).
to the levels, not the entities. The most There must be [concrete answers to the
tremendous (a' ;;:am) of the levels is the Di- questions] "Toward whom?" and "Upon
vinity, while the lowest (anzal) of the lev- whom?," so there must be the other, and
els is servanthood. Hence there are only only the servant is other. There is no ef-
two levels, since there are only a Lord and fect demanded by the servant unless it has
a servant. However, the Divinity pos- a necessary root in God, so it is made nec-
sesses properties, every one of which re- essary by the Level. There is no escape
quires (iqtiqii') a level. from this. God also possesses exclusive
The property may subsist through the properties from this Level that are not
God. Then He exerts the property upon sought by the creatures, as was explained.
Himself; this is the property of the level Because the servant is a servant, his
exerted upon the meaning (al-ma'nii). level demands certain properties that only
None exerts this property except the subsist through the servant by his being
Owner of the Level (~ii~ib · al-martaba [i.e., specifically a servant. They pervade every
the Essence]), since the level itself is not servant by his very essence . . . .
50 the existence of an entity; it is only an As for the fact that the level of the ser-
The Divine Roots of Hierarchy & Conflict

vant exercises effects upon his master, this more excellent than other things. God's
is because the master attends to the best ranking of the things in degrees, by
interests (ma~iili~) of his servant so that making some of them more excellent
the property of masterhood will remain than others, establishes a hierarchical or-
with him. A person who does not attend der throughout the cosmos. This rank-
to the best interests of his servant has ing, and therefore all order in the uni-
been dismissed from the level, for the lev-
verse, goes back to the names, as does
els possess the property of appointing
(tawliya) and dismissing ('azl) in their es-- all knowledge, which is basically the
sence, not extraneously, no matter who discernment of order and relationships
may possess them .... among things.
Do you not see that the level of Him
who has no place (makiin) required Him God sent down the cosmos in keeping
to create a heaven to make into a Throne with the levels so that they might be fully
('arsh)? Then He mentioned that He "sat inhabited (ta'mlr). If there were no rank-
upon it" (Koran 20:5) so that people could ing in degrees in the cosmos, some of the
supplicate Him and seek their needs from levels would remain inoperative (mu'attal)
Him. Otherwise the servant would re-· and uninhabited. But there is nothing in
main bewildered, not knowing where to existence inoperative; on the contrary, all
turn, since God created the servant pos- of it is fully inhabited. Every level must
sessing directions (jiha). So the Real at- have inhabitants whose properties will be
tributed to Himself aboveness (fowqiyya) in keeping with the level. 7 Hence He
in terms of heaven and the Throne and made some parts of the cosmos more ex-
the fact that He encompasses all direc- cellent than others.
tions. He did this through His words, The root of this in the divine things (al-
"Whithersoever you turn, there is the iliihiyyiit) is the divine names. How can
Face of God" (Koran 2:115), and His the compass (i~iifa) of Knowing compare
words, "Our Lord descends to the heaven with that of Desiring and Powerful? For
of this world every night and says, 'Is Knowing is distinguished from Desiring,
there any repenter? Is there any supplica- and Desiring from Powerful, by the level
tor? Is there anyone asking for forgive- of that to which connection is established.
ness?"'' And His Prophet said about Knowing has the most inclusive compass,
Him, "God is in the kibla of him who so it is greater and more excelllent than
performs the prayer." 6 Desiring and Powerful, through some-
All of these are properties of the levels, thing which neither of them possesses in
if you have intelligence. If the levels were respect of being Desiring and Powerful.
to disappear from the cosmos, the entities For He kno~s Himself, but He is not de-
would have no existence whatsoever. So scribed as having power over Himself,
understand! (III 408.11,28,32) nor as desiring His own existence. Part of
the reality of desire is that it only becomes
connected to that which is nonexistent, "
but God exists. And one of the character-
istics of power is that it only becomes
Ranking in Degrees connected to the possible thing, or that
which is "necessary through the Other"
(al-wajib bi'l-ghayr)," but He is the Neces-
As already remarked, the Shaykh al- sary Being through Himself. So from
Akbar often refers to hierarchy, whether here ranking in degrees becomes manifest
in the divine names or in the cosmos, in the cosmos according to the ranking in
by the term tafiitful. The word derives degrees of the levels. Therefore there
must be ranking in degrees among those
from the root.fq.l., the basic meaning of
who inhabit the levels. Hence there must
which is "to exceed," and by extension, be ranking in degrees in the cosmos. (II
to excel and surpass. The Shaykh's use of S27.11)
the term is based upon several Koranic The realities of the relationships are ar-
verses in which God is said to have made ranged in a real hierarchy (tart!b ~aqiqi),
certain things surpass other things or be not one established by convention (watJ'!). 5I
Theology

Take, for example, the priority of Alive So make them all "relationships" or
(al-~ayy) over Knowing, the inclusion "names" or "attributes." It is best to make
of Desiring within the compass of Know- them names, no doubt, since the Divine
ing, and the inclusion of the Powerful Law has not mentioned attributes or rela-
within the compass of Desiring. Desiring tionships in respect to the Real, only
does not undertake that which pertains to names. God said, "To God belong the
Powerful, Knowing does not undertake Most Beautiful Names" (Koran 7:180),
that which pertains to Desiring, Alive and they are nothing other than these
does not undertake that which pertains to relationships.
Knowing, Knowing does not undertake Do the names have ontological entities
that which pertains to Alive, Desiring or not? Here there is a dispute among the
does not undertake that which pertains to considerative thinkers (ahl al-na?ar). As
Knowing, Powerful does not undertake for us, there is no dispute: They are re-
that which pertains to Desiring. And the lationships and names which designate
entity ('ayn) 10 of Knowing is the entity intelligible, non-ontological realities.
of Alive, Desiring, and Powerful; the en- Therefore the Essence does not become
tity of life is the entity of knowledge, de- multiple through them, since a thing can
sire, and power; the entity of life is the only become multiple through ontologi-
entity of Alive, Knowing, Desiring, and cal entities, not through properties, attri-
Powerful. And so on with the rest. So the butions, and relationships. (IV 294.11)
relationships are diverse, but the Entity is
One. (II 608.26).
Ibn al-'Arabi directs all of his teach-
ings at taw~ld, affirming the Unity of God
and the consequent unity of all things
The Names Personified that exist. No one with any sense of
what he is trying to do would think of
accusing him, for example, of making
The divine names are relationships the divine names into lesser gods. 12
and attributions, not real entities that can That is why he can safely speak of the
be distinguished from God or the crea- names as God's close family members-
tures. Ibn al-'Arabi stresses this point as we saw in the last chapter-in an
constantly, for to deny it would be to analogy which would not have won too
introduce multiplicity into the One much favor among the proponents of
God. To counter certain criticisms which Kalam.
might arise from a misunderstanding of How can the existence of the cosmos
what follows, we quote him once again be explained? As we have seen above, the
on this matter: cosmos is demanded or sought (talab)
by the names. Once we have a universe,
we see that the existent things stand in
Those things which we affirm are the
relationships themselves. The Law refers certain relationships with the Divine
to them as names. Each name possesses Reality. Those relationships demand that
a meaning not possessed by any other God be named by certain names. Hence
name, and that meaning is attributed to God possesses those names, and He has
the Essence of the Real. The considerative possessed them for all eternity, since they
thinkers (nU?-?t!r) who follow Kalam call designate His Reality, and realities do not
that meaning an "attribute" (~ifo), while change. As a result, we see that those
the Verifiers 11 call it a "relationship" names demand creation, since without
(nisba) . ... it, they would remain virtualities. It is
The relationships are distinct from one
another. You can not equate desire with
only through the creatures that the prop-
power, speech, life, or knowledge. The erties and effects of the names come to be
name Knowing bestows what is not be- understood and seen. If there were no
stowed by Powerful, and Wise bestows universe, the names would never become
52 what is not bestowed by any other name. manifest. In a section on the divine name
The Divine Roots of Hierarchy & Conflict

All-provider (al-razziiq), the Shaykh out that the names are only relationships
explains that God not only gives all crea- and attributions, and that it would be a
tures their daily provisions, He also pro- serious mistake to ascribe any sort of
vides the names with their provision and ontological independence to them.
happiness by creating the universe.
You should know that "divine names"
The first provision to become mani- is an expression for a state that is be-
fest from All-provider is the provision stowed by the realities. So pay attention
through which the names are nourished, to what you will hear, and do not imag-
that is, the manifestation of their effects ine manyness or ontological combination
within the cosmos. In that manifestation (al-ijtimii' al-wujudl). What we want to
is their subsistence, bliss, joy, and hap- explain in this section is only the hierar-
piness .... So the fact that the names ex- chy of the intelligible realities, which are
ercise their effects upon the engendered many in respect of relationships, but not
things is their provision, through which lin respect of real existence, for the Es-
they are nourished and subsist. (II sence of the Real is One in respect of be-
462.19). ing the Essence. However, we know in
Though the names find delight in their respect of our existence, our poverty, and
own essence and perfection, they find our possibility that there must be a Pre-
even greater delight through the manifes- ponderator (murajji~) by whom we are
tation of their effects within the entities of supported. We also know that our exis-
the loci of manifestation, since thereby tence must demand from that Support di-
their authority (sul(iin) becomes manifest. verse relationships. Hence the Lawgiver
This is what the poet alludes to by acting (al-shiiri') 1 4 alluded to these relationships
as their spokesman in the following verse. as the "Most Beautiful Names." In re-
He refers to them indirectly with the pro- spect of being the Speaker (al-mutaka/lim),
noun "we." ... He named Himself by the names at the
level of the Necessity of His Divine Be-
Though we sit in the seat of joy, ing, which cannot be shared by anyone,
none but you can complete our joy. for He is One God, and there is no other
God.
The "seat of joy" which belongs to the After this introduction concerning the
names is the Presence of the Essence, origin of this matter and the production
while the "completion of their joy" is that of effects and the giving of preponderance
which their realities demand in the loci of to the possible cosmos, I say:
manifestation, which are alluded to as The names gathered together in the pres-
"you." (II 61.27) ence of the Named. They gazed upon
their own realities and meanings and
sought the manifestation of their own
Ibn al-'Arabi goes much further in
properties in order that their entities might
personifying the names than merely at- become distinct through their effects. 15
tributing joy and delight to them. In For Creator-who is Ordainer 16 - ,
several passages he describes how the Knowing, Governor, Deployer, Author,
names gathered together and discussed Form-giver, Provider, Life-giver, Slayer,
their situation "before" their properties Inheritor, Grateful, and all the rest of the
and effects became manifest. The Shaykh divine names gazed upon their own es-
calls this imaginative depiction, which is sences. But they found nothing created,
more reminiscent of a polytheistic myth governed, deployed, or nourished. So
than a Muslim theological discussion, they said, "What can be done so that these
entities-within which our own proper-
"The Conference, Discussion, and Con- ties can become manifest-may become
currence of the Divine Names in the manifest, that thereby our authority may
Arena of Debate." 13 Note, however, become manifest?"
that at the beginning of his longest de- So the divine names-which are de-
scription of this "Conference," quoted manded by some of the realities of the
below, he is once again careful to point cosmos after the manifestation of the en- 53
Theology

tity of the cosmos- had recourse to the does it not have precedent knowledge that
name Author. They said to it, "Perhaps you will be given existence, so that we
you can give existence to these entities so can specify it for you? I am under the
that our properties may become manifest scope of the name Knowing. Go to it and
and our authority established, for the mention your situation to it."
presence within which we now dwell is So they went to the name Knowing
not able to display our effects." Author and mentioned what the name Desiring
said, "That goes back to the name Power- had said. Knowing said, "Desiring spoke
ful, since I am under its scope." the truth. And I have precedent knowl-
The root of all this is as follows: In edge that you will be given existence. But
the state of their nonexistence the possi- courtesy must be observed. For we have a
ble things asked the divine names-an presence which watches over us, and that
asking through their state of abasement is the name Allah. We must all be present
and poverty-as follows: "Nonexistence with it, since it is the Presence of All-
has blinded us, so we are not able to per- comprehensiveness (~a4rat al·:Jam')."
ceive one another or to know what God Hence all the names gathered together
requires you to do with us. If you were to in the Presence of Allah. It said, "What is
make manifest our entities and clothe on your mind?" They told it the story. It
them in the robe of existence, you would said, "I am the name that comprehends
be doing us a favor and we would under- your realities and I denote the Named,
take the appropriate veneration and rever- who is an All-holy Essence described by
ence. Moreover, your sovereignty be- perfection and incomparability. Stay here
comes genuine through our becoming while I enter in upon the Object of my
manifest in actuality. Today you possess denotation." So it entered in upon the
sovereignty over us only potentially and Object of its denotation and told it what
virtually. What we seck from you is what the possible things had said and what the
you should be seeking to an even greater names were discussing. The Essence said,
degree from us." The names replied, "Go out, and tell each one of the names to
"What the possible things have said is become connected to what its reality re-
correct." So they fell to seeking the same quires among the possible things. For I
thing. am One in Myself in respect of Myself.
When the names had recourse to the The possible things demand only My
name Powerful, it said, "I am under the Level, and My Level demands them. All
scope of the name Desiring, so I cannot the divine names belong to the Level, not
bring any of you into entified existence to Me, except only the name One (al-
without its specification (ikhti~ii~). The wii~id). 17 It is a name that pertains ex-
possible thing itself does not give me the clusively to Me. No one shares with Me
ability to do that. First the command of in its reality in any respect, none of the
Commander must come from its Lord. names, none of the levels, and none of the
When it commands the thing to enter into possible things."
engendered existence, saying to it 'Be!', So the name Allah went out, next to it
then it gives me the ability from itself, the name Speaker, acting as its spokes-
and I undertake to bring it into existence man to the possible things and the names.
and immediately give it engendered ex- It mentioned to them what the Named
istence. So have recourse to the name had said. Knowing, Desiring, Speaking,
Desiring. Perhaps it will give preponder- and Powerful established their connec-
ance to and specify the side of existence tions, and the first possible thing became
over the side of nonexistence. Then I, outwardly manifest through the specifica-
Commander, and Speaker will join to- tion of Desiring and the property of
gether and give you existence." Knowing. (I 322.33)
So the names had recourse to the name
Desiring. They said to it, "We asked the
name Powerful to bring our entities into
existence, but it deferred the command to The Divine Conflict
you. What do you decree?'' Desiring said,
"Powerful spoke the truth. But I have no
54 news about the property of the name The multiplicity of relationships that
Knowing in respect to you. Does it or can be discerned in God results in a mul-
The Divine Roots of Hierarchy & Conflict

tiplicity of relationships in the cosmos. has come to an end. Then this name
All things in the universe manifest the ef- which calls to him takes over. So it con-
fects and properties of the divine names. tinues in this world and the next. Hence
Even the conflict, quarrel, strife, and war everything other than God is called by a
that are found in created things have divine name to come to an engendered
state (~iii kawni) to which that name seeks
their roots in God. The cosmos is a great
to attach it. If the object of the call re-
collection of things, and things go their sponds, he is named "obedient" and be-
own ways, not necessarily in harmony comes "felicitous" (sa'ld). If he does not
with other things on the level where they respond, he is named "disobedient" and
are being considered. The names relate to becomes "wretched" (shaqt).
each other in many different modes, You may object and say: "How can a
some harmonious, and some sufficiently divine name call and the engendered thing
disharmonious that Ibn al-' Arabi can refuse to respond, given that it is weak
even talk about "conflict" (tanazu') and must accept the divine power?" We
among the names. will answer: It does not refuse to respond
in respect of itself and its own reality,
since it is constantly overpowered. But
The properties of the divine names, in since it is under the overpowering sway
respect of being names, are diverse. What of a divine name, that name does not let it
do Avenger, Terrible in Punishment, and respond to the name which calls to it.
Overpowering have in common with Hence there is conflict among the divine
Compassionate, Forgiving, and Gentle? names. However, the names are equals,
For Avenger demands the occurrence of so the ruling property belongs to the
vengeance in its object, while Compas- actual possessor, which is the name in
sionate demands the removal of ven- whose hand the thing is when the second
geance from the same object. . . . So he name calls to it. The possessor is stronger
who looks at the divine names will main- through the situation.
tain that there is a Divine Conflict. That You may object: "Then why is a per-
is why God said to His Prophet, "Dispute son taken to task for his refusal?" We an-
(jidiil) with them in the most beautiful swer: Because he claims the refusal for
way (a~san)" (Koran 16:125). God com- himself and does not ascribe it to the di-
manded him to dispute in the manner de- vine name which controls him.
manded by the divine names, that is, in You may object: "The situation stays
the way that is "most beautiful." 18 (II the same, since he refuses only because of
93.19) the overpowering sway of a divine name.
The person who is called refused because
The "Divine Conflict" has never- of the name." We answer: That is true,
ending repercussions in this world and but he is ignorant of that, so he is taken to
the next, since all change and transfor- task for his ignorance (jahl), for the igno-
mation can be traced back to it. In one rance belongs to himself.
passage the Shaykh discusses the divine You may object: "But his ignorance
root of "calling" (nida), as, for example, derives from a divine name whose prop-
erty governs him." We answer: Ignorance
when God calls out in the Koran, "0
is a quality pertaining to nonexistence
you who have faith . . . !" He explains (amr 'adam!); it is not ontological. But the
that diversity and conflict in the cosmos divine names bestow only existence; they
stem from the fact that different names do not bestow nonexistence. So the igno-
call the creatures in different directions. rance belongs to the very self of him who
is called. (II 592. 32)
You should know that the divine call
includes believer and unbeliever, obedi-
In another context Ibn al-'Arabi ex-
ent and disobedient. . . . This call derives
only from the divine names. One divine plains that the "wages" (ajr) mentioned
name calls to someone who is governed in the Koran are paid to those who per-
by the property of a second divine name form supererogatory works (al-nawiiftl).
when it knows that the term of the sec- Since human beings are God's slaves 55
ond name's property within the person ('abd mamlUk), they are not paid wages
Theology

for the acts which the religion makes ignate for him something that will make
obligatory for them (farii'i4), though of him want to serve them. Each son would
course the Master rewards His slaves in love to take him into his own service in
other ways. The root of this matter has the time that he is free from the business
to do with two kinds of servanthood of his master. Hence they compete in giv-
ing him wages in order to have him de-
('ubiidiyya), one toward the Essence and
vote himself exclusively to them. But he
the other toward the divine names. The is free to choose which son to serve at
first is compulsory (i4tiriirl) while the that time. So man is the slave, the master
second is voluntary (ikhtiyiirl). 19 is Allah, and the sons are the other divine
names.
The prophets are God's sincere ser- When He sees the servant troubled and
vants, not being owned by their own ca- helps him, then it is known that the ser-
price (hawa) or that of any of God's crea- vant is subjected to the name "Helper."
tures. But they say, "My wage falls only Hence he will receive from Helper the
on Allah" (Koran 10:72, 11:29, 34:47). wage that it has designated for him. When
This goes back to their entrance under He sees him weak in himself and He acts
the properties of the divine names, from with gentleness toward him, then he is
whence wages are paid. Through com- subjected to the name "Gentle." And so it
pulsion and in reality they are the servants goes with all the names. So verify, my
and the possession of the Essence. But the friend, how you serve your Lord and
divine names seek them to make their ef- Master! Possess correct knowledge con-
fects manifest through them. So they cerning yourself and your Master! Then
have free choice (ikhtiyiir) in entering un- you will be one of the men of knowledge
der whichever name they desire. The who are "deeply rooted in knowledge"
divine names know this, so the divine (al-riisikhun .fi'l-'ilm [Koran 3:7]), the di-
names designate wages for them. Each di- vine sages (al-~ukamii' al-iliihiyyun), and
vine name wants this slave of the Essence you will attain to the furthest degree and
to choose to serve (khidma) it rather than the highest place along with the messen-
the other divine names. It says to him, gers and the prophets! (III 64. 7)
"Enter under my command, for I will
give you such and such." Then he re-
mains in the service of that name until he
is called by the Lord in respect of his ser-
vanthood to the Essence. At that point he The Unity of the Essence
abandons every divine name and under-
takes the call of his Lord. Once he has
done what He commands him to do, he When we read what Ibn al-'Arabi
returns to whichever name he pleases. has to say about the multiplicity and con-
That is why every person performs super-
flict demanded by the divine names or
erogatory works and worships as he de-
sires until he hears the call to begin the when we meet his personifications of the
obligatory prayer (iqiimat al-~aliit). At that names, we may forget for a moment that
point every supererogatory work is for- the names are multiple only in proper-
bidden to him and he must endeavor to ties, not in existence, since each is identi-
perform the obligatory act for his Lord cal in existence with the Essence. In re-
and Master. Then when he finishes, he spect of the Divine Self, the One Entity,
enters into any supererogatory work that there can be no multiplicity. But in re-
he desires. spect of the relationships which are es-.
In this situation man is similar to the tablished with creation because of the
slave of a master with many sons. He is a
fact that the Self is a God, numerous
compulsory servant of his master. When
his master commands him, he does not names and attributes can be envisaged.
occupy himself with anything but his Each relationship we take into account-
command. But when he finishes with each divine name- has special effects and
that, the sons of the master seek to make properties among the creatures which
him their subject. Hence they have to des- distinguish it from other relationships.
The Divine Roots of Hierarchy & Conflict

On the basis of these properties, we can the Forgiver and the Avenger. But the
say that one name is ranked above an- Essence as Essence is related to all things
other. In other words, one relationship is in an identical manner. Hence the name
different from another. Since there is no Allah-the name that denotes the Es-
multiplicity in God, there is no hierarchy sence as such-is related to everything in
in God Himsel£ This is why the Shaykh the cosmos in the same way.
can deny ranking in degrees in the "di-
vine things" (al-ilahiyyat), just as he af- The divine relationship between Allah
firms that it derives from them. On the and all creatures is one relationship within
one hand he has in view the relationships which there is no ranking in degrees,
inasmuch as they designate specific quali- since ranking in degrees demands many-
ties demanding a variety of effects and ness. (II 580.19)
properties, and on the other he has in The relationship of Allah to all things
is one relationship with no ranking in
view the identity of the names with the
degrees. You will not see this relation-
Divine Essence.
ship predominating in any of the crea-
tures, whether of the higher or lower ple-
There can be no ranking in degrees in num. 20 It does not establish ranking or
the divine things, since a thing cannot preponderation in the cosmos. . . . But
be considered superior to itself. The di- inasmuch as the cosmos is the cosmos,
vine realities and relationships cannot be some parts of the cosmos preponderate
ranked one over another, except insofar as over other parts and disparity becomes
they are attributed to something [in the manifest within it. (III 157.34)
cosmos], since they have no ranking in
their Essence. (II 226.2)
There can be no ranking in degrees Multiplicity is not an intrinsic attri-
among the divine names, for two reasons: bute of the names, only of that in which
First, the relationship of the names to the they display their properties. In them-
Essence is one relationship, so there is no selves the names remain one, since God
ranking of degrees in this relationship. If is One.
the levels were ranked one over the other
in respect of the divine realities by which
The names of the Real do not become
they are supported, there would be supe-
riority among the names of God. Hence plural and multiple except within the loci
of their manifestation. But in respect to
some of God's names would be more ex·-
cellent than others. But no one says this Him, the property of number does not
rule over them. (II 122.19)
on the basis of Law or reason. The greater
inclusiveness of a name does not prove What "separates" (fa~ I) 21 a thing is that
which distinguishes it from association
its greater excellence. There can only be
greater excellence in that which has the with something else. As for the divine
names, separation takes place through
characteristic of accepting something,
what they designate in respect of being
but which does not go to the effort of
plural in number. Since they accept many-
accepting it; or in that which may be
described by something, but is not so ness, they need separation. First, they are
separate from the Essence of the Named,
described.
lest their [specific] meanings be attributed
Second, the divine names go back to
His Essence, and the Essence is One. But to It. Second, they are separate in respect
to that within which their effects become
ranking in degrees demands manyness.
manifest. Manyness in the names is occa-
And a thing cannot be considered supe-
sioned by that in which the effects are dis-
rior to itself. (II 61.10)
played, not by the name as agent, which
is that which produces the effects. So the
A distinction can be drawn between effects are the multiplicity of relationships
how God relates to the universe as the with the One Entity. This separation is in
Knowing and how He relates to it as the effects, not in the names, nor in the
the Powerful. This is especially dear in Named, nor in that within which the ef-
mutually contradictory names such as fects appear. (II 480.33) 57
Theology

Names of Incomparability and Names of The "Divine Presence" is a name for an


Acts Essence, attributes, and acts; or, if you
prefer, you can say "for attributes of acts
and attributes of incomparability." (IV
196.11; cf. II 579.14)
Muslim theologians often classify the The names that demand incomparabil-
divine names into categories. Ibn al- ity are the names which the Essence de-
'Arabi is no exception, and he provides mands in Itself, while the names which
several different ways of classifying the demand similarity are the names which
names in his works. For the practical the Essence demands inasmuch as It is a
purpose of gaining an insight into his ba- god. The names of incomparability are
sic teachings, it is sufficient to grasp a those such as Independent (al-ghanl) and
single basic distinction, one which will One (al-al]ad) and all those which can only
come up in many different contexts: that be possessed by Him, while the names of
similarity are those such as Compassion-
between the names which negate (salb)
ate, Forgiving, and everything by which
various descriptions from God and other the servant may truly be qualified in
names which affirm (ithbat) that He pos- respect of being a locus of manifestation,
sesses attributes. These two kinds of not in respect of his own entity. (II
names are most commonly called the 57.30)
"Names of Incomparability" and the There are two kinds of divine attri-
"Names of the Acts." "Acts," it will be butes: divine attributes which require the
remembered, is a theological designation declaration of incomparability, like All-
for the creatures. great (al-kabfr) and All-high (al-'alf), and
As was seen in the first chapter, the divine attributes which require the decla-
Divine Presence includes the Essence, the ration of similarity, such as the Magnifi-
cent (al-mutakabbir), the Self-exalted (al-
attributes, and the acts. The attributes or muta'iilf), and everything by which the
names are the barzakh between the Es- Real described Himself and by which the
sence and the acts. But these names can servant is also qualified. (I 691.1)
be divided into two categories, depend- The names are of two kinds: One kind
ing on the type of relationship which is all lights (anwiir); these are the names
they designate between the Essence and that denote ontological qualities. Another
the cosmos. In the first case, they negate kind is all darknesses (?ulam); these are
various qualities from the Essence. In the the names that denote incomparability.
second, they affirm that the Essence inas- (II 110.30)
much as It is a god possesses various We have no knowledge of God except
through attributes of incomparability or
qualities. attributes of acts. He who supposes that
Incomparability (tanzlh) signifies that he has knowledge of positive attributes of
the Essence cannot be judged, gauged, or the Self (~ifa nafsiyya thubutiyya) has sup-
known by any of the creatures. It is nor- posed wrongly. For such an attribute
mally contrasted with similarity (tashbm), would define (/]add) Him, but His Essence
which signifies that God as the possessor has no definition. This is a door locked to
of the names establishes certain relation- engendered existence (al-kawn), a door
ships with the things and that these can that cannot be opened. It belongs only to
be known and judged to a certain degree. the Real. (II 619.15)
The names of acts thus demand the "sim-
ilarity" of the created things with God.

58
The Essence & the Divinity

4. THE E S S EN C E A N D THE D I VI N I T Y

The Divine Essence is God in Him- names of incomparability and the names
self, without reference to the relation- of acts or similarity. True knowledge of
ships which may be established between God demands knowing Him through
God and the creatures. In contrast, the both kinds of names.
Divinity is the Essence considered in re-
lation to created things. Only negative
attributes can be ascribed to the Essence;
we can say what It is not, but not what It
is. Ibn al-'Arabi sometimes says that no The Divinity
name whatsoever can be applied to the
Essence, since It is absolutely unknowa-
The word "Divinity" (al-uhtha, al-
ble. But considered as the Divinity, God
uliihiyya), derives from the root '.l.h.,
accepts all names and attributes, both
from which we have the name "Allah" as
positive and negative.
well as the word iliih or god. As was
As a level, the Divinity has to be con-
pointed out in the previous chapter, the
sidered in relationship to other levels,
"Level" to which the name Allah refers
such as creature, servant, vassal and "di-
is the Divinity, while the "Entity" to
vine thrall." In this respect the name Al-
which it refers is the Essence. Level and
lah is strictly analogous to divine names
Entity are the same reality, of course,
such as Knowing and Powerful, both of
since we are dealing here with a single
which have to be understood in terms of
Being. But to speak of Divinity is to en-
their objects. But the Essence transcends
visage relationships with creatures, while
levels and relationships, and hence can-
to speak of the Essence is to envisage the
not be known, since it is impossible to
Reality Itself, without any relationships.
"get a bearing" on It. The Shaykh fre-
About God as Divinity we can say that
quently criticizes the theologians for
certain relationships are established with
claiming to provide positive knowledge
Him. Then we can talk about these rela-
of God Himself, whereas God's "inde-
tionships, which are known as the "di-
pendence" from the worlds demands that
vine names," but we cannot talk about
He stand beyond rational understanding.
God in Himself, the Essence, in terms of
But in spite of God's absolute indepen-
any relationships.
dence of all created things, He tells us of
His generosity and mercy, and such at-
Interrelationship (muniisaba) between
tributes demand creation, though they
the Real and creation is neither intelligible
do not impose constraints upon Him as (ma'qiil) nor existent. Nothing comes
Essence. from Him in respect of His Essence. Ev-
Both Essence and Divinity are de- erything denoted by the Law or taken by
noted by the name Allah, which brings the rational faculty (a/-'aql) as a denotation
together all the divine names and hence is is connected to the Divinity, not the Es-
the "coincidence of opposites" Uam' al- sence. God in respect of being a god is
a4dad). The opposition and contrariety that by which the possible thing is sup-
found among the names explain the strife ported in its possibility. (II 579. 9)
and turmoil of the cosmos, which is the It is not correct for the Real and cre-
ation to come together (ijtimii') in any
locus in which the properties of the con- mode whatsoever in respect of the Es-
trary names are displayed. The names sence, only in respect of the fact that the
encompassed by the name Allah are mu- Essence is described by Divinity. Divinity
tually opposed not only in a horizontal is one of the properties which rational fac-
sense, but also in a vertical sense; here we ulties are able to perceive on their own. In
come back to the distinction between the our view, anything that the rational fac- 59
Theology

ulty is able to perceive on its own can be "godded over," or the object in re-
known prior to being witnessed (shuhiid). spect of which a god is a god. It is nearly
But the Essence of the Real is outside this synonymous with marbiib, "vassal," the
judgment, for It is witnessed before It is past participle from the same root as
known. Or rather, It is witnessed, but not rabb, "lord."
known, just as the Divinity is known, but
not witnessed.'
How many a rational man among the The Divine Essence cannot be under-
considerative thinkers, claiming a firm ra- stood by the rational faculty, since there is
tional faculty, has maintained that he has nothing "other" (siwii) than It. But the
acquired knowledge of the Essence in re- Divinity and the Lordship (al-rubiibiyya) ·
spect of his reflective consideration (al- can be understood by this faculty, since
na:?ar al-jikri)! But he is mistaken, since the "others" in relation to them are the di-
he wavers (mutaraddid) in his reflection vine thrall and the vassal. (II 257.28)
between negation (salb) and affirmation
(ithbiit). The affirmation returns to him- We have already seen the Shaykh em-
self, since he only affirms that which he ploying past participles derived from
considers in respect of the fact that the various divine attributes in a number of
Real is Knowing, Powerful, Desiring,
passages. For example, he has asked how
and so on with all the names. The nega-
tion returns to nonexistence and negativ- there can be someone powerful with-
ity (al-nafy), and negativity cannot be an out an object of power (maqdiir), or a
attribute of the Essence, since the attri- knower without an object of knowledge
butes of the essences of existent things are (ma'liim). In respect of God, he says,
only positive (thubiiti). 2 So this reflective the same principle is involved. When we
thinker, wavering between affirmation speak of the names, they are relation-
and negation, has gained nothing of ships, or better, "correlations" (iqafa);
knowledge of God. (I 41. 9) each name demands two correlative
The loci of manifestation (ma?iihir) be- terms (mutaqa'if), the name itself and the
long to the Level, not to the Essence.
object to which it is connected (ta'alluq).
Hence He is not worshiped except inas-
much as He is a god; nor does anyone as- The name Allah is not outside of this
sume the traits (takhalluq) of His names principle, only the Essence, since It is not
except in inasmuch as He is a god. Noth- a correlative term, but the Entity Itself.
ing is understood from His loci of mani- As soon as we say that It is related to
festation within His loci of manifestation something, we are talking about the
except that He is a god. Were the Essence "level" of the Essence, not the Essence in
to make the loci of manifestation mani- Itself.
fest, It would be known. Were It known, In the first passage below, Ibn al-
It would be encompassed (i~ii(a). Were It ' Arabi is discussing the spiritual state of
encompassed, It would be limited (~add).
"freedom" (~urriyya) achieved by the
Were It limited, It would be confined
friends of God. In the last analysis, he
(in~i~iir). Were It confined, It would be
owned (mulk). But the Essence of the Real says, the creature can never be free.
is high exalted above all this. (II 597 .17)
In reality there is no existing entity that
possesses freedom, since the correlations
Since the Essence is unknowable, prevent that. The reality of freedom is
no one can conceive of Its opposite; no found only in the fact that the Essence
relationship at all can be envisaged. is "Independent of the worlds" (Ko-
ran 3:97), even though the cosmos be-
But the Divinity demands relationships.
comes manifest from It and through It,
From this principle arises Ibn al-'Arabi's not through anything else. Since the Es-
well-known doctrine of the ma'liih or sence is "Independent of the worlds," It is
"divine thrall." The word is a past par- free, while the cosmos is poor and needy
ticiple derived from the same root as ilah, toward It. The creatures of the cosmos
6o "god." Literally it means that which is have no freedom whatsoever. They are
The Essence & the Divinity

demanded by the Divinity through the the Owner of the Kingdom (malik
properties It has prescribed for them, al-mulk).
properties without which the Divinity
would have no manifestation; hence cor- Temporally originated existence (al-
relations become manifest. Therefore the wujiid al-~iidith) and Eternal Being (al-
situation is dependent (mawqiif) from two wujiid al-qadlm) are tied to each other
sides, each side depending upon the other. through correlation and property, not
So it is impossible for freedom to subsist through the existence of the entity (wujiid
in either of the correlatives. (II 502.33) al-'ayn). For example, a human being ex-
The relationship between Lord and vas- ists in entity in respect of the fact that he
sal exists. Through it the Lord is the vas- is a human being. In the state of his exis-
sal's Lord. But there is no relationship he·· tence, he has no fatherhood (ubuwwa) as
tween the vassal and the Essence of the long as he does not have a son who gives
Lord. Hence nothing comes out of the that attribute to him, or as long as it is
Essence . . . , since the Essence does not not supposed that he has a son. In the
turn Its attentiveness toward bringing the same way, he is not called an "owner"
things into existence in respect of being (miilik) as long as he does not have posses-
the Essence. It only does so inasmuch as sions through which it is said that he is an
Power is attributed to It and there is noth-· owner. In the same way, the possessions,
ing to prevent it. This is what is known though they exist in entity, are not called
as the Divinity. (II 609.2) possessions until someone owns them.
God as the Lover (al-mu~ibb) has no Hence God, in respect of His Essence
name that can denote His Essence. The and Being, is Independent of the worlds.
divine thrall, who is God's beloved, looks But in respect of the fact that He is a lord,
at His effects within himself, then names He demands vassals, without doubt. So in
Him by those effects. The Real in turn ac- respect of Entity, He makes no demands;
cepts the way the thrall names Him. The but in respect of Lordship (al-rubiibiyya),
divine thrall says, "0 Allah!" Allah says, He demands vassals either in existence or
"Here I am." The vassal says, "0 Lord!" supposition (taqdlr).
The Lord says, "Here I am." The created We have mentioned that every attribute
one says, "0 Creator!" The Creator says, in the cosmos must be supported by a di-
"Here I am." The one provided for says, vine attribute, but not by the Attribute of
"0 All-provider!" The All-provider says, the Essence, which God merits in His Es-
"Here I am." The weak one says, "0 sence and through which He is Indepen-
Strong!" The Strong says, "I respond to dent. Nor is the essential attribute which
thee." (II 360.6) is merited by the cosmos [based upon a
Since the cosmos has no subsistence ex- divine attribute]; through it the cosmos is
cept through God, and since the attri- poor, or rather a servant, for the cosmos
bute of Divinity has no subsistence except is more worthy of this latter than of the
through the cosmos, each of the two attribute of poverty. (III 363.32)
is the provision (rizq) of the other; each The Divinity . . . confronts the crea-
takes nourishment (taghadhdhl) from the tures through Its own [specific] essence
other so that its existence may subsist. [as Divinity] and It confronts the Essence
The very property of each demands that through Its own essence. That is why It
this be so. discloses Itself (tajalll) in many forms,
transmuting (ta~awwul) Itself and under-
We are His provision, going continual change (tabaddul) with-
since He feeds upon our existence, in them. It has a face toward creation
just as He is the provision through which It discloses Itself in the
of engendered things, without doubt. forms of creation; It has a face toward the
He preserves us in engendered existence Essence through which It becomes mani-
and we preserve the fact that He fest to the Essence. So the created things
is a god. In these words do not know the Essence except from be-
there is no lie, hind this barzakh, which is the Divinity.
nor any heedlessness; Nor does the Essence exercise properties
for in every state engendered existence within the created things except through
admits bondage to and possession by this barzakh, which is the Divinity. We 61
Theology

have verified It, and we have found it no Real and the essence of the creatures. (II
different from the Most Beautiful Names '230.15)
by which we call upon It. So the Essence Engendered existence has no connec-
compels (jabr) the cosmos only through tion whatsoever to knowledge of the Es-
the divine names, and the cosmos knows sence. The only thing connected to it is
nothing of the Real but these Most Beau- knowledge of the Level, i.e., that which
tiful Divine Names. (IV 208.33) is named Allah. This [knowledge of the
Level] is a firmly established proof (daltl).
It goes straight to the mark in knowing
the God (al-ilah). Likewise it recognizes
both the names of the acts and the de-
The Unknowability of the Essence scriptions of majesty appropriate to Him'
and perceives the reality in accordance
with which engendered existence emerges
God is known through the relations, from the Essence. The Essence is de-
attributions, and correlations that be- scribed by this Level, but It is unknown
come established between Him and the in entity or quality (kayf).
cosmos. But the Essence is unknown, In our view there is no disputing the
since nothing is related to It. In proof of fact that the Essence is unknown. To It
this assertion, the Shaykh often cites the are ascribed descriptions that make It in-
Koranic verse, "God warns you about comparable with the attributes of tempo-
ral things (al-~adath). It possesses eternity
His Self" (3:28,30), which he frequently
(al-qidam), and to Its Being is ascribed
explains in terms of the prophetic saying, beginninglessness (al-azal). But all these
"Reflect (tafokkur) upon all things, but names designate negations, such as the
reflect not upon God's Essence. " 3 negation of beginning and everything ap-
propriate to temporal origination.
In respect of Itself the Essence has no A group of Ash'arite theologians op-
name, since It is not the locus of effects, pose us on this. They imagine that they
nor is It known by anyone. There is no have known the Real through a positive
name to denote It without relationship, attribute of Self (~ifa nafsiyya thubutiyya).
nor with any assurance (tamk!n). For How far from the mark! How could they
names act to make known and to distin- know that? A group of the theologians
guish, but this door [to knowledge of the whom we have seen, including Abu
Essence] is forbidden to anyone other 'Abdallah al-Kattani, Abu'l-'Abbas al-
than God, since "None knows God but Ashqar, and al-l,)arir al-Silawi, author of
God." So the names exist through us and al-Uijuza fi 'ilm al-ka/am, have even criti-
for us. They revolve around us and be- cized Abu Sa'id al-Kharraz, 5 Abu f:lamid
come manifest within us. Their properties [al-Ghazali] and their likes for their state-
are with us, their goals are toward us, ment, "None knows God but God"! (I
their expressions are of us, and their be- 160.4).
ginnings are from us. God says, "In that there are signs for a
people who reflect" (13:3). But reflection
If not for them, upon the Essence of God is impossible, so
we would not be. there remains only reflection upon engen-
If not for us, dered existence. That to which reflection
they would not be. (II 69.34) becomes connected is the Most Beautiful
Names or the features (simat) of the tem-
Reflection (fikr) has no governing prop- porally originated things. The names,
erty or domain in the Essence of the Real, all of them, are the root of engendered
neither rationally nor according to the existence. (II 557.11)
Law. For the Law has forbidden reflec-
tion upon the Essence of God, a point to
which is alluded by His words, "God In citing the InJUnction of the Shari'a
warns you about His Self" (3:28). This not to meditate upon the Essence of
is because there is no interrelationship God, Ibn al-'Arabi is not implying that it
62 (munasaba) between the Essence of the is wrong to say anything about God's
The Essence & the Divinity

Essence. If that were his position, he have a subsistence and an existence after
would be contradicting himself con- death ....
stantly. What he has in mind is the God is One God and there is no other
peculiar mental process denoted by the god. He is named by those names from
words fikr and tafakkur, a process which the meaning of which it is understood
that none are worthy of them except
is the domain of the proponents of
Him. In other words, He possesses this
Kalam and the philosophers. His own Level. Do not embark, my friend, upon
position and that of the great Sufis are plunging into "What?", "How much?",
not based on reflection, but on the Koran and "How?" That would prevent you
and unveiling (kashj), that is, knowl- from plunging into what has been pre-
edge given to them by God without the scribed for you [by the Law] (taklif).
interference of that rational ('aqlt) or Cling to the path of faith and works in ac-
considerative (na?art) faculty known as cordance with what God has made oblig-
reflection. This point will be discussed in atory (farq) upon you. "And remember
detail beginning in Chapter 12. For now, your Lord . . . in the morning and eve-
ning" (7:205) with the remembrance
the following passage can serve as an (dhikr) which He has set down for you in
example of the types of criticisms the the Law ....
Shaykh levels at thinkers who cannot If this knowledge which is bestowed by
transcend the rational faculty ('aql). reflecting upon God were a light, as is
supposed, the darkness of obfuscation•
The Law has forbidden reflection and skepticism (tashklk) would never en-
upon His Essence. He has said, "God ter the heart, yet it does enter. It is not
warns you about His Self" (3:28). In one of the characteristics of darkness to
other words: Do not embark upon reflec- dispel light, nor does darkness possess
tion about God's Self. The rational think- any authority over light. Authority be-
ers added disobedience toward the Law to longs only to the light which dispels
their meddling (jiuJiil) by plunging into darkness. This shows that all those things
what has been forbidden to them. One of known by the proponents of Kalam and
them said that He is a body, another that the plungers concerning the Essence of
He is not a body. One said that He is a God are not lights, even though they
substance, another that He is not a sub- imagine- before any obfuscation enters
stance. One said that He is in a direction, in upon them-that through it they dwell
another that He is not in a direction. But in light and upon a clear sign from their
God did not command a single one of His Lord. 7 They do not know their deficiency
creatures to plunge into this sort of thing until the obfuscation enters in upon them.
to any extent, neither him who negates, Who knows? Perhaps the opinion which
nor him who affirms. they suppose is only an obfuscation is the
If these people were asked to verify truth and right knowledge.
their knowledge of a single essence in the You are well aware that in the Mu'tazi-
cosmos, they would not know how to do lite's view, the proof with which the
so. If it were said to this plunger: "How Ash'arite affirms a question whose truth
does your soul govern your body? Is it in- is denied by the Mu'tazilite is an obfusca-
side or outside it, or neither inside nor tion. In the same way, the Ash'arite holds
outside? Consider that with your ration- that the Mu'tazilite's proof in negating
al faculty! And this extraneous thing what the Ash'arite has affirmed is an ob-
through which the animate body moves, fuscation. Moreover, there is no school of
sees, hears, imagines, and reflects-to thought (madhhab) that does not have
what does it go back? To a single thing, leaders, all of whom disagree; it does not
or to many things? Does it go back to a matter if they are all described, for exam-
substance, an accident, or a body?" If ple, as being Ash'arites. Abu'l-Ma'ali's
you were to seek from him rational position is different from the Qac;l!'s posi-
proofs-not proofs derived from the tion, the Qac;li maintains a position
Law-he would not find any rational that disagrees with the Ustadh, and the
proofs whatsoever. He would not know Ustadh maintains a position in which he
through the rational faculty that spirits opposes the Shaykh." But all of them 63
Theology

claim to be Ash'arites. And the Mu'tazi- Independence from creation belongs to


lites are the same, as are the philosophers God from eternity without beginning
in their doctrines about God. (III 81.30) (azal), while poverty toward God in re-
spect of His independence belongs to
the possible thing in the state of its non-
existence from eternity without begin-
The Independence of the Essence ning. (II 100.35)
Freedom is a station of the Essence, not
of the Divinity. It can never be fully de-
As Ibn al-'Arabi constantly quotes livered over to the servant, since he is
from the Koran, God is "Independent of God's servant through a servanthood that
the worlds" in respect of the Essence. does not accept emancipation. But we
The term ghinii signifies independence, have considered freedom impossible for
wealth, and having need for nothing. the Real in respect of the fact that He is
a god, because He is tied to the divine
God has all wealth- Being and all Its thrall, just as a master is tied to the exis-
attributes-in Himself, so He is inde- tence of the slave, an owner to posses-
pendent of the cosmos and needs noth- sions, and a king to the kingdom. . . .
ing whatsoever from it. The opposite The reality of correlation demands, both
of ghinii is faqr, "poverty" or "need," rationally and ontologically, the concept
which, as we have seen on several occa- of two correlative terms. So there can be
sions, is the essential and inherent attri- no freedom along with correlation. And
bute of all created or "temporally origi- Lordship and Divinity are correlations.
nated" (~iidith) things. Everything other But since there is no interrelationship or
than God is constantly in need of God, correlation between the Real and crea-
tion- on the contrary, He is Independent
not only for its existence but also for of the worlds, and this belongs to no exis-
every positive attribute it displays, since tent essence save the Essence of the
these attributes are nothing but the prop- Real-no engendered thing is tied to
erties and effects of the divine names. the Essence, no eye perceives It, no lim-
it encompasses It, and no demonstration
God reported about Himself that He (burhan) gives knowledge of It. (II
possesses two relationships: a relation- 226.22)
ship with the cosmos through the divine
names which affirm the entities of the According to the Shaykh, God in re-
cosmos, and the relationship of His in- spect of being the Divinity must create
dependence from the cosmos. ·In respect the cosmos, even though, in respect of
of His relationship of independence, He the Essence, He is Independent of the
knows Himself and we know Him
cosmos. God as Essence has nothing to
not. (II 533.4)
In actuality the Divine Perfection is do with the universe, but as Creator He
found in the penetration of power into the demands creation, as Powerful He de-
objects of power, desire into the objects mands objects of power, as Lord He de-
of desire, and in the manifestation of the mands vassals, as God He demands di-
properties of the divine names. The Es- vine thralls. Once we view the universe
sential Perfection possessed by the Es- as already created, we see that God is
sence is absolute independence from all Creator of the things and Revealer of the
this. (II 588.30) scriptures. In both respects, that which
God says, "0 people, you are the poor He has shown to us-the universe and
toward Allah, and Allah-He is the In-
the revealed texts-"speaks" of Him as
dependent, the Praiseworthy" (Koran
35:15). In other words, He is Independent Generous, Gracious, Kind, Beneficent,
through His names, just as we are poor Bestower, Giver, and so on. All these
toward His names. That is why He men- names denote the Divinity as It is in fact,
tioned [in this verse] the name Al- so they all demand that the cosmos have
lah, which brings together all the divine some sort of existence. One may be al-
64 names. (II 263.13) lowed to argue at this point that God as
The Essence & the Divinity

Divinity could have created something istence upon the possible thing in its state
else-though the Shaykh rejects this po- of nonexistence is a greater act of munif-
sition in other contexts-but not that He icence and generosity [than giving it
could not have created. The created cos- something once it exists).
Though God is Independent of the
mos and the statements of the revealed
worlds, this means that He is incompara-
books both prove that God is a Creator, ble in the sense that any poverty might
and "realities do not change." This type subsist in Him or any denotation other
of approach is basic to Ibn al-'Arabi's than His own Self might denote Him.
way of thinking, and we will meet many Hence He brought the cosmos into exis-
more examples of it. For the present it is tence out of His munificence and generos-
sufficient to quote a few passages which ity. No intelligent person or man of faith
show that God as Essence is in no way doubts this, or the fact that munificence is
constrained or compelled to create the an attribute of Self. For He is the Munif-
cosmos. It is only God as the Divinity icent, the Generous in Himself. So the
cosmos must exist. If knowledge has
who, by the very reality of Divinity, will
judged that something must exist, it is
never refrain from creativity and gener- impossible for it not to exist. So there
osity. As soon as we have said "Divin- must be "relationships," or "attributes"
ity," we have also said "cosmos." according to the position of the Attri-
butists, 10 or "names" according to the
Abii Yazld used to say, "I have no at- position of others. So there must be
tributes. "• So it is much more appropriate manyness (kathra) in the One Entity. (III
to negate any delimitation by attributes 289.23)
from the Real, since He is Independent of "Chivalry" (fotuwwa) is a divine attri-
the cosmos. For attributes demand engen- bute by way of meaning, but there is no
dered things. If there were in the Real that word derived from it by which God is
which demands the cosmos, it would not named. Both the Law and rational proofs
be correct for Him to be Independent of show that He possesses independence
that which He demands. (IV 319.31) from the cosmos absolutely . . . . One
Though God in His Essence is Indepen- who has such independence and then
dent of the worlds, it is known that He is brings the cosmos into existence does not
described by generosity (al-karam), mu- bring it into existence because of His pov-
nificence (al-jiid), and mercy (al-ra~ma). erty toward it. He only brings the cosmos
Hence there must be objects of mercy and into existence for the sake of the cosmos,
objects of generosity. That is why God as an act of charity (lthiir) toward it in
says, "When My servants question thee spite of the fact that He alone possesses
about Me-surely I am near. I respond to Being. This is chivalry itself.
the call of the caller when he calls to Me" There are three reports of the divine
(Koran 2:186). God answers the caller chivalry, one Koranic and two prophetic.
through munificence and generosity. In the Koran God says, "I created jinn and
Asking through one's states (al-a~wiil) mankind only to worship Me" (51:56).
is without doubt more complete than ask- The form of chivalry here is that He
ing through one's words. Response is created them to give them the blessing
quicker to him who asks through his (in'iim) of existence, to bring them out
state, since he is asking through his very from the evil of nonexistence, to make it
essence. Moreover, munificence toward possible for them to assume the traits
someone who is distressed and needy is in (takhalluq) of the divine names, and to
actual fact a greater munificence than mu- make them successors (kha/f). 11 All of
nificence shown toward someone who is this is charity toward them, given that He
not distressed. The possible thing in the alone possesses everything in which He
state of its nonexistence has a more in- has made them successors. Then He knew
tense poverty toward God than in the that making people feel obliged (imtiniin)
state of its existence. That is why the pos- detracts from a blessing, 12 so He con-
sible thing makes no claims (da'wa) in the cealed (sitr) the blessing from them with
state of its nonexistence, unlike the state His words, "I only created jinn and man-
of its existence. Hence effusing (ifii4a) ex- kind to worship Me." He made it appear 65
Theology

that He had created them for His sake point which was explained in the "Con-
rather than for their sake. ference of the Names." In practice this
In a prophetic report that comes from means that no one can call upon Allah in
Moses, it is said that God created things respect of the name's all-comprehen-
for us and He created us for Him. 13 Then
siveness; rather, everyone who calls upon
He concealed this with His words, "There
is nothing that does not glorify Him in Him in fact has one name or another in
praise" (17:44), so that all might know view. This principle is fundamental to
through His giving knowledge that they the Shaykh's ontology and spiritual psy-
are glorifying Him in praise. Thus we chology. Its corollary is that things know
smell no whiff of feeling obliged. In this God only through their own specific re-
Mosaic report the property of chivalry is alities and worship Him only in terms of
that He created things for us as an act of their own individual beliefs; a great deal
charity for us .... will be said about this in later chapters.
The second prophetic report is that
which has been related through the Mes- Since every name other than the name
senger of God from God. God said, "I Allah, while denoting the Essence of the
was a Treasure but was not known. So I Real, also denotes- because of its linguis-
loved to be known, and I created the crea- tic derivation-a meaning of negation or
tures and made Myself known to them. affirmation, no other name is as strong as
Then they came to know Me. " 14 • • (II this name in the unity of its denotation of
231.33, 232.1) the Essence. (IV 197.1)
You say "Allah." This name brings to-
gether the realities of all the divine names,
so it is impossible for it to be said in a
The Name "Allah" nondelimited sense ('ala'l-i(liiq). Hence
states (al-a~wiil) must delimit it. If words
delimit it, that follows from the states.
Whenever something is attributed to Al-
God may be considered in respect of
lah, look to see which name is worthy
Himself, in which case He is referred to of that attribution. What is sought from
as the Essence, or in respect of His Level, Allah in that situation is only the name
in which case He is referred to as the Di- which that attribution specifies. (III
vinity. In both cases He is called "Allah." 317.28)
Like most authorities, Ibn al-'Arabi nor- In respect of what the name Allah de-
mally considers the name "Allah" a notes, it cannot be described, since it
proper name (ism 'alam), refusing to de- brings together contradictory things (al-
rive it (ishtiqiiq) from the root '.l. h., from naqlqayn). Though this name becomes
which are derived iliih, "god," and uluha, manifest in speech, what is meant by it is
only the specific name that is sought by
"divinity." This does not reflect lin-
the context of the person's state in keep-
guistic obtuseness on his part, but rather ing with the reality of that which is men-
courtesy toward God in respect of His tioned after it and in respect of which this
most important revealed name. 15 divine name was employed. When the
Allah is called the "all-comprehensive person who is seeking and in need of pro-
name," which means that it designates vision says, "0 Allah, provide for me!"
every name and attribute of God. Hence, -while Allah in addition [to being All-
as we have seen, the "Divine Presence" provider] is also Withholder (al-mani')
-that level of reality which pertains to -then through his state this person is
the name Allah-includes the Essence, seeking only the name All-provider. The
meaning of what he has said is nothing
the attributes, and the acts. In other
but, "0 All-provider, provide for me!"
words, the Divine Presence embraces In consequence, he who wants a re-
Being, existence, and nonexistence, or sponse from Allah in affairs should ask
everything that can in any sense be said from Him only in terms of the name spe-
to be real. Every other name is included cific to that thing. He should not ask Him
66 within the scope of the name Allah, a through a name that contains what he
The Essence & the Divinity

wants as well as something else. He what do you know Allah?" He an-


should not ask by a name in respect of its swered, "Through the fact that He
denotation of the Essence of the Named, brings opposites together (jam'uhu al-
but only in respect of the meaning which qiddayn)"; then he recited the Koranic
the name carries, in respect to which it verse, "He is the First and the Last, the
was revealed and is distinguished from
the other names-a distinction through
Manifest and the Nonmanifest" (57:3). 19
meaning, not only verbal. (II 462. 7) This is the root of the "Divine Conflict"
According to the Verifiers, it is impos- which was discussed above, not to men-
sible to have [the spiritual state of] inti- tion all strife and struggle that become
macy (uns) with Allah. One can only have manifest in the cosmos.
intimacy with a specific and designated
divine name, not with the name Allah. In The root of all things is difference (taf
the same way, nothing that comes from riqa), which first becomes manifest in
Allah to His servants can come through the divine names. The properties of the
the property of the name Allah alone, names are different because their mean-
since Allah is the name that brings to- ings are different. (II 518.12)
gether the realities of all the divine names. The [friend of God who is the] owner
Hence, nothing happens to a designated of divine courtesy (al-adab al-iliihl)"'
individual in engendered existence except never conflicts with anyone. He only
through a designated name. Or rather, no translates (tarjumiin) for the conflicters.
entity'• becomes manifest in all engen- Those from whom he translates are the
dered existence- I mean in everything divine names, from which conflict (nizii')
other than Allah-except from a desig- arises in the cosmos. Because of them the
nated, specific name that cannot be the Scale of the Law (al-miziin al-shar'l) was
name Allah. established in this world and the Funda-
The reason for this is that one of the mental Scale in the next world. 21 For Ex-
properties of the name Allah is indepen- alter and Abaser are disputants (kha~m), as
dence from the worlds, just as one of its are Harmer and Benefiter, Life-giver and
properties is the manifestation of the cos- Slayer, and Bestower and Withholder.
mos and His love for that manifesta- Facing every name stands one of the other
tion. 17 He who is Independent of the names which is its contrary in property.
worlds does not rejoice (fora~) because of The Scale established among the names is
the cosmos, but Allah rejoices through the name Arbitrator (al-~akam); this Scale
the repentance of His servant. 18 So the decrees justly. Arbitrator looks upon the
Level of the name Allah is known, but it preparedness of the locus (isti'diid al-ma-
is impossible for its property to become ~all) and judges it according to its pre-
manifest within the cosmos, because of paredness by placing it in the party of
the contrariety (taqiibul) it contains. (II one of the two contrary and conflicting
541.5) names. (III 98.19)

In tracing conflict and dispute in the


cosmos back to its roots in God, Ibn al-
'Arabi frequently comments on the Ko-
The Disputes of the Angels ranic verse, "Say: '. . . I had no knowl-
edge of the higher plenum when they
disputed'" (38:69). The higher plenum
The name Allah is the "totality of the (al-mala' al-a'lii) are the angels, the spir-
contrary names" (majmii' al-asma al-mu- itual beings which populate the higher
taqiibila, II 157.21), since it brings to- world. The Shaykh occasionally con-
gether the Forgiver and the Avenger, the trasts them with the "lower plenum" (al-
Abaser and the Exalter, the Life-giver mala' al-adnii or al-asfal), the creatures of
and the Slayer, and so on. Ibn al-'Arabi the corporeal world. 22 At first sight it is
often quotes the words of Abii Sa'id al- not obvious why angels should dispute
Kharraz, who was asked, "Through (ikhti~iim, cf. Koran 3:44), especially 67
Theology

since, in the words of the Koran, the an- What does light have in common with
gels "disobey God not in what He com- darkness and existence with nonexistence?
mands them" (66:6). They should have What does fire have in common with
no reason to quarrel unless God in His water, yellow bile with phlegm, move-
infinite wisdom wants them to do so. ment with rest, servanthood with Lord-
ship? Are not all of these contraries? So
The Koran passes over the reason for the "they never cease in their oppositions." (II
angelic dispute without explanation. The 335.12)
hadith literature makes a number of ref- That which is the product (muwallatf) of
erences to it, and the most famous of mutually averse opposites (a4diid mutanii-
these sayings makes it dear that the rea- .fira) cannot avoid conflict (muniiza'a)
son for their disputing is not at all obvi- within itself, especially that which is the
ous. The Prophet said, product of the four elements. For such a
thing is the product of a product of a
My Lord-Inaccessible and Majestic is product: elements [are produced] from
He-came to me at night in the most the spheres, [the spheres] from the con-
beautiful form. He said: "0 Muham- stellations, [the constellations] from Na-
mad!" I said, "Here I am, my Lord, at ture/' [Nature] from the [Universal]
Thy service." He said, "What is the Soul. 26 The root is the contrary divine
higher plenum disputing about?" I said, "I names, from which contrariety permeates
know not, my Lord." He said that two or the cosmos.
three times. Then He placed His palm be- But we are in the last degrees. Hence
tween my shoulders. I felt its coolness be- there is less opposition (khiliif) in every-
tween my breasts, and everything in the thing lying above [our level, which is] the
heavens and the earth was disclosed to level of things produced from the ele-
me. . . . Then He said, "0 Muhammad! ments, even though opposition never
What is the higher plenum disputing ceases. Do you not see how the higher
about?" I said, "About expiations (kaf plenum were disputing? And the Messen-
foriit)." He said, "And what arc expia- ger of God had no knowledge of them
tions?" I said: "Going on foot to congre- when they were disputing until God
gations Uamii'iit), sitting in the mosque taught him that. The reason for their dis-
after the prayers, and performing the ab- pute is that the root of their configuration
lutions fully in difficult circumstances. He (nash' a) gives it to them. In respect of the
who does that lives in good and dies in reality upon which they were created they
good. His offenses are like the day his said [when God told them He was going
mother bore him." ... 23 to place Adam in the earth], "What, wilt
Thou place therein one who will do cor-
ruption therein, and shed blood?" (Koran
In discussing the angels' dispute, the 2:30). This is a hidden conflict with the
Shaykh points out that its only root can Lordship from behind the veil of jealousy
be the diversity of the divine names. and reverence. The root of conflict and
mutual aversion is the divine names we
We know that the members of the mentioned: Life-giver and Slayer, Exalter
higher plenum dispute. Hence they enter and Abaser, Harmer and Benefiter. (II
into His words, "They never cease in 251.29)
their oppositions, except those upon
whom thy Lord has mercy" (Koran 11:
118). The higher plenum oppose those
objects of mercy who are their oppo- Incomparability and Similarity
nents. And that is why He created them,
that is, for opposition (khiliij), since the
divine names are ranked in degrees. From
here opposition originates. What does The discussion of the divine names
Harmer have in common with Benefiter, .has been moving back and forth between
Exalter with Abaser, Contractor with Ex- the Essence and the cosmos, since the
pander? What does heat have in common names are the barzakh between the two.
68 with cold and wetness with dryness?" In one respect no name can truly denote
The Essence & the Divinity

the Essence, since in Himself God is infi-· should not ask "how" (kayf) it is true,
nitely beyond all things. "None knows since that is known only to God.
God but God." In another respect every For the Shaykh, incomparability and
divine name- and even every name of similarity derive necessarily from the Es-
an engendered thing-denotes God, sence on the one hand and the Level of
since He is the only true Reality, the Divinity on the other. Since the Essence
Source of all existence and attributes. is unknowable and incomprehensible,
The Shaykh al-Akbar constantly alter- nothing is comparable to It. But since the
nates between these two points of view. Essence in respect of being a god as-
He maintains that true knowledge of sumes all sorts of relationships with the
God and creation can only come through creatures, those relationships- known
combining the two perspectives. He as names and attributes-can only be
commonly refers to them as (the declara- grasped through our knowledge of cre-
tion of God's) incomparability (tanzlh) ation. By knowing these relationships we
and (the declaration of His) similarity gain real knowledge of God; this knowl-
(tashbth). Tanzlh derives from the root edge is incomplete and partial, but it is
n.z.h., which means to be far away efficacious on its own level for the pur-
from, to be untouched by, to be free poses in which it must be employed (e.g.,
from. Hence tanzth means to declare worship). The names themselves are in-
or to affirm that something is far away conceivable without the creatures and are
or free from something else. In other shared by the creatures in some manner,
words, tanzth is to declare that God tran- even if, as the Shaykh sometimes says,
scends any attribute or quality possessed that manner is only a matter of a single
by His creatures. Tashblh derives from word shared by two different things es-
the root sh.b.h., which means to be simi- sentially different in attribute. But when
lar or comparable. It signifies declaring he does say this, as in the following pas-
or affirming that something is similar to sage addressed to those schooled in the
something else; to compare, to liken. intricacies of Kalam-type argumentation,
Hence tashbih is to maintain that a certain he is speaking about the distinction be-
similarity can be found between God and tween the name in itself, identical to the
creation. Essence, and the specific characteristic of
Ibn al-'Arabl borrowed the two terms the name which gains a real connection
from Kalam, where there was a long his- to the created things.
tory of dispute concerning them; as
Wolfson has pointed out, the two per-
It is impossible for the Essence of the
spectives must even be considered a basic Real to come together (ijtimii') with the
pre-Kalam problem. 27 For the most part possible thing in any attribute, since the
the dominant theologians criticized simi- existence of every attribute by which the
larity as a heretical position, often citing possible thing is qualified disappears with
as their opponents various obscure think- the disappearance of that to which it is at-
ers who claimed, for example, that God tributed, or the attribute disappears while
had a corporeal body. The theologians the possible thing subsists . . . But the
were well aware that the Koran and Had- Necessary Being through Itself cannot ac-
ith are full of references to God's hands, cept that which may possibly be or not
eyes, feet, laughter, and so on, but they be. Since It cannot be qualified by that
thing in respect of the reality of the de-
held that these terms have to be under-
scription, there only remains a sharing
stood as in no way similar to what is des- of terminology (ishtiriik ji'l-laf:?). Since
ignated by the same terms when applied sharing of definition (~add) and reality has
to human beings. Debates raged back been rejected, no single definition what-
and forth, and in the end the adopted soever combines the attribute of the Real
formula held that everything the Koran and the attribute of the servant ....
said about God is true, but a person Hence, when we say "God is Know- 69
Theology

ing" we do not mean it according to the find them in the revealed texts. But
definition and reality of the knowledge by explaining away such terms, these
that we attribute to the temporally origi- thinkers usually miss the point. In the
nated possible thing. For the attribution Shaykh's view, reason places so much
of knowledge to God differs from its emphasis upon incomparability that it
attribution to the creature. If eternal
knowledge were identical with tempo-
excludes similarity, while the Koran and
rally originated knowledge, a single, es- Hadith have presented us with both in-
sential definition would bring together comparability and similarity. It is im-
the two definitions. Then what was im- possible to understand the full message
possible for one would be impossible for of the scriptures by accepting only one-
the other. But we have found the situa- half of it. The rational faculty can grasp
tion different from this. (I 271.20) God's Unity and transcendence, while
imagination is needed to perceive the
In respect of His names, God has a multiplicity of His self-disclosures and
certain similarity with creatures, but in His immanence.
respect of His Essence, He cannot be To accept the full message of scripture
compared with them. That is why it was does not imply that one believes simple-
said earlier that God has two basic kinds mindedly that God has hands and feet in
of names: those which declare Him in- exactly the same way that human beings
comparable and those which declare Him have hands and feet. So difficult in fact is
similar, or names of incomparability and it to combine the points of view of
names of acts. 28 The first type of names reason and imagination that this task can
negate from His Essence any similarity only be achieved through God's own
with the things of the cosmos. The sec- inspiration. "Be godfearing," the Shaykh
ond affirm that every reality in the cos- continually reminds us, "and God will
mos has its roots in the Divine Level. teach you" (Koran 2:282). Through
The theme of incomparability and "godfearingness" (taqwa), an important
similarity runs throughout Ibn al- technical term in the Shaykh's vocabu-
'Arabi's works. God is the coincidence lary, the servant can attain to the station
of all contrary attributes. In knowing of direct "tasting" (dhawq) or the
God, we must be able to put opposites "unveiling" (kashf) of the realities of
together. As the Shaykh sees it, most things. This is the true knowledge that
schools of thought had failed to make will allow him to combine similarity and
this combination. More specifically, the incomparability, or imagination and
rational thinkers, by whom he means reason, without falling into the danger-
both the proponents of Kahim- ous pitfalls of overemphasizing either
Ash'arites and Mu'tazilites-and the phi- side. This whole problem is central to
losophers (falasifa) such as A vicenna, Ibn al-'Arabi's approach and will come
overemphasized incomparability. By more to the forefront as we move for-
ignoring imagination, which alone is able ward. For the present a few representa-
to perceive the true meaning of the Ko- tive passages concerning incomparability
ranic depictions of similarity, they fell and similarity need to be quoted. De-
into a lopsided view of reality. tailed discussions of the relationships that
The rational faculty or reason ('aql), exist among revelation, reason, imagina-
which is the specific tool by which Ka- tion, and unveiling must be left for later
lam and philosophy seek to know the na- chapters.
ture of things, wants to negate anything
from God which does not appear appro- Incomparability
priate to its own definition of Divinity,
e.g., hands, feet, and eyes. Hence, the Tanzlh is to describe the Real as having
rational thinkers "interpret" or "explain no connection with the attributes of tem-
70 away" (ta'wll) these terms wherever they porally originated things. (II 672.19)
The Essence & the Divinity

He who knows God through his con-- is worthy of Him. But that which be-
siderative faculty (na;;ar) looks upon Him longs to Him is not shared in common
as far removed (mun'azil) from himself (mushiiraka) with anything. He can only
through a distance that demands the be lauded through His names, but every
declaration of incomparability. So he one of His names known to us is assumed
places himself on one side and the Real on by the servant as his own trait (takhalluq),
the other, calling to Him from a "far and by it he becomes qualified to the
place. " 29 (III 410.18) measure that is appropriate for him.
Some rational faculties are meddlesome [Hence there is no name worthy of God's
(fuqul) because of the faculties which are unique Essence.]
their tools [e. g., reflection and considera- Since it is not possible for Him to be
tion) . . . . This meddlesome nature leads lauded within the cosmos as is worthy,
them to rational consideration of the Es- He made the glorification of Him by all
sence of God, though the Law has pro- things into His laudation. That is why He
hibited reflection upon God's Essence. attributes "praise" (~amcl) to the glorifica-
Such a rational faculty slips into consider- tion, saying, "glorifies by praising Him"
ing the Essence, thereby transgressing and (Koran 13:13, 17:44), i.e., by the lauda-
wronging itself. It sets up what it sup- tion of which He is worthy, and that is
poses are proof~ . . . that the Essence of only glorification. For God says, "Glory
God cannot be such and such, nor can It be to thy Lord, the Lord of inaccessibil-
be in such a manner. Reason negates from ity, above what they describe" (37:180).
the Essence everything that is attributed (III148.19)
to temporally originated things so that It God preserves the cosmos in order that
will be distinct from them. Thereby it laudation of Him will continue upon the
constricts the Essence and considers It de- tongue of the temporally originated
limited.](' (II 389.1) things through their declaring Him in-
comparable with the poverty that belongs
Ibn al-'Arabi identifies the declaration to them. He does not preserve the cosmos
of incomparability with the Koranic con- out of concern (al-ihtimiim) for it, nor out
cept of tasbl~ or "glorification," since the of solicitude (a I-'iniiya), only so that it will
be His locus of self-disclosure (majlii),
formula "Glory be to God" as employed
within which the properties of His names
in the Koran involves a negation of some may become manifest. (III 120. 19)
posited or limited attribute from God. When someone declares God's incom-
For example, the Koran says, "Glory be parability, his declaration is measured ac-
to God above what they describe!" (23: cording to his own level, since he does
91, 37:159); or, "They say, 'He has taken not declare His Creator's incomparabil-
a son,' Glory be to Him! He is the Inde- ity except in respect of himself, since he
pendent" (10:68). Moreover, the Koran knows only himself. 32 (III 92.3)
repeats in several verses (57:1, 59:1, 62:1, Declaring incomparability is diverse ac-
etc.) that everything in the heavens and cording to the diversity of the worlds and
the earth glorifies God, which is to the fact that every knower declares the
Real incomparable in the measure of his
say-in the Shaykh's interpretation- knowledge of himself. He declares Him
that everything declares that He is in- incomparable with everything that be-
comparable with itself. longs to himself, since everything that be-
longs to himself is temporally originated.
Glorification is to declare the incom- Hence he declares the Real incomparable
parability of the "Lord of inaccessibility . . . in respect to those temporally origi-
above what they describe" (Koran 37: nated qualities pertaining to himself. That
180). "Inaccessibility"" requires that true is why declaring the Real's incomparabil-
knowledge of Him cannot be attained. (II ity is diverse in accordance with the di-
580.14) versity of the declarers. For example, an
Glorification is a declaration of incom- accident ('aratf) says, "Glory be to Him
parability. It is not a laudation (thana') who is not poor in His Being toward a lo-
through a positive quality (amr thubiitf). cus in which to become manifest!" A sub-
He cannot be lauded except through what stance (jawhar) says, "Glory be t:o Him 71
Theology

who is not poor in His Being toward a sengers is the lack of justice on the part of
bestower of existence!" A corporeal body the jurists <foqahii') and the possessors of
(jism) says, "Glory be to Him who is not (worldly] authority (ulu'l-amr) who listen
poor in His Being toward instruments to them. Such people hurry to declare
(adiih)!" Thus, declaring incomparability anyone who says about God the like of
has been classified according to its major what the prophets said an "unbeliever."
categories (ummahiit), since there is noth- They have abandoned God's words,
ing that is not either substance, body, or "You have a good example in the Mes-
accident. Then each kind of creature per- senger of God" (Koran 33:21). God also
tains specifically to certain things that said to the Prophet when He mentioned
other kinds do not possess, so it glorifies the prophets and messengers, "Those are
God in respect of those attributes in its they whom God has guided, so follow
own station. But perfect man glorifies their guidance" (6:90).
God through all the glorifications in the But the jurists have locked this door
cosmos. (III 77. 19) because of claimers who lie in their
claims. And they have done well! The
Similarity truthful servants suffer no harm because
of this, since speaking and expressing
The sincere lover is he who passes into such things is not indispensable. In those
the attributes of the beloved, not he who things of this sort which have come from
brings the beloved down to his own at- the Messenger of God there is sufficiency
tributes. Do you not see that the Real, for them, so they mention them and are
when He loved us, descended to us in His happy with them, that is, such things as
hidden gentlenesses by means of that wonder, rejoicing, laughter, receivmg
which corresponds (muniisaba) to us and joyfully, descent, withness, love, and
above which His eminence and greatness yearning. 35 But were a friend of God to
are high exalted? He descended to (1) re- express these and similar matters on his
ceiving us joyfully when we come to His own, he would be declared an unbeliever,
house in order to confide in Him; (2) re- and perhaps killed.
joicing at our repentance and our return Most of the exoteric scholars ('ulamii'
to Him after our turning away from Him; al-rusum) lack the knowledge of this
(3) wonder at the young man who lacks through tasting and drinking. 36 So they
sensual desire while he should be con- deny such things in the gnostics, out of
trolled by it, even though he has that envy on their part. If it were impossible
through God's giving him success; (4) be- to ascribe such things to God, He would
ing our deputies in our hunger, thirst, and not have ascribed them to Himself, nor
illness, and placing Himself in our way- would His messengers have ascribed
stations. When one of His servants is hun- them. But the envy of these people pre-
gry, He says to the others, "I was hun- vents them from seeing that they are re-
gry, but you did not feed Me." He says to jecting the Book of God and forbidding
another of His servants, "I was ill but you God's mercy from reaching some of His
did not visit Me." When the servants ask servants. Most of the common people (al-
Him about this, He replies to them, "Ver- 'iimma) follow the jurists in this denial, in
ily so-and-so was ill; if you had visited imitation of them. No! On the contrary
him, you would have found Me with -praise belongs to God!-the lesser part
him. So-and-so was hungry; if you had of the common people.
fed him, you would have found Me with As for kings, for the most part they
him. . . . " This is one of the fruits of have not reached the witnessing of these
love, when He descends to us. 33 (II realities because of their occupation with
596.6) what has been turned over to them. So
Nowadays our companions 34 suffer they support the exoteric scholars in their
extreme pain at not being able to speak position, except for a few of them who
without restraint about God as is appro- have suspected the exoteric scholars in
priate and as the prophets spoke without that, since these kings have seen that these
restraint. . . . What prevents them from authorities are dedicated to the chaff of
ascribing to God that which is ascribed to this world-though they have no need
72 Him by the revealed books and the mes- for it-and to the love of position and
The Essence & the Divinity

leadership and to accommodating the de-- Hence He does not accept similarity, for
sires of kings in that which is not permit-- He has no attributes (~ifo). Everyone who
ted [by the Law). 37 So the knowers of has attributes accepts similarity, since at-
God remain in the lowliness of incapacity tributes undergo variation (tanawwu') in
and constraint, like a messenger to whom their receptacles in accordance with what
his people cry lies and in whom not one is given by the reality of that which is de-
of them believes. (I 272.17) scribed by them. For example, the Real is
I am amazed at . . . the Ash'arites, in qualified by knowledge, hearing, sight,
their mistakes concerning shared termi-· power, desire, speech, and other attri-
nology (laj;; mushtarak). How can they butes, while the creature is also qualified
call this a declaration of similarity, since by them. But it is obvious that their attri-
declaring similarity between two things bution to the creature is not commensu-
only takes place through the word "like" rate with their attribution to the Creator.
(mithl, ka) in language? But this is hard to What is more, their attribution to a hu-
find in any Koranic verse or hadith which man being differs from their attribution
they have made into a declaration of sim- to an angel, yet both of these are created
ilarity. things. (II 499 .7)
The Ash'arites imagined that by inter- There are attributes by which the Real
preting (ta'wtl) they would be able to described Himself and which the exoteric
leave aside the declaration of similarity, scholars suppose are called hadiths of sim--
but they did not depart from it. They ilarity or Koranic verses of similarity;
only passed from declaring similarity [they also suppose that they are) a divine
with corporeal things (ajsiim) to declaring descent out of mercy to the servants, a di-
similarity with temporally originated vine gentleness. In our view these are true
meanings (al-ma'iinl al-mu~datha), which descriptions which, in the case of the ser-·
are different from the eternal attributes vant, are metaphorical (musta'iir), just like
both in reality and definition. Hence they the other names which the servant as-
never passed beyond declaring God simi- sumes as his traits (takhalluq). I~ or He is
lar with temporally originated things. the Best of the Deceivers (khayr al-mii-
For example, if we were to maintain kirln, Koran 3:54, 8:30) and God mocks
their position, we would not swerve from the mockers among His servants (Koran
the "sitting upon" (istiwii'), which means 2:15) with a mocking and a deception that
"to take up residence" (istiqriir), to the belong to Him from whence they know
"sitting upon" which means "to make not, while He does not describe Himself
oneself master of' (istllii'), 38 as they by temporally originated things. So this
swerved lin their interpretation of the Ko- shows that these descriptions belong at
ranic verse, "The All-merciful sat upon root to God; they do not become manifest
the Throne" (20:5)). This is especially so in the divine servant except inasmuch as
since "Throne" is mentioned in relation to he is created in God's form in all re-
sitting. The meaning of "making oneself spects. 39
master of" is nullified by the reference to The gnostics knew all of this. They also
the scat, and it is impossible to turn it into saw His words, "To Him all affairs shall
another meaning different from taking up be returned" (11:123). They understood
residence. that these descriptions which are manifest
I would say, for example: Declaration in the engendered things and which the
of similarity takes place through "sitting," exoteric scholars believe belong truly to
and sitting is a meaning, but not through the servant are among the affairs that are
that upon which one sits, which is a cor- returned to God. Hence they abandoned
poreal body. Sitting is an intelligible, them all to God. (II 224.3)
supra-sensory (ma'nawl) reality which can
be attributed to every essence in accor-
dance with what the reality of that essence
provides. There is no need to burden one- Combining Incomparability and
self (takalluf) by turning "sitting" away Similarity
from its apparent meaning. (I 43.32)
God is the Light about which is said, As we shall see repeatedly, the Shaykh
"Nothing is like Him" (Koran 42:11). often quotes the verse, "Nothing is like 73
Theology

Him, and He is the Seeing, the Hearing" own consideration to the doctrine con-
(42:11), as a Koranic proof that God cerning his Lord. (II 407.3)
combines attributes of incomparability God knew that Ht; had deposited
and similarity. within the rational faculty acceptance to-
ward that which is given both by the Real
(al-~aqq) and by the reflective faculty (al-
The rational faculty has come with one- quwwat al-mufakkira). He well knew that
half the knowledge of God, that is, the He had placed in the reflective faculty free
declaration of incomparability and the ne- disposal within and domination over the
gation of multiple properties from Him. existent things . . . . He knew that the re-
But the Lawgiver brought news of God flective faculty had to dominate over the
by affirming what the rational faculty's rational faculty by reflection upon the Es-
proofs (daliila) have negated from Him sence of Him who gave it existence, i.e.,
and establishing what the rational faculty God. Therefore He had pity on the ra-
has stripped from Him. The Lawgiver tional faculty in this respect, since He
brought both things because of the per- knew that it would fall short of achieving
fection appropriate to God, while rational what it was trying to do. Hence He ad-
faculties remained bewildered. This is the dressed it through the Koran: "God warns
Perfection of Divinity.... you about His Self, and God is Clement
The sensory and imaginative faculties to the servants" (3:30). He says: We have
demand by their essences to see Him who only cautioned you against rationally con-
brought them into existence, while ratio- sidering the Essence of God out of mercy
nal faculties demand by their essences and and pity toward you; We know that the
their proofs-such as negation, affirma- reflective faculty tells the rational faculty
tion, necessity, permissibility, and impos- to negate the attributes We have affirmed
sibility-to know Him who brought through the tongues of Our messengers.
them into existence. So people reject these attributes with their
Hence God addressed the senses and proofs, are deprived of faith, and suffer
imagination with the disengagement everlasting wretchedness (shaqiiwa).
(tajrld) established by the proofs provided Then God commanded the Messenger
by rational faculties. The senses listen to of God to prohibit us from reflecting
God's address, and they and imagination upon God's Essence, as was done by
become bewildered. They say, "We have some of God's servants. But the People of
nothing of that in our hands." Consideration began to speak (mutakallim)
Then God addressed the rational facul- about God's Essence, and their doctrines
ties with the declaration of similarity es- became diverse. Each of them spoke
tablished by the senses and imagination. about what his own consideration re-
The rational faculties listen and become quired. One of them would deny exactly
bewildered. They say, "We have nothing what the other affirmed. They did not
of that in our hands." So God is high agree on a single thing concerning God in
above the perception of rational faculties, respect of their consideration of His Es-
the senses, and imagination. (II 307. 19) sence, and they disobeyed God and His
Sound rational faculties which recog- Messenger by speaking about it, since
nize God's majesty are bewildered. But God had prohibited them from doing that
the people of interpretation (ahl al-ta'wll) out of mercy toward them. They shrank
are not bewildered, nor do they hit their from God's mercy, "So their striving
target, that is, by plunging into interpre- goes astray in the present life, while they
tation. Even if they should conform to think they are working good deeds" (Ko-
the doctrine (al-'ilm), they have commit- ran 18:104).
ted a forbidden act about which they will Some of them said, "He is a cause."
be questioned on the Day of Resurrec- Others said, "He is not a cause." Others
tion-they and everyone who speaks said, "The Essence of the Real cannot be
about His Essence, declares Him incom- a substance, an accident, or a corporeal
parable with what He has attributed to body; on the contrary, His Being (in-
Himself, and prefers his own rational fac- niyya) is identical with His quiddity (ma-
ulty to his faith and the judgment of his hiyya) and does not fit into any of the ten
74
The Essence & the Divinity

categories." They went on and on in this mitred sources. At the same time, we ne-
manner and became like the proverb says: gate likeness in the attribution and [refuse
"I hear the grinding, but I don't see any to claim] correct knowledge of the reality
flour." of the revealed attribute by which the
When the Law came, it contradicted Unknown Essence has been described.
everything proven by rational faculties. It Thus have I counselled you. Under-
mentioned [God's] coming, descent, sit- stand what I have said! Remain steady in
ting, rejoicing, laughter, hand, foot, and what the Shari'a has brought for you and
every attribute of temporally originated you will be safe. For He knows Himself
things that has been transmitted in the best and He is most truthful in words. He
sound traditions. Then it brought "There has only taught us in keeping with how
is nothing like Him" (42:11), even though He is. "There is no god but He, the Inac-
these attributes have been affirmed. If cessible, the Wise" (Koran 3:6). "Glory be
they were impossible, as the rational fac- to thy Lord, the Lord of inaccessibility,
ulty indicates, He would not have as-- above what they describe. Peace be upon
cribed them to Himself and the true re-- the envoys, and praise belongs to God,
port would be a lie. But God "sent no Lord ofthe worlds" (37:180). (II 319.15)
messenger save with the tongue of his The Real described Himself by things
people, that he might make clear to with which rational proofs declare Him
them" (Koran 14:4) what He sent down incomparable. Hence these things can
to them and that they might understand. only be accepted by way of faith and sub-
The Prophet made clear, delivered the mission, or, for him who adds it, by in-
message, and called God to witness before terpretation (ta'wtl) in the mode appropri-
his community that he had delivered the ate for rational consideration. The People
message.'" of Unveiling, who possess the divine fac--
So through "Nothing is like Him" we ulty that is beyond the stage of reason
arc ignorant of the exact nature of the at-· (fawr a/-'aql), recognize this, just as the
tribution. We understand what is intelligi-· common people understand. They know
ble from the revealed words and that why God accepts this description, even
what is intelligible is single, in respect though He is incomparable through
of that for which the words have been "Nothing is like Him." But this lies out-·
coined. But the attributions are diverse in side of what can be perceived by the ra-·
accordance with the diversity of the ob- tiona! faculty through its own reflections.
jects to which attribution is made, though So the common people stand in the sta-
their realities are not diverse, since reali- tion of declaring similarity, the People of
ties do not change. Hence he who stops Unveiling declare both similarity and in-
at these words and their meanings and comparability, and the rational thinkers
maintains that he docs not have the declare incomparability alone. Hence,
knowledge of the attribution to the Real God combined the two sides in His
is a man of knowledge and faith ('iilim elect. (II 116.4)
mu'min). But he who attributes them in a The philosophers speak of becoming
specific sense of application outside of similar (tashabbuh) to God to the extent ef-
corporealization (tajslm) is neither a man fort allows. 42 But when you verify this
of faith nor a man of knowledge. 41 statement, you will see that it displays ig-
If this person who rationally considers norance on the part of him who said it,
the Essence of God were just, he would since in fact there cannot be any "becom-
not consider God's Essence and would ing similar." If an attribute subsists in
have faith in what has come from God, someone, then it belongs to him and he
since proofs have shown him that the re- has the preparedness (isti'diid) for it to
port-giver-the Messenger-has spoken subsist in him. Hence the preparedness of
the truth. This is what has held me back his own essence required it. So no one is
in this chapter from speaking about God's similar to anyone; rather, the attribute is
Essence in accordance with what the found in both, just as it is found in others.
proofs of the rational faculty offer. In- What has veiled people here is priority
stead we turned for knowledge of these and posteriority and the fact that the form
things to what has come from the trans- is one. When they saw the attribute in the
75
Theology

earlier thing, then they saw it in the later know Him. 44 But the cosmos is tem-
thing, they said that the later thing is sim- porally originated, so nothing subsists
ilar to the earlier thing in this form. They within it that is not temporally origi-
did not know that its reality in the later nated. Knowledge of God subsists within
thing is its reality in the earlier thing. If it the cosmos either through God's giving
were as they say, servanthood would jos- knowledge (ta'rij), or through the faculty
tle against Lordship and the realities [i.e., reflection] which He created within
would be nullified. Hence the servant it through which knowledge of God is
only becomes adorned with what he him- reached, though only in a certain respect.
self possesses. And the Real only becomes He who declares God incomparable by
manifest in what He possesses, whether means of this faculty has come to know
attributes of incomparability or attributes Him and calls him who declares Him
of similarity. All of this belongs to Him. similar an unbeliever. He who declares
Were this not so, everything He has de- Him similar by means of this faculty has
scribed Himself as possessing would be a come to know Him and is ignorant of
lie. But God is high exalted [above lying]! him who declares Him incomparable, or
Rather, He is as He described Himself, in rather, calls him an unbeliever. But he
terms of inaccessibility, greatness, invin- who comes to know Him through the di-
cibility, tremendousness, and the negation vine knowledge-giving has combined in-
of likeness; just as He described Himself comparability and similarity. He declares
by forgetting, deception, trickery, guile, Him incomparable in the place of incom-
rejoicing, withness, and so on. 43 All are parability, and He declares Him similar in
attributes of God's perfection. He is de- the place of similarity. Each of these three
scribed by them as His Essence requires, groups possesses a knowledge of God,
and you are described by them as your es- since not one of God's creatures is igno-
sence requires. rant of Him, for He created them only to
know Him. If He did not make Himself
The entity is one, known to them through this faculty by
the properties diverse: which knowledge is reached-that is,
The servant serves, reflection-or through revelatory giving
the All-merciful is served. (II 483.27) of knowledge, they would not know Him
and there would not occur in the cosmos
God brought the cosmos into existence that for which God created the cosmos.
only so that the cosmos might come to (III 132.9)
3

Ontology
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5. EX IS TEN C E AND N 0 N EX IS TEN C E

Ibn al-'Arabi is known as the founder of taw~ld-quite the contrary. What Ibn
of the school of the Oneness of Being al--'Arabi provides is an inexhaustible
(wa~dat al-wujud). Though he does not ocean of meditations upon the Unity of
employ the term, the idea permeates his God and its relationship with the many-
works. Simply stated, there is only one ness of all things, a synthesis of the vari-
Being, and all existence is nothing but ous currents of Islamic intellectuality that
the manifestation or outward radiance of yielded endless insights into the nature of
that One Being. Hence "everything existence.
other than the One Being" -that is, the God in Himself is Being, and non-
whole cosmos in all its spatial and tem- existence has no relationship to Him.
poral extension-is nonexistent in itself, That which sets "everything other than
though it may be considered to exist God" apart from God is the admixture of
through Being. nonexistence. Things, entities, possible
Stated in these terms, the "Oneness of things, loci of manifestation, forms, at-
Being" may appear to some people as an- tributes-these are all names applied to
other brand of "pantheism." But in fact, that which is other than Being, to non-
this simplified expression of what the existence. But "nonexistence" does not
Shaykh is talking about cannot begin to mean absolute nothingness, since the
do him justice, especially since terms like things-whether as objects of God's
"pantheism" are almost invariably em- knowledge "before" they are found in
ployed with a dismissive and critical in- the cosmos or as existent entities within
tent. When the Shaykh himself explains the cosmos itself-possess certain modes
what he means by the statement that Be- of relative existence, that is, existence
ing is one, he provides one of the most through the Other, who is God, the
sophisticated and nuanced expressions of Necessary Being. In God's knowledge
the "profession of God's Unity" (taw~ld) the things exist neither in the cosmos nor
to be found in Islamic thought. 1 His in themselves. But they do exist in God
teachings did not dominate the second in a manner analogous to the way our
half of Islamic intellectual history because thoughts exist in our minds. In the cos-
people were simple-minded and there- mos the things have no existence of their
fore ready to accept "pantheism" in place own, but they leave their marks and ef-
Ontology

fects upon the Manifest, who is Being. and whether or not it exists. Dragons
What we actually observe in the universe and phoenixes are things to be discussed,
is either Being colored by the properties even though none of us has seen one.
of the nonexistent things, or the things According to this view, the existence of
made manifest by Being. But we never anything we discuss may be discerned
see the things themselves, since that and separated-at least by the mind
which is nonexistent is not there to be -from the quiddity of the thing, except
seen; nor do we see God Himself, since in the case of God. Or if you prefer, you
God in Himself is beyond all perception can say that God's "existence" is identical
and understanding. The cosmos is He/ to His quiddity, which is to say that He
not He. In the last analysis we see only is Being. We can distinguish between a
the properties of the divine names, which man and his existence; but we cannot
are the qualities and attributes intrinsic to distinguish between God and His Being,
Being. since He is Being as such.
The word "quiddity" derives from a
literal Latin translation of the Arabic
word mahiyya, which was coined from
the sentence ma hiya, i.e., "What is it?" If
Being/Existence and the Existent: this question is asked about any thing, the
Wujiid and Mawjiid answer will be, it is a horse, a house, a
galaxy, and so on. We can then discuss
that thing without regard to whether or
The discussion of the Oneness of Be- not it exists. But when we ask, "What is
ing centers around a single word, wujiid, it?" about God, the only answer suffi-
which has been translated thus far as Be- ciently broad to include God's whole re-
ing, existence, and finding. In the present ality is to say "wujiid" (which, for the
context, two of these translations will be Shaykh, is a philosophical term equiva-
employed, though sometimes it will be lent to the name "Allah"). God's quid-
necessary to resort to the expression dity is Being itself, and we cannot discuss
"Being/existence" to emphasize the fact His quiddity without regard to Being,
that both meanings need to be under- since then we would be discussing some-
stood from a given passage. thing else.
By "Being" is meant w0iid inasmuch Ibn al-'Arabi took over most of the
as it designates God's own Reality and vocabulary connected to the discussion
Essence. By "existence" is meant wujiid of wujiid from the Muslim philosophers.
inasmuch as it designates the fact that The term wujiid is not mentioned in the
certain things are found in the cosmos. Koran, and the identification between it
When "existence" is discussed, it is con- and God or the Necessary Being (wajib
trasted with a thing or entity that exists. al-wujiid) seems to have been made orig-
Hence one speaks of the existence of the inally in philosophical texts, not in the
cosmos or of a tree. But the term "Be- sources of the tradition or by the theolo-
ing" refers strictly to God in Himself and gians and Sufis. Hence an understanding
cannot be juxtaposed with any entity of the philosophical background of this
other than Being, since God's "thing- terminology can help toward the percep-
ness" or entity is Being Itself. tion of Ibn al-'Arabi's role in synthesiz-
Muslim philosophers, like many ing the schools of Islamic thought. But
thinkers in the Western tradition, distin- in the present work this allusion to the
guish between the thing itself-or its importance of the input from philoso-
"essence" or "quiddity" (mahiyya)-and phy will have to suffice. The Shaykh, it
the existence of the thing. We can ask should be remarked in passing, rarely
about anything in the universe, whether employs the term mahiyya, preferring its
So or not the thing is here to be discussed synonyms such as entity and reality (cf. I
Existence & Nonexistence

193.31), but he does use it in instructive Ibn al-'Arabi employs a number of


contexts, such as the following: sets of terms to refer to the creatures.
Some of these are commonly used in Is-
The Unity of the Essence in Itself has lamic philosophy, others by the propo-
no known quiddity. Hence we cannot as- nents of Kalam, and still others derive
cribe properties to It, since It is not simi- from the Koran and Hadith. The Shaykh
lar to anything in the cosmos, nor is any- makes no attempt to keep these sets of
thing in the cosmos similar to It.
terms separate. Having adopted various
Therefore no intelligent person under-
takes to speak about His Essence, unless
technical terms as his own, he employs
on the basis of a report received from them as he sees fit without regard to the
Him. And even when we bring the re- contexts from which they have been
port, we are ignorant of the relationship taken. To understand his broad and
of that property to Him, since we are ig- sweeping explanations of the nature of
norant of Him. Hence we have faith in it Being and existence, it is necessary to be
just as He has uttered it and knows it, familiar with all these ways of expressing
since, according to both the Law and rea- the basic ideas. Hence, as the first step in
son, proofs can be offered only to negate understanding the richness of nuances
similarity. (II 289. 25) involved in the concept of the Oneness
Since the Being of the Real permeates
of Being, it is necessary to define the
the cosmos, no one denies Him. Mistakes
arise from seeking to know His quiddity, most important relevant technical terms
and this leads to the disagreements con·- and to illustrate how they are employed.
cerning Him which have become manifest The first term that needs to be under-
in the cosmos. (III 164.31) stood in relation to wujiid is the past par-
ticiple from the same root, mawjiid,
Both the philosophers and Ibn al-· which will be translated as existent or
'Arabi attempted to explain the relation-· existent thing. An existent thing is an
ship between the many and the One, the entity which exists on any level or in any
creatures and the Creator, the existent world which is envisaged; occasionally
things and Being, the possible existents the term is also employed to refer to God
and the Necessary Being. In the context Himself as He who possesses true exis-
of the philosophical terminology, the tence or Being, in which case it will nor-
basic issue can be phrased in the simple mally be translated as the Existent Being.
question: "If God is wujiid, are the things The objects that we find in the world
also wujiid?" The Shaykh answers that around us are all existents in the corpo-
God alone is Being, and the "existence" real world, while our ideas are existents
of the things is identical to that Being, within our minds. A given idea may cor-
though the quiddities of the things as respond to something that exists "out
quiddities are not Being; in themselves there" or it may not. A thing known by
the things are nonexistent. In other God but not found in the created world
words, he replies to the question, "Are is called "nonexistent" (ma'diim), not in
the things the same as God?," by saying, an absolute sense, since it possesses a
"Yes and no." They are "He/not He." certain mode of existence within God's
The creatures dwell in an ambiguous knowledge, but in the sense that it has
middle ground or barzakh whose actual not been brought into spiritual, imaginal,
situation is exceedingly difficult to ex- or corporeal existence.
press in words. In trying to explain their
situation, the Shaykh employs most of
the terminology used by the philosoph- Possible Things
ical and theological schools, while mak-
ing full use of the possibilities provided
by the Koran, the Hadith, and the writ- The philosophers referred to the Di-
ings and sayings of the Sufis. vine Reality as the Necessary Being (wa- 81
Ontology

jib al-wujud) in order to differentiate it possible thing once the Preponderator


from "possible things" (mumkin) and "im- has brought it into the cosmos. At the
possible things" (mumtani' or muhal). The same time, he sees the fact of "possi-
Necessary Being is that reality which bility" (imkan) as one of the greatest ra-
cannot not be. The impossible thing can- tional arguments that can be offered to
not come into existence within the cos- prove that "there is a God." In this sort
mos (though it can exist in a certain fash- of context the Shaykh ascribes the term
ion in the mind of man or God). The wujud to God not to designate His Real-
possible thing is that reality whose rela- ity, but to point out that He can in fact
tionship to existence and nonexistence is be "found." He does exist. Hence the
equal. term wujud can be translated here as the
"existence" of God rather than His "Be-
If the possible thing were an existent ing." In a section on the meaning of
which could not be qualified by nonexis- "travel" (safar), Ibn al-'Arabi points out
tence, then it would be the Real. If it were that the spiritual teachers have described
a nonexistence which could not be quali-
many kinds of traveling. The first of
fied by existence, then it would be impos-
sible. (III 275.5) these has to do with the mind's journey
to find the signs (ayat) of God and to un-
The possible thing may or may not derstand that He exists.
exist, depending on circumstances. These
"circumstances" go back to the desire of The "traveler" is he who travels with
the Necessary Being, who must "give his reflection in search of the signs and
proofs of the existence of his Maker
preponderance" (ta~Jlh) to the existence
(~ani'). In his traveling he finds no proof
of the possible thing over its nonexis- for that other than his own possibility.
tence for it to come into existence as a The meaning of his possibility is that ex-
thing in the world. Hence the Necessary istence is brought into relationship with
Being, having given existence to some- him and the whole cosmos, and they re-
thing, is known as the "Preponderator" ceive it; or nonexistence is brought into
(murajjih). relationship with them, and they receive
it. The two things are equal for him, so in
God gave preponderance to the existence respect of his own essence the relationship
of the possible things over their nonexis- of existence to him cannot be preferred
tence because they sought this preponder- over the relationship of nonexistence. So
ance by their very essences. Hence, this he is poor toward the existence of a Pre-
was a kind of submission (inqiyiid) of the ponderator who will give preponderance
Real to this seeking on the part of possi- to one of the two descriptions over the
bility, and also a gratuitous kindness (im- other.
tiniin). For God is Independent of the When the traveler reaches this waysta-
worlds. But He described Himself by tion, passes by this watering place, and
saying that He loved to be known by uncovers the existence of his Preponder-
the possible things, since He was not ator, he begins a second journey into the
known, 2 and one of the characteristics of knowledge of that which should be known
the lover is to submit himself to his be- about this Maker who has brought him
loved. But in reality, He only submitted into existence. He uncovers the proof that
to Himself. The possible thing is a veil He alone possesses attributes of incom-
over this divine seeking. (III 217. 7) parability, that is, that He is incompar-
able with the poverty that belongs to the
possible thing. He understands that this
Among the terms Necessary Being,
Preponderator is the Necessary Being
possible thing, and impossible thing, Ibn through Itself' for whom is permitted
al-'Arabi devotes by far the most atten- nothing that is permissible for the possi-
tion to "possible thing," since his major ble thing.
philosophical task is to explain the nature Then he passes in his journey to an-
82 of the existence that is attributed to the other waystation, and he uncovers the
Existence & Nonexistence

fact that this Necessary Being through It- which-such as "eye" or "identical
self cannot possibly become nonexistent. with"-are often used in Ibn al-'Arabi's
(II 382.27) writings. In its technical sense as "en-
tity," the term refers to specificity, par-
The sum total of the possible things, ticularization, and designation. What sets
whether or not they exist, is called the one thing apart from another thing? The
cosmos. If we accept that at a given mo- 'ayns of the two things. In the writings of
ment some of the possible things have Ibn al-'Arabi's followers, especially the
been given existence by the Preponder-· chief expositor of his philosophical teach-
ator while others have not, this has no ings, ~adr al-Din al-Qiinawi, this mean-
ultimate effect upon their status as pos- ing is emphasized by the important role
sible things. The possible things include given to the term ta'ayyun, the fifth ver-
"everything other than God" at all times, bal form from the same root. This term
not just at the present moment. signifies "to be or to become an entity"
or "the state of being specified and par-
The "cosmos" consists of everything ticularized." Ta'ayyun's grammatical con-
other than God. It is none other than the nection with the term entity is well pre-
possible things, whether or not they exist. served by the translation "entification. " 5
. . . Possibility is their necessary property
Though Ibn al-'Arabi sometimes em-
in the state of their nonexistence as well as
their existence. It is intrinsic (dhatf) to ploys the term ta'ayyun, it assumes no
them, since preponderation (tarfi~) is nec- special importance in his works.
essary for them. Hence [through the pos- As was indicated in the discussion of
sible things] the Preponderator is known, "relationships" in Chapter 2, the Shaykh
and that is why the cosmos is named frequently employs the term "entities" to
"cosmos" ('alam)-from "mark" ('alama) distinguish existent things from relation-
-since it is a proof of the Preponder- ships. In this sense he speaks of the En-
ator. {III 443.5) tity of the Real ('ayn al-~aqq), meaning
God's Being or Essence. He also em-
ploys the expression "among the enti-
ties" (fi'l-a'yan) to refer to the existent
Entities things of the cosmos. This meaning of
the term gives rise to the expression
"entified existence" (al-wujud al-'aynl),
For students of Ibn al-'Arahi who which refers to anything that exists in it-
have read about him only in English, the self, whether God on the one hand or the
most familiar of terms employed for existent possible things on the other.
things in contrast to Being is 'ayn. The Entified existence is contrasted with
expression 'ayn thabita has been translated "mental existence" (al-wujud al-dhihnl),
by scholars in a wide variety of manners i.e., the existence of a thing as a concept
(e.g., "permanent archetype"), most of in the mind, whether or not it is found in
which obscure the broad significance of the cosmos. 6
the single term 'ayn in Ibn al-'Arabi's vo- When the Shaykh uses the term "En-
cabulary. In the present work 'ayn in this tity of God," he normally means the Es-
technical sense is translated as "entity." sence of God. When he speaks of the
In this meaning it has no Koranic basis. "One Entity" (al-'ayn al-wa~ida) he usu-
The Shaykh acknowledges his debt to ally has in view Being inasmuch as all
the Mu'tazilite theologians for the term existence is but Its radiance and the
'ayn thabita, though he also states that things are Its properties and effects.
they did not reach a full and true under-
standing of its significance. 4 God says, "God makes you grow up
The Arabic word 'ayn has a wide va- from the earth as growing things" (Koran
riety of nontechnical meanings, some of 71:17). The earth is one, but how can the 83
Ontology

form of grass be compared to that of becomes the model for many individuals
trees, given the diversity of their kinds, or in the manner of a Platonic idea. In fact,
with the form of man, or with the forms what corresponds to the Platonic ideas in
of the animals? Yet all of this derives from Ibn al-'Arabi's teachings is the divine
an elemental reality (~aqlqa 'un~uriyya). 7 names, while the immutable entities are
The elementality never disappears
the things themselves "before" they are
through the diversity of what becomes
manifest within it. Thus the diversity of given existence in the world. 9 There is
the cosmos in its entirety does not take it no difference between the entity known
away from the fact that it is one entity in in God's knowledge and the entity in the
existence. In the same way Zayd is not cosmos except that in the first case it is
'Amr, but the two are man (al-insan). So "nonexistent" while in the second it is
they are identical with man, nothing else. "existent." The immutable entity ('ayn
From here you will recognize who the thabita) and the existent entity ('ayn maw-
cosmos is and the form of the actual sit- juda) are the same reality, but one exists
uation (al-a1,11r) within it, if you possess
in the cosmos and the other does not.
sound consideration (na~ar ~a~l~).
"And in your souls-what, do you not
The difference between the two corre-
see?" (Koran 51:21). There is nothing but sponds exactly to the difference between
a rational soul, but it is intelligent, reflect- the possible thing before it is given
ing, imagining, remembering, form- existence and the same possible thing
giving, nutritive, growth-producing, at- after it comes into existence. However,
tractive, expulsive, digestive, retentive, the attribute thiibita, "immutable," helps
hearing, seeing, tasting, smelling, and remind us that the possible thing never
feeling. 8 Moreover, the soul perceives all leaves its state of possibility in the divine
these affairs, the diversity of these facul- knowledge. Though the entity may
ties, and the diversity of these names. Yet
"exist" in the cosmos, it is still im-
it is nothing extraneous to any of them;
on the contrary, it is identical with the
mutably fixed and "nonexistent" in
form of each. So also will you find the God's knowledge.
situation in the forms of inanimate things,
plants, animals, spheres, and angels [-all The Real's knowledge of Himself is
are identical with the One Entity]. So identical ('ayn) with His knowledge of the
Glory be to Him who made the things cosmos, since the cosmos never ceases be-
manifest, while He is their entity! ing witnessed by Him, even though it is
qualified by nonexistence. But the cosmos
My eyes have never gazed is not witnessed by itself [in that state],
on other than His Face, since it does not have existence. This is an
My ears have never heard ocean in which the considerative thinkers
other than His words! (II 459.21) (al-na~irun) perish, those who have not
been given unveiling. His Self never
ceases to exist, so His knowledge never
"Entities" are, on the one hand, the ceases to exist; and His knowledge of
possible things as they exist in the cos- Himself is His knowledge of the cosmos;
mos, and on the other hand, the possible so His knowledge of the cosmos never
things nonexistent in the cosmos but ex- ceases to exist. Hence He knows the cos-
istent in God's knowledge. If many mos in the state of its nonexistence. He
translators have rendered 'ayn as "arche- gives it existence according to its form in
type," this is because God creates the His knowledge. (I 90. 23)
cosmos in accordance with His eternal
knowledge of it. Thereby He gives each Ibn al-'Arabi takes a middle position
thing known by Him-each entity "im- between those philosophers who main-
mutably fixed" (thabit) within His tain that the cosmos is eternal (qadlm) and
knowledge-existence in the universe. the theologians who maintain that it is
However, the term "archetype" may temporally originated (~iidith). As will be
84 suggest that what is being discussed seen later on in this chapter, he holds that
Existence & Nonexistence

the cosmos is created from nonexistence, ent1t1es over and above any existence
but that here "nonexistence" cannot they may have in the cosmos. Ibn al-
mean absolute nothingness. In the fol- 'Arabi is commenting on a ~adlth qudsi"
lowing passage he affirms the existence which reads, "0 My servants, if the first
of the cosmos in God's knowledge be- of you and the last of you and the man-
fore it enters into creation and points out kind of you and the jinn of you were to
that the argument over whether the stand in one place, then to ask of Me,
cosmos is eternal or temporally origi- and I were to give to each of you
nated is based upon a difference in per- everything he asked, that would not
spective. diminish My kingdom by anything, any
more than a needle dipped into the sea
The cosmos is perceived (mudrak) by would diminish the sea. " 10
God in the state of its nonexistence. So it
is nonexistent in entity, perceived by
God. He sees it, then brings it into exis- This is because the giver and the re-
tence through the influence exercised ceiver of the gift are nothing other than
upon it by the divine power. Hence the His kingdom, since there is nothing out-
effusion (fayt/) of entified existence falls side of His kingdom. However, in His
only upon the objects of God's sight kingdom there is that which is described
(ru'ya) in the state of their nonexistence. by existence and that which is described
Some thinkers consider the fact that sight by immutability. That which is both im-
is connected to the cosmos in the state of mutable and existent must be finite, but
its nonexistence, that it is a true sight in the immutable is infinite. That which is
which there is no doubt, that [the object infinite cannot be qualified by diminish-
of sight] is what is called the cosmos, and ment, since that of it which gains actual-
that the Real is never qualified by first not ity in existence is not diminished from
seeing the cosmos, then seeing it; on the immutability. The reason for this is that
contrary, He never ceases seeing it. He the thing in its immutability is identical to
who holds that the cosmos is eternal does the thing in the state of its existence, ex-
so from this perspective. But he who con- cept that God has clothed it in the robe of
siders the existence of the cosmos in rela- existence through Himself. So the exis-
tion to its own entity and the fact that it tence belongs to God, the Real, while the
did not possess this state when the Real thing remains in its immutability, neither
saw it maintains that the cosmos is tem- diminishing nor increasing. That of it
porally originated. (II 666.34) which becomes clothed in the robe of ex-
istence undergoes, as it were, entification
None of this implies that anything (ta'ayyun) and specification (takha~~u~). Its
ever "leaves" God's knowledge in order limits in relation to the infinite are the
limits of the needle which you dip into
to come into the cosmos. What God the sea. Look at how much [of the sea)
knows, He knows eternally and immut- becomes connected to it!
ably. But at a certain point, in keeping We know that this analogy (mithiiQ is
with what He knows, He gives prepon- correct. For we know that there are im-
derance to the existence of the entity mutable entities which become qualified
over its nonexistence, and the entity is by existence, just as we know that some
then found in the cosmos, without ever of the sea will become connected to the
coming out of His knowledge. In one needle when you dip it in. The relation-
passage Ibn al-'Arabi makes this last ship of the sea's water to the needle is not
point in discussing the difference be- the same in degree as the robe of existence
put on by the immutable entities, since
tween the finitude of that which enters the ocean is limited and its existence is
into existence and the infinity of that measurable and finite, but the immutable
which remains immutable in God's entities are infinite. That which is infinite
knowledge. The passage makes clear that cannot be encompassed by limits or enu-
"immutability" (thubut) is a mode of merated, even though the analogy is cor-
existence with God possessed by the rect, no doubt. (IV 320.14) 85
Ontology

God is "Independent of the worlds," makes manifest the coming to be (takwln)


which means that He has no need for the of this possible thing. Hence, that which
existence of the cosmos. But without is born from this coming together is the
God's bestowal of existence (ijad), the existence of the possible thing.
The entity of the possible thing is
immutable entities can gain no "taste"
named "wife," the attentiveness through
or existential knowledge of their own desire and love is called "marriage," and
realities. In the same way the names have the production of the offspring is called a
need of the things to manifest their own "bestowal of existence" upon the entity of
effects and properties. that possible thing, or, if you prefer, an
"existence." The "wedding feasts" (a'ras)
The fact that "God is independent of are the rejoicing of the Most Beautiful
the worlds" means that He is Independent Names. For the marriage results in a be-
of the existence of the cosmos, not of its stowal of manifested existence upon the
immutability. For through the state of its entities of the possible things, in order
immutability the cosmos provides God that the effects of the names may become
sufficiency and independence from its ex- manifest. This is because the names can
istence, since it fulfills the right (~aqq) have no effects within themselves, nor
of the Divinity [to have a divine thrall] within the Named. Their effect and au-
through its possibility [and need for a thority can only become manifest within
Preponderator]. . . . But the possible the entity of the possible thing, because of
things ... desire to taste (dhawq) the state its poverty and need for what is in the
of existence, just as they tasted the state of hands of the names. Hence their authority
nonexistence. They ask the Necessary Be- becomes manifest within the possible
ing with the tongue of their immutability thing. That is why we attribute rejoicing,
to bring their entities into existence, so happiness, and wedding feasts to them.
that their knowledge may become tasting. This marriage is constant and con-
Hence He brings them into existence for tinuous in existence. There can be no
themselves, not for Himself. (III 306.19) cessation or divorce in this marital con-
tract. (III 516.3)
It needs to be kept in mind that the
existent entities are identical with the The nonexistence of the immutable
"effects" or "properties" of the divine entities is a relative nonexistence. They
names. Hence the divine names rejoice are nonexistent in relation to the cosmos,
when the entities enter into existence. but not in relation to God's knowledge.
Ibn al-'Arabi makes this point while When the entities become manifest in the
discussing the "divine marriage," which cosmos, they are said to enter into
is one of the three basic kinds of "mar- existence (even though they never leave
riage" or "sexual union" (al-nikii~) found the state of immutability). One can say
in the cosmos. It occurs when Being that they move from relative nonexis-
comes together with the nonexistent tence to existence, or from one form of
possible thing to produce the existent existence to another form. Hence a
possible thing. 11 distinction has to be drawn between the
nonexistence which belongs to the
That which is desired from marriage possible thing and that which belongs to
may be reproduction (tanasul)-l mean the impossible thing. The impossible
the birth of offspring-or it may simply thing can never enter into entified
be enjoyment (i/tidhadh). The Divine Mar- existence within the cosmos, even if we
riage is the attentiveness (tawajjuh) of the can think and write about it. But the
Real toward the possible thing in the
presence of possibility through the desire
possible thing may move from nonexis-
of love (al-iradat al-~ubbiyya), so that there tence into existence. The Shaykh clarifies
may be bliss (ibtihiij) along with desire. the difference between the two kinds of
When the Real turns His attentiveness to- nonexistence in a passage where he is
86 ward the possible thing as mentioned, He commenting on the divine roots of the
Existence & Nonexistence

Koranic verses, "If you help God, He "Be!" And once they are actualized in His
will help you" (47:7) and "Be helpers of grasp, they never return to nonexistence,
God!" (61:14). because of the sweet pleasure of existence.
They praise their own view and see the
blessing of their helping God against the
The Real possesses the attribute of Be- impossible nonexistence. So the cosmos
ing and the attribute of Necessary Being in respect of its substantiality (jawhariyya)
through Himsd£ His contrary is called is a helper of God; as a result, it is helped
absolute nonexistence (al-'adam al-mutlaq), [by God] forever. (II 248.24)
and it possesses an attribute through
which it is called "impossible" (mu~al). The Shaykh finds a Koranic reference
Because of this attribute, it never receives to the transferal of the possible things
existence. So it has no share in existence,
from relative nonexistence to cosmic
just as the Necessary Being through Him-
existence in the verse, "There is no thing
self has no share in nonexistence. Since
the situation is like this, we [creatures] are whose treasuries are not with Us"
at the level of the middle (wasat). We (15:21).
receive existence in our essences and we
receive nonexistence in our essences. It is obvious that God creates the things
When we turn toward either of the two, and brings them out of nonexistence into
it exercises its properties within us in ac- existence. The attribution [of the things
cordance with what its reality bestows, to God's treasuries found in the verse] de-
and we become its kingdom, so it mani- mands that He bring them out from the
fests its authority within us. Hence the treasuries which are with Him, that is,
impossible nonexistence seeks to make us from an existence which we do not per-
its kingdom, and the Real, the Necessary ceive to an existence which we do per-
Being through Himself, seeks to make us ceive. So the things are never in sheer
His kingdom and to manifest His author- nonexistence. On the contrary, the appar-
ity within us. ent situation is that their nonexistence is a
We have a reality that receives both de- relative (i#.fi) nonexistence. For in the
scriptions, but our relationship to nonex- state of their nonexistence, the things are
istence is nearer than our relationship to witnessed by God. He distinguishes them
existence, since we are nonexistent things through their entities, differentiating
(ma'dumun). However, we are not de- (taj{il) some of them from others. He does
scribed by impossibility; on the contrary, not see them as undifferentiated (ijmal).
we are described in that nonexistence by Hence the "treasuries" of the things,
possibility. This means that we do not which are the "containers" (aw'iya) within
possess the power to repel from ourselves which they are stored, are only the possi-
existence or nonexistence. Rather, we bilities (imkan) of the things, nothing else,
possess immutable and distinct entities since the things have no existence in their
which are addressed by the two sides. entities. On the contrary, they possess
Nonexistence says to us: "Be as you are in immutability. That which they acquire
nonexistence, for you have no right to from the Real is entified existence. Hence
come to be in my level." But the Real they become differentiated for the viewers
says to the entity of each possible thing and for themselves through the existence
"Be!" (Koran 16:40). Hence He com- of their entities, while they never cease to
mands each one to exist. be differentiated for God through an im-
The posssible thing says, "We are in mutable differentiation. (III 193. 3)
nonexistence. We have come to know and The engendered things (al-kawn)
taste it. Now the Necessary Being has emerge from an existence, i.e., that which
commanded us to exist. But we do not is comprised by these treasuries, to an-
know existence, nor do we have any foot other existence. In other words, they be-
in it. So come, let us help Him against come manifest from these treasuries and
this nonexistent impossible in order that to themselves through the light by which
we come to know through tasting what their selves are unveiled. In the darkness
this existence is." Hence they come into of the treasuries they had been veiled
engendered existence through His word, from the vision of themselves, since they 87
Ontology

were m the state of their own nonex- the immutable state of the things in
istence. many Koranic verses, especially those
God also says [in the continuation of which mention God's addressing the
the verse], "We do not send it down ex- things before creating them, as, for
cept in a known measure." So that which example, "Our only speech to a thing,
becomes distinguished for Him is only
that which exists for Him. "Measure"
when We desire it, is to say to it 'Be!',
takes place only in the distinguishing of and it is" (16:40).
one entity from another. But this is not
the attribute of what is nonexistent in The Prophet said, "God is (kiin), and no
every respect. So all of this shows that the thing is with Him. " 13 The meaning is as
existence of the entities belongs to God in follows: He is not accompanied by thing-
the state of their being qualified by non- ness, nor do we ascribe it to Him. Such is
existence in themselves. This is the funda- He, and there is no thing with Him. The
mental, relative existence (al-wujud al-a~1i negation of thingness from Him is one of
al-iqiifi) and relative nonexistence (al- His essential attributes, just as is the nega-
'adam al-iqiifi). (II 587.32) tion of "withness" (ma'iyya) from things.
He is with the things, but the things are
not with· Him, since "withness" follows
from knowledge: He knows us, so He is
with us. We do not know Him, so we are
Things not with Him.
The word kiin denotes a temporal limi-
tation [since it is a past tense form-and
The Shaykh employs the Koranic is usually translated as "was"]. But in this
term "thing" (shay') as the equivalent of saying that limitation is not meant. What
the philosophical term "possible thing" is meant by the word is the "being"
and the theological term "entity." Lin- (kawn) which is existence (wujud) .... In
guistically, he points out, the word thing the same sense we have in the Koran,
is "one of the most indefinite of the in- "God is (kiin) All-pardoning, All-for-
giving" (4:99), and other instances where
definites" (min ankar al-nakinlt), 12 since it
the word kiin is employed. . . . For [the
can be applied to anything at all, except grammarian] Sibawayh, kiin is a word
only God Himself denoting existence (~arf wujiidf). (II
56.3)
As for ourselves, we do not affirm that
the word "thingness" can be ascribed to One more quotation in which Ibn al-
the Essence of the Real, since [such as- 'Arabi is discussing God's "kingdom"
cription] has not come down to us, nor (mulk), referred to above, can suffice to
have we been addressed by it, and cour-
illustrate his use of the term "thing."
tesy (adab) is to be preferred .... [In the
verse "Everything is annihilated" (Koran
28:88)], every thing is annihilated. That is God's kingdom is nothing other than the
why we negate from the Real the ascrip- possible things, which are our own enti-
tion of the word "thing" to Him. (II ties. So we are His kingdom, and through
99.20,27) us He is a king (malik). He says, "To Him
belongs the kingdom of the heavens and
the earth" (Koran 2:107), while God's
Ibn al-'Arabi often refers to the Messenger said in praise of God, "He is
situation of the entities-as opposed to the Lord and King of everything. " 14 He
Being Itself-as their "thingness" brought the word "thing," which is ap-
(shay'iyya). He distinguishes between plied to both the immutable and the exis-
their relative nonexistence in God's tent entities. (IV 319.34)
knowledge, called their "thingness of
immutability," and their entified exis- In several of the above passages we
tence in the cosmos, called their "thing- met the word kiin and its derivatives, all
88 ness of existence." He finds reference to of which are important terms referring to
Existence & Nonexistence

existence. When God wants to bring a Nonmanifest (al-ba(in)" (or, "the Out-
thing into existence or to "engender" it, ward and the Inward") (57:3). For Ibn al-
He says to it, "Be!" (kun), so the type of ' Arabi this verse must be understood lit-
existence which a thing accquires when it erally, with no attempts to explain it
"comes to be" (takawwun) is frequently away. God is Outwardly Manifest before
called "engendered existence" (kawn). our eyes, just as He is Inwardly
The term kawn is sometimes employed Nonmanifest. On the one hand "With-
to refer to the whole cosmos, and some- ersoever you turn, there is the Face of
times to a single engendered thing. Its God" (Koran 2:115). This is the profes-
plural (akwtin) is used synonymously sion of His similarity. On the other,
with other terms from the same root "Sight perceives Him not" (Koran
to refer to engendered things (ka'inat, 6:103). This is the profession of His in-
kawain, mukawwanat). comparability. True knowledge of the
Divine Being can only be achieved
through the proper combination of these
two complementary perspectives.
Loci of Manifestation
God is the Manifest who is witnessed
by the eyes and the N onmanifest who is
Few teachings are as basic to Sufism witnessed by intellects. Just as there is no
-or to Islam, for that matter-as the object of knowledge whatsoever which is
idea that something more real stands be- unseen by Him-on the contrary, every-
yond the realm of appearances. In thing is witnessed by Him-so also He is
Koranic terms, all creatures are "signs" not unseen by His creatures, whether in
(ayat) of God. Most Sufis take the posi- their state of nonexistence or in their state
tion that the outward form (~ura) is a de- of existence. On the contrary, He is wit-
nessed by them in the attributes of mani-
ceptive veil, even though it reveals the festation and nonmanifestation by their
Divine Reality in some manner. Ibn al- insight (ba~ira) and their sight (ba~ar).
'Arabi says nothing basically different, However, witnessing Him does not ne-
but he radically affirms the revelatory na- cessitate knowing that He is the object.
ture of phenomena. That which appears (III 484.35)
is in fact Being, the Divine Reality Itself. One of the mysteries of knowledge of
The phenomena are fundamentally non- God lies in the interrelationship between
existent, and even if one can refer to their the God and the divine thrall, or the Lord
"coming into existence," this is in fact a and the vassal. If God did not undertake
metaphor. What appears to us is the One to preserve the thrall and the vassal con-
stantly, they would immediately be anni-
Being, but colored by the properties of hilated, since nothing would preserve
the nonexistent possible things. them and keep them in subsistence. Were
One of the terms which the Shaykh He to become veiled from the cosmos in
most often employs in explaining these the Unseen, the cosmos would become
ideas is ma:?har, which is grammatically a naught. Hence the name "Manifest" exer-
"noun of place" derived from :?uhur, cises its properties forever in existence,
which means "manifestation, outward- while the name "Nonmanifest" exercises
ness, appearance." Here the word ma:?har its properties in knowledge and gnosis.
is translated as "locus of manifestation." Through the name Manifest He makes
Ibn al-'Arabi claims to have been the first the cosmos subsist, and through the name
Nonmanifest we come to know Him.
to employ the term to explain the nature (III 65.22)
of existence (II 520.21). God is identical with the existence of
The Koranic basis for speaking of God the things, but He is not identical with
in terms of "manifestations" is the oft- the things. The entities of the existent
quoted verse, "He is the First and the things are a "hyle" (hayula) for the things,
Last, the Manifest (al-:?tihir) and the or they are their "spirits." Existence is the 89
Ontology

manifest dimension of those spmts and of manifestation, and He is manifest


the forms of those hylic entities. Hence, within it. The possible entity is concealed
all existence is the Real Manifest, while (mastur) by the Manifest within it. So
His Nonmanifest is the things. (II 21.35) manifestation and the Manifest become
qualified by possibility. The entity of the
The entities are never manifest, since locus of manifestation, which is the possi-
God is the Manifest; the entities never ble thing, exercises this property upon the
exist, since God is Being. We are left Manifest. Hence the possible thing is en-
wrapped (indiriij) in the Necessary Being
with a "locus of manifestation," com-
as an entity, while the Necessary Being is
monly called an existent thing, an exis- enwrapped in the possible thing as a
tent possible thing, or an existent entity. property. (II 56.16)
Every attribute and quality found in the
locus belongs to the Manifest within it.
Being is One, and Being is the Mani-
In the following passage, Ibn al-'Arabl
fest, so the Manifest is One. It follows
explains that when something "comes to
that multiplicity is not the attribute of
be" (takawwun) as the result of the divine
the Manifest, but of the loci within
command "Be!", the situation is not as
which It becomes manifest. Ibn al-'Arabl
most people imagine.
discusses this in a passage in which he is
explaining what the Real requires from
God says to the thing, "Be!" He does
those who profess His Unity (taw~!d).
not address or command any but that
which hears, yet it has no existence.... It
receives coming to be. But our view of its He requires that there be no competi-
reception of coming to be is not like your tion (muzii~ama). What I mean is as fol-
view. Its reception of coming to be is lows: Since God is named the Manifest
only the fact that it becomes a locus of and the Nonmanifest, He negated compe-
manifestation for the Real. This is the tition, since the Manifest does not com-
meaning of His words, "{Be!] And it is." pete with the Nonmanifest, nor does the
This does not mean that the thing "ac- Nonmanifest compete with the Manifest.
quires existence" (istijiidat al-wujud). It Competition would take place if there
only acquires the property of being a lo- were two manifests, or two nonmani-
cus of manifestation. . . . Hence He is fests. So He is Manifest in respect of the
identical to all things in manifestation, but loci of manifestation, while He is Non-
He is not identical to them in their es- manifest in respect of His He-ness
sences. On the contrary, He is He, and (huwiyya)." Hence the loci of manifesta-
the things are the things. (II 484.23) tion are plural (muta'addid) in respect of
their entities, but not in respect of the
God can never be identical to the Manifest within them. Therefore Unity
(al-a~adiyya) lies in their manifestation,
things in their essences, because their
while plurality lies in their entities. The
essences are inherently nonexistent and Real requires from those who are de-
exist only through Him, while He is the scribed by the attribute of professing His
Necessary Being who exists through Unity that they profess His Unity in re-
Himself and cannot not exist. In the spect of His He-ness. Though the loci of
following passage, a continuation of the manifestation are plural, the Manifest is
above-quoted commentary on the not plural. They should not see anything
hadith, "God is, and no thing is with unless He is the seen and the seer. They
Him," Ibn al-'Arabl explains some of should not seek anything unless He is the
these points. seeker, the seeking, and the sought. They
should not hear anything unless He is the
hearer, the hearing, and the heard. Hence
The meaning of this saying is: God has there is no competition, so there is no
Being, and no thing is with Him. In other dispute. (II 93.33)
words, there is no one whose Being is
Necessary through Itself except the Real.
The existence of the possible thing is nec- Being is One and Manifest. Hence
90 essary through Him, since it is His locus multiplicity and distinction arise from
Existence {:,0 Nonexistence

the properties of the nonexistent things, tence (wujiid mu~aqqaq)" (III 56.5). We
which are many and nonmanifest. Ibn al- will return to this point later. For now it
'Arabi explains this while discussing a is necessary to illustrate his usage of the
definition given by an early Sufi to the term self-disclosure in a sense that is pri-
term farq or "dispersion": "It is the wit- marily ontological.
nessing of 'others' (al-aghyar) as belong- Closely connected with the idea of
ing to God." self-disclosure is that of receptivity
(qabiil) and preparedness (isti'dad). When
Hence the person witnesses ·in the very God discloses Himself, the extent to
Being of the Real the properties of the which a thing "receives" the self-
immutable entities. [He sees] that Being disclosure is determined by its "pre-
becomes manifest only in accordance with paredness" to receive it, and this in turn
their properties. Then limits (~uducl) be- is determined by the thing's own reality.
come manifest and the levels of the enti- Receptivity is a matter of common expe-
ties become distinguished in the Being of rience, though we are more likely to
the Real. It is said, "angels, spheres, ele- think of it in terms of cognition than ex-
ments, productions, genera, species, indi-
viduals." But the Entity of Being is One, istence. Every teacher knows that a class-
while the properties are diverse in accor- room full of students represents as many
dance with the diversity of the immutable different receptivities for understanding
entities, which are the "others" without the subject matter as there are individu-
doubt, though in immutability, not in als, whatever may be the reasons for the
existence. (II 519.10) discrepancies in aptitude-e.g., environ-
ment, heredity, individual predilections,
and so on. In Ibn al-'Arabi's view recep-
tivity must be taken into account not
Self-Disclosure and Receptivity only on the cognitive level, but also on
the existential level. Being is One, and It
discloses Itself to all things in Its One-
God is the Manifest and the Nonmani- ness. But each thing represents a unique
fest. Through the name Manifest He dis- combination of attributes and properties.
closes Himself in a manner that is pri- Each receives Being's self-disclosure to
marily "ontological" by creating the uni- the measure of its own capacity. The
verse; through the name Nonmanifest receptivities of things are given broad
He discloses Himself in a manner that is outlines by their situation in the ontolog-
primarily "epistemological" to the un- ical hierarchy. Inanimate objects demon-
derstandings and insights of His crea- strate one level of capacity, plants a
tures. Ibn al-'Arabi often employs the higher level, animals a still higher level,
word "[self-]manifestation" (?uhiir) for and human beings the highest level
the first type of divine display. He uses among all created things. Perfect man
the term tajalll or "self-disclosure" syn- alone has the receptivity to display Being
onymously, while he also employs it for in Its fullness. In the following passage
God's nonmanifest display. Hence the Ibn al-'Arabi explains the important role
term tajalll may be employed in the con- played by preparedness in the context of
text of ontology, epistemology, or-as addressing the practical problem of why
more commonly happens-without any prayers are often not answered.
distinction being implied between the
two domains. In the Shaykh's view, ex-
God says, "The giving of thy Lord can
istence and knowledge are two names for never be walled up" (Koran 17:20). In
the same reality; it is impossible to dis- other words, it can never be withheld.
cuss one without the other. By the same God is saying that He gives constantly,
token ignorance is identical with nonex- while the loci receive in the measure of
istence: "Ignorance (jahl) is nonexist- the realities of their preparednesses. In the
ence, while knowledge is verified exis- same way we say that the sun spreads its 91
Ontology

rays over the existent things. It is not mi- that. But you forget the hierarchy of di-
serly with its light toward anything. The vine wisdom in the cosmos and what is
loci receive the light in the measure of demanded by the realities of the things.
their preparednesses. (I 287.10)
Each locus attributes the effect [of
light] to the sun and forgets its own pre- Once the concept of receptiVIty is
paredness. The person with a cold tem- clearly understood, it becomes a simple
perament enjoys the sun's heat, while the
means for explaining the relationship
person with a hot temperament suffers
from its heat. In respect of its essence the between Being and the existent things.
light is one, while each of the two people Each entity is a "receptacle" (qabil) for
suffers from what the other enjoys. If this Being. To the extent it is able to receive
belonged only to the light, it would result and manifest Being, it is said to "exist,"
in a single reality. Therefore the sun gives though in fact existence belongs only to
according to its own strength, while the God.
receiver exercises a property over that
giving, and necessarily so, since no result The existence attributed to each created
is produced without two premises. 16 thing is the Being of the Real, since the
The sun blackens the face of the wash- possible thing has no existence. However,
erman, while it whitens the clothing. The the entities of the possible things are re-
sun whitens the clothing because of the ceptacles for the manifestation of this
clothing's preparedness, while it blackens Being. (II 69.3)
the face of the washerman. In the same
way, with a single blowing of air a person
extinguishes a lamp and ignites a fire in Though some of Ibn al-'Arabi's fol-
tinder; but the air in itself is one. A single lowers drew distinctions between recep-
verse from God's Book reaches the lis- tivity and preparedness, 17 for practical
tener as one entity. One listener under- purposes the two terms can be used in-
stands one thing from it, another listener terchangeably to designate those specific
does not understand that thing but under- characteristics of a thing which deter-
stands something else, while a third un- mine the manner in which Being mani-
derstands many things. Therefore each of fests Itself through the thing. The fol-
those who consider this verse cite it in ac-
cordance with the diversity of the pre-
lowing passages describe the nature of
paredness of their understandings. the preparedness:
The same thing takes place in divine
self-disclosures. The Self-discloser, in re- The entity of the servant possesses a
spect of what He is in Himself, is One in specific preparedness that displays its ef-
Entity, while the self-disclosures- I mean fects in the Manifest and gives rise to the
their forms-are diverse in accordance diversity of forms within the Manifest,
with the diversity of the preparednesses of which is the Entity of the Real. (II
the loci of self-disclosure. The property of 517.23)
the divine gifts is the same. (God says, "We shall show them Our
Once you understand this, you will signs upon the horizons and in them-
know that the gift of God is not withheld. selves,] until it is clear to them that He is
But you want Him to give you some- the Real" (Koran 41:53), nothing else.
thing that your preparedness cannot re- Hence the "signs" (ayat) are the denota-
ceive. Then you attribute the withholding tions (dalalat) showing that He is the Real,
to Him in that which you seek from Him, Manifest in the loci of manifestation, that
and you do not turn your attention to- is, the entities of the cosmos. . . . He
ward the preparedness. It is possible that a completed the instruction by saying, "Is it
person has the preparedness to ask, but he not enough that thy Lord is witness"
does not have the preparedness to receive through self-disclosure and self-manifes-
what he asks for-if it were given to him tation "over every thing" (41 :53), that is,
in place of being withheld. You answer, over every entity of the cosmos? The cos-
"God is powerful over everything" (Ko- mos cannot repel from itself this Manifest
92 ran 2:20 etc.), and you speak the truth in within itself, nor can it refuse to be a lo-
Existence & Nonexistence

cus of manifestation. This is what is called lates him from God's names, attributes,
its "possibility." If the reality of the cos- and descriptions. Rather, if he verifies it,
mos was not possibility, it would not re- he will see that engendered existence is
ceive Light, that is, the manifestation of the locus of displaying effects, since the
the Real within it which becomes clear to preparedness of the immutable
it through the signs. entities-that is, the entities of the possi-
Then He completed the verse by say- ble things-displays effects within it.
ing, "Surely He encompasses everything" Among the things which verifies this
(41:54) in the cosmos. "Encompassing" [witnessing] is the fact that He describes
(i~iita) a thing conceals that thing. Hence Himself in His Book and upon the
the Manifest is the Encompasser (al- tongues of His messengers with that by
mu~lt). That thing is not manifest, since which temporally originated created
the encompassing prevents its manifesta- things are described. (II 514.32)
tion. Hence within the Encompasser that
thing-that is, the cosmos-is like the Self-disclosure is illumination: The
spirit within the body, and the Encom- nonexistent possible thing is illuminated
passer is like the body in relation to the by the light of existence, and the
spirit. One of the two is visible (shahiida), ignorant thing is illuminated by the light
that is, the Manifest Encompasser, while
of knowledge. Self-disclosure is never-
the other is unseen (ghayb), that is, that
which is concealed by this encompassing
ending, since God is Light, and the
-the entity of the cosmos. The property, reality of light demands that it disclose
which belongs to that which is described itself. It may be that the darkness fails to
as being unseen, is found in the Manifest, comprehend the shining sun, but the sun
which is the Visible. In accordance with never ceases to shine.
their preparednesses in themselves, the
entities of the thingnesses of the cosmos The divine self-disclosure is everlasting
display properties within that which is (dii'im). No veil is upon it. However, it is
Manifest within themselves as is given by not known that it is it. The reason for this
their own realities. Hence their forms is that when God created the cosmos, He
become manifest within the Encom- made it hear His speech in the state of its
passer, who is the Real. Hence it is said, nonexistence. That is His word, "Be!"
"a Throne," "a Footstool," "celestial The cosmos was witnessed by Him, but
spheres," "angels," "elements," "produc- He was not witnessed by it. Upon the
tions," "accidental states." But there is eyes of the possible things was the veil of
nothing other than God. (II 151.3) nonexistence, no other. They did not per-
ceive the Existent Being while they were
In discussing vanous stages of nonexistent. In the same way light dispels
"annihilation" or "passing away from darkness, for darkness cannot subsist
self" (fanii') that are experienced by the along with the existence of light. Such
travelers on the path to God, Ibn al- was the situation of nonexistence and
'Arabi identifies the seventh and highest Being.
When He commanded the possible
stage with the vision of God as the things to come into engendered existence
Manifest within the cosmos. As a result, because of their possibility and their pre-
the traveler can no longer claim that paredness for reception, they rushed to
names and attributes belong to God: see what there was, since they had the ca-
pacity (quwwa) to see, just as they had the
The traveler sees the engendered thing capacity to hear-in respect of their im-
as the Real, manifest within the entity of mutability, not in respect of existence.
the locus of manifestation, but in the When the possible thing came into exis-
form of the preparedness possessed by the tence, it became colored (in~ibiigh) by
locus in itself. He does not see the Real as light, and nonexistence disappeared. The
possessing any effect in engendered exis- thing opened its eyes and saw that Being
tence, and he has no proof through which was Sheer Good (al-khayr al-ma~4), but it
to affirm relationships, attributes, or de- did not know what It was, nor did it
scriptions. Hence this witnessing annihi- know that It had commanded it to come 93
Ontology

into engendered existence. Then self-dis- favors, 'Have We not appointed for him
closure gave it a knowledge of what it two eyes, and a tongue, and two lips, and
saw, but not a knowledge of the fact that guided him on the two highways?' (Ko-
Being had given it its existence. ran 90:8-10). In other words, We made
When it became colored by light, the clear for him the two paths, that of light
possible thing turned its attention to the and that of shadow. '[Surely We have
left. It saw nonexistence. So it investi- guided him on the way], whether he be
gated it and saw that it arose from itself thankful or unthankful' (Koran 76:3),
like a shadow (:fill) that arises from a per- for the impossible nonexistence is dark-
son who faces the light. It said, "What is ness, while the possible nonexistence is
that?" Light said to it from the right hand shadow, not darkness. That is why the
side, "That is you. If you were light, ease of existence is found in shadow."
shadow could have no entity. I am Light (II 303.28)
and I take away shadow. The light which
you have derives from that in your es-
sence which is turned toward Me.
Thereby you come to know that you are
not I. For I am Light without shadow,
Oneness of Being and
while you are mixed light, as a result of Effects of the Names
your possibility. If you relate yourself to
Me, I receive you; and if you relate your-
self to nonexistence, it receives you, for In discussing Being and the various
you are between Being and nonexistence, terms that are used to refer to the nonex-
and you are between Good and evil. istent and existent things, we have
"If you turn away from your own largely neglectd the divine names to
shadow, you will have turned away from which Part 2 was devoted. At this point
your possibility. Once you have turned we need to remind the reader that each
away from your possibility, you will have
become ignorant of Me and will not
thing other than God is a name of God.
know Me. For you have no proof that And since God is Being, every thing,
I am your God, Lord, and Existence- every entity, every possible thing, is a
bestower except your own possibility, name of Being. 18
which is your witnessing of your shadow.
But if you turn away from your light to- It is impossible for the things other
tally so that you never cease witnessing than God to come out of the grasp of the
your shadow, you will not come to know Real, for He brings them into existence,
that it is the shadow of your possibility. or rather, He is their existence and from
You will imagine that it is the shadow of Him they acquire (istifoda) existence. And
the impossible. And the impossible and existence/Being is nothing other than the
the Necessary are contraries in every re- Real, nor is it something outside of Him
spect. So if I call you, you will not re- from which He gives to them. That is im-
spond to Me or hear Me, since that object possible. On the contrary He is Being,
of witnessing will make you deaf to My and through Him the entities become
call. manifest. (I 406.14)
"So look not upon Me with a gaze that He who loses sight of the Face of the
will annihilate (i.fna') you from your Real in the things is able to make claims
shadow. Then you would claim that you (da'wii), and making claims is identical
are I and fall into ignorance. And look not with illness (mara4). For the Verifiers it
upon your shadow with a gaze that will has been established that there is nothing
annihilate you from Me. That would in Being/existence but God. As for us
leave you deaf, and you would remain ig- [creatures], though we exist, our exis-
norant of why I created you. So be some- tence is through Him. He whose exis-
times this and sometimes that. tence is through other than himself is in
"God created two eyes for you only so effect nonexistent. (I 279.5).
that you could witness Me with one and Concerning the existents in all their dif-
your shadow with the other. I have said ferentiations, we maintain that they are
94 to you in the manner of showing you My the manifestation of God in the loci of
Existence & Nonexistence

manifestation, that is, the entities of the The entity of the servant has no rightful
possible things in accordance with the claim (isti~qaq) in itself, since it is not the
preparednesses possessed by the possible Real in any sense. The Real alone has a
things. Hence the attributes of the Mani- rightful claim on that upon which He has
fest are diverse, since the entities within a rightful claim. So all the names in the
which It becomes manifest are diverse. cosmos which are imagined to be the
Hence the existent things become distinct rightful due (~aqq) of the servant are the
and plural through the plurality of the en- rightful due of God. . . . The Real alone
tities and their distinction in themselves. has a rightful claim upon all names occur-
Hence there is nothing in Being/existence ring within engendered existence and
except God and the properties of the enti- manifest in property. The servant as-
ties, while there is nothing in nonexist- sumes their traits (takhalluq) and possesses
ence except the entities of the possible nothing of his own except his entity. . . .
things prepared to be qualified for exis- When one of the names occurs for or is
tence. So in existence "they are/they are applied to any of the entities, this is only
not": The Manifest is their properties, so so in the respect that the entities are loci
"they are." But they have no entity in ex- of manifestation. Hence every name is ap-
istence, so "they are not." In the same plied to nothing but the Being of the Real
way, "He is and is not": He is the Mani- within the entities, while the entities re-
fest, so "He is." But the distinction main in their root without any rightful
among the existents is intelligible and per- claims. . . . Being belongs to God, and
ceived by the senses because of the diver- whenever Being is described by an attri-
sity of the properties of the entities, so bute, that which the attribute names is the
"He is not." (II 160.1) same as that which is named "Allah." So
Just as God gave the cosmos the name understand that there is no ontological
wujud, which belongs to Him in reality, named thing (musamma wujud0 except
so also He gave it the Most Beautiful God. He is named by every name, de-
Names through its preparedness and the scribed by every attribute, qualified by
fact that it is a locus of manifestation for every description. As for His words,
Him. (II 167.32) "Glory be to thy Lord, the Lord of inac-
Every name in the cosmos is His name, cessibility, above what they describe"
not the name of other than He. For it is (Koran 37:180), [the meaning is that He is
the name of the Manifest in the locus of above] having any partner (sharlk) in any
manifestation. (II 122.14) of the names. So all are names of God:
Everything is the properties of the enti- names of His acts, or of His attributes, or
ties of the possible things within the On- of His Essence. There is nothing in Being/
tological Entity which becomes manifest existence but God, while the entities are
in the forms as a result of the effects of nonexistent, in the midst of that which
the Most Beautiful Divine Names and in becomes manifest from them. . . . Hence
respect of the fact that the possible things existence belongs to Him and nonexis-
are qualified by them. In the case of the tence belongs to you. He is an Existent
Real, these are names, but in the case of Being forever, and you are nonexistent
the possible thing, they are descriptions forever. (II 54.6)
and attributes, while the possible thing The Real is the First in the Entity in
remains in the state of nonexistence. which He is the Last, in the Entity in
(IV 11. 9) which He is the Manifest, in the Entity in
If you are given opening'• concerning which He is the N onmanifest, and so on,
the knowledge of the relationships of the through all the divine names .... Though
divine names, which become manifest the divine names and the engendered enti-
through the manifestation of the divine ties are plural through relationships, they
loci of manifestation within the entities of are One Entity in Being. (I 462.6)
the possible things, thus becoming ar- God says, "We created not the heavens
ranged in species, genera, and individuals and the earth, and what between them is,
. . . [then you will know that] the cause save through the Real" 20 (Koran 15:85),
(sabab) for the manifestation of every which is Sheer Being. Hence there came
property in its entity is its divine name. to be ascribed to It everything given by
(II 39.27) the realities of the entities. Limitations 95
Ontology

arose, measurements became manifest, came manifest, possessing effects in that


property and decree exercised their influ- which became manifest within existence,
ence. The high, the low, and the middle, out of God's Jealousy, lest those effects be
diverse and parallel things, the kinds of attributed to the entities of the possible
existents-their genera, their species, things within the Manifest within them.
their individuals, their states, and their Since the effects belong to the divine
properties-all became manifest within names, and the name is the Named, there
One Entity. Shapes became distinct is nothing in Being/existence except
within It and the names of the Real be- God. (II 216. 7)

6. THE NEW CREATION

Discussion of the Oneness of Being Iii yataniihii or Iii nihiiya lah or ghayr mu-
leaves us with a relatively static picture taniihl). Possibility is an inexhaustible
of everything that exists. Yet few con- Treasury (khiziina) from which God con-
cepts are as central to Ibn al-'Arabi's tinues to create forever. Ibn al-'Arabi
teachings as change. "Everything other finds references to it in such Koranic
than God" dwells by definition in contin- verses as the above-quoted, "There is no
ual flux. Being alone remains unchanged, thing whose treasuries are not with Us,
while all existence displays Being's infi- and We send it not down but in a known
nite properties in kaleidoscopic variety. measure" (15:21). For Ibn al-'Arabi this
In Itself Being's Oneness allows for no means Being can manifest Itself through
multiplicity, yet only multiplicity can the form of any possible thing, just as
give rise to diversity of forms, whether water, upon which the Throne of God is
spatially or temporally. Just as the enti- placed (Koran 11:7), can take the shape
ties display their properties within the of any receptacle. However, since one
Manifest in indefinite variety at any form excludes another form, "existence"
given moment, so at each successive mo- defined as the manifest cosmos cannot be
ment each thing undergoes fluctuation, infinite. It is the nonexistent possibilities
transformation, and transmutation. that are infinite.
Ibn al-'Arabi discerns the divine roots
Within the Treasuries are found the in-
of change in many Koranic verses, espe- dividuals (ashkhii~) of the genera (ajniis).
cially, "No indeed, but they are in confu- These individuals are infinite, and that
sion as to a new creation (khalq jadld)" which is infinite does not enter into exis-
(50:15) and "Each day He is upon some tence, since everything confined (in~i~iir)
task (sha'n)" (55:29). Two closely con- by existence is fmite. (III 361.13)
nected concepts are the lack of "repeti- That which is with God ('ind Alliih) is
tion" (takriir) in the divine self-disclosure infinite, but it is impossible for the infi-
(al-tajalll), which means that God never nite to enter into existence. So everything
displays Himself twice in exactly the that enters into existence is finite. When
the finite is compared with the Infinite, it
same form; and the divine "vastness" appears as little or as nothing, even if it is
(ittisii' or tawassu'), which demands the a great deal. (II 353. 29)
infinity of the possible things. The possible things are infinite, and
there cannot be more than the infinite.
Infinite Possibility But the infinite does not enter into exis-
tence all at once (dafa); rather it enters lit-
tle by little, with no end. (II 482.26)
The possible things in their state of The infinity of the possible things un-
96 nonexistence are infinite in number (mii derlies the discussion of the continual re-
The New Creation

creation of all things. Behind the fragile goes to some lengths to describe the er-
appearance of the existent things which rors of the Ash'arites, concluding that
make up the cosmos stands the Infinite "They did not understand that the whole
Ocean, forever replenishing the waves cosmos is a collection of accidents; hence
on Its surface. And just as the number of it undergoes continual change (tabaddul)
possible things is infinite, so also are the at every moment, since 'The accident
changes undergone by each possible does not remain for two moments' "
thing. Or rather, in the last analysis, each (Fu~u~ 125). 1
new state, each changed situation, is a In Ibn al-'Arabi's way of looking at
newly created possible thing, similar things, the various kinds of substance
(mithl) to the first to be sure, but not discussed by theologians and philoso-
identical. phers are themselves accidents in respect
to a still deeper "substance," which is
It may be that the situation of a specific Being, or the Breath of the All-merciful.
species, such as man, is finite, since the All things, both "substances" and "acci-
individuals of this species are finite- dents" are in fact accidents, the effects of
though the individuals of the cosmos are the immutable entities found in Manifest
not finite. However, there is another Being. The substance of the cosmos is
sense in which the creation of individual
the One Entity.
human beings is in fact infinite, though
not everyone is aware of it. It is referred
to in His words, "No indeed, but they are At root the substance of the cosmos is
in confusion as to a new creation" (50:15). one. It never changes from its reality.
The entity of each individual is renewed Every form that becomes manifest within
(tajaddud) at each instant, and necessarily it is an accident which in actual fact (ft
so, for the Real never ceases being the nafs al-amr) undergoes transmutation
Agent (fii'il) of existence in the possible (isti~iila) at each indivisible instant (zamiin
things. This is shown by the diversity of ford). The Real brings similars (amthiil)
properties of the entities in every state. into existence perpetually ('ala'l-dawiim),
The entity which has this specific state since He is the Creator perpetually, while
cannot be the same as the entity which the possible things in the state of their
had that state, the passing and disappear- nonexistence possess the preparedness to
ance of which was witnessed. (IV 320.3) receive existence. (III 452.24)
No nonexistence ever overcomes the
cosmos in respect of its substance, nor
does any form ever remain for two in-
stants. Creation never ceases, while the
Perpetual Renewal entities are receivers which take off and
put on [existence]. So in every instant
(nafas) the cosmos in respect of its form
Ibn al-'Arabi traces the theoretical ex- undergoes a new creation in which there
position of the idea of a perpetually re- is no repetition. (II 677.30)
newed creation back to the Ash'arite
theologians, though he criticizes their The Koranic expression ajal or "term"
view as being incomplete. They main- designates the moment of death foreor-
tained that the cosmos is composed of dained by God, or the moment at which
substances Uawahir) and accidents (a'raq) something comes to an end, or the
and that the substances remain constant length of something's existence. In one
while "The accident does not remain for passage Ibn al-'Arabi declares that God
two moments (la tabqa zamanayn)." The has established a "term" for every form
basic difference between the Ash'arite in the cosmos, except for the entities
view and that of the Shaykh al-Akbar is which receive the forms.
that he holds that substances are no dif-
ferent from accidents in being perpetu- God says, "Every one runs to a stated
ally re-created. In the Fu~u~ al-~ikam he term" (13:2, 31:29). And He says, "He 97
Ontology

decreed a term, a term stated with Him" The cosmos is never fixed in a single
(6:2). He brought the word "every," state for a moment, since God is Ever-
which demands all-encompassingness and creating constantly. Were the cosmos to
all-inclusiveness. But we have said that remain in a single state for two moments,
the entities that receive the forms have no it would be described by independence
term. So how can they escape from the from God. But people are "in confusion
property of the "every"? We say: They as to a new creation." (III 199. 9)
have not escaped. Rather, the "term'~ that
belongs to the entity is its relationship
(irtibiit) to one of the forms which it re-
ceives. Its receiving it reaches a stated
term, which is the expiration of the mo- Divine Tasks
ment of that form. When the term known
to God reaches this relationship, the form
ceases to exist and the entity receives an- Ibn al-'Arabi quotes no Koranic pas-
other form. Hence the entities "run to a sage in support of the new creation more
stated term" by receiving a form, just as often than the verse, "Each day He is
the form "runs to a stated term" by being upon some task" (55:29). Frequently he
affirmed for that entity, which is the locus
of its manifestation. Hence the "every"
explains the meaning of this "day" while
embraces the stated term. discussing the various kinds of days
God has decreed for each thing a term mentioned in the Koran and the Hadith,
in a given affair which it reaches. Then such as the 1,000 or 50,000-year days of
the thing passes to another state in which Koran 32:5 and 70:4. 2 Here the "day" is
it also runs to a stated term. And God the shortest of all days, corresponding to
creates perpetually at each instant (ma'a'l- the present instant or the "indivisible
anfos). So among the things, some remain moment" (al-zaman al-fard). 3 As for the
for the length of the moment of their ex- divine "tasks," they are all the things,
istence and reach their term in the second states, and situations found in engen-
moment of the time of their ex-
istence. This is the smallest duration
dered existence.
(mudda) in the cosmos. God does this so
that the entities will be poor and needy He is "each day upon some task." The
toward God at each instant. For if they "day" is the indivisible moment, while
were to remain [in existence] for two mo- the "task" is that which God causes to oc-
ments or more, they would be qualified cur within it. (II 431.28)
by independence (ghinii) from God in that "Days" are many; some are long and
duration. some are short. The smallest of them is
This is a position which no one main- the indivisible moment, in respect of
tains except the Folk of Verified Un- which came the verse, "Each day He is
veiling among us and the Ash'arites upon some task." God named the indivis-
among the theologians. (II 639.6) ible moment a "day" because a "task"
is made to occur within it. So it is the
shortest and most minute of days. (I
The Shaykh often returns to the af- 292.15)
firmation of the "poverty" of the things Though the days are diverse in their
as the reason for and proof of the con- measures and in their correspondence
stant renewal of creation. The possible with solar days, God's command within
things can never escape from perpetual them is like the "twinkling of an eye"
need for a Preponderator in order to stay (Koran 54:50) .... The day may even be
smaller than [the twinkling of an eye]
in existence. To maintain otherwise . . . ; its measure may be the supposed
would be to claim that they are indepen- (mutawahham) "indivisible moment,"
dent from God; but as we have seen, In- which is the "day of the task." In regard
dependence is strictly a divine attribute, to the Real, the task is one, but in regard
while poverty is inherent to all created to the receivers in the cosmos, all the re-
98 things. ceivers are tasks. Were it not for the fact
The New Creation

that existence confines them, we would ter)) constantly has the power to exercise
say that they are infinite. (II 82.4) free disposal (ta~arruf). The common peo-
The factor that separates two similars ple name this "charismatic acts," "signs"
among things is difficult to perceive (ayat), and "the breaking of habits." For
through witnessing, except for him who the Verifiers, these acts are not the "break-
witnesses the Real or who verifies his ing of habit," but rather the bringing into
witnessing of a chameleon, since there existence of engendered things (kawain).
is no animal that shows more clearly that The reason is that in reality, there are no
the Real possesses the property of "Each habits, since there is no repetition. So
day He is upon some task" than the cha- nothing returns. This is referred to in
meleon. 4 So no attribute and no state God's words concerning the people of
in the cosmos remains for two moments, habits, "No indeed, but they are in confu-
nor does any form become manifest sion as to a new creation" (50:15). He
twice. (II 500.6) says: They do not know that in every in-
God says, "Each day He is upon some stant they are in a new creation, so what
task." The smallest of the days is the indi- they see in the first instant is not identical
visible moment. In it He is upon His tasks to what they see in the second instant.
to the number of the indivisible parts of They are in confusion about this.
the cosmos which are in existence. . . . Hence there is no return, so there is no
Hence He is upon some task with every breaking. This is how the situation is per-
part of the cosmos, in that He creates ceived by the Verifiers from among the
within it that which lets it remain. . . . Folk of Allah. And the situation is noth-
These tasks are the states (a~wal) of the ing but this, just as we have mentioned.
creatures, who are the loci for the exis- For it is through this that the creatures are
tence of the tasks within them, since it is perpetually and forever poor and the Real
within them that He creates those states is the Creator and Preserver of this exis-
perpetually. Hence no state can remain tence. The creature's existence is perpet-
for two moments, since, were it to re- ual because of the new creation which He
main for two moments, the Real would brings into existence within it in order for
not be the creator of that thing in which it to remain. (III 288.14)
the state remained. It would not be poor In reality, the situation is new forever,
toward God and would be qualified by so there is nothing that returns, so there is
independence from Him. But this is im- no breaking of habit. . . . The Divinity is
possible. (II 384.31) vaster than that It should cause anything
to return, but the similar things are veils
upon the eyes of the blind, those "who
know an outward significance of the
present life, but of the next they are heed-
Breaking Habits less" (Koran 30:7). That "next" is the ex-
istence of the entity of the second simi-
lar. 5 They are "heedless," so "They are in
Ibn al-'Arabi sometimes employs the confusion as to a new creation" (50:15).
concept of the new creation in unex- But the possible things are infinite, God's
pected contexts. In one passage he brings power exercises its influence, and the Real
it up while discussing the phenomenon is Ever-creating. So how should there be
of "charismatic acts" (karamat), the mira- repetition? For one cannot conceive of
cles performed by the friends of God. repetition except through return. (II
The word for "miracle" is "breaking the 372.20)
habit" (kharq al-'ada). Etymologically a
"habit" ('ada) is "that which returns." In
fact, says Ibn al-'Arabi, there is nothing
habitual, since everything is constantly Transmutation and Transformation
renewed and nothing ever returns.

The possessor of this deputation (niyaba One of the most explicit scriptural sup-
[which is the subject of the present chap- ports for Ibn al-'Arabi's contention that 99
Ontology

God can assume an indefinite number of thought that] they did not return to Him,
"tasks" in keeping with each creature is so we described Him by descriptions
found in an already mentioned hadith worthy of His majesty. But they are His
from Muslim's $a~l~. The text describes descriptions in reality.
the scene on the Day of Resurrection, Had He not brought us into existence
in the form of what He is in Himself, it
when God appears to each group of peo-
would not be correct and established that
ple in a variety of forms. But they deny we have received attributes by which He
Him in every form in which He appears. has described us and which belong right-
Finally, "He transmutes (ta~awwul) Him- fully (~aqq) to Him; nor would He receive
self into the form in which they saw Him attributes by which He has described
the first time and He says, 'I am your Himself and which belong rightfully to
Lord.' They answer, 'Indeed, Thou art us. 8 All are rightfully His. So He is the
our Lord'. " 6 The term tahawwul, derived Root, and we are the branch of that Root.
from the same root as the term "state" The [divine] names are the boughs of this
(~iil), signifies that something undergoes tree- I mean the tree of existence (shajarat
al-wtljud)-and we are identical with its
a change from one state or situation or
fruit, or rather, He is identical with its
form to another, hence a transmutation. fruit ....
It is employed repeatedly in discussions He has given us news on the tongue of
of the nature of imagination. In the fol- His Messenger concerning His self-trans-
lowing passage, Ibn al-'Arabi has been mutation (ta~awwul) in forms within the
explaining the nature of imagination but places of self-disclosure. That is the root
extends the discussion to include the cor- of our transmutation in states-both in-
poreal world as well. wardly and outwardly-all of which
takes place in Him. (III 315.11, 16)
Change may take place from a form to
a similar form (mithl) or to a dissimilar
form (khiliif) in imagination, in the sen- The word ta~awwul or "transmuta-
sory domain (al-~iss), or anyplace in the tion" is practically synonymous with
cosmos, since the whole cosmos never isti~iila, the tenth verbal form from the
ceases to change for all eternity, ad in- same root. However, the latter term was
finitum, because of the change of the root often employed in discussions of the
which replenishes it. The root of this nature of the changes that take place
change is the divine self-transmutation within the corporeal world. More speci-
in forms mentioned in the $a~IIJ. From fically, it was said that one of the four
here He becomes manifest in meanings elements could become "transmuted"
(ma'iinl) and forms.
into another element in the appropriate
From meaning to meaning, circumstances. Hence water could be
from forms to forms. transmuted into earth or air, air into
water or fire, and so forth. Though this
Hence His words, "Each day He is upon discussion plays a certain role in Ibn al-
some task," the task being the changes 'Arabi's cosmological scheme, in the
which He causes to occur in the engen- present context he merely perceives the
dered things (akwiin). (III 198.28) transmutation of the elements as one
Such is the situation of the Real with instance of the general transmutation that
the cosmos: God has effects manifest takes place in all things.
within the cosmos; they are the states
within which the cosmos undergoes con-
stant fluctuation (taqallub). This is a prop- The whole cosmos is confined to three
erty of His name "Time" (dahr). 7 • • • mysteries (asriir): its substance, its forms,
The Real described Himself for us by and transmutation (isti~iila). There is no
the descriptions of those things which in fourth affair (amr). If you ask us: From
our view are temporally originated. In re- whence in the divine realities does trans-
ality these arc His descriptions which mutation become manifest in the cosmos?
roo have become manifest within us; then [we We will reply:
The New Creation

The Real described Himself by saying, absurdity. For there is no difference


"Each day He is upon some task" (55:29). between the presently existent possible
The "tasks" are diverse. He described thing which has been delayed until after
Himself as rejoicing at the repentance of other possible things, and the fitrst possi-
His servant; and He rejoiced at it before it ble thing, since the Real is not qualified as
came to be (kawn). In the same way the having brought Zayd into existence when
Prophet said, "God does not become Zayd is nonexistent.
bored that you should become bored."' So the form is one, if you have under-
The gnostics-who are the messengers stood. However, the word "transmuta-·
(upon them be peace!)-have mentioned tion (isti~iila)" is not ascribed to God,
concerning God that He will become even though He has ascribed "self-trans-
wrathful on the Day of Resurrection "with mutation" to Himself. ...
a wrath with the like of which He has not The attribute of self (waif nafsl) cannot
become wrathful before this and with the be eliminated from that which is de-
like of which He will not become wrath- scribed by it. Otherwise, the object of de-
ful after this," as is worthy of His maj- scription would itself be eliminated, since
esty.10 Hence they have described Him as the attribute is identical to the object. The
having a state before this wrath in which priority (taqaddum) of nonexistence is an
He was not described by this wrath. The attribute of self for the possible thing,
f$a~1~ has mentioned His self-transmu- since it was impossible for the possible
tation in forms on the Day of Resurrec- thing to exist in eternity without begin-
tion when He discloses Himself to His ning. Hence it must have been nonexis-
servants. And self-transmutation (ta~aw­ tent in eternity without beginning. Hence
wul) is identical with transmutation (isti- the priority of nonexistence is its attribute
~iila); there is no difference between the of self.
two in manifestation. The possible things are distinguished in
Were this not so, it would not be cor- their realities and forms by their very es-
rect for the cosmos to have a beginning; sences, since the realities bestow that. So
rather, it would be coextensive (musiiwiq) when God desired to clothe them in the
with God in existence. But this is not so state of existence-and there was none
in actual fact. Just as God accepted to but God, who is identical with Being, the
manifest Himself to His servants in di- Existent-He manifested Himself to the
verse forms, so also at first He did not possible things according to the prepared-
create, then He created. nesses and realities of the possible things.
In eternity without beginning (al-azal) They saw themselves through themselves
He was described as Knowing and Pow- in the Being of Him who gave them exis-
erful. In other words, He had the ability tence, while they remained in their state
to bring the possible thing into existence, of nonexistence. For they have percep-
but it was up to Him whether or not to tions in the state of their nonexistence,
become manifest in the form of bringing just as they perceive that which perceives
it into existence. He became manifest by them in the state of their nonexistence.
bringing the form of the possible thing That is why it has been mentioned in the
into existence whenever He willed. And Law that God commanded the possible
there is no difference among the possible thing to come into engendered existence,
things in their relationship to Him. For and it did so.
example, we know that God did not If the possible thing did not possess
bring Zayd into existence until yesterday, the reality of hearing and perceiving the
or until today. So Zayd's existence has command of the Real when He turned
been delayed, even though the Real is His attentiveness (tawajjuh) toward it, it
Powerful. It is necessary to make the would not have come to be, nor would
same judgment concerning the first exis- God have described it as coming to be,
tent of the cosmos. God is qualified by nor would He have described Himself as
power over bringing the thing into exis- speaking to that thing described by non-
tence, even if He does not do so. In the existence. In this way the possible thing
same way you are powerful over moving possesses aiJ the faculties by which it per-
in the time of being still, even if you do ceives the objects pertaining to these per-
not move; this does not necessitate any ceptions. When He commanded the pos- ror
Ontology

sible things to come to be, they found no creation possesses no changing" (30:30).
existence by which they might be quali- "God's words possess no changing" (10:
fied, since there was nothing except the 64). On the contrary, the changing be-
Being of the Real. Hence they became longs to Him, just as He possesses the
manifest as forms within the Being of affair from before and after. This is
the Real. That is why the divine and demanded by His reporting about Him-
engendered (kawnl) attributes interpene- self that He is "the First and the Last"
trate (tadiikhul). The creatures are de- (57:3). (III 254.23, 255.8)
scribed by the attributes of the Real, and
the Real is described by the attributes of One of Ibn al-'Arabi's arguments to
the creatures. prove the new creation is that there can
Hence he who says, "I have seen noth- be no stillness (sukiin), that is, lack of
ing but God" speaks the truth. He who
says, "I have seen nothing but the cos-
motion (~araka), in existence. A few of
mos," speaks the truth. He who says, "I the reasons for this have already been
have seen no thing," speaks the truth, be- mentioned, while others need to be dis-
cause of the speed of the transmutation cussed in the context of cosmology.
and the lack of stability (thabiit); so he
says, "I have not seen anything." Motion has a tremendous authority
As for him who says, "I have never which is witnessed in the corporeal bod-
seen anything without seeing God before ies and their concomitants (lawiizim) and
it""-well, that is what we say: The which is intelligible within meanings and
possible thing possesses a perception in everything whose limits are unknown.
the state of its nonexistence. So when the Motion permeates the existent things in
command arrives to come to be, it finds the most complete manner. The first
nothing but the Being of the Real. It be- property it possesses in everything other
comes manifest within Being to itself, than God is that the entities leave and pass
seeing God before it sees itself. When the from the state of nonexistence to the state
Being of the Real clothes it, it sees itself of existence. There can be no rest (istiqriir)
at that time. Then it says, "I have never whatsoever in any existent thing, since
seen anything without seeing God before rest is stillness, and stillness is lack of
it," that is, before it comes to be within motion. (II 629. 28)
Him. So the Real receives the form of The cause of the speed and lastingness
that thing. He who does not understand of continual change is that the Root is
the situation in this manner does not such. Hence He gives to engendered exis-
understand the Real, creation, or these tence in accordance with the fact that He
relationships. is Ever-creating perpetually because of the
So "Every thing is annihilated" in form reality of His Level, while engendered ex-
through transformation "except its face" istence is poor and needy perpetually.
(Koran 28:88). The pronoun "its" refers Hence all existence is perpetually in
to "thing." The thing is annihilated in motion, in this world and the hereafter,
respect of its form, but not in respect of since bringing to be does not take place
its face and reality, which is nothing but from stillness. On God's part there are
the Being of the Real through which it perpetual turnings of attentiveness and in-
has become manifest to itself. "To it exhaustible words. That is His saying,
belongs the property" (28:88); in other "[What is with you comes to an end,] but
words, that thing exercises a property in what is with God remains" (16:96). With
the Face, so the properties are diverse God there is turning of the attentiveness;
in accordance with the diversity of the that is His saying, "[Our only speech to a
forms. "And to it you shall be returned" thing] when We desire it [is to say to it
(28:88) in that property. In other words, 'Be!', and it is]" (16:40). [By inexhaustible
to that thing will be returned the property words we mean] the Word of the Pres-
through which the thing exercised a prop- ence (kalimat al-~aqra), that is, His word
erty upon the Face . . . . So there is noth- "Be!" to every thing He desires, in the
ing but annihilation and bringing into ex- meaning that is appropriate for His maj-
istence within a Single Entity. There is esty. "Be" is a word denoting existence,
I02 no changing (tabd!l) except God's. "God's so nothing comes from it except exis-
The New Creation

tence. No nonexistence comes from it, exist with us. This is what He means by,
since nonexistence cannot "be," since be- "What is with you comes to an end." He
ing (kawn) is existence. These turnings of renews for the substance the similars or
the attentiveness and words are kept in opposites (aqdiid) perpetually from these
the Treasuries of Generosity for every Treasuries. This is the meaning of the
thing that receives existence. words of the theologians, "The accident
God says, "There is no thing whose does not remain for two moments." (II
treasuries are not with Us" (Koran 15:21). 280.31)
That is what we just said. God also says,
"We send it not down but in a known
measure" (15:21) in respect of His name
the Wise. For the authority of wisdom Never-Repeating Self-Disclosures
pertains to this divine sending down,
which is to bring these things out from
the Treasuries to the existence of their Ibn al-'Arabi quotes Abu Talib al-
entities. Makki (d. 386/996), author of the fa-
This is what we meant in the first sen- mous Sufi manual Qiit al-quliib, as say-
tence of this book by our words, "Praise ing, "God never discloses Himself in a
belongs to God who brought the things single form to two individuals, nor in a
into existence from a nonexistence and
from its nonexistence. " 12 ["Its nonexis-
single form twice. " 13 Abii Talib's say-
tence" means] the "nonexistence of non- ing may have been the source for the
existence," which is an existence. This is more succinct expression of the same
the relationship defined by the fact that idea which later gains the quality of a
the things are preserved in these Treasur- Sufi axiom: Lii takriir fi'l-tajalli-"There
ies, existent for God, immutable in their is no repetition in self-disclosure," or,
entities, not existent for themselves. In re- "Self-disclosure never repeats itself." The
gard to their own entities, they come into reason for this is the Divine Vastness and
existence from a nonexistence; but in re- the infinity of the possible things. The
gard to the fact that they are with God in immutable entities represent every possi-
these Treasuries, they come into existence
from the nonexistence of nonexistence,
ble form and modality that existence can
which is Being. assume, and these are infinite; hence, in
If you want, you can give preponder- disclosing Itself in each, Being never re-
ance to the fact that they are in the Treas- peats Itself.
uries. Then we say: He brought the things
into existence from their existence in the The Prophet said in a hadith which
Treasuries to their existence in their enti- unveiling has shown to be sound, "When
ties . . . . And if you want, you can say: God discloses Himself to a thing, it
He brought the things into existence from humbles itself to Him. " 14 God discloses
a nonexistence, after you understand the Himself perpetually, since changes (ta-
meaning which I have mentioned to you. ghayyuriit) are witnessed perpetually in
Say whatever you want. In any case, He the manifest things and the nonmanifest
brings them into existence in the place things, the unseen and the visible, the
where they become manifest to their sensory and the intelligible. His task is
entities. self-disclosure, and the task of the existent
As for God's words, "What is with you things is change and passage from one
comes to an end" (16:96), that is correct state to another state. Among us there are
in the doctrine, for here the entity of the those who recognize this and those who
substance is addressed. Those existent do not recognize it. Those who recognize
things which are "with" the substance are it worship Him in every state. Those who
the attributes, accidents, and phenomena do not recognize it deny Him in every
which God has brought into existence in state. It is established in the sound tradi-
the locus (mal}all) [i.e., the substance]. In tion that the Prophet said, "Praise belongs
the second moment, or the second state- to God for every state. " 15 So he lauded
say whichever you like-after the mo- Him for every state, since through His
ment or state of its existence, it ceases to self-disclosure He bestows every state. . . . 103
Ontology

"Each day He is upon some task" (55: tity and self and that ·his he-ness remains
29). [The "tasks"] are divine states within the same without ceasing, in spite of his
engendered entities through names that fluctuation. So also is the form of self-
are relationships specified by the changes disclosure: Though it is many and never
within engendered existence. He discloses repeats itself, yet people do not remain ig-
Himself as the One Entity within diverse norant of the knowledge of Him who dis-
entities in engendered existence. The enti- closes Himself in these forms while One
ties see their forms within the One Entity; in Entity; the qualities He assumes do not
parts of the cosmos witness other parts veil Him. (III 282.21)
within It. Some of them are affinitive
(munasib), that is, compatible (muwafiq),
while others are not affmitive, that is, in- In the following passage, Ibn al-'Arabi
compatible (mukhalif). Hence compatibil- is discussing the station (maqam) of "sat-
ity and incompatibility become manifest isfaction" (riqa), which he, like other
in the entities of the cosmos in both this Muslims, recognizes as an important
world and the hereafter, for the entities of character trait that must be developed
the cosmos never cease seeing each other in the path of spiritual growth. But he
in that Self-disclosing Entity. That Enti- points out that satisfaction is not always
ty's lights are reflected upon them, be- desirable, especially in the matter of
cause of what they have acquired from It. knowledge.
Hence there occurs in the cosmos what
occurs, in this world and the hereafter, as
an effect of the reality of that Entity when For the exoterics abandoning satisfaction
the sight of the cosmos becomes con- is a stain.
nected to It. This is like a mirror facing For the Folk of finding God it
the sun. The sun's radiance is reflected is a sign
upon a piece of cotton facing the reflected of their having realized
light, and hence a fire breaks out. This is the Entity of their Creator,
exactly what becomes manifest in the cos- in respect of the fact that in Him
mos when parts of it leave effects upon they are obliterated and affirmed.
other parts as a result of witnessing that
Entity. (II 304.33) God is much vaster than that a person
He who knows the Divine Vastness should be satisfied with a little of what
knows that nothing is repeated in exis- comes from Him. Rather, one should
tence; rather, it is imagined that the exis- be satisfied with Him, but not with
tence of things similar in form is identical what comes from Him, since satisfaction
to that which is past. But these are their with what comes from Him cuts off the
similars, not their exact entities; what is Men 16 from their aspirations (himma).
similar to a thing is not identical with God commands His Prophet with His
it. (II 432.12) words, "Say: 'My Lord, increase me in
knowledge!"' (20:114), even though he
The appearance of multiplicity in the had actualized the knowledge of "the an-
cosmos does not negate the oneness of cients and the later folk" and had been
given "the all-comprehensive wt>rds. " 17
the Self-discloser (al-mutajalll), any more
So there is nothing too great to be sought
than the multiplicity of a person's thoughts from God, since that which is sought
and situations negates the oneness of his from Him is infinite and hence has no end
self. where we should come to a halt. So make
your seeking of increase vast, if you are
Though self-disclosure never repeats it- among those who know God! And since
self, the Self-discloser is known to be the vastness of the possible things accepts
One. For example, man knows that he no finitude, what do you suppose about
himself fluctuates in states, thoughts, acts, the Divine Vastness? (II 213.23)
and awareness. All of this takes place in That which is past never returns, since
diverse forms. In spite of this fluctuation were it to return, something in existence
and transmutation, he knows his own en- would repeat itself, but there is no repeti-
104
The New Creation

tion, because of the Divine Vastness. (II Boredom


185.27)

The fact that all existent entities are God's perpetual self-disclosures to the
different means that each is able to re- creatures mean that creation is renewed
ceive the divine self-disclosure only to at each instant. Hence, no one with any
the extent of its own preparedness. This understanding of the nature of the things
means, as will be seen in detail later on, can suffer boredom (mala/), whether in
that each belief (i' tiqiid) about God is this world or the next.
unique to the believer who holds it. In
fact, the object of our belief is only our- The men of knowledge (al-'ulama) are
selves, since God stands far beyond our forever joyful, but others remain in the
capacity to conceptualize or understand. shadows of bewilderment, wandering as-
By the same token, even if we should tray in this world and the next. Were it
attain to the state of "presence" (~uqiir) not for the renewal of creation at each in-
with God, the God with whom we are stant, boredom would overcome the enti-
present is determined by our ability to ties, since Nature requires boredom. This
encompass Him; we can never encom- requirement decrees that the entities must
pass God, so we are only present with be renewed. That is why the Messenger
of God said about God, "God does not
ourselves. Ibn al-'Arabi makes this point
become bored that you should become
while discussing man's return (rujii') to bored." So the boredom of the cosmos is
God, through which he moves "away identical with the boredom of the Real.
from" this world and by which God But no one in the cosmos becomes bored
"returns" to man. except him who has no unveiling and
does not witness the renewal of creation
The realities demand that you will not constantly at each instant and does not
be present except with yourself. The ac- witness God as Ever-creating perpetually.
tual situation is that when you are present Boredom takes place only as the result of
through "presence" with Him who is unceasing companionship (isti~~iib). (III
present, you cannot be present with Him 506.17)
except in keeping with the limits given by
your level; hence you have become pres- In the following passage Ibn al-'Arabi
ent with yourself, not with Him. For He
is discussing the nature of "curtaining"
does not disclose Himself to you except
to the measure that your level allows. So (sitr), which is the opposite of disclosure.
understand this! You will profit from it. God does not really place anything be-
Do not let it be hidden from you while hind a curtain, but our ignorance pre-
you are returning to Him away from that vents us from seeing the realities as they
from which you are returning, lest you are in themselves. "He placed no veil
imagine that you are returning to that upon you but yourself" (III 215.3). "You
which is higher than you. For you will are identical with the curtain over your-
not be returning except from yourself to self" (III 229.12). "The greatest of veils
yourself. are two, one supra-sensory (ma'nawi),
The Real does not return to you except
that is, ignorance, and the other sensory:
through you, not through Himself. For it
is not in the capacity of the creature to en- you yourself" (III 214.26). It is only ig-
dure Him. That is why His returnings norance which leads us to think that God
undergo variation (tanawwu'), His self- is curtained and not self-disclosing.
disclosures are diverse, and His loci of
manifestation are multiple without repeti- Some people do not know that at every
tion. But in Himself He is Incomparable instant God has a self-disclosure which
with multiplicity and change. "Nothing is does not take the form of the previous
like Him" (42:11) in that which is attrib- self-disclosure. When such a person lacks
uted to His Essence. (II 589.28) this perception, he may become the un-
105
Ontology

ceasing companion of a single self-dis- companionship. Since man is ignorant of


closure, and its witnessing may become this level, he seeks unceasing companion-
drawn out for him. . . . Hence boredom ship. But the man of knowledge seeks the
will overcome him, but boredom in this unceasing companionship of the renewal
station is lack of reverence (i~tiriim) to- of bliss and of the discernment between
ward the Divine Side, since "They are in the two blisses, so that he may enjoy a
confusion as to a new creation" (50:15) at new bliss.
every instant. They imagine that the situ- In fact, it is like this in actual fact, even
ation is not changing, and so a curtain is though not everyone recognizes it, nor
let down over them because of the bore- does every eye and rational faculty wit-
dom which leads to irreverence, after God ness it. For in actual fact [existence) is re-
has deprived them of knowledge of them- newed at each instant. But a person who
selves and Him. So they imagine that is ignorant does not witness the renewal
they are they in each instant; and they are of bliss, so he becomes bored. Were this
they in respect of their substantiality, but ignorance to be lifted from him, so also
not in respect of their attributes. (II would boredom be lifted. Boredom is the
554.16) greatest proof that man has remained ig-
norant of God's preserving his existence
and renewing his blessings at each instant.
Between lover and beloved the plea- May God verify us through the most
sure (ladhdha) of encounter (liqa') is complete unveiling and the most inclusive
greater than the pleasure of unceasing locus of witnessing! (II 653.25)
companionship. That is why God keeps
Himself separate from His lover. It also
explains the bliss of paradise: Everyone
in the Garden is constantly parted from The Heart
the bliss he enjoys and thereby experi-
ences the ever-renewed encounters with
the divine display. One of the words employed above
as a synonym for transformation was
The Beloved keeps Himself absent taqallub or "fluctuation." From the same
(ghayba) from the lover for the sake of im- root we have the word qalb or "heart."
parting knowledge and teaching courtesy As a verbal noun, qalb is more or less
in love. For if the lover is truthful in his synonymous with taqallub. The dictio-
claim, while God tests him by the absence naries define qalb as "reversal, overturn,
of his Beloved, then there will appear transformation, change" and taqallub as
from the lover a movement of yearning "alteration, transformation, change, fluc-
to witness Him. Through this yearning tuation, variableness, inconstancy." Thus
he shows the truth of his claim; thereby
his station is increased, and his reward
the Shaykh sees the heart as a place of
through bliss in his Beloved is multiplied. constant change and fluctuation. He finds
For the pleasure which he finds at en- the divine root of the heart's fluctuating
counter is greater than the pleasure of nature mentioned in various hadiths. For
unceasing companionship. This is similar example, the Prophet said, "The hearts
to the frightened person who finds the of all the children of Adam are like a
sweetness of reaching security: The sweet- single heart between two of the fingers
ness of unceasing security is not nearly as of the All-merciful. He turns (ta~rif) it
intense. So the bliss (na'!m) of the fright- wherever He desires. 0 God, 0 Turner
ened person is multiplied. That is why the of Hearts, turn our hearts toward obey-
folk of the Garden dwell in a bliss that is
ing Thee!"' 8 In many hadiths God is
renewed at each succeeding instant in all
their senses, their meanings, and the di- called the "Turner of hearts" (mu~arrif al-
vine self-disclosures; they are constantly quliib) or "He who makes hearts fluctu-
in delight (tarab). Hence their bliss is the ate" (muqallib al-quliib). 19
greatest of blisses-because of expecting In Islamic texts in general and Ibn al-
I 06 separation and imagining there will not be 'Arabl in particular, the heart is a locus
The New Creation

for knowledge rather than for sentiments and delimit God, but that is impossible.
or feelings. The Koran employs the term The heart frees God of all constraints and
about 130 times and often attributes absolves Him of all limitations. The
understanding and intelligence to the heart alone is able to perceive God's self-
healthy heart. Ibn al-'Arabi compares disclosures through the faculty of
the heart to the Ka 'ba, making it the imagination.
"noblest house in the man of faith" (III
250.24). He also declares that it is the "Surely in that," that is, in the constant
Throne of God (al-'arsh) in the micro- change in the cosmos, "there is a re-
cosm, alluding here to the oft-quoted minder" of the constant change of the
~adlth qudsl, "My earth and My heaven Root, "for him who has a heart" (Koran
embrace Me not, but the heart of My 50:37), since the heart possesses fluctua-
believing servant does embrace Me. " 20 tion (taqllb) from one state to another.
This "embracing" (sa'a) takes place That is why it is called "heart" (qalb). He
through "knowledge of God (al-'ilm bi who explains "heart" as meaning "rea-
son" has no knowledge of the realities,
Allah)" (III 250.26). The heart possesses for "reason" is a "delimitation" (taqyld),
such a tremendous capacity (wus') be- the word 'aql being derived from "fetter."
cause of its connection to the All-merci- But if he means by "reason," which is de-
ful, between whose two fingers it dwells. limitation, what we mean by it, that is,
Moreover, according to the Koran, it that which is delimited by fluctuation so
is the All-merciful who "sat upon the that it never ceases undergoing transfor-
Throne" (20:5); and God's mercy "em- mation, then he is correct. . . .
braces all things" (7:156). The only other We know that one of the attributes of
divine attribute which possesses such an Time (al-dahr) is transmutation (ta~awwul)
all-embracing nature is knowledge; in and fluctuation (qalb) and that "God is
Time. " 21 It has been established that He
the words of the angels who bear the undergoes transmutation in forms and
Throne, "Our Lord, Thou embracest all that "Each day He is upon some task"
things in mercy and knowledge" (Koran (55:29) . . . . If man examines (muriiqaba)
40:7). his heart, he will see that it does not re-
main in a single state. So he should know
The heart is His Throne and not de- that if the Root were not like this, this
limited by any specific attribute. On the fluctuation would have no support. But
contrary, it brings together all the divine the heart is between two of the fingers of
names and attributes, just as the All- its Creator, who is the All-merciful. ...
merciful possesses all the Most Beautiful So "He who knows himself knows his
Names (Koran 17:110). (III 129.17) Lord. " 22 And in the hadith of the fingers
there are divine glad tidings, since he at-
tributed the fingers to the All-merciful.
The infinite capacity of the heart Hence He does not cause the heart to fluc-
places it beyond delimitation (taqyld) by tuate except from one mercy to another
anything whatsoever. Like Being it is mercy, even though there is affliction
Nondelimited (mutJaq), free and absolved (balii') in the various kinds of fluctuation.
from all limitations and constraints. To But there lies in affliction's midst a mercy
the extent a person verifies the nature of hidden from man and known to the Real,
things by means of his heart, he can for the two fingers belong to the All-
understand God and the cosmos. But to merciful. (III 198. 33)
the extent that he follows the way of his
reason or rational faculty ('aql), he will In discussing the spiritual station of
remain in constant constriction and "longing" (raghba), Ibn al-'Arabi points
binding. Here the Shaykh points to the out that in Sufi terminology there are
root meaning of the term 'aql, closely three kinds of longing, all of which take
connected to the "fetter" ('iqal) used to place in the heart. One of these is "long-
hobble a camel. Reason strives to define ing for the reality (al-~aqlqa)." In explain- 107
Ontology

ing the meaning of this expression, he Mercy "embraces all things" (7:156).
refers to two other spiritual stations, Hence you will not see anything in the
"stability" (tamkln) and its opposite, heart's fluctuation which leads to distress
"variegation" (talwln). According to ('ana), chastisement ('adhab), and wretch-
most authorities, stability is a higher edness (shaqa), unless there is also a hid-
den mercy along with it, since the heart
station than variegation, but Ibn al-
lies between the fingers of the All-merci-
'Arabi holds that variegation is in fact ful, who causes it to fluctuate. If He wills,
higher, since it corresponds to the nature He keeps it straight (iqtima), and if He
of things, the divine self-transmutation wills, He causes it to swerve (iztigha)
in forms. Hence, he says, the Verifiers from that straightness, so this is a relative
attain to the station of "stability in inclination [from straightness].
variegation" (al-tamkln fi'l-talwln), just as Hence the heart ends up (ma'al) at
they actualize the heart "which is mercy by the property of the authority of
delimited by fluctuation so that it never this name. He whose heart swerves is like
ceases undergoing transformation," as him whose heart goes straight. This is a
said above. glad tidings from God to His servants.
"0 My servants who have been immod-
erate toward yourselves!"-here He does
In existence the "reality" is variegation. not mention one kind of immoderation
He who is stable in variegation is the (saraf) rather than another, so in this im-
Owner of Stability. The heart longs to moderation He includes all the states of
witness this reality. God made the heart those who are immoderate- "Despair
the locus of this longing to bring the ac- not of God's mercy," since that which has
tualization (tal}~ll) of this reality near to made you swerve is the fingers of the All-
man, since there is fluctuation in the merciful; "surely God forgives all sins"
heart. God did not place this longing in (Koran 39:53).
the rational faculty, since reason possesses This is a report which accepts no abro-
delimitation. If this longing were in the gation (naskh). This verse should be com-
rational faculty, the person might see that bined with His words, "God does not
he is fixed in a single state. But since it forgive that any should be associated with
lies in the heart, fluctuation comes upon Him" (Koran 4:48). 23 We conclude that
him quickly. For the heart is between the a person is punished for his associating
fingers of the All-merciful, so it does not others with God as God wills, then the
remain in a single state in the reality of fingers of the All-merciful display their
the situation. Hence it is fixed in its fluc- properties within him. So he ends up
tuation within its state in accordance with with the All-merciful. Those kinds of
its witnessing of the way the fingers cause swerving less than associating others with
it to fluctuate. (II 532. 30) God which are forgiven are forgiven after
punishment. These are the people of ma-
jor sins (kabti'ir) who will be taken out of
Since the heart is connected to the two the Fire through intercession after they
fingers of the All-merciful, mercy is the have become coals as long as they have
heart's fundamental reality. It cannot but not associated others with Him. 24 Faith
return to the divine mercy in the end in this is mandatory. There are also those
(bi'l-ma'al). This has important eschato- who are forgiven without punishment.
logical consequences, as Ibn al-'Arabi So there is no escape from ending up in
often reminds us. mercy. (II 171.24)

The heart is the place of love for God,


Do you not see that the heart lies be-
tween the two fingers of the All-merciful?
since only the heart can know God in
That which causes it to fluctuate is only order to love Him. The perfect lover of
the All-merciful; no other divine name God accepts Him and loves Him in every
enters in upon it along with the All- form He assumes through His self-
merciful. This name gives to it only what transmutation. Ibn al-'Arabi explains
108 it possesses in its own reality, and His these points in answering one of al-
The New Creation

Tirmidhi's questions: 25 " What is the sence can only be discussed in !terms of
goblet of love (ka' s al-~ubb) ?" negative (salbl) qualities. But God is not
only Non delimited, He is also free of de-
The goblet of love is the lover's heart, limitation (taqyld) by nondelimitation
not his reason or his sense perception. For (itlaq). In other words, since He is free
the heart fluctuates from state to state, from all limitations, He is also fi:ee from
just as God-who is the Beloved-is the limitation of being free; as a result
"Each day upon some task" (55:29). So He can delimit Himself through all con-
the lover undergoes constant variation in
straints and limitations, without thereby
the object of his love in keeping with the
constant variation of the Beloved in His becoming delimited by them. In His
acts. The lover is like the clear and pure self-delimitation-which becomes mani-
glass goblet which undergoes constant fest through His self-disclosure and self-
variation according to the variation of the transmutation-He remains eternally
liquid within it. The color of the lover is free from limits and bounds.
the color of the Beloved. This belongs
only to the heart, since reason comes
God possesses Nondelimited Being,
from the world of delimitation; that is
but no delimitation prevents Him from
why it is called "reason," a word derived
delimitation. On the contrary, He pos-
from "fetter." As for sense perception, it
sesses all delimitations. Hence He is Non-
obviously and necessarily belongs to the
delimited Delimitation; no single delimi-
world of delimitation, in contrast to the
tation rather than another exercises its
heart.
property over Him. (III 162.23)
This can be explained by the fact that
love has many diverse and mutually op-
posed properties. Hence nothing receives Just as God is not delimited by nonde-
these properties except that which has limitation, so also He is not incompa-
the capacity (quwwa) to fluctuate along rable with similarity. This is a
with love in those properties. This be- restatement of Ibn al-'Arabi's basic
longs only to the heart. In order to as- objection to those who limit themselves
cribe something like this to God, look at to a rational understanding of the Divine
His words, "I respond to the call of the
caller when he calls to Me" (2:186); "God
Reality. The rational thinkers imagine
does not become bored that you should thalt God's incomparability means that
be bored"; "When someone remembers He cannot in any way be similar. On the
(dhikr) Me in himself, I remember him in contrary, says Ibn al-'Arabi, His very
Myself. " 26 All the revealed Law (al-shar'), incomparability proves that He cannot be
or most of it, is of this type. limited by any limitations whatsoever,
The wine is precisely what becomes including that limitation which is to
actualized in the cup. And we have ex- declare Him incomparable and only
plained" that the cup is identical with the incomparable. Hence He is also similar.
locus of manifestation, the wine is identi-
cal with the Manifest within it, and the
drinking (shurb) is that which is actualized God delimits Himself by self-transmu-
from the Self-discloser in His locus of tation only to open up the servant to the
self-disclosure. (II 113. 33) knowledge that the actual situation is infi-
nite, and that which is infinite does not
enter under delimitation. That which ac-
cepts transmutation from one form to an-
other accepts transmutation within forms
Nondelimitation
ad infinitum. . . . So the servant comes
out of the limits of delimitation through
[witnessing God's] delimitation, in order
God in Himself is free of any con- to know that the Object of his witnessing
straints, "Independent of the worlds," is Nondelimited Being. Hence his wit-
"nondelimited" (mut[aq) by any attribute nessing is also nondelimited in keeping
whatsoever. As a result, the Divine Es- with the nondelimitation of its Object. 109
Ontology

Hence the transmutation from form to respect of the fact that He is a god, not in
form gives him a knowledge he did not respect of the fact that He is an essence.
have .... For the Essence is Independent of the
The greatest ascetic discipline (riyiiqa) of worlds, but the king is not independent
the knowledgeable servant is to refrain of the kingdom, since, if there were no
from denying Him in any form and from kingdom, he could not be called "king."
delimiting Him by incomparability, for Hence the Level [of Divinity] bestows
He is absolutely incomparable with any delimitation, not the Essence of the
declaration of incomparability which de- Real. (III 72. 20)
limits. (II 483. 7)
The "gnostics through Him" (al-
The fact that God can choose to de- 'iirifon bihi) know God through God, not
limit Himself because of His nondelimi- through any human faculties; they com-
tation explains why He has created the bine the declaration of God's incompa-
cosmos, even though He is "Independent rability (tanzlh) with the affirmation of
of the worlds." His similarity (tashblh). They recognize
that through His very nondelimitation
When a thing's reality is such that it is He assumes every constraint and
delimited, it cannot be nondelimited in boundary.
any respect as long as its entity remains,
for delimitation is its attribute of self (~ifa When the gnostics know Him through
nafsiyya). If a thing's reality is to be non- Him, they become distinguished from
delimited, it can receive no delimitation those who know Him through their own
whatsoever, for its attribute of self is to rational consideration (na?ar), for they
be nondelimited. possess nondelimitation, while others
However, it is not in the capacity of the have delimitation. The gnostics through
delimited thing to receive nondelimita- Him witness Him in each thing or in
tion, since its attribute is incapacity ('ajz). the entity of each thing, but those who
Even if the divine preservation accom- know Him through rational consideration
panies the thing in order that its entity are removed far from Him by a distance
should remain in existence, poverty is in- which is required by their declaration of
separable from it. But the Nondelimited His incomparability. Hence they place
delimits Itself if It wills and does not de- themselves on one side and the Real on
limit Itself if It wills. For that is one of Its the other. Then they call to Him "from a
attributes through being Nondelimited: far place" (Koran 41 :44). (Ill 410.17)
Its will (mashla) is nondelimited. From
here the Real has obligated (fjiib) Himself
and entered into the covenant (al-'ahtl) The nondelimitation of the gnostics,
with His servant. He said concerning ob- who are also called the "Folk of Allah,"
ligation, "Your Lord has written," that is, means that they are able to discern God
obligated, "for Himself mercy" (Koran in all things. Since God-Being-in
6:54). Hence He has obligated Himself. His nondelimitation assumes every
No "other" has obligated that upon Him, delimitation, the gnostics gaze upon Him
so He is not delimited by other than Him- through an all-inclusive witnessing. It is
self. Hence He delimited Himself toward only they who recognize God in every
His servants as a mercy toward them and
a hidden gentleness.
form into which He transmutes Himself
God said concerning the covenant, on the Day of Resurrection.
"Fulfill My covenant, and I shall fulfill
your covenant" (2:40). Hence He pre- The science of the sects (ni~al) and the
scribed (taklif) for them and He pre- creeds (mila/) is a science which the person
scribed for Himself. They have proofs of faith need not study or consider. But it
that He speaks the truth in His words, so is incumbent upon the Folk of Allah to
He mentioned that to put them at ease. know the doctrine of every sect and creed
Now all of this- I mean His entering concerning God, in order to witness Him
110 under delimitation for His servants-is in in every form and in order not to stand in
The New Creation

the place of denial. For He permeates ex- they came to know that there is another
istence, so no one denies Him except knowledge of God which is not reached
those who are limited. But the Folk of by way of reflection. Hence they em-
Allah follow Him whose folk they are, ployed ascetic discipline, retreats (khalwa),
so His property flows over them. And spiritual struggle (mujtihada), cutting off
His property is the lack of delimitation. of attachments (qa( a/-'ala'iq), isolation
Hence He possesses all-pervading Being (in.firtid), and sitting with God with the
(wujud), while they possess all-pervading aim of freeing the locus (tajrfgh al-ma~all)
witnessing (shuhud). That person who de- and sanctifying the heart (taqd'fs al-qalb)
limits His Being delimits the witnessing from the stains of reflective thoughts
of Him; he is not one of the Folk of A} .. (ajkar), for these thoughts take engen-
lah .... dered things as their object. They heard
God describes Himself as "sitting [upon that the Real descends to His servants and
the Throne]" (20:5), "descending to the seeks to win them over. So they knew
heaven [of this world], " 28 and exercising that the path to Him in respect of Him
free disposal "in every direction" of en-· is nearer to Him than the path of their
gendered existence, "toward which He reflection-especially for those who have
turns" (2:148). So "Whithersoever you faith. They may have heard His words,
turn, there is the Face of God" (2:115). "When someone comes to Me running,
But "Turn your face towards the Holy I come to him rushing, "'9 or that the
Mosque" (2:144), since this does not elim- heart of the person of faith embraces
inate the property of God's Face being God's majesty and tremendousness. 30
wherever you turn. However, God has So the servant turned his face totally to-
chosen for you that you should turn your ward Him and cut himself off from every
face toward something that will give faculty that takes him away from Him.
you felicity (sa'ada), but [this turning oc- When the servant turned his face, God ef-
curs] in a specific state, which is the daily fused from His light a divine knowledge,
prayer. God did not place this delimita- teaching him by way of witnessing and
tion upon other spatially located things self-disclosure that God is not received or
(ayniyyat). Hence for you He combined rejected by any engendered thing. That is
delimitation and nondelimitation, just as why He said, "Surely in that is a reminder
for Himself He combined incomparability for him who has a heart" (50:37). He
and similarity. He said, "Nothing is like mentions only the heart because the heart
Him, and He is the Hearing, the Seeing" is known through constant fluctuation in
(42:11). (III 161.13) states, since it does not remain in a single
state. So also are the divine self-disclo-
sures. Hence he who does not witness the
We began this chapter with the "new self-disclosures in his heart denies them.
creation." We conclude with two pas- For the rational faculty delimits, like all
sages which connect the new creation to other faculties except the heart. The heart
the divine nondelimitation and tie it in does not delimit, but quickly fluctuates in
with the heart, the rational faculty, and every state. That is why the Lawgiver
the combination of incomparability and said, "The heart is between two of the
similarity. fingers of the All-merciful; He makes it
fluctuate as He desires." The heart fluctu-
ates with the fluctuation of self-
In the view of the Verifiers, the Real is disclosures, but the rational faculty is not
too exalted "to disclose Himself in a sin- like that.
gle form twice or to two individuals." The heart is the faculty (quwwa) which
The Real never repeats anything, because is beyond the stage of reason. If in this
of His nondelimitation and the Divine verse God had meant by "heart" the ratio-
Vastness, since repetition amounts to con- nal faculty, he would not have said, "for
straint (4iq) and delimitation. (II 657.13) him who has a heart," since every human
After those who had faith in God came being has a rational faculty, but not every
to know Him through considerative human being has been given the faculty
proofs, their rational faculties saw that which is beyond the stage of reason and
God still asks them to know Him. So which is named "heart" in this verse. I I I
Ontology

That is why He said, "for him who has a similar in one place and incomparable in
heart." another. He declares Himself incompar-
Fluctuation in the heart is equivalent to able through His words, "Nothing is like
the divine self-transmutation in forms. Him," and similar through His words,
Hence knowledge of the Real from the "And He is the Hearing, the Seeing"
Real comes only through the heart, not (42:11). Hence thoughts of similarity
reason. Then the rational faculty receives were dispersed, and thoughts of incom-
knowledge from the heart, just as it re- parability were scattered.
ceives from reflection. So the heart does In reality, he who professes incompara-
not "embrace" Him except by overturn- bility has delimited Him and confined
ing (qalb) what is with you. The meaning Him in his declaration of incomparability
of "overturning what is with you" is as and emptied Him of similarity, while he
follows: You attach your knowledge to who professes similarity has also delim-
Him and apprehend (qabt) some specific ited and confined Him in his declaration
thing in your knowledge. But the highest of similarity and emptied Him of incom-
thing you apprehend about Him in your parability. But the truth is found in com-
knowledge of Him is that He cannot be bining the statements of the two groups.
apprehended and is nondelimited, and He is not declared incomparable in any
that He does not resemble anything, nor manner that will remove Him from simi-
does anything resemble Him. Hence He is larity, nor is He declared similar in any
not apprehended, but He is apprehended manner that will remove Him from in-
by His being distinguished from that comparability. So do not declare Him
which is apprehended. So that which can- nondelimited and thus delimited by being
not be apprehended has been appre- distinguished from delimitation! For if He
hended. This is like your words, "Inca- is distinguished, then He is delimited by
pacity to attain comprehension is itself His nondelimitation. And if He is delim-
comprehension. " 31 ited by His nondelimitation, then He is
The Real can only be embraced by the not He. So He is the Delimited by the at-
heart. The meaning of this is that the Real tributes of majesty by which He has de-
cannot be judged to receive (qabiil), nor limited Himself, and He is the Nondelim-
not to receive. For the Essence and Ipseity ited by the names of perfection which He
(inniyya) of the Real are unknown to en- has named Himself. And He is the One,
gendered existence, especially since He the Real, the Disclosed (al-jall), the Hid-
has given reports of Himself in the Book den (al-khafi). There is no god but He,
and the Sunna through contradictory the All-high, the Tremendous. (I
things (naqlqayn). He declares Himself 289.20)

7. C 0 S M I C I M A G IN A T I 0 N

No one will find true knowledge of existence, the more clearly we are faced
the nature of things by seeking explana- with its fundamental ambiguity. Every-
tions in "either/or." The real situation thing that exists in the cosmos takes its
will have to be sought in "both/and" or existence and attributes from the Divine
"neither/nor." Ambiguity does not grow Reality. By affirming the reality of the
up simply from our ignorance: it is an thing, we affirm the Reality of God,
ontological fact, inherent in the nature of but at the same time we deny that the
the cosmos. Nothing is certain but Being "thing" is God. The thing is only God in
Itself, yet It is the "coincidence of oppo- its existence and attributes, not in its spe-
sites" (jam' al-a4dad), bringing all oppo- cific existential thingness, where it is pre-
sites together in a single reality. cisely the thing. The more one discusses
1 12 The deeper we delve into the nature of this situation, the more language be-
Cosmic Imagination

comes convoluted and the observers and new in Islamic thought. The Koran often
listeners confused and bewildered. This negates the very things it affirms, a fact
is as it must be, since the universe is that has led to a great deal of theological
He/not He. squabbling. We have seen a few exam-
The clearest access shared by all hu-· ples of the Koranic mode of combining
man beings to the nature of existence, affirmation and negation in the opposing
which is "everything other than God," is and contrary divine names, or in some of
our own imagination, especially dreams. Ibn al-'Arabi's favorite verses, such as
The more deeply we delve into our own "Nothing is like Him, and He is the
imagination, the more clearly we see that Hearing, the Seeing" (42:11). The most
its characteristics coincide with those of concise traditional expression of the form
existence itself. Just as our imagination is of this dialectic is found in the Muslim
the barzakh between our spirits and bod- declaration of faith, the "witnessing"
ies, so also existence is the barzakh be- (shahiida), "[There is] no god but God,"
tween Being and nothingness. Every- which is made up of both negation and
thing that we observe in imagination on affirmation and is considered the defini-
a microcosmic scale takes place on a tion of tawhld, the "declaration of God's
macrocosmic scale in the Nondelimited Unity" that is the heart of Islam.
World of Imagination, which is exis-
tence. Just as the world we observe in
dreams is spiritual and corporeal, intelli-
gible and sensory, meaning and form, so He/Not He
also the world that God observes in His
"dream" is built of Being and nothing-
ness. When we wake up and want to un- The Koranic verse that Ibn al-'Arabi
derstand our dreams, we try to interpret cites more often than any other to show
them or go to an interpreter to do this the radical ambiguity of existence was re-
for us. So also, when we die and thereby vealed after the battle of Badr, which
"wake up" to the cosmic dream of God, turned in favor of the Muslims when the
we will find the interpretation of our Prophet picked up a handful of sand and
dream (even though that "waking up" is threw it in the direction of the enemy.
itself another stage in the cosmic dream). Concerning the Prophet's throwing of
Without knowledge of imagination this sand, the Koran says, "You did not
and its functioning, on whatever level it throw when you threw, but God threw"
is envisaged, many fundamental religious (8: 17). The verse affirms the individual
teachings cannot be understood. It is be- reality of the Prophet, then negates it by
cause of their ignorance of imagination saying that God in fact was the reality
that the Peripatetic philosophers and the behind the appearance. In a passage
theologians insisted upon "interpreting" about the One Entity-Sheer Being-
-that is, "explaining away" -all the and the effects of the names which be-
revelational data that does not accord come manifest as the entities of the possi-
with the laws of logic and reason. Others ble things, the Shaykh concludes, "There
simply gave up trying to understand is none in Being/existence but God." He
such things and said, "God says so, so it continues,
must be true." But this is not to give in-
telligence its full credit, since there are
But the clear formulation of this question
modes of gaining knowledge of the true is terribly difficult. Verbal expression
situation through the power of imagina- ('ibiira) falls short of it and conceptualiza-
tion, which can perceive the divine self- tion (ta~awwur) cannot define it, because it
disclosures for what they are. quickly escapes and its properties are
Ibn al-' Arabi's dialectic of negation contradictory. It is like His words, "You
(nafy) and affirmation (ithbiit) is hardly did not throw," so He negated, "when 113
Ontology

you threw," so He affirmed, "but God within which appear the properties of the
threw," so He negated the engendered nonexistent entities, properties which
existence (kawn) of Mu]:lammad and af- themselves arc the effects of the divine
firmed Himself as identical ('ayn) with names. So what we sec are the names,
Mu]:lammad, since He appointed for him and the cosmos is the outward form of
the name "God." (II 216.12)
all the names in differentiated mode (taf
~il), just as the human being is the out-
In discussing the "lover" (mu~ibb), a ward form of all the names in undifferen-
name which applies both to the servant tiated mode (ijmal).
and to God, Ibn al-'Arabi declares that
the lover is "obliteration in affirmation" Hence the cosmos became manifest as
(ma~w fi ithbat), and cites a number of "alive, hearing, seeing, knowing, desir-
Koranic verses that allude to this point. ing, powerful, and speaking." It works
1

in His manner, as He said, "Say: Each


works according to His manner" (Koran
The "affirmation" of the [servant as J
17:84). The cosmos is His work, so it be-
lover becomes manifest in the fact that
came manifest in the attributes of the
religious prescriptions (taklif) arc made
Real. If you say concerning it, "It is
for him . . . . His "obliteration" in the
God," you have spoken the truth, for
midst of this affirmation appears in God's
God says, "but God threw." If you say
words, "God created you and what you
concerning it, "It is creation," you have
do" (37:96); "Nothing of the command
spoken the truth, for He says, "when
belongs to thee" (3:128); "Surely the com-
you threw." So He clothed and bared,
mand belongs to God entirely" (3:154);
affirmed and negated: He/not He, un-
"You did not throw when you threw, but
known/known. "To God belong the
God threw" (8:17); "[Expend of] that in
most beautiful names" (7:180), and to
which He has made you vicegerents"
the cosmos belongs becoming manifest
(57:7). This is all an extremely clear ex-
through them by assuming their traits
planation of "obliteration in affirmation"
(takhalluq). (II 438.20)
in God's Book. The lover has no free dis-
posal (ta~am~f) except in that for which
God disposes Him. His love has put him Ibn al-'Arabi likes to quote a hadith
at a loss to desire anything other than about Adam from the collection of Tir-
what is desired for him. In actual fact the midhi, part of which reads as follows:
reality refuses anything but that. Every-
thing that appears from the lover is God's While His two hands were closed, God
creation, and the lover is the object of the said to Adam, "Choose whichever you
act (maf'ul), not the agent (ja'il). Hence like." Adam replied, "I choose the right
he is the locus within which affairs take hand of the Lord, though both hands of
place, so he is obliterated in affirmation. my Lord are right and blessed." Then
As for the "obliteration in affirmation" God opened it, and within it were Adam
of God considered as the Lover, that is as and His seed. He said, "My Lord, what
follows: The eye falls only upon the act of are these?" God replied, "These are your
the servant, so this is the "obliteration" seed."'
of the Real. But rational proofs and un-
veiling allow only for the Being of the One of the passages in which Ibn al-
Real, not the existence of the servant and 'Arabi comments on this hadith reads as
the engendered things. This is the affir- follows:
mation of the Real. Hence He is obliter-
ated in the World of the Visible ('alam
Adam was in that hand while he was
al-shahada), affirmed in the World of Wit-
also outside of it. Such also is the case in
nessing ('a/am al-shuhud). (II 355.33)
this question: When you consider, you
will see that the cosmos is with the Real
The root of the cosmos or "every- in this manner. This is a place of bewil-
thing other than God" is God, while the derment (IJayra): He/not He. "You did
I 14 cosmos is nothing but the Being of God not throw when you threw, but God
Cosmic Imagination

threw." . . . Would that I knew who is Among the possible things there are
the middle, the one who stands between three levels of known things (ma'IUmat):
the negation-His words "You did not (1.) A level that belongs to meanings dis-
throw"-and the affirmation-His engaged (mujarrad) from substrata; the
words "But He threw." He is saying, characteristic of meanings is that rational
"You are not you when you are you, but faculties perceive them through proofs or
God is you. " This is the meaning of our a priori (bi (arlq al-badaya). (2.) A level
words concerning the Manifest and the whose characteristic is to be perceived by
loci of manifestation and the fact that He the senses; these are the sensory things.
is identical with them, even though the (3.) A level whose characteristic is to be
forms of the loci of manifestation are di- perceived either by the rational faculty or
verse. In the same way we say concern- by the senses. These are imaginal things.
ing Zayd that he is one, despite the diver- They are the meanings that assume shape
sity of his bodily parts. His foot is not (tashakkul) in sensory forms; they are
his hand, but it is Zayd when we say given form by the form-giving faculty
"Zayd." It is the same with all his bodily (al-quwwat al-mu~awwira), which serves
parts. His nonmanifest and his manifest, the rational faculty. (II 66.14)
his unseen and his visible, are diverse. in
form, but each is identical with Zayd and In spite of the fact that meanings and
not different from him. (II 444.13) sensory forms are mutually contradic-
The "other" (al-ghayr) is in reality
tory, imagination possesses the strength
affirmed/not affirmed, He/not He. (II
501.4) to combine the two; hence, says Ibn al-
'Arabi, it manifests the divine name the
"Strong" (al-qawl).
Imagination
God possesses strength because of the
inaccessibility ('izza) of some-or all-of
the possible things, that is, the fact that
According to Ibn al-'Arabi, the reality
they do not accept opposites. One of the
of "He/not He" finds its clearest expres- effects of strength is the creation of the
sion in the cosmos through imagination World of Imagination in order to make
(khayal). In dreaming, for example, manifest within it the fact that it brings
which is a function of imagination, a per- together all opposites (aljam' bayn al-
son sees corporeal things which are not a4dad). It is impossible for sense percep-
corporeal things. The objects he sees tion or the rational faculty to· bring to-
possess corporeal forms, yet they dwell gether opposites, but it is not impossible
not in the world of corporeal bodies, for imagination.
but in that imaginal world which is the Hence the authority and strength of the
Strong only became manifest in the cre-
soul. Imagination can take a "meaning"
ation of the imaginal faculty (al-quwwat
(ma'na)-that is, a reality of the world of al-mutakhayyila) and the World of Imagi-
intelligible things without any outward nation, which is the closest thing to a de-
form-and give to it a sensory form notation (daliila) of the Real. For the Real
(#ira ma~susa), as we will see in detail be- is "the First and the Last, the Manifest
low. This occurs in spite of the fact that and the Nonmanifest" (Koran 57:3). Abu
in normal circumstances "meanings" and Sa'id al-Kharraz was asked, "Through
"sensory forms" are mutually exclusive, what have you known God?" He an-
since meanings belong to the World of swered, "Through the fact that He brings
Intelligence and are free of any sort of opposites together." Then he recited this
Koranic verse.
matter or substratum (madda), while sen-
Were all this not in a Single Entity,
sory forms belong to the external world there would be no profit, since no one
of corporeal bodies. The following de- denies the relationships. One person may
scription of the three kinds of possible have a multiplicity of relationships, so he
things may help to clarify the distinction is father, son, paternal uncle, maternal
between meanings and sensory forms: uncle, and so on, yet he is he, no one else. I I 5
Ontology

Hence nothing has truly gained posses- sory things in whatever manner. Imag-
sion of the [Divine] Form except imagina- ination in sleep is the most complete and
tion. And this is something that no one general in existence, since it belongs to
can deny, since he finds imagination in both the gnostics and the common peo-
himself and he sees it in his dreams. ple. As for the [spiritual] states of absence
Hence he sees the impossible existence as (ghayba), annihilation (janii'), obliteration
existent. (IV 325.2) (ma~w), and the like, the common people
do not experience them in respect of the
The visions of God's friends often in- divine things (al-ilahiyyat).
volve the "embodiment" (tajassud) of God has brought no engendered thing
angels or prophets or even God, though into existence as it is in itself except in this
presence. . . . Hence God brought this
these objects of vision do not in fact pos-
imaginal presence into existence in order
sess bodies. In a similar way the cosmos to make manifest the situation which is
itself consists of nonexistent meanings the Root as It is in Itself. So know that
displayed or "embodied" in Manifest the Manifest in the loci of manifestation
Being, so the cosmos as a whole is noth- -which are the entities-is the Real Be-
ing but "imagination." ing (al-wujud al-~aqq), and that It is not It,
because of the shapes and attributes which
The Prophet said, "I saw my Lord in are those of the possible entities through
the form of a youth."' This is like the which It became manifest. (II 379.3)
meanings that a sleeper sees in his dreams
within sensory forms. The reason for this The root kh.y.l., from which khayal is
is that the reality of imagination is to em- derived, is employed a single time in a
body that which is not properly a body relevant meaning in the Koran. In tell-
(jasad); it does this because its presence ing the story of Moses and the sorcerers,
(~a4ra) gives this to it. the Koran says that the sorcerers threw
None of the strata (tabaqat) of the cos- down their staffs, which promptly
mos makes known the situation as it
turned into serpents. As a result, Moses
really is except this imaginal presence, for
it makes contraries come together, and "was made to imagine, by their sorcery,
within it the realities become manifest as that their ropes and staffs were sliding"
they are in themselves. The truth of af- (20:16). The term is used in a similar
fairs is that you should say concerning ev- sense in a small number of hadiths.
erything that you see or perceive, through These few instances were sufficient to
whatever faculty perception takes place, allow al-Ghazali to provide detailed dis-
"He/not He," just as God said, "You did cussions of imagination as an Islamic
not throw when you threw." concept, just as al-Farabi and A vicenna
You do not doubt in the state of had employed the term largely on the
dreaming that the form you see is identi-
basis of Greek sources.
cal with what it is said to be; and you do
not doubt in the interpretation (ta'blr) For Ibn al-'Arabi the term "imagina-
when you wake up that it was not it. You tion" (khayal) designates a reality or
will not doubt in sound rational consider- "presence" that becomes manifest m
ation that the situation is "He/not He." three different loci: In the cosmos as
It was said to Abii Sa'!d al-Kharraz, such, where existence is identical to
"Through what have you known God?" imagination; in the macrocosm, where
He replied, "Through the fact that He the intermediate world between the
brings opposites together." So every en- spiritual and corporeal worlds is imag-
tity qualified by existence is it/not it. The inal; and in the microcosm, where the
whole cosmos is He/not He. The Real
human soul considered as a reality dis-
manifest through form is He/not He. He
is the limited who is not limited, the seen tinct from spirit and body pertains to
who is not seen. imagination. He also uses the term in a
This situation becomes manifest in the still narrower sense, to designate the
imaginal presence when a person is asleep "faculty of imagination" considered as
II6 or absent (ghaybuba) from outward sen- one of the several faculties of the soul,
Cosmic Imagination

along with reason, reflection, and mem- ination. The basic difference between the
ory. Ibn al-'Arabi sometimes distin- manner in which he uses the terms is that
guishes clearly among these meanings, khayiil refers both to the mental faculty
but he is more likely to discuss imagina- known as imagination and the objective
tion in general terms or in one or more world "out there" known as imagina-
of these meanings without making spe- tion, whereas mithiil is never used for the
cific reference to the distinction among faculty. The root meaning of mithiil is to
them. resemble, to look like, to imitate, to ap-
Ibn al-'Arabi names imagination in its pear in the likeness of. This root is em-
widest sense "Nondelimited Imagina- ployed much more commonly in the
tion" (al-khayiil al-mutJaq), since it desig- Koran and Hadith than kh.y.l. For exam-
nates the situation of all existence. He ple, the Koran repeatedly speaks about
calls the intermediate world of imagina- "similitudes" (mathal) and God's "strik-
tion "discontiguous imagination" (al- ing of similitudes," that is, His explana-
khayiil al-mun.fi1.~il), since it exists inde- tion of various points by means of imag-
pendently of the viewer. And he names ery and symbolism rather than explicit
the soul along with the faculty of imagi- formulation. But the most significant use
nation "contiguous imagination" (al- of the root for the present context is
khayiil al-mutta~il), since these are con- probably the single occurrence of the
nected to the viewing subject. In the word tamaththul, which means "to appear
present context, our primary concern is in the image of' or "to become imagi-
to understand how all existence can be nalized." Concerning Gabriel's appear-
considered identical with imagination. ance to Mary at the annunciation the Ko-
ran says, "He became imaginalized to her
God created another creature. If you as a man without fault" (19:17) . In the
say concerning it that it is existent, you Hadith the Prophet often employs this
will have spoken the truth, and if you say term tamaththul and its near synonym,
it is nonexistent, you will have spoken the tamthll. For example, in a famous hadith
truth. If you say that it is neither existent
that became an important principie in the
nor nonexistent, you will have spoken the
truth. It is imagination, and it has two science of interpreting dreams, he says,
states: a state of contiguity, which it pos- "Satan cannot become imaginalizcd
sesses through man and certain animals, (tamaththul) in my image (mithl)" or "in
and a state of discontiguity. To the latter my form." 5
outward perception becomes connected What is imagination in general, with-
while remaining separate from it in actual out reference to the various loci in which
fact, as in the case of Gabriel's appearance it may become manifest? According to
in the form of Dil;lya, 4 or a jinn or an an- the Shaykh, imagination is fundamen-
gel which becomes manifest from the tally an intermediate reality; as such, it is
world of curtaining. (III 442.3)
intrinsically ambiguous and can best be
The difference between contiguous
imagination and discontiguous imagina- defined by saying that it is neither this
tion is that the contiguous kind disappears nor that, or both this and that. Hence it
with the disappearance of the imaginer, is a barzakh, or the barzakh par excel-
while the discontiguous kind is an auton- lence.
omous presence, constantly receptive to-
ward meanings and spirits. It embodies
them in accordance with its own charac- A barzakh is something that separates
teristics, nothing else. Contiguous imagi- (jii~il)
two other things while never going
nation derives from the discontiguous to one side (muta(arrif), as, for example,
kind. (II 311.19) the line that separates shadow from sun-
light. God says, "He let forth the two seas
that meet together, between them a bar-
Ibn al-'Arabi often employs the term zakh they do not overpass" (Koran 55:19);
mithiil, "image," as a synonym for imag- in other words, the one sea does not mix I I 7
Ontology

with the other. Though sense perception aginal existence (al-wujiid al-khayiili"). But
might be incapable of separating the two when the Real becomes manifest within
things, the rational faculty judges that this imaginal existence, He only becomes
there is a barrier (~iijiz) between them manifest in keeping with its reality, not
which separates them. The intelligible in His Essence, which is True Being (al-
barrier is the barzakh. If it is perceived by wujiid al-~aqlql). That is why it is men-
the senses, it is one of the two things, not tioned in the sound hadith that He under-
the barzakh. Any two adjacent things are goes transmutation in His self-disclosure
in need of a barzakh which is neither the to His servants. This is also the meaning
one nor the other but which possesses the of His words. "Everything is annihi-
power (quwwa) of both. lated," since no state, whether engendered
The barzakh is something that separates (kawnl) or divine (iliihl), remains in the
a known from an unknown, an existent cosmos, "except its face" (28:88), mean-
from a nonexistent, a negated from an ing its essence, since the face of a thing "is
affirmed, an intelligible from a non-intel- its essence. So you will not be annihi-
ligible. It is called barzakh as a technical lated. But how can the form into which
term (i~(ilii~), and in itself it is intelligible, He transmutes Himself be compared with
but it is only imagination. For, when you the form from which He transmutes Him-
perceive it and are intelligent, you will self? The form from which He transmutes
know that you have perceived an onto- Himself shares in annihilation.
logical thing (shay' wujiidl) upon which Everything other than the Essence of
your eyes have fallen. But you will know the Real is in the station of transmutation,
for certain by proofs that there is nothing speedy and slow. Everything other than
there in origin and root. So what is this the Essence of the Real is intervening
thing for which you have affirmed an on- imagination and vanishing shadow. No
tological thingness and from which you engendered thing remains in this world,
have negated that thingness in the state of the hereafter, and what is between the
your affirming it? two, neither spirit, nor soul, nor anything
Imagination is neither existent nor non- other than God-I mean the Essence of
existent, neither known nor unknown, God-upon a single state; rather, it un-
neither negated nor affirmed. For exam- dergoes continual change from form to
ple, a person perceives his form in a mir- form constantly and forever. And imagi-
ror. He knows for certain that he has per- nation is nothing but this .... So the cos-
ceived his form in one respect and he mos only became manifest within imagi-
knows for certain that he has not per- nation. It is imagined in itself. So it is it,
ceived his form in another respect. . . . and it is not it.
He cannot deny that he has seen his form, Among the things that confirm what
and he knows that his form is not in the we have mentioned is the verse, "You
mirror, nor is it between himself and the did not throw when you threw" (8:17).
mirror. . . . Hence he is neither a truth- Hence He negated the same thing that He
teller nor a liar in his words, "I saw my affirmed. In other words: You imagined
form, I did not see my form." (I 304.16) that you threw, but there is no doubt that
He threw. That is why He said "when
The cosmos is Nondelimited Imagi- you threw." Then He said: The throwing
nation since everything other than God is correct, "but God threw," that is: You
displays the properties of imagination. became manifest, 0 MuQ.ammad, in a
The continual creation and constant form of God. Hence your throwing hit
transformation of the cosmos are nothing the mark in a manner in which the throw-
if not the appearance of the reality of ing of no mortal man hits the mark. (II
He/not He. 313.12)

The reality of imagination is continual


change in every state and manifestation in
every form. There is no true existence Dreams
that does not accept change except God,
and there is nothing in verified Being (al-
wujiid al-mu~aqqaq) except God. As for ev- Like other authorities before him who
II8 erything other than He, that dwells in im- spoke of imagination, Ibn al-'Arabi often
Cosmic Imagination

cites dreams as the most common human collections have chapters dedicated to
experience of the nature of imaginal "interpretation" and "dream-visions"
things. In dreams we see things that are (ru'ya). In one hadith that Ibn al-'Arabi
not things. We can say to someone, "I frequently quotes, the Prophet said, "In a
saw you in a dream last night," knowing dream I was given a cup of milk, so I
full well that the statement is not com- drank it until I saw that even my fin-
pletely true nor completely false. What gertips were quenched. Then I gave the
we saw was both the person and not the rest to 'Umar." When asked to interpret
person; it was our own self and not our the dream, he replied, "Knowledge. " 6
own self. It was both this and that, or
neither this nor that. Dreams are in fact a Through the science of interpretation a
God-given key to unlock the mystery of person comes to know what is meant by
cosmic ambiguity and the constant trans- the forms of images when they are dis-
mutation of existence. The new creation played to him and when sense perception
is never more clearly witnessed than in causes them to rise in his imagination
the world of dreams. during sleep, wakefulness, absence, or
annihilation. (II 152.5)
Reporting (ikhbar) about things is called
The only reason God placed sleep in the "expression" ('ibara) and interpreting
animate world (a/-'a/am al-~ayawanl) was dreams is called "interpretation" (ta'blr).
so that everyone might witness the Pres- This is because the expresser/interpreter
ence of Imagination and know that there "crosses over" ('ubur) by means of what
is another world similar to the sensory he says. In other words, by means of his
world. Through the speed of the trans- words he passes (jawaz) from the presence
mutation of the imaginal form He calls (~a4ra) of his own self to the self of the
the attention of intelligent dreamers to the listener. Hence he transfers his words
fact that in the sensory world of fixed en- from imagination to imagination, since
gendered existence there are transmuta- the listener imagines to the extent of his
tions at every instant, even though the understanding. Imagination may or may
eyes and the senses do not perceive them, not coincide (ta(abuq) with imagination,
except in speech and movement. In other that is, the imagination of the speaker
than these two kinds, people do not per- with that of the listener. If it coincides,
ceive the form of the transmutations and this is called his "understanding" (fahm); if
changes except through insight (ba~lra), it does not coincide, he has not under-
that is, unveiling, or through sound re- stood .... We only make this allusion to
flection upon some of these forms, since call attention to the tremendousness of
reflection falls short of [perceiving] them imagination's level, for it is the Absolute
all. (III 198.23) Ruler (al-~akim al-mu{laq) over known
things. (III 454.1)
People know that dreams need inter-
pretation (ta'bir). The word ta'blr derives When the nature of the cosmos is
from the root '.b.r., which signifies truly "verified" (ta~qlq), the knower sees
"crossing over," hence, to traverse, to it to be a form of imagination, in need of
ford, to pass. The interpreter (mu'abbir) is interpretation like a dream. Among the
he who passes from the sensory form of traditional texts that Ibn al-'Arabi cites to
the dream to the meaning which has put support this point is the well known
on the clothing of form. From the same saying, usually attributed to the Prophet,
root we have '"ibara" or "[verbal] expres- "People are asleep, and when they die,
sion," which is a passage from under- they awake. " 7 This of course is a gloss
standing to exposition. on the Koranic verse, "[On the Day of
The Muslims have always considered Resurrection] every soul will come,
dream interpretation an important sci- along with it a driver and a witness: 'You
ence. It is mentioned as a prophetic sci- were heedless of this, so We have now
ence in the Koran, and the Prophet him- unveiled from you your covering and
self used to practice it, so several Hadith your sight today is piercing"' (50:22). II9
Ontology

Ibn al-'Arabi refers to some of these treasuries, because of the perfection of


points in a short discussion of sleep in life, and imperfect treasuries, as in the
Chapter 188 of the Futii~iit on the station case of a man born blind, since the forms
of "dreams" (ru'yii). of colors are not transferred into the trea-
sury of imagination; or the case of a man
born deaf, since the form of sounds and
Dreams have a place, a locus, and a verbal letters are not transferred into his
state. Their state is sleep (nawm), which is imagination's treasury ....
an absence from manifest sensory things Moreover, God discloses Himself
that produces ease (rii~a) because of the within this Treasury in the forms and at-
weariness (ta'b) which overcomes the soul tributes of Nature, as in the Prophet's
in this plane in the state of wakefulness words, "I saw my Lord in the form of a
because of motion, even if the motion is youth."• ...
in pursuit of its own inclination. God I call this state a "transferal" because
says, "We appointed your sleep for a rest" meanings are transferred from their disen-
(Koran 78:9); in other words, We ap- gagement (tajrfd) from substrata into a
pointed sleep for you as an ease in which state of being clothed in substrata, like the
souls can relax. manifestation of the Real in the forms of
Sleep is of two kinds. One is a trans- corporeal bodies, or of knowledge in the
feral (intiqiil) within which there is a cer- form of milk, or similar things ....
tain amount of rest, or the reaching of Dreams are interpreted, but that which
individual desire, or an increase of wear- is perceived by sense perception is not in-
iness. The second kind is only rest. It is terpreted. However, when man ascends
the pure and correct sleep concerning in the degrees of gnosis, he will come to
which God said that He appointed it as a know through both faith and unveiling
rest for the weariness which reaches the that he is a dreamer in the state of ordi-
bodily instruments, organs, and parts in nary wakefulness and that the situation in
the state of wakefulness. God made night which he dwells is a dream. That is why
its time, even if it takes place in the day- God mentions various things which hap-
time, just as He appointed the daytime for pen in manifest sense perception. Then
livelihood, even if it is acquired at night. • He says, "So take heed [literally, "pass
But the property belongs to that which beyond"]!" (Koran 59:2); and He says,
dominates. "Surely in that there is a 'lesson' [literally,
As for the sleep which is transferal, that "passage"]" (3:13). He says: Cross over
is the kind within which there are dreams. and pass beyond that of it which has
The instruments [of the soul] are trans- become manifest to you and go to the
ferred from the manifest side (~iihir) of knowledge of its nonmanifest side and of
sense perception to its nonmanifest side the place from which it has come. The
(biitin) in order to see what has become es- Prophet said, "People are asleep, and
tablished in the Treasury of Imagination when they die they awake." But they are
(khiziinat al-khayiil)-to which the senses not aware. Hence we said "faith." ...
have lifted up what they have acquired All of existence is sleep and its wakeful-
from sensory objects-and what has been ness is sleep. So all of existence is ease,
formed by the form-giving faculty, which and ease is mercy, for mercy "embraces
is one of the assistants of this Treasury. all things" (7:156), and all things end up
Thus the rational soul, to which God has (ma'iil) in mercy . . . . Though there may
given ownership of this city [of the hu- be weariness along the way, it is a weari-
man being], looks upon what has been ness 1n ease. . . .
placed in its Treasury, as is the habit of Verification shows that the forms of
kings, who enter into their treasuries the cosmos-which belong to the Real
when they are alone to gain knowledge of in respect to the name the "Nonmani-
what is in them. fest"-are the forms of a dream to the
To the extent that the instruments Dreamer. The interpretation of the dream
(iiliit), which are the organs (iawiiri~), and is that those forms are His states, noth-
the assistants, which are the sensory facul- ing else. In the same way, the forms of a
ties, have been perfected, there will be dream are the states of the dreamer, noth-
120 storing away. Hence there are perfect ing else. Hence He sees only Himself.
Cosmic Imagination

This is [indicated by] His words, He "did necklace; to it the senses climb up, and to
not create the heavens, the earth, and it meanings descend, while it never leaves
what is between them except through the its place. (II 309.17)
Real" (30:8), and the Real is Himself. [Through imagination one perceives]
Hence he says concerning the gnostics, what is perceived in the Garden: "Its
"They know that God, He is the Evident fruits are . . . neither cut off, nor forbid-
Real" (24:25), that is, the Manifest Real, den" (Koran 56:33), even though people
for He is the One/Many (al-wii~id al- eat them, nor are they prohibited from
kathlr). that. So people eat them without their be-
He who takes heed of and passes be- ing cut off . . . , while the entity of the
yond (i'tibiir) dreams will see a formida- fruit remains on the tree. . . . Everything
ble thing. What he cannot perceive in of this sort that has come in the Book and
any other respect will become clear for the Sunna is accepted by the faithful and
him. That is why the Prophet, when he confirmed by the Folk of Unveiling. But
saw his companions in the morning, used the considerative thinkers (a~~iib al-na:?ar)
to say to them, "Has any of you seen a deny it; or, if they accept it, they accept it
dream?"'" For the dream is a kind of through a farfetched interpretation (ta'wll
prophecy (nubuwwa)." ... ba'ld), or by submitting themselves to
As for the locus of dreaming, that is Him who said it, since the speaker is God
this elemental plane; it has no other locus. or His messenger. But if something of
Angels do not dream, since dreaming be- this sort should become manifest to you
longs specifically to the animate elemental as an individual, they are ignorant of it
plane. Dreaming's locus in the divine and deny it, attributing it to the corrup-
knowledge is the transmutations in the tion (fasiid) of your imagination. Hence
forms of self-disclosure. So everything they admit what they deny, for they af-
within which we are the dream of the firm imagination and its corruption. But
Real dwells in the ease of the disappear- its corruption does not point to its nonex-
ance of fatigue and weariness, nothing istence. Its "corruption" is the fact that
else. it does not coincide with what is truly
As for the place, that is within the sound in their view.
sphere of the moon specifically; in the But in our view, it is indifferent
next world, it is in that which is within whether you call it "sound" or "corrupt."
the sphere of the fixed stars. . . . (II Its entity and the fact that the form dwells
378.24, 379.24, 380.4) in imagination have been established. So
let it be sound or corrupt- I do not care.
Our goal is only to establish the existence
of imagination. We are not trying to
The Manifestation of the Impossible show the soundness or corruption of
what becomes manifest within it.
Hence it has been established that imag-
Understanding imagination is the key ination possesses a governing property
to various kinds of knowledge that are (~ukm) in every mode and over every
normally hidden from our rational state, the sensory and the intelligible,
minds, since imagination is able to com- senses and rational faculties, forms and
bine opposites and contradictions. For meanings, the temporally originated and
example, only imagination provides the the eternal, the impossible, the possible,
and the Necessary.
means to grasp the meaning of the re-
He who does not know the level of
vealed reports concerning life after death, imagination has no true knowledge what-
reports which are full of logically impos- soever. If this pillar of true knowledge has
sible occurrences. not been actualized by the knowers, they
have not a whiff of true knowledge. (II
After knowledge of the divine names 312.23, 31)
and of self-disclosure and its all-embrac-
ingness, there is no knowledge more
complete [than knowledge of imagina- Ibn al-'Arabi devotes many passages
tion] ... , for it is the center-piece of the to demonstrating the all-comprehensive 121
Ontology

nature of imagination, the fact that it possible. As for sight, it perceives nothing
rules over all things. In one of the more but a wall. Hence we come to understand
interesting of these passages, he is ex- that the Lawgiver has addressed you in
plaining the nature of the Trumpet- order that you will imagine that you are
mentioned in ten Koranic verses-which facing God in your kibla, which accord-
will be blown by the angel Seraphiel on ing to the Law you must face in your
prayers. At the same time God says,
two different occasions. On the first oc- "Withersoever you turn, there is the face
casion it will cause everyone in the heav- of God" (2:115). The "face" of a thing is
ens and the earth to swoon, and on the its reality and entity. Hence imagination
second it will awaken them and gather has given form to that which, according
them all together for the accounting with to rational demonstration, cannot possi-
God. In a complicated analysis of the bly have form or assume forms (ta~aw­
imagery, Ibn al-'Arabi identifies the wur). Hence imagination is wide.
Trumpet itself with the World of Imagi- As for its narrowness, that is because
nation. Here only a few relevant sections imagination does not have the capacity to
from his discussion can be quoted. It will accept any affair, whether sensory, supra-
sensory (ma'nawl), relations, attributions,
be helpful to know that the word for the majesty of God, or His Essence, ex-
"Trumpet" is .fUr, which may also be cept through form. If imagination tried to
read .fuwar, in which case it is the plural perceive something in other than a form,
of the word "form" (.fiira). its reality would not allow that, since it is
nothing but fantasy (wahm). That is why
The Prophet was asked about the it has the greatest narrowness, for it can
Trumpet. He replied, "It is a horn of light never disengage meanings from substrata.
that Seraphiel has put to his mouth. " 12 Hence sense perception is the nearest
Hence he gave news that it has the shape thing to imagination, since imagination
of a horn, so he described it by wideness takes forms from sense perception, then it
(sa'a) and narrowness (4fq), since a horn is discloses meanings through those sensory
wide and narrow. . . . forms. This derives from its narrowness.
You should know that the wideness of It is narrow in order that nothing may be
this horn is exceedingly wide. There is described by lack of delimitation, by non-
nothing among the engendered things delimitation in existence, and by "He per-
that is wider. That is because it exercises forms whatsoever He desires" (11:107)
its properties through its reality over except God alone, about whom it is said,
every thing and non-thing. It gives form "Nothing is like Him" (42:11).
to absolute nonexistence, the impossible Imagination is the widest known thing.
(mu~ii/), the Necessary, and possibility. It Yet in spite of this tremendous wideness
makes existence nonexistent and nonex- by which it exercises its properties over
istence existent. Concerning it, or rather all things, it is incapable of receiving
in respect to this presence, the Prophet meanings disengaged from substrata as
said, "Worship God as if you see Him" they are in themselves. That is why it sees
and "God is in the kibla of him who per- knowledge in the form of milk, honey,
forms the prayer. " 13 In other words: wine, and pearls. It sees Islam in the form
Imagine that He is in your kibla and that of a dome and a pillar. It sees the Koran
you are facing Him, so that you will at- in the form of butter and honey. It sees
tend to Him, have shame before Him, religion in the form of a cord. It sees the
and observe courtesy in your prayer. For Real in the form of a human being or a
if you do not do these things, you will light. 14 Hence it is the wide/narrow,
not have observed courtesy. while God is the "Wide" absolutely, the
Had the Lawgiver not known that you Knower of that in which He creates His
have a reality known as "imagination" creatures ....
which possesses this property, he would As for the fact that the "horn" is of
not have said to you "as ifyou see Him" "light," that is because light is the cause
with your eyes. For rational demonstra- of unveiling and manifestation. Without
tion prevents the "as if," since it declares light, eyesight would perceive nothing.
122 through its proofs that similarity is im- Hence God made imagination a light
Cosmic Imagination

through which the assumption of forms thing He created was wide, the part
by all things-whatever it might be, as which is fixed to the animal's head.
we said-may be perceived. Its light pen- There is no doubt that the Presence of
etrates into sheer nonexistence and gives Acts and engendered things is wide. That
it the form of an existence. Hence imagi- is why the knower has no wideness in his
nation is more worthy to be called "light" knowledge except to the extent of what
than all other creatures described by lumi- he knows of the cosmos. Then, when he
nosity. Its light does not resemble other wants to pass on to knowledge of the
lights, and through it self-disclosures are Unity of God, he never ceases ascending
perceived. This is the light of the eye of from wideness toward narrowness, little
imagination, not the light of the eye of by little. The higher he ascends in knowl-
sense perception. So understand! For this edge of the Essence of the Real through
will benefit you by giving you the knowl- unveiling, the fewer his sciences become.
edge of the fact that imagination is a Finally there remains no object of knowl-
light, and you will know that imagina- edge but the Real alone. This is the nar-
tion hits the mark [and thus you will be rowest of what there is in the horn. So in
distinguished) from him who does not reality, the horn's narrow part is the
know. highest, and within it there is complete
He who does not know is the one who excellence. This is the first thing that ap-
says, "This is corrupt imagination." That pears of the horn when God causes it to
is because this person lacks the knowledge grow up from the head of the animal. It
to perceive the imaginal light which God never ceases to go up in the form of its
has given to him. In the same way, this narrowness, while its bottom becomes
person accuses sense perception of miss- wider. Hence the tip never changes in its
ing the mark in some of its perceptions, state; it is the first creation. (I 306. 3)
but its perception is correct, since the The barzakh is the widest of presences
judgment belongs to something else [i.e., and the Meeting Place of the Two Seas
the rational faculty), not to it. That which (Koran 18:60)-the Sea of Meanings and
judges misses the mark, not sense percep- the Sea of Sensory Things. The sensory
tion. Imagination is the same way: It per- thing cannot be a meaning, nor can the
ceives through its light what it perceives, meaning be a sensory thing. But the Pres-
but it has no judgment. The judgment be- ence of Imagination-which we have
longs to something else, that is, the ratio- called the Meeting Place of the Two Seas
nal faculty. Hence missing the mark can- -embodies meanings and subtilizes the
not be attributed to imagination, for there sensory thing. It transforms the entity of
is no corrupt imagination whatsoever; on every object of knowledge in the viewer's
the contrary, all of it is sound. eye. So it is the self-ruling ruler (al-~iikim
As for our companions, they have been al-muta~akkim), that which rules and is
mistaken concerning this horn. Most of not ruled over, even though it is a cre-
the rational thinkers have made its nar- ation. (III 361.5)
rowest part the center, while its highest
[and widest) part they have made the Su- According to the principles of Peripa-
preme Sphere, above which there is no tetic philosophy, the "impossible" (mu-
sphere. They have held that the forms ~iil} cannot come into existence, in con-
which it contains are the forms of the cos- trast to the "possible," which may or
mos. Hence they have made the widest may not come into existence, and the
part of the horn the highest part of the Necessary, which cannot not exist. But
cosmos, and the narrowest part the low-
est part of the cosmos. But the situation is
"imagination" is a domain in which con-
not as they have supposed. On the con- traries meet and impossible things take
trary, since imagination-as we have place. The rational faculty holds to the
said-gives form to the Real and to ev- principles of its philosophy, but imagina-
erything in the cosmos below Him, even tion observes contradictory and mutually
nonexistence, its highest part is narrow, exclusive things actually occurring.
while its lowest part is wide. This is how
God created it, for the first thing He cre- In reality imagination is one of the
ated from it was narrow, and the last presences of sense perception, since it 123
Ontology

Joms meanings to sensory forms. Hence his home and he sees himself in his ordi-
the impossible is imagined as a sensory nary form in another city and another sit-
thing and it comes into existence in the uation contrary to his own situation. Yet,
hereafter, or wherever God desires, as a for him who recognizes the situation of
sensory thing. That is why this takes existence as it is, that is he, nothing else.
place in the "here-after" (al-iikhira) not the Were it not for the trace of imagination,
"here-before" (al-ulii), for imagination rational thinkers would not be able to
stands in a degree which is posterior to "suppose the impossible" (farq al-mu~iil)
sense perception, since it takes the forms when seeking a proof for something. For
with which it clothes the impossible and if the impossible did not receive existence
other things from sense perception. in some presence, it could not be sup-
Hence, wherever it is found, it is only posed or presumed. (II 312.4)
found in the "here-after." So pay heed! Sleep is a state in which the servant
Which faculty is more tremendous than passes from the witnessing of the world
that which makes the thing which cannot of sense perception to the world of the
possibly exist into an existent sensory barzakh, which is the most perfect world.
thing which can be seen? For example, a There is no world more perfect, since it is
corporeal body exists simultaneously in the root of the origin of the cosmos; it
two places. Just as this is imagined here, possesses true existence and controlling
so it happens likewise in sense perception rule (ta~akkum) in all affairs. It embodies
in the hereafter. . . . meanings and changes that which does
The levels have interpenetrated, and the not subsist (qii'im) in itself into that which
impossible thing has been made into the does subsist in itself. It gives form to that
possible thing, that is, joined to its level, which has no form. It turns the impossi-
while the possible thing has become ble into the possible. It exercises free dis-
joined to the level of the impossible thing. posal in affairs as it wills.
The reason for this is the penetration of Since imagination possesses such non-
the Real into creation and creation into delimitation, though it is a creature cre-
the Real through self-disclosure in the ated by God, what do you think about
divine and engendered names. So the sit- the Creator who created it and gave it this
uation is the Real in one respect, creation capacity? How can you wish to judge that
in another respect, in each and every God is delimited and say that God is not
engendered thing. The Divine Presence capable of doing the impossible? Yet you
comprehends the property of the Real in witness in yourself imagination's power
creation and creation in the Real. (IV over the impossible, though imagination
282.18) is one of God's creatures. You do not
How wide is the Presence of Imagina- doubt what you see when imagination
tion! Within it becomes manifest the exis- embodies meanings for you, showing
tence of the impossible thing. Or rather, them to you as self-subsistent individuals.
nothing becomes manifest within it in In the same way God will bring the
verification except the existence of the works of the children of Adam [on the
impossible thing. For the Necessary Be- Day of Resurrection], even though they
ing-who is God-does not receive are accidents (a'rii4), as self-subsistent
forms, yet He becomes manifest in forms forms placed in the Scale to establish jus-
in this presence. Thereby impossible exis- tice. 15 He will bring death, even though
tence has received existence in this pres- it is a relationship-farther than the acci-
ence. Within it corporeal bodies are seen dent from embodiment- "in the form of
in two places, as Adam saw himself out- a salt-colored ram. " 16 Here He means
side the hand of the Real. Yet, when the that it is extremely clear, so He described
Real opened His hand, Adam and his seed it as "salt-colored," that is, white. Then
were within it. So he was in the hand, all the people will recognize it. So this is
and he himself was outside the hand. In an impossible thing decreed. So where is
such a way this presence receives only the the judgment of the rational faculty about
existence of impossible things. God and the corruption of its interpreta-
In the same way a person is sleeping in tion (ta'wll)? (II 183.8)

124
The Supreme Barzakh

8. THE S UP R EM E B A R Z A K H

Being is one and changeless, while the by negating the air the Prophet showed
existent things never remain still for an that nothing controls the Cloud other
instant. The source of this constant agita·· than God, "since it is the nearest of exis-
tion must be sought in the relationship tent things to God" (II 310.24). The "be-
between God and nothingness, a rela- fore" mentioned in the hadith has noth-
tionship which is made possible by the ing to do with time, but is employed to
barzakh which stands between the two. get a point across (taw~i"l). "It denotes a
To differentiate this "Supreme Barzakh" relationship (nisba) through which the
(al-barzakh al-a'lti) or "Barzakh of Bar- listener will be able to understand" (I
zakhs" (III 46.31) from the barzakh which 148.18).
lies between the world of the spirits and This hadith is normally translated,
the world of corporeal bodies and which "He was in a cloud," but Ibn al-'Arabi
corresponds to the soul in the micro- makes clear that "He came to be" - a
cosm, we will refer to it simply as the meaning equally allowable by the Arabic
Barzakh. -is how he understands it. He tells us
The Barzakh is known by many that there are five instances in which God
names, one of which-"Nondelimited "comes to be" (kaynuna) according to the
Imagination"- has already been dis- Koran and the Hadith.
cussed in some detail. Others include the
Cloud, the Breath of the All-merciful, (1) Coming to be in the Cloud, which
the Real Through Whom Creation Takes is what we just mentioned; (2) coming to
Place, the Universal Reality, Nature, and be in the Throne, as indicated by His
the Reality of the Perfect Man. These are words, "The All-merciful sat upon the
not exact synonyms, since each is em- Throne" (Koran 20:5); (3) coming to be in
ployed within a specific context and does the heaven, as indicated by the words,
not necessarily overlap with the others in "Our Lord descends each night to the
all cases. heaven of this world";' (4) coming to be
in the earth, as in His words, "He is God
in the heavens and the earth" (6:3); and (5)
an all-inclusive coming to be, since He
is with the existent things in all their lev-
The Cloud els wherever they might come to be, as
He explained in relation to us with His
words, "He is with you wherever you
The Prophet was asked, "Where (ayn) come to be" (57:4). All of these are rela-
did our Lord come to be (kiin) before He tionships in keeping with His majesty,
created the creatures (khalq) ?" He replied, without asking "how" (takyif), without
"He came to be in a cloud, neither above declaring Him similar (tashblh), and with-
which nor below which was any air out conceptualization (ta~awwur). (II
(hawii'). " 1 Ibn al-'Arabi explains that the 310.6)
word 'amii' means a thin cloud sur-
rounded by air. By describing the Cloud Within the Cloud the cosmos in its
in this fashion, the Prophet informed his entirety takes shape. The Cloud is Non-
listeners that it is different from any delimited Imagination, since it gives
cloud they have seen or heard described. form (ta~wi"r) to all engendered things
"He negated the air so that they would (ka'iniit). Every existent thing becomes
know that it is not similar [to ordinary manifest within it, so it is called God's
clouds] in every respect" (II 310.5). Nor- "Manifest" in the words, "He is the First
mally clouds are pushed this way and and the Last, the Manifest and the Non-
that by the air that surrounds them, but manifest" (Koran 57:3, II 310.12-15). 125
Ontology

Though Ibn al-'Arabi usually maintains meanings without form come to be seen
that the the Cloud is identical with the in the clothing of forms.
Breath of the All-merciful, sometimes, as
in the following passage, he distinguishes The Cloud is the Barzakh standing be-
between the two and says that the Cloud tween meanings-which have no entities
comes into existence through the Breath. in existence-and luminous corporeal
bodies and Nature. 4 Take, for example,
[the meanings] "knowledge" and "move-
Contiguous imagination derives from
ment," the first within souls and the sec-
one of the faces of Nondelimited Imagi-
ond within corporeal bodies. The mean-
nation, which is the All-comprehensive
ings become corporealized in the Presence
Presence and the All-inclusive Level. This
of Imagination, like knowledge in the
Cloud becomes configured within the
form of milk. In the same way, relation-
Breath of the All-merciful, inasmuch as
ships become entified, even though they
the All-merciful is a god, not inasmuch as
have no entities, whether in the soul or in
He is only All-merciful. All existent
corporeal bodies. Thus a thing's "con-
things become manifest within the Cloud
stancy" is a relationship in terms of that
through "Be!", or one hand, or two
which is constant within the thing, but
hands. 3 In contrast, the Cloud itself be-
this constancy becomes manifest in the
comes manifest only through the Breath.
form of a sensory cord within the pres-
Were it not for the fact that the word
ence of contiguous imagination. 5 In the
"Breath" has come in the Law, we would
same way spirits become manifest in the
not have applied the term, though we
forms of bodies having shapes, such as
knew the reality.
Gabriel in the form of Di}:lya, or those an-
The root of the Breath is the property
gels which became manifest as dust on the
of love. Love has a movement (~araka)
Day of Badr. 6 All this takes place in dis-
within the lover, while "breath" is a
contiguous imagination. (II 311.12)
movement of yearning (shawq) toward the
object of love, and through that breathing
enjoyment is experienced. And God has In short, the Cloud is identical with
said, as has been reported, "I was a Treas- Nondelimited Imagination considered
ure but was not known, so I loved to be as the very substance within which all
known." Through this love, breathing things in the cosmos take shape. In mak-
takes place, so the Breath becomes mani- ing this point, Ibn al-'Arabi refers to the
fest, and the Cloud comes into being. (II hadith of God's self-transmutation on the
310.17). Day of Resurrection, when people con-
tinue to deny Him until He manifests
As the Barzakh, the Cloud stands be- Himself to them in a form which they
tween God and nothingness and shares in recogmze.
the attributes of both. Through the in-
termediary of the Barzakh, God takes on The Real is denied in one form and ac-
the attributes of the creatures, and they cepted in another; the Entity is one, but
become clothed in His qualities. God in the forms are diverse. This is exactly
His Essence remains incomparable, but what we mean by the diversity of forms,
He discloses Himself by means of the that is, the forms of the cosmos, within
Barzakh, thus being called similar. Hence the Cloud. In respect of being forms, the
the rational faculty is unable to grasp the forms are imaginalized things (mutakhay-
nature of the Barzakh without outside yalat), while the Cloud within which they
help, since on its own it can only per- become manifest is Imagination. . . . So
also is His self-disclosure to hearts and
ceive incomparability. To understand the within the entities of the possible things.
nature of the Barzakh, we have to fall He is the Manifest, and He is also the
back on imagination. Through the Bar- forms in accordance with what is be-
zakh, the immutable entities in God's stowed upon Him by the entities of the
knowledge are able to find existence in possible things through their prepared-
126 the cosmos, just as through imagination, nesses, such that He becomes manifest
The Supreme Barzakh

within them. The possible things are the the All-merciful" (nafas al-ral}man): "Do
Cloud, while the Manifest within the not curse the wind, for it derives from
Cloud is the Real. Hence the Cloud is the the Breath of the All-merciful!" "I find
Real Through Whom Creation Takes the Breath of the All-merciful coming to
Place. The diversity of the entities of the me from the direction of Yemen. " 8 He
possible things derives from their own
explains that in both cases the word nafas
immutability; they exercise properties
over Him who manifests Himself within alludes to a kind of tanfis (a word from
them. (II 311.33) the same root), which means to air, to
cheer up, to comfort, to relieve, to re-
The cosmos is a collection of "imag- move sorrow. 9 In the first hadith the
inalized" forms that take shape within Prophet is referring to the fact that wind
the Cloud. The Cloud -like all clouds is one of the means whereby God gives
-undergoes constant transformation in comfort and relief to His servants and in
its outward form, though its substance the second to the comfort certain of his
remains the same. Hence the term Companions gave to him in face of the
"Cloud," like the term "imagination," is opposition of his own family to his pro-
employed to call attention to the evanes- phetic mission.
cence of all created existence. The Shaykh compares the Breath of
the All-merciful to the human breath in
In the state of its existence the cosmos order to provide an analogy for the cre-
is nothing but the forms which the Cloud ative process. Each characteristic of
receives and which become manifest breath becomes the starting point for the
within it. So the cosmos-if you look explanation of a dimension of the rela-
upon its reality-is nothing but a vanish- tionship between God and creation. Thus
ing accident, that is, its ruling property is breath is a vapor, relieves constriction in
its evanescence (zawal). This is shown by the breast, and is the vehicle for words;
His words, "Everything is annihilated ex- in the same way the Breath of the All-
cept its face" (28:88). The Prophet said,
merciful is a Cloud, relieves the constric-
"The truest verse sung by the Arabs is the
line of Labid, 'Is not everything other tion of the immutable entities (or the di-
than God unreal (ba(i/)?"' 7 In other vine names)-which desire to see the
words, other than God has no reality of outward manifestation of their proper-
its own through which it is fixed, since it ties-and is the vehicle for God's words,
exists through other than itself . . . which are the creatures. These ideas are
So the immutable substance (a/-jawhar all intertwined, but the third is most cen-
al-thabit) is the Cloud, which is nothing tral to the concept of God's Breath and is
other than the Breath of the All-merciful. closely connected to the imagery of
The cosmos is all the forms which be- Book, verses, words, and letters pro-
come manifest within it; so they are ac-
vided by the Koran.
cidents which may be made to vanish.
These forms are the possible things. Their
Each creature is a word (kalima) of
relationship to the Cloud is the relation- God. As Koranic proof for this point,
ship of the forms which the viewer sees in Ibn al-'Arabi often quotes the verse "The
a mirror to the mirror. The Real is the Messiah, Jesus son of Mary ... was His
sight (ba~ar) of the cosmos, so He is the word that He cast into Mary" (4:171) to
v1ewer. (III 443.8) show that a created thing may be called a
"word." In many other verses he finds
allusions to the idea that all things are
God's words, especially the verse already
The Breath of the All-mercifol quoted, "Though all the trees in the earth
were pens, and the sea-seven seas after
it to replenish it-[were ink,] yet would
Ibn al-'Arabi quotes two hadiths as the words of God not be spent" (31:27;
the source for the expression "Breath of cf. 18:109). As Ibn al-'Arabi understands 127
Ontology

this verse, "The existent things are the describes this speech as the single word
words of God which are not spent" (II "Be!", yet this word is addressed to each
390.24), since the possible things are in- "thing" in the state of its nonexistence.
finite.
In one passage the Shaykh explains the God says, "Our only speech to a thing,
mutual love that exists between God and when We desire it" -here "Our speech"
the creatures in terms of vision (ru'ya) refers to the fact that He is a speaker (mu-
and audition (samii'). God's love for the takallim)-"is to say to it 'Be!'" (16:40).
creatures stems from His vision of them "Be!" is exactly what He speaks. Through
within Himself as identical with Himself. it that to which He says "Be!" becomes
Seeing them as the "Hidden Treasure," manifest. . . . Thereby the entities be-
come manifest within the Breath of the
"He loved to be known." The creature's
All-merciful, just as letters become mani-
love for God derives from hearing the fest within the human breath. The thing
word "Be!", which brings them into ex- that comes to be is a specific form, like a
istence. They are, in effect, identical with form painted upon wood. (II 401.29)
this word; each is the word "Be!" in a
specific form. The analogy between the letters that
take shape in the human breath and the
One of the characteristics of the Lover, All-merciful Breath provides the basis
should He possess form, is to breathe, for one of the Shaykh's major modes of
since in that breathing is found the enjoy- describing the cosmos. Just as the Arabic
ment of what is sought. The Breath alphabet has twenty-eight letters through
emerges from a root, which is Love for which the names of all things may be
the creatures, to whom He desired to
pronounced, so also the cosmos has
make Himself known, so that they might
know Him. Hence the Cloud comes to twenty-eight basic "letters" which com-
be; it is called the Real Through Whom bine to produce all created things. Each
Creation Takes Place. The Cloud is the letter of the alphabet issues from a par-
substance of the cosmos, so it receives all ticular point, known as the "place of
the forms, spirits, and natures of the cos- articulation" (makhraj), within the vocal
mos; it is a receptacle ad infinitum. This is apparatus. Depending on how the breath
the origin of His love for us. passes through the throat and mouth,
As for our love for Him, its origin is that is, which "place of articulation" is
audition, not vision. It is His words to employed, letters are produced which
us-while we were in the substance of
may be guttural, velar, palatal, dental,
the Cloud- "Be!" Hence the Cloud de-
rives from His breathing, while the forms labial, and so on. In the same way each
which are called the cosmos derive from letter/reality of the cosmos manifests
the word "Be!" So we are "His words Being in a specific mode different from
which are not spent." ... When we heard other modes. Each, therefore, is con-
His speech, while we were immutable in nected to a specific divine name. Here we
the substance of the Cloud, we were not cannot go into detail concerning this
able to keep back from existence. We be- cosmology; it will be sufficient for our
came forms within the substance of the purposes to be aware of the fundamental
Cloud. Through our manifestation within correspondence between the human and
the Cloud He gave us an existence be-
divine breaths.
longing to the Cloud. A thing whose
existence had been intelligible gained enti-
fied existence. This is the cause of the ori- From the Breath of the All-merciful be-
gin of our love for Him. (II 331.23) come manifest the letters of engendered
existence and the words of the cosmos in
accordance with the different levels of the
The existent things or words come places of articulation within the breath of
into existence within the Breath as the the human breather, for the human being
128 result of God's speech (qawl). The Koran is the most perfect of all configurations
The Supreme Barzakh

(nash' a) in the cosmos. These places of ar- tending from the heart to the mouth. The
ticulation are twenty-eight letters. Each manifestation of the letters in the path of
letter has a name which is determined by the breath and in words is similar to the
its own place of vocalization (maqta'). The manifestation of the cosmos from the
first of these letters is ha and the last is Cloud, which is the Real's All-merciful
wiiw. (II 394.21) Breath, within the ordained levels along
the supposed extension-not within a
The Shaykh analyzes the letters of the body-which is the Void filled by the
cosmos.
Arabic alphabet phonetically in some
Just as the first letter-the first of the
detail, showing in the process how each entities of the cosmos-which became
letter arises at a different point of vocal- manifest from this Breath came to be
ization and can thus be ranked in degree, when it sought to go out to the utmost
beginning with hii' at the deepest level limit, which is the end of the Void, so
of the breath and waw at the very end. also the utmost extension of the breath is
Between these two letters, which corre- at the lips.
spond to the First Intellect and the level The ha becomes manifest first and the
or utmost limit (ghaya) of each existent wiiw last. There is no intelligible letter be-
thing, all letters are articulated and all yond the wiiw. Hence the genera of the
cosmos are limited, but its individuals
things in the cosmos come into exis-
(ashkhii~) arc infinite in existence, for they
tence. 10 He summarizes his conclusions come into temporal being as long as the
in the following terms: secondary cause exists, and this cause
never comes to an end. Hence the bring-
The Real is the root of the One, ing into existence of the individuals of the
Unique Being, which does not accept species never comes to an end. (II 395.1)
number. Though He is One in Entity, He
is named Alive, Self-subsistent, Inaccessi- The places of articulation which de-
ble, Magnificent, Overbearing-ninety- termine and specify words correspond to
nine names for One Entity and many
the preparednesses of the immutable en-
properties. What is understood from
"Alive" is not what is understood from tities. In the process of becoming man-
the name Desiring, nor Powerful, nor Po- ifest, Being is colored by the properties
tent. So also it is with each letter of the of the entities. In the act of speaking, the
alphabet. human breath is defined by the various
The letters emerge from the breath of points of articulation. In bringing the
the human breather, who is the most per- cosmos into existence, the Breath of the
fect of configurations. Through him and All-merciful assumes the contours de-
his breath become manifest all the letters, fined by the immutable entities. The
for he is upon the Divine Form through "Breath" defines the dynamic interrela-
the Breath of the All-merciful and the
tionship between God as the Nonman-
manifestation of the letters of engendered
existence; so also is the domain of words. ifest (al-ba(in) and God as the Manifest
All these words are the human breath- (al-?ahir).
twenty-eight letters precisely, because the
entities of the divine words issue forth God described Himself as having a
from the All-merciful Breath as twenty- Breath. This is His emergence from the
eight words, each having many faces. Unseen and the manifestation of the let-
They issue from the Breath of the All- ters as the Visible. The letters are contain-
merciful, which is the Cloud within ers (;rarj) for meanings, while the mean-
which our Lord came to be before He cre- ings are the spirits of the letters. (III
ated the creatures. 95.19)
So the Cloud is like the human breath. The breath of the breather is none other
The manifestation of the cosmos when than the nonmanifest of the breather.
the Cloud extends into the Void in accor- Then the breath becomes manifest as the
dance with the levels of the engendered entities of letters and words. It does not
things is similar to the human breath ex- become manifest through anything super- 129
Ontology

added to the nonmanifest, so it is identical obligatory. There are servants whom it


with the nonmanifest. The preparedness embraces as a property of obligation, and
of the places of articulation to designate there are others whom it embraces as a
the letters within the breath is the same as property of gratuitous gift. But the root is
the preparedness of the immutable entities the divine gratuitous gift, bounty (al-fa41),
of the cosmos within the Breath of the and bestowal of blessing (al-in'iim), since
All-merciful. What becomes manifest is at first there was no engendered existence
the property determined by the prepared- to deserve it. Hence, the very manifesta-
ness of the cosmos, which is manifest tion of engendered existence derives from
within the Breath. That is why God said gratuitous gift. (III 93.25)
to His Prophet, "You did not throw
when you threw, but God threw" (8:17).
The Divine Breath is ascribed to the
. . . For the letters are not other than the
Breath, nor are they the same as the All-merciful because God embraces all
Breath; the word is not other than the let- things in respect of this name. Through
ters, nor is it the same as the letters. (II the Breath He brings all things into exis-
396.13, 27) tence. This all-inclusive mercy which be-
comes manifest through the Breath "pre-
cedes God's wrath," with important
eschatological consequences that have
already been mentioned: Since all things
Relief Through Mercy originate in this mercy, all return to it in
the end (bi'l- ma'al).
Mercy (ra~ma) can be divided into two
basic kinds, referred to in the formula, God attributed a Breath to Himself, as-
cribing it to the name "All-merciful,"
"In the name of God, the All-merciful
only to tell us-once our entities have be-
(al-ra~man), the All-compassionate (al-
come manifest and the messengers of this
ra~lm)." The terms All-merciful and All- affair have come to us-that mercy com-
compassionate both derive from the prises and includes all things and that all
word ra~ma. The first kind of mercy, people and creatures end up with mercy.
known as essential (dhatiyya) mercy or Nothing becomes manifest from the All-
the mercy of free gift (al-imtinan, al- merciful but objects of mercy (mar~um).
minna) is all-inclusive ('amma), since no (III 420.2)
existent thing is excluded from it. God
bestows it upon all creatures without dis- Mercy is rest, repose, and ease (rii~a).
tinction. "Existence itself is a mercy for By bringing the cosmos into existence,
every existent thing" (II 281.27). The God shows mercy toward all things. The
second kind, known as the mercy of ob- things in themselves are nonexistent, im-
ligation (wujiib) is specific (kha~~a), since mutable entities, unable to display their
its bestowal becomes obligatory for God properties because of their nonexistence.
only in the case of certain servants who Just as the names desire the outward
come to deserve it. Both kinds of mercy manifestation of their effects, so also the
are referred to in the Koranic verse, "My entities desire to display themselves. In
mercy [in the all-inclusive sense] em- fact, says the Shaykh, "Through the
braces all things, but I shall prescribe it Breath of the All-merciful God gave
[in the specific sense] for those who are relief (tanfis) to the divine names" (II
godfearing and pay the alms, and those 487.34).
who indeed have faith in Our signs,
those who follow the Messenger" (7: The cosmos issues from the Breath of
156). 11 the All-merciful because He relieved His
names of the lack of displaying effects
God says, "My mercy embraces all which they were finding in themselves.
130 things." It is either a gratuitous gift or (II 123.26)
The Supreme Barzakh

As long as the names-or the enti- and the cosmos comes to know Him as
ties-do not find the outward manifes- He desired. So the cosmos is identical
tation of their properties, they dwell in with mercy, nothing else. (II 437.20)
distress (karb). The Breath of the All-
merciful removes their distress. Ibn al-'Arabi discusses the Breath of
the All-merciful to demonstrate the mo-
Were it not for straitness (~araJ) and tive behind the creation of the cosmos
constriction (qfq}, the All-merciful Breath and the energizing power that makes the
would have no property. "Giving relief' cosmos undergo constant transforma-
is to eliminate straitness and constriction, tion. The analogy of God's Breath with
and nonexistence is identical with strait- the human breath provides a far-reaching
ness and constriction, since the nonexis- illustration of his whole metaphysics and
tent thing possesses the possibility of cosmology. The following passages tie
coming into existence. Hence, when the
possible thing knows its possibility while
much of the preceding chapter into the
in the state of nonexistence, it is dis- present context.
tressed, since it yearns for the existence
allowed by its reality in order to take its According to a hadith, which is sound
share of good (khayr). The All-merciful on the basis of unveiling but not estab-
relieves this straitness through His lished by way of transmission (naql), 13
Breath, since He brings the possible thing God said something like this: "I was a
into existence. Hence His "giving relief' Treasure but was not known. So I loved
is His elimination of the property of non- to be known, and I created the creatures
existence within the possible thing. Every and made Myself known to them. Then
existent except God is a possible thing they came to know Me." . . . We have
and therefore possesses this property. explained elsewhere that love attaches it-
The Breath of the All-merciful bestows self only to something that is nonexistent.
existence upon the forms of the possible The thing may come into existence, but it
things, just as the human breath bestows is nonexistent at the moment. 14 The cos-
existence upon letters. Hence the cosmos mos is a temporally originated thing,
is the words of God in respect to this while "God is, and nothing is with Him."
Breath, as He said, "His word that He He knew the cosmos through His knowl-
cast into Mary" (Koran 4:171), a word edge of Himself Hence He made mani-
which is the very entity of Jesus. God re- fest in engendered existence nothing other
ported that His words will not be spent, than what the engendered thing was in it-
so His creatures will never cease coming self It was as if the engendered thing
into existence and He will never cease be- were nonmanifest and became manifest
ing a Creator. (II 459.1) through the cosmos. The Breath of the
Through the All-merciful Breath God All-merciful made the cosmos manifest in
relieves every distress in His creatures. order to release the property of love and
The constriction which overtakes or is relieve what the Lover found in Himself
found by the cosmos stems from the fact So He knew Himself through witnessing
that the creatures' root lies in contraction in the Manifest, and He mentioned Him-
(qabqa). Everything contracted is con- self on the basis of knowledge in terms of
strained (ma~~ur), and everything con- that which He made manifest: This is His
strained is confined (ma~jur). But since mention of the Cloud which is attributed
man comes into existence upon the Di- to the Lord before He created the crea-
vine Form, he finds confinement intolera- tures. This is a mention of that which is
ble. So God relieves that in him through all-inclusive ('timm) and undifferentiated
this All-merciful Breath, inasmuch as His (mujmal). All the "words" of the cosmos
breathing is a property of the Love by are undifferentiated within this All-mer-
which He described Himself in the say- ciful Breath, while their differentiations
ing, "I loved to be known. " 12 God makes (tafo{il) are infinite. (II 399.28)
man manifest through the All-merciful God is described by Being, while
Breath. Hence this Divine Breathing is "nothing is with Him": No possible thing
identical with the existence of the cosmos, is described by existence. Rather, I say 13 I
Ontology
that the Real is Being/existence itself. ifest, and this is none other than the
This is the meaning of the saying of the Cloud, which is the name the Manifest,
Messenger of God, "God is, and nothing the All-merciful. (III 429.4)
is with Him." He says: God is an Existent
Being, but nothing of the cosmos is ex-
istent.
God Himself mentioned the origin of
this affair- I mean the manifestation of
The Real Through Whom
the cosmos in its [existent] entity. He said Creation Takes Place
that He loved to be known in order to
show munificence (jud) to the cosmos by
its knowing Him. But He knew that He The word ~aqq is a noun and adjective
could not be known in respect of His He- signifying truth, correctness, rightness,
ness, nor in the respect that He knows appropriateness, real, sound, valid, and
Himself. The only knowledge of Him so on. The term is employed in a wide
which the cosmos could actualize was that variety of contexts in the Koran, the
it know that He cannot be known. This Hadith, and the religious literature. In
much is called "knowledge," as was said
the present discussion, we will limit our-
by Abi.i Bakr: "Incapacity to attain com-
prehension is itself comprehension." For selves to its underlying ontological sense,
he knew that there is something in exis- which can be rendered as "real" or "truly
tence that is not known-that is, God- real."
and especially not by the existent things As pointed out earlier, Ibn al-'Arabi
in respect of the fact that they possess and many other Muslim authorities con-
nonexistent immutable entities coexten- sider the terms Allah and al-~aqq basically
sive (musiiwiq) with the Necessary Being synonymous and employ them inter-
in eternity without beginning. In the changeably. Often Ibn al-'Arabi will use
same way they have an auditory connec- the term Allah rather than al-~aqq to call
tion in the state of immutability-not in
attention to the specific properties of the
existence-to the address of the Real
when He addresses them, and they have name Allah itself, rather than the Reality
the power to obey it. Likewise they have which is being named. Thus, for exam-
all the faculties, such as knowledge and ple, by mentioning the name Allah he
sight. They possess each of these as an may be stressing that it denotes God in-
immutable thing and a verified but not asmuch as He possesses all names, or in-
existential property.... asmuch as He must be conceived vis-a-
God is qualified by love for us, and vis the divine thrall (ma'liih) or the
love is a property that demands that he servant ('abd). In both these instances the
who is described by it be merciful toward Divinity rather than the Essence is taken
himself. Hence the breather finds ease in
into view, and in such discussions, al-
his breathing, for the breather's exhala-
~aqq may serve better to denote God as
tion of breath is the same as mercy to-
ward himself. So nothing emerges from such, as embracing both Essence and Di-
Him except the mercy "which embraces vinity. But the term al-~aqq itself often
all things" (7:156). It extends to the whole calls to mind its own contraries, al-khalq,
cosmos, that which is and that which has "creation" or "creatures," and al-biifil,
not yet come to be, ad infinitum. The "falsehood" or "unreal." When al-~aqq is
first form assumed by the Breath of the being used in such a context, then the
All-merciful was the Cloud. So it is an term Allah may better serve to designate
All-merciful Vapor within which there is God as such. In addition, the term ~aqq
mercy; or rather, it is mercy itself....
can be used as an equivalent to wujud in
Through and in the Cloud the cosmos
becomes manifest, for the cosmos cannot the ambivalent sense of Being/existence,
possibly become manifest as a property of whereas the name Allah is almost always
the Nonmanifest. Hence the Real must reserved for Being.
possess a manifestation through which the In order to clarify some of the usages
132 forms of the cosmos may become man- of the name al-~aqq, a few typical pas-
The Supreme Barzakh

sages can be quoted. In the first, the ifest. So existence is all Real. There is
word is used in contradistinction to cre- nothing of the unreal within it, since what
ation in exactly the same sense that Allah is understood from applying the word
is used in contradistinction to servant. unreal is nonexistence. (III 68.12)
Ibn al-'Arabi is discussing Independence
and poverty, which, as we have seen, In the fourth passage, Ibn al-'Arabi
correspond to the philosophical terms points to the paradoxical situation of all
Necessity and possibility. existent things- "everything other than
God" -in terms of the unreal and the
Independence and poverty can never be Real. Since the unreal is nonexistent, it
brought together. Hence poverty has no cannot exist, yet the world is full of the
station with God in His Being, nor does unreal, or that which is not God. In
Independence have any station with the other words, the cosmos is He/not He,
servant in his existence.... Poverty is an Real/unreal. But inasmuch as it exists, it
attribute of creation, and Independence is can only be Real, since the unreal does
an attribute of the Real. . . . Nothing not exist.
brings together the Real and creation. (II
654.24)
The unreal becomes manifest in the
In the second passage, al-~aqq is em- form of the Real. But the unreal is nonex-
istence. It has no existence, while the
ployed synonymously with Being (and form is existent, so it is Real. So where is
as we have seen repeatedly, "Being is Al- the entity of the unreal which became
lah"), while a distinction is made be- manifest, when the form is only Real? (III
tween wujud as Being and wujud as ex- 97.13)
istence, or uncreated and created wujiid.
In this context, Ibn al-'Arabi would not With some idea of the complexity of
use the term Allah, since one cannot the idea of "al-~aqq," we can turn to Ibn
speak of Allah as "created." al-'Arabi's usc of the term, the Real
Through Whom Creation Takes Place
Concerning the entities of the cosmos, (al-~aqq al-makhliiq bihi). He tells us that
it is said that they are neither identical he has taken the term from the writings
with the Real, nor other than the Real.
On the contrary, wujud is all Real. How-
of 'Abd al-Salam ibn Barrajan of Seville
ever, some of what is Real is described (d. 536/1141). 15 Ibn Barrajan in turn
as created, and some is described as not derived it from such Koranic verses as
created, while all of it is existent. (III "We created not the heavens and the
419.34) earth and all that between them is, in
play; We created them not save through
In the third passage, Ibn al-'Arabi is the Real, but most of them know it not"
discussing the properties of the "unreal" (44:38-39); "We created not the heavens
(al-ba(il), which is used as the opposite of and the earth, and what between them is,
al-~aqq in several Koranic verses, in par- save through the Real" (15:85). 16 In
ticular 17:81: "The Real has come and the most passages where Ibn al-'Arabi men-
unreal has vanished away; surely the tions this term, he merely provides it as
unreal is ever certain to vanish." As Ibn a synonym for the Cloud or the Breath
al-'Arabi points out elsewhere, "Al-Batil of the All-merciful. In a few passages
is the same as nonexistence, and its op- he provides brief definitions which arc
posite is al-~aqq" (II 129.23). worth noting.

There is nothing in existence save God, When the Real brought the cosmos into
His names, and His acts. He is the First in existence, He opened up His Form within
respect to the name Manifest, and He is the Cloud, which is the Breath of the All-
the Last in respect to the name Nonman- merciful, i.e., the Real through whom 133
Ontology

takes place the creation of the levels and (rutbat al-makiina), and the name of locus
entities of the cosmos. (II 391.33) (ma~all). There are none of the names ot
The Cloud is identical with the Breath God between the world of the earth and
of the All-merciful. It is a breathing the Cloud except the names of acts. (II
(najkh) in the Being of the Real, so 283.9)
through it creation takes shape (tashakkul)
within the Real. Hence it is the Real In the following passage, Ibn al-
through whom takes place the creation of 'Arabi summarizes the manifestation of
the forms of the cosmos which become the cosmos "through the Real" in a
manifest within it and the diversification
commentary on the particular type of
of the divine self-disclosure which appears
taw~ld or declaration of God's Unity that
within it. (II 313.24)
The Cloud is the Real through whom is expressed in a Koranic verse where the
takes place the creation of everything. It divine name Real is mentioned: "Then
is called the "Real" since it is identical high exalted be God, the King, the Real!
with the Breath, and the Breath is hidden There is no god but He, the Lord of the
within the Breather-for this is what noble Throne" (23:116).
one understands from "breath." Hence
the Breath has the property of the Non- This is the tawhfd of the Real, which is
manifest, but when it becomes manifest it the taw~ld of the He-ness. God says, "We
has the property of the Manifest. So it is created not the heavens and the earth and
the First in the Nonmanifest and the Last all that between them is, in play" (21:116,
in the Manifest, "and it has knowledge of 44:38). This is the same in meaning as His
everything" (Koran 57:3}, 17 for within it words, "What, do you think that We cre-
becomes manifest every named thing. ated you only for sport?" (23:115). Hence,
This includes both the nonexistent thing, "There is no god but He" [in the above
the existence of whose entity is possible, Koranic passage] is a description of the
and the nonexistent thing whose entity Real.
has been given existence. (II 310.25) That within which the existence of the
cosmos has become manifest is the Real;
In the next passage, Ibn al-'Arabi is it becomes manifest only within the
again explaining that the Barzakh is an Breath of the All-merciful, which is the
intermediate reality where the "impos- Cloud. So it is the Real, the Lord of the
sible" takes place, since meanings, which Throne, who gave the Throne its all-en-
have no forms, assume forms within it. compassing shape, since it encompasses
all things. Hence the root within which
the forms of the cosmos became manifest
The Cloud is the seat of the name encompasses everything in the world of
"Lord" [who was "in it" before He cre- corporeal bodies. This is nothing other
ated the creatures], just as the Throne than the Real Through Whom Creation
is the seat of the All-merciful (Koran Takes Place. Through this receptivity, It
20:5). 18 The Cloud is the first thing [in is like a container within which comes out
the ontological hierarchy] concerning into the open (buriiz) the existence of ev-
which the question "Where?" can be erything it includes, layer upon layer, en-
posed. From it become manifest place- tity after entity, in a wise hierarchy (al-
occupying receptacles and levels. . . . tartfb al-~ikamf}. So It brings out into the
From it become manifest loci which re- open that which had been unseen within
ceive corporeal meanings in sensory and It in order to witness it. (II 415.18)
imaginal form. It is a noble existent,
whose meaning is the Real. It is the Real
through whom takes place the creation of
every existent other than the Real. It is
the meaning within which are immutably The Universal Reality
established and fixed the entities of the
possible things. It receives the reality
of "where," the containership of place The term "reality" (~aqlqa) is often
134 (?m:fiyyat al-makiin), the level of rank used as a synonym for entity. The "real-
The Supreme Barzakh

ity of a thing" is then the immutable en- answer that their reality is the Divine
tity of an existent thing, or the thing as it Essence Itself (al-dhat), which is dhat al-
is known by God. The properties of the asma', "possessor of the names." But
existent thing are determined by its own strictly speaking, the Essence is beyond
reality or immutable entity. We have knowledge or conceptualization, so this
seen that the divine names are referred to answer, though it may be true, does not
as "realities" and that they are the arche- provide us with any new way of looking
types of all created things. The "reality" at things. In fact, says Ibn al-'Arabi,
of human knowledge is the divine name the "Reality of Realities" (IJaqlqat al-
Knower, the reality of cosmic life is the IJaqa'iq)-also known as the "Universal
divine name Alive, and so on. If we con- Reality" (al-IJaqlqat al-kulliyya)-can be
sider the ninety-nine names of God as discussed and conceptualized. This doc-
the universal realities of the cosmos, then trine Ibn al-'Arabi claims as belonging
each immutable entity can be called a exclusively to the Sufis, though he does
particular reality. recognize that the Mu'tazilites had un-
One way of defining "reality" is to derstood something similar. 19
call it the nonmanifest dimension of Another question: Where are the
something that is manifest. The reality of realities of things? We have seen that
an existent thing is not what we see of it, the first thing about which "where-
but its immutable entity which is seen ness" can be posited is the Cloud, which
only by God and certain of His friends. was named in answer to the question,
And in considering the term reality "Where was our Lord before He created
(IJaqlqa), one must always keep in mind the creatures?" And the name "Lord"
thaf it is sometimes employed synony- demands the term "vassal." It can be
mously with "real," a word from the employed as a description of any divine
same root. name that calls for the existence of an
entity. Thus the Knower is the Lord, and
The Real is named the Manifest and the the known thing is its vassal, the Creator
Nonmanifest. . . . "Reality" is the mani- is the Lord and the created thing is its
festation of the attribute of the Real from vassal, the Powerful is the Lord and the
behind a veil, which is the attribute of the object of power is its vassal. A "reality"
servant. Once the veil of ignorance is by definition is a nonmanifest root which
lifted from the eye of insight, people see has a manifest branch, just as the Creator
that the attribute of the servant is identical is a nonmanifest root and the created
to the attribute of the Real. But in our thing is a manifest branch. Hence in this
view, the attribute of the servant is the sense of the term, a reality is a Lord,
Real Itself, not the attribute of the Real,
while the thing that manifests the reality
since the Manifest is a creature and the
Nonmanifest is Real, and the Nonmani-
in the cosmos is the vassal. According to
fest is the source (mansha') of the Mani- this perspective, the question asked from
fest. [In the same way] the limbs [of a the Prophet can be rephrased as follows:
person] follow and obey what the soul "Where were the realities before the
wants from them. The soul is nonmani- vassals were brought into existence?"
fest in entity but manifest in property, The answer is known: in the Cloud.
while the limb is manifest in property but Hence the Cloud is the Reality of Real-
has no nonmanifest [dimension of its ities, whereas the Divine Essence or He-
own], since it has no property [of its ness Itself, which cannot be conceived as
own]. (II 563.19)
the Lord of anything, is beyond the
Cloud.
If the realities of the existent things of
the cosmos are the immutable entities Lordship is the relationship (nisba) of
and the divine names, what is the reality the He-ness to ·an entity, but the He-ness
of the divine names? In one sense, we can in Itself does not require any relationship; 13 5
Ontology

rather the immutability of the entities de- inated. It is the manifestation of the divine
mands relationships with the He- realities and the lordly forms (al-~uwar
ness. (II 94.15) al-rabbiiniyya [ = the divine names])
within the immutable entities, which are
It is characteristic of a barzakh to stand described by possibility and which are the
between two stools. Is the Cloud God, loci of manifestation for the Real. But
or is it creation? Is it existent or is it non- none knows the relationship of this mani-
festation to this locus of manifestation ex-
existent? To these sorts of questions,
cept God. (II 103.28)
one has to answer equivocally, since
here we have the whole mystery of
Nondelimited Imagination: He/not He. In one passage Ibn al-'Arabi speaks of
Inasmuch as the Barzakh may be said to "the four objects of knowledge," the
embrace both the attributes of God and four basic concepts which embrace all
the attributes of creation, it is called that can be known. These are: (1) God
the Universal Reality, since it brings as Essence, though we cannot know
together all realities without exception. the Essence as such; (2) the cosmos as a
The Reality of Realities defines the whole, that is, everything other than
sphere of intelligibility of all things. God, the macrocosm; (3) the human
Through it the relationships are estab- being, in which all God's attributes are
lished without which nothing could be brought together in undifferentiated
known. It is not a separately existing mode, i.e., the microcosm; (4) the Uni-
thing-unlike God on the one hand or versal Reality, which brings together all
the cosmos on the other. Ibn al-'Arabi three of these realities. The Shaykh then
describes it as ma'qUl, "intelligible" or describes the Universal Reality:
"conceived of by reason ('aql)." This
means that we are able to conceive of it The Universal Reality belongs to both
even though it has no existence as such. the Real and the cosmos. It is described
neither by existence nor by nonexistence,
It exists only through the relationships
neither by temporal origination nor by
that are established between God and eternity. If the Eternal is described by it,
creation. After all, it possesses the attrib- it is eternal; if the temporally originated
utes of those things that it embraces, thing is described by it, it is temporally
which are the divine names and the im- originated. No object of knowledge,
mutable entities. As we have seen on whether eternal or temporally originated,
more than one occasion, neither names is known until this reality is known. But
nor entities are existent as such; they rep- this reality does not come into existence
resent relationships that are established until those things described by it come
between the Nonmanifest and the Mani- into existence. If something exists with-
out a precedent nonexistence, like the
fest. When we conceive of the totality of
Real and His attributes, one says that this
these relationships, we call it the "Uni- reality is an eternal existent, since the Real
versal Reality." is described by it. If something exists after
nonexistence, like the existence of every-
The Reality of Realities is neither exis- thing other than God, then this reality
tent nor nonexistent, neither temporally is temporally originated and existent
originated nor eternal, but eternal in the through something other than itself; then
eternal and temporally originated in the one says concerning it that it is tempo-
temporally originated. It is conceived of rally originated. In each existent thing it
by the rational faculty, but it does not ex- accords with its own reality, since it does
ist in its own essence. The same is the not accept division, since within it there is
case, for example, with the attribute of no "whole" or "part." One cannot attain
knowing, speaking, and so on. (Azal 9) to knowledge of it disengaged from
The Universal Reality becomes mani- form through a logical demonstration or a
fest in the Eternal as eternal and in tempo- proof. By this Reality the cosmos came
136 rally originated things as temporally orig- into existence through the Real. But this
The Supreme Barzakh

Reality is not existent, that the Real "Have you seen him who has taken his
should have brought us into existence caprice to be his god?" (25:43). "Who is
from an eternally existent thing and we further astray than he who follows his
should be called eternal. caprice without guidance from God?"
In the same order of things, you should (28:50). Caprice is an airiness and light-
know that this Reality is not described as
prior to the cosmos, nor is the cosmos de-
headedness that turns a person away
scribed as posterior to it. But it is the root from right guidance. In what follows Ibn
of all existent things. It is the root of sub- al-'Arabi employs the term ahwa, which
stance, the Sphere of Life (falak al-~ayat), is the plural of both "air" and "caprice,"
the Real Through Whom Creation Takes to bring out one of the implications of
Place, and so forth. It is the all-encom- the air mentioned in the hadith of the
passing intelligible sphere. If you say that Cloud. I translate the term as "airs,"
it is the cosmos, you are correct; that it is hoping to call to mind that a person who
not the cosmos, you are correct; that it is "puts on airs" is acting merely for the
the Real or not the Real, you arc correct.
sake of appearance and outward show,
It accepts all of that. At the same time it
becomes plural through the plurality of
not because the reality of things would
the individual things of the cosmos, and it demand it. That God should "put on
is declared incomparable through God's airs" is diametrically opposed to the idea
incomparability. (I 119.3) that He creates "through the Real."
The Reality of Realities possesses tem-
poral origination in the temporally origi- The Prophet said that our Lord is in a
nated thing and eternity in the Eternal. Cloud, neither above which nor below
This becomes manifest in the sharing which is any air. Thereby he declared
(ishtirak) of names. He has named you God incomparable with the idea that He
with what He has named Himself. But turns things about because of airs. He al-
He has not named you, rather [He has luded to that Being with a word which
named] the Universal Reality which denotes a cloud, which is the place where
brings together the Real and creation. So airs turn things about. Then he denied
[for example] you are the knower, and He that there should be any air above or be-
is the Knower. However, you are tempo- low that Cloud. Hence it possesses ever-
rally originated, so the attribution of lasting immutability. It is neither on air
knowledge to you is temporally origi- nor 1n a1r ....
nated, while He is Eternal, so the attribu- God described Himself among His
tion of knowledge to Him is eternal. But creatures with the words, "He governs
knowledge in itself is a single thing which the affair, He differentiates the signs"
has come to be qualified by the attribute (Koran 13:2). In the same way He said,
of him who is described by it. (IV "We turn about the signs" (6:105). He who
311.26) has no understanding imagines that God's
states undergo change. But He is high ex-
alted and far too holy for change. Rather,
In the following passage Ibn al-'Arabi the states change, but He docs not change
is discussing the symbolism of the Cloud, with them. For He rules over properties.
which he shows to be identical with the Nothing rules over Him. Hence the Law-
Universal Reality, though he does not giver mentioned [in this hadith] the at-
mention the latter by name. The word tribute of immutability which does not
for "air" (hawa) employed in the hadith accept change, for the hand of airs docs
of the Cloud is closely connected in ori- not turn about His signs, since the Cloud
gin and meaning to the word "caprice" does not accept airs.
This Cloud is that which we have men-
(hawii), which is a Koranic term signi-
tioned as eternal in the eternal and tempo-
fying the self-centered and ignorant will- rally originated in the temporally origi-
fulness of those who follow their own nated. This is like your words, or identi-
desires as another god, thus becoming cal with your words, concerning Being/
guilty of the only unforgivable sin, shirk, existence. When you attribute it to the
or "associating another reality with God." Real, you say it is Eternal, but when you 1 37
Ontology

attribute it to creation, you say that it is ship which is established between it and
temporally originated. So the Cloud inas- creation, that name becomes the reality
much as it is a description of the Real is of the creature to which it is related. The
a divine description (wasj iltihl), but in- one reality to which every real thing
asmuch as it is a description of the cos-
relates can only be the Universal Reality,
mos it is an engendered description (wasj
kiytinf). Its descriptions are diverse ac- which embraces all names and all entities.
cording to the diversity of the entities
which are described. The Universal Reality is the spirit of
God says concerning His beginning- every ~aqq. Should a ~aqq be empty of it,
less and eternal Speech, "There comes not it ceases to be a ~aqq. That is why the
to them a remembrance from their Lord Prophet said, "All ~aqqs have a reality."
temporally originated (mu~dath), [but In this saying he employs a word which,
they listen to it yet playing, diverted their when free of delimiting contexts, de-
hearts]" (21:2). Hence He described His mands all-inclusiveness (i~ti(a), that is, the
Speech as temporally originated, since it word "all." In the same way the concept
came down upon a temporally originated of knowledge, or life, or desire [includes
person, in respect to whom there origi- all knowledge, all life, all desire].
nated in time something which he did not In reality, the Universal Reality is a
know. So it is temporally originated for single intelligible thing (ma'qul). When a
him, without doubt. specific quality (amr) is attributed to it, it
As for this temporally originated thing: then possesses a name which comes into
Is it temporally originated in itself or not? temporal being (~uduth). Then when that
If we say that it is the attribute of the Real specific quality is attributed to an essence
of which His majesty is worthy, we will which is known to have existence, even
say that it is eternal, without doubt. For though its reality is not known, that spe-
He is far too exalted for temporally origi- cific quality is attributed to that determi-
nated attributes to subsist within Him. nate essence in accordance with what it
So the Speech of the Real is Eternal in it- requires. If that essence is described by
self and eternal in relationship to God, eternity, then this specific quality is de-
but also temporally originated, just as He scribed by eternity. If it is described by
said to him to whom He sent it down. In temporal origination, then the quality is
the same way, one of the faces of its eter- described by the same. But the quality in
nity, in respect to him to whom it is sent itself is not described by existence, since it
down, is its relationship to temporal orig- has no entity, nor by nonexistence, since
ination. This also demands that it possess it is an intelligible thing, nor by temporal
the attribute of eternity, since, were tem- origination, since the Eternal cannot be
poral origination to be removed from the described by that; it cannot be a locus for
created things, there could be no relation- temporally originated things. Nor is the
ship of eternity, nor could eternity be quality described by eternity, since the
conceived. The reason for this is that rela- temporally originated thing accepts de-
tionships which have opposites can only scription by the quality, and the temporal
be conceived through opposites. (II thing is not described by the eternal, nor
63.2) can the eternal dwell (~till) in the tempo-
ral. Hence it is neither eternal nor tempo-
Ibn al-'Arabi finds an allusion to the rally originated. If the temporally origi-
Universal Reality in the hadith, "All nated thing is described by it, it is named
~aqqs have a [single] reality." 20 Here by temporally originated, and if the eternal is
~aqq he seems to understand "real thing."
described by it, it is named eternal. It is
truly eternal in the eternal, and it is truly
If al-~aqq with the definite article is the temporally originated in the temporally
Real, then ~aqq without the article refers originated, since it stands opposite every-
to any manifestation of the Real. But the thing that becomes described by it in its
Real Itself is the Essence, beyond the own essence.
specification of any name. Once the Real For example, both the Real and the
is specified by a name, that is, a relation- creature are described by knowledge. It is
IJ8
The Supreme Barzakh

said concerning God's knowledge that it Nature


is eternal, since He who is described by it
is eternal. Hence His knowledge of the
things is eternal, without any beginning. Ibn al-'Arabi calls the Supreme Bar-
It is said concerning the knowledge of the
creature that it is temporally originated,
zakh by several other names, such as
for he who is described by it at first was the Reality of the Perfect Man and
not, and then he came to be. Hence his at- the Muhammadan Reality; these and
tributes are like himself: Their property other names call to mind related concepts
did not become manifest within him until which would take us far from the con-
after the existence of his entity. Hence his cerns of the present work. However, it
knowledge is temporally originated like will be fitting to conclude this section
himself. But knowledge in itself does not with a brief analysis of one more syn-
change from its own reality in relation to onym for the Supreme Barzakh, i.e.,
itsel£ In every essence it accords with its Nature. This term is fundamental to all
own reality and entity. But it has no exis-
tential entity except the entity of that
philosophical cosmology. By identifying
which it describes. So it remains in its the Barzakh and Nature, Ibn al-'Arabi
root: an intelligible thing, not an existent relates his cosmological teachings, which
thing. grow up from the various names which
The example of this in the sensory can be applied to the Barzakh, directly to
realm is whiteness in every white thing the philosophical tradition. By discussing
and blackness in every black thing. This is Nature here, we open a door to cosmol-
in the case of colors. The same holds true ogy as such, especially since Ibn al-'Arabi
in shapes: rectangularity in every rectan- gives the term two basic meanings, the
gular thing, roundness in every round second of which refers to a reality which
thing, octagonality in every octagon. The
shape keeps its own essence in every thing
is itself a barzakh between Nature as the
that has shape; it accords with the intelli- Supreme Barzakh and the things of the
gibility of its own reality. That which the cosmos. But to develop the concept in
senses perceive is only the thing which any detail would take us in the direction
has shape, not the shape, while the shape of analyzing Ibn al-'Arabi's visionary
is an intelligible concept. Were the thing cosmos in detail, and this is the task for
which has shape identical with the shape, another book.
shape could not become manifest in a The root (.b.'., from which the words
similarly shaped thing. But it is obvious tabla and tab' are derived, means to pro-
that the one thing possessing shape is not vide with an imprint, to impress, to
the same as the other.
These are similitudes struck for the uni-
mark with a seal or a special characteris-
versal realities by which the Real and the tic. Hence "nature" signifies the sum to-
creature are qualified. In the case of the tal of the peculiarities which are stamped
Real they are "names," and in the case of into something, that is, the thing's char-
the creature they are "engendered things" acteristics, character, temperament, or
(akwan). (II 432.16) constitution. The word tabla alludes
to the feminine side of a male/female,
When Ibn al-'Arabi discusses the active/receptive, or yang/yin relation-
Supreme Barzakh as Universal Reality or ship. To speak of tabla is to mention
Reality of Realities, he also refers to it an "impression" and at the same time
as the Third Thing (al-shay' al-thiilith). to point to a reality which has made
He divides things into three kinds: that the impression, a fact which is brought
which exists in itself (i.e., the Necessary home in the Koranic usage of the word
Being), that which exists through the tab', which refers to God's "sealing" the
other (i.e., everything other than God), hearts of the unbelievers. Hence, the
and the Third Thing, which is neither word calls to mind receptivity toward an
existent nor nonexistent. 21 activity coming from above. In this re-
139
Ontology

spect, the sense of tabla is not much dif- kubra; IV 150.15), who gives birth to all
ferent from "sign" (aya); to say that ev- things, though she herself is never seen.
erything in existence displays the "signs" She is the receptivity that allows the exis-
of God is to say that all "Nature" is re- tent things to become manifest.
ceptive toward God's creative command. When Nature is envisaged as that
Though Nature is viewed primarily as which is receptive to the First Intellect
receptivity, both activity (flliliyya) and working within the cosmos, then she
receptivity (qabiliyya)-or the quality of is the "second mother," the "daughter
being acted upon (infi'aliyya)-are mani- of the Greatest Nature" (al-tablat al-
fest through it, since the higher principle 'u:pna, III 420.34), and she makes her
that acts upon Nature possesses both ac- presence felt between the Universal Soul
tive and receptive dimensions. In other and the Dust. Her children are all the
words, though Nature is receptive to forms which become manifest from the
that which instills form into it, the forms Dust to the lowest level of existence.
that are instilled may be active or recep-
tive, male or female, yang or yin. More- Nature is absent in entity from exis-
tence, since it has no entity within exis-
over, Ibn al-'Arabi sometimes shifts the
tence, and from immutability, since it has
point of view from which he considers no entity there. Hence it is the Verified
Nature and sees it as an active instead of World of the Unseen ('iilam al-ghayb al-
a receptive principle. 22 mu~aqqaq). But Nature is known, just as
From one point of view Nature is the impossible (al-mu~iil) is known, ex-
darkness, since that which acts upon it is cept that, though Nature is like the im-
either God-through His command possible in having neither existence nor
(amr) or Word (kalima)-or the spirit, immutability, it has an effect and brings
and these are light. Yet, the Shaykh in- about the manifestation of forms. But the
sists that Nature at root is also a kind of impossible is not like that. (III 397.5)
There is nothing in existence but the
light, or else it could not begin to display
One/Many (al-wii~id al-kathlr). Within it
its properties in the spiritual world be- become manifest the enraptured angels,
tween the Universal Soul and the Dust the Intellect, the Soul, and Nature. 23 Na-
(Hyle or Prime Matter; II 647.34). He ture is more worthy to be attributed to
says that true darkness is the Unseen, the Real than anything else, since every-
since it is neither perceived, nor does thing else becomes manifest only in that
perception take place through it. But in which becomes manifest from Nature,
common experience we perceive dark- that is, the Breath, which permeates the
ness around us, which shows that "dark- cosmos. . . . So look at the all-inclu-
ness is a kind of light" (II 648.4); if it siveness of Nature's property! And look
at the inadequacy of the property of the
were not light, it could not be perceived.·
[First] Intellect, for in reality it is one of
Hence Nature also, though it may be the forms of Nature. Or rather, it is one
called darkness in relation to the Spirit of the forms of the Cloud, and the Cloud
which infuses it with life, is light in rela- is one of the forms ofNature.
tion to absolute nothingness. As for those who have placed Nature
When Nature is envisaged as that in a level below the Soul and above the
which is receptive toward the effects of the Hyle, this is because they have no wit-
divine names, it is synonymous with the nessing. If a person is a possessor of wit-
Cloud. Just as the Breath of the All- nessing and holds this view, he wants to
merciful becomes manifest through the refer to the Nature which becomes mani-
fest through its property in the trans-
letters and words which take shape
lucent corporeal bodies, that is, in the
within it, so Nature appears only Throne and what it surrounds. This sec-
through its effects on various levels of ond Nature is to the first as the daughter
the cosmos. In itself it remains forever is to the woman who is the mother; like
unseen. Nature is the "highest and her mother, she gives birth, even if she is
140 greatest mother" (al-umm al-'aliyat al- a daughter born from her. (III 420.15)
The Supreme Barzakh

Nature in relation to the Real is like woman, and he who knows the Divine
the female in relation to the male, since Command knows the level of the man
within it becomes manifest engendering, and the fact that the existence of all exis-
i.e., the engendering of everything other tent things other than God depends upon
than God. It is an intelligible reality. these two realities. (III 90.18,28)
When some people saw the power of
Nature's authority and did not know that The most specific properties of Nature
this power lies only in its reception to are the "four natures" (al-tabii'i' al-arba'a),
that which the Real engenders within it,
that is, heat, cold, wetness, and dryness.
they attributed and ascribed the engen-
dering to Nature itself. "They forgot"
Two of them are active and two recep-
God through Nature, "so He made them tive. Heat is active and its effects appear
forget themselves" (Koran 59: 19), since as dryness, while cold is active and dis-
He turned them away from the signs plays its activity as wetness (II 439.10).
(ayat) of their own souls. This is what is Heat is the secondary cause or root of the
meant by God's words, "I shall turn away existence of dryness, and coldness the
from My signs those who wax proud in root of wetness (I 122.25; Y 2,239.10).
the earth without the Real" (7:146) .... But all four natures are receptive in rela-
The Real possesses entified and intelli- tion to the Divine Command or the First
gible existence, while Nature possesses
Intellect; like Nature itself they are all
intelligible existence but not entified exis-
tence. Thereby creation's property may
mothers. "All of the natures are acted
stand between existence and nothingness. upon (infi'iil) in relation to that from
Creation accepts nonexistence in respect which they have emerged" (I 293.17).
of Nature and accepts existence from the Heat and cold as well as wetness and
side of the Real. Hence everything other dryness display opposition (ta#dd) and
than God is described by the reception of mutual aversion (taniifur). As a result,
both nonexistence and existence. . . . everything that displays the properties of
Were this not so, it would be impossible Nature-that is, everything other than
for an existent created thing to accept God-reflects this opposition and con-
nonexistence or a nonexistent thing to ac-
flict. The "Dispute of the Angels" is but
cept existence. In this manner you must
understand the realities; and there is no
an early result of the innate character-
way to do so except by not turning away istics of Nature.
from the signs . . . .
Nature possesses reception and the Real Know that subtlety (luif) cannot possi-
possesses bestowal (wahb) and the exercise bly turn into density (kathafa ), since re-
of effects (ta'thlr). Nature is the highest, alities do not change. But that which
greatest mother of the cosmos, of whom is subtle can become dense, like a hot
the cosmos never sees the entity, only thing which becomes cool, or a cold thing
the effects, just as it never sees anything which becomes hot.
of the Real but His effects, never His The spirits possess subtlety. When they
Entity. (IV 150.1,9) become embodied (tajassud) and are mani-
A woman in relation to a man is like fested in the form of corporeal bodies, they
Nature in relation to the Divine Com- become dense in the eye of him who looks
mand (al-amr al-ilaht), since the woman is upon them, for corporeal bodies, whether
the locus of the existence of the entities of or not they are translucent (shaffiif),Z 4 are
the children, just as Nature in relation to dense ....
the Divine Command is the locus of the The reason for the density of the spir-
manifestation of the entities of the corpo- its, even though they belong to the World
real bodies. Through it they are engen- of Subtlety, is that they were created from
dered and from it they become manifest. Nature. Though their bodies are made of
So there can be no Command without light, this is the light of Nature, like the
Nature and no Nature without Com- light of a lamp. That is why they accept
mand. Hence engendered existence de- density and become manifest within the
pends upon both .... He who knows the forms of dense bodies.
level of Nature knows the level of the In the same way, the property of Na- J4.I
Ontology

ture leaves the effect of conflict within the world of composition derive from its
them, since within Nature there is contra- Nature, which was mentioned by the an-
riety and opposition, and opposites and gels. The good which becomes manifest
contraries conflict with those who stand within it derives from its Divine Spirit,
opposite them. Such are the words of the which is light. Hence the angels spoke the
Messenger of God as related from him by truth. Therefore God said, "Whatever evil
God, "I had no knowledge of the higher visits you is from yourself' (Koran 4:79).
plenum when they disputed" (Koran Since the World of Creation is like this,
38:69). Hence God describes them as it is incumbent upon every rational per-
disputing. Through the reality which al- son to seek protection in this light. . . .
lows them to dispute they become em- All evils are ascribed to the W odd of
bodied within the forms of dense corpo- Creation, and all good is ascribed to the
real bodies. (II 472.10) World of Command. (II 575.25)
The spirits are all fathers, while Nature
is the Mother, since it is the locus of trans- Though everything other than God be-
mutations. (I 138.29) longs to the domain of Nature, there are
many degrees of existents, which means
From a certain point of view, the that Nature's luminosity is greatest at
lower Nature may be seen as the source the highest levels and decreases as we
of evil, since it is basically darkness in move down from the "subtle" toward
contradistinction to the light of the spirit. the "dense" levels of existence.
In the following passage Ibn al-'Arabi
refers to the angelic or spiritual world as The angel is more excellent than man in
the "World of Command" as opposed to worship, since it never flags, as is de-
the "World of Creation," that is, the manded by the reality of its plane. Its call-
Visible World. The name "World of ing God holy is inherent, since its glorifi-
Command" derives from many Koranic cation derives from a presence with Him
allusions, one of the most relevant being, who is glorified. The angel glorifies only
Him who brought it into existence. In its
"They [the angels] are honored servants
very essence it is purified of all heedless-
who precede Him not in speech and act ness. Its natural, luminous plane does not
according to His Command" (21:27). distract it from constant glorification of
its Creator, even though the angels, in re-
The world of creation and composition spect to their plane, dispute ....
(tarkib) requires evil (sharr) in its very es- Man is not given the power of the an-
sence, but the World of Command is a gel in this, since the mixture (mizaj) of
good (khayr) in which there is no evil. Nature is diverse in individuals. This is
That world saw man's creation and com- self-evident in the World of the Elements,
position from the mutually averse na- and even more so in the case of him who
tures. It knew that mutual aversion is has a closer relationship to Nature than
conflict (tanazu') and that conflict leads to the elements. To the extent that Nature's
corruption ({as ad). Hence it said [after various productions stand as intermedia-
God had created Adam and was about to ries between disengaged Nature and these
place him in the earth], "What, wilt Thou things which are produced from it, the
place therein one who will do corruption veil becomes more dense and the dark-
therein, and shed blood?" (Koran 2:30). nesses pile up. For example, how can the
. . . Then there occurred what the angels last human being existent from his Lord
had said. They saw that God said, "God in respect to the time when He created
loves not those who do corruption" (5: Adam's body with His two hands be
64), and "God loves not corruption" (2: compared to Adam? For Adam says, "My
205), so they disliked what God disliked Lord created me with His two hands."
and loved what God loved, but God's de- His son Seth says, "Between me and my
cree in creation followed the course de- Lord is my father." Such are the natural
termined by the Inaccessible, the All- existents in relation to Nature, whether
knowing. they be angel, celestial sphere, element,
I 42 The evils which became manifest within mineral, plant, animal, man, or the angel
The Supreme Barzakh

created from man's soul, which is the last He. The more we analyze it, the more
natural existent. 25 (II 109.6) puzzled we become. The desire for a
clear, logical, and totally coherent picture
Here we cut short our discussion of of the universe merely reflects the ig-
cosmology. If certain dimensions of the norance of the seeker. Ultimate Reality
in Itself cannot be known, and It "never
previou~ passages remain unclear, per-
haps this can be remedied on another repeats Itself' in Its self-disclosures.
occasion. But the exact status of the First So how can we constrict and define Its
Nature, the Supreme Barzakh as such, self-disclosures? Our highest and clearest
perception of It, as Ibn al-'Arabi fre-
can never be completely clarified. And
this follows from its reality. Discussing quently reminds us, is "the incapacity to
comprehend It," whether in Itself, or as
the Barzakh has led to a certain amount
of perplexity and bewilderment, since its It reveals Itself. How can we know the
reality of anything at all, given the fact
fundamental nature is imagination-
that both the existence and attributes of
intrinsic ambiguity. The more it is ana-
each thing go back to the One, who is
lyzed, the more confused the accounts
become. Part of the problem stems from unknowable?
But this does not mean that man should
our tendency to think in terms of logi-
give up searching for knowledge, since
~al conce~ts rather than analogies and
the explicit divine command is to pray,
Ima?es. Smce existence is an imaginal
"My Lord, increase me in knowledge!"
re~hty, reason can understand it only
~20:114). The de.ad end we reach in try-
~Ith the .help of analogies and compar-
mg to analyze thmgs through the rational
Isons wh1ch appeal to the imagination.
faculty should serve rather to alert us to
But imaginal realities cannot be pinned
the fact that there are other modes of
down. If you say the cosmos is He, I
knowing God and self. If "imagination"
have to reply that it is not He. And if
seems a shaky ground upon which to
you try to hold me to that, I will say yes
stand, this is because we have forgot-
and no. This is the whole mystery of
ten what must guide the imagination:
existence.
God's revelations. True and valid knowl-
edge of all things is in fact available,
Engendered being is only imagination, within limits, and these limits are set
yet in truth it is the Real. down by the revealed Laws. If Ibn al-
He who has understood this point 'Arabi constantly reminds us that reason
has grasped the mysteries of the Path. ~s incapabl~ o~ finding true knowledge on
(Fu~a~ 159)
Its own, this IS because he wants to point
to the firm handle provided by the Koran
What is the Barzakh? It is the cosmos and the Hadith. Hence we tum from Ibn
as revelation, the face of God manifested al-'Arabi's description of Reality to a
as existence. It is the reality of "Whither- concern far more basic to his writings:
soever you tum, there is the Face of God" How do we gain personal knowledge of
(2:115). Is it God? Yes and no. He/not the Real? How do we find God?

143
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4

Epistemology
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9. KNOWLEDGE AND THE KNOWER

Few concerns are as central to Islam as Knowledge and Knowledge


the search for knowledge ('ilm). In the
Koran God commands the Prophet,
by universal Muslim consent the most In contrast to many Sufis who empha-
knowledgeable of all human beings, to size love more than knowledge (albeit
pray, "My Lord, increase me in knowl- within the cognitive context of Islam),
edge!" (20:114). Muslims must imitate Ibn al-'Arabi approaches God primarily
him in this quest. "Are they equal," asks through knowing Him. In this respect he
the Koran, "those who know and those follows the path of most Muslim author-
who know not?" (39:9). The answer is ities. However, when the jurists, for ex-
self-evident. Hence, as the Prophet said, ample, speak of the "search for knowl-
"The search for knowledge is incumbent edge," they have in mind the learning of
upon every Muslim." 1 the details of God's Law. And when the
Both the form and content of Islam- proponents of Kalam (the Mutakallimun)
ic knowledge are epitomized by the or the Peripatetic philosophers search for
Shahada, the "witnessing" that defines knowledge, they employ reason ('aql) as
taw~!d, "There is no god but God." their primary tool, even if the former
Knowledge concerns itself first with emphasize the understanding of the Ko-
God. "Other than God" comes into the ranic revelation and the latter emphasize
picture only to the extent that one must the ability of reason to function in-
know the other in order to gain knowl- dependently of revelation. For Ibn al-
edge of God. In fact, of course, no 'Arabi, these kinds of knowledge are all
knowledge of God can be gained without useful and good, but they can become
intermediary, so "other than God" is as obstructions to gaining the most real and
important for knowledge, if not more useful of knowledges, which is taught by
important, than God Himself. But the God Himself.
other must be known with a view to- In any case, knowledge is one of the
ward God. All things must be taken back greatest goods and should always be
to the One, which is precisely the sense sought.
of the word taw~!d.
Epistemology

God never commanded His Prophet to knowledge is that acquired thing. Con-
seek increase of anything except knowl- ceiving of the reality of knowledge is ex-
edge, since all good (khayr) lies therein. tremely difficult. (I 91.19)
It is the greatest charismatic gift (kara-
ma). Idleness with knowledge is better Like other authors, Ibn al-'Arabi em-
than ignorance with good works .... By
ploys two words for knowledge, 'ilm and
knowledge I mean only knowledge of
God, of the next world, and of that which ma'rifa. Sometimes he distinguishes
is appropriate for this world, in relation- between them, but for the most part he
ship to that for which this world was cre- does not. The Koran ascribes only 'ilm to
ated and established. Then man's affairs God, never ma'rifa, so in the case of God,
will be "upon insight"' wherever he is, the latter term is rarely employed. When
and he will be ignorant of nothing in discussing knowledge as a human attri-
himself and his activities. bute, many Sufis placed ma'rifa at a
Knowledge is a divine attribute of all- higher stage than 'ilm, and in this context
encompassingness, so it is the most excel- it would be fair to translate the first as
lent bounty of God. Hence God said,
gnosis and the second as knowledge.
"[Then they found one of Our servants,
whom We had given mercy from Us],
Then ma'rifa is equivalent to the direct
and whom We had taught knowledge knowledge called unveiling, witnessing,
from Us" (18:65), that is, as a mercy from and tasting, about which a good deal will
Us. So knowledge derives from the mine be said in later chapters.
of mercy. (II 370.4) Ibn al-'Arabi often speaks of the
"gnostics" as the greatest friends of God,
Knowledge is the most all-encom- employing the term 'iirifon (plural of
passing of the divine attributes, which 'arif, from the same root as ma'rifa);
is to say that "God is Knower of all sometimes he accords an equal rank to
things" (Koran 4:176, 8:75, etc.). "Not the "knowers" 'ulamii' (plural of 'iilim,
a leaf falls, but He knows it" (6:59). from 'ilm), though he is more likely to
Nothing escapes His knowledge of employ the latter term for the exoteric
Himself or the other. "Our Lord em- scholars ('ulamii' al-rusum). It would be
braces all things in knowledge" (Koran possible to translate the two words con-
7:89). The only attribute said to have the sistently as "knowledge" ('ilm) and
same all-encompassing nature is mercy, "gnosis" (ma'rifa), but this would
which is practically identical with exis- make a distinction between them that
tence. 3 "Our Lord," say the angels in the is unwarranted in many contexts. When
Koran, "Thou embracest all things in appropriate, the distinction will be
mercy and knowledge" (40:7). drawn in translation, but otherwise
Knowledge cannot be defined in the "knowledge" will be used for both
sense of delineating its essential nature terms; when the context is particularly
and determining its bounds (~add), since significant, the Arabic term will be men-
it embraces all bounds. Nothing is more tioned in brackets. On occasion ma'rifa
luminous than knowledge to throw light will be translated as "true knowledge"
upon it. The seat of knowledge, for Ibn to indicate the specification which the
al-'Arabi as for other Muslim authorities term conveys. Often, particularly in
is the heart. ' verbal form, it can be rendered accu-
rately as "to recognize."
As in English, the word "knowledge"
Know-God confirm you-that knowl-
can mean either the act of knowing or
edge is for the heart to acquire (ta~~ll)
something (amr) as that thing is in itself, that which is known. This is especially
whether the thing is nonexistent or exis- the case when the plural is employed. On
tent. Knowledge is the attribute gained by these occasions it will often be more nat-
the heart through this acquisition. The ural to translate 'ilm as "science" and
knower is the heart, and the object of rna' rifa as "gnostic science." Sometimes
Knowledge & the Knower

'ilm is employed to refer to the well- faring (su/Uk) is ma'rifa, since it derives
known teachings of Islam or Sufism, from a verified unveiling which is not
in which case it may be translated as seized by obfuscation. This contrasts with
"doctrine." the knowledge which is actualized
Ibn al-'Arabi was perfectly aware that through reflective consideration (al-na?ar
al-jikrl), which is never safe from obfus-
various Sufis-not to speak of theolo-
cation and bewilderment, nor from rejec-
gians and philosophers-disagreed con- tion of that which leads to it. (II 297.33)
cerning the relationship between 'ilm and Our companions among the Folk of
ma'rifa. Though he tells us his own posi- Allah apply the name "gnostics" to the
tion in certain passages, he does not knowers (a/-'ulamii') of God, and they call
always hold to it. In the following he the knowledge of God by way of tasting
talks about the divergence of his "com- "gnosis." They define this station by its
panions" (a~~ab), that is, the great Sufis results and concomitants, which become
of Islamic history. 4 manifest through this attribute in its
possessor.
When Junayd was asked about gnosis
Our companions have disagreed concern- and the gnostic, he replied, "The water
ing the station of ma'rifa and the 'iirif and takes on the color of its cup." In other
the station of 'ilm and the 'ii/im. A group words, the gnostic assumes the character
maintain that the station of ma'rifa is traits of God, to the point where it seems
lordly (rabbiinl) and the station of 'ilm di-
as if he is He. He is not He, yet he is
vine (iliihl), including myself and the He. (II 316. 9)
Verifiers (al-mu~aqqiqun), like Sahl al-
Tustari, Abii Yazid, Ibn al-'Arif, and Abii The importance of practice in actualiz-
Madyan. 5 Another group maintain that ing certain "gnostic sciences" (ma'arif)
the station of ma'rifa is divine and the sta-
helps explain why knowledge with-
tion of 'ilm below it; I maintain that also,
since they mean by 'ilm what we mean by out practice is not true knowledge. Ibn
ma'rifa, and they mean by ma'rifa what we al-'Arabi provides a metaphysical ex-
mean by 'ilm. Hence the disagreement is planation for this point by saying that
verbal. ... We have spoken in great de- knowledge by itself pertains only to the
tail about the difference between ma'rifa domain of God as the Nonmanifest,
and 'ilm in Mawiiqi' al-nujum. There I ex- while knowledge along with practice
plained that when I asked the person who embraces the domains of both the Non-
maintains the superiority of the station of manifest and the Manifest. Hence it is
ma'rifa, he replied with that which the broader in scope and more perfect.
opponent replies concerning the station
of 'ilm. So the disagreement lies in the The rulings (a~kiim) revealed by the Law
names, not in the meaning.• (II 318.30) comprise certain gnostic sciences which
are not unveiled unless the rulings are put
At the beginning of the long chapter into practice. This is because the Manifest
on ma'rifa in the Futu~at, Ibn al-'Arabi has a stronger-that is to say, more in-
tells us that the Sufis who affirm ma'rifa's clusive (a'amm)-property than the Non-
superiority to 'ilm mean to say that it manifest, since the Manifest possesses the
station of both creation and the Real,
is a form of knowledge which can be while the Nonmanifest possesses the sta-
achieved only through spiritual practice, tion of the Real without creation. But
not by book learning or study with a in relation to Himself He is not Nonman-
teacher. It is the knowledge to which ifest, only Manifest. (II 533.2)
the Koran refers when it says, "Be god-
fearing, and God will teach you" (2:282):
The Usefolness of Knowledge
For the Tribe, ma'rifa is a path
(ma~ajja). Hence any knowledge which
can be actualized only through practice The Prophet used to pray, "I seek ref-
('amal), godfearingness (taqwii), and way- uge in God from a knowledge which has 149
Epistemology

no use (Iii yanfo')." 7 Useless knowledge of the palm. So through that striking God
is that which is disconnected from its gave him the knowledge he mentioned.
source and origin, i.e., from the Divine By this knowledge he means knowledge
Reality. Any knowledge outside of of God. Knowledge of other than God is
taw~ld leads away from God, not toward a waste of time (taqyl al-waqt), since God
created the cosmos only for knowledge of
Him. But knowledge within the context
Him. More specifically, this is the case
of taw~ld allows its possessor to grasp the with what is called "mankind and jinn,"
interconnectedness of all things through since He stated clearly that He created
a vast web whose Center is the Divine. them to worship Him. (IV 221.20)
All existent things come from God and
go back to Him. Likewise all true and Useful knowledge takes a person back
useful knowledge comes from God and to God, that is, God as the Merciful, the
takes the knower back to Him. It is true Forgiving, and the Beneficent, not God
that in the last analysis, all knowledge as the Wrathful and the Vengeful. For all
without exception comes from God, but knowledge is ultimately from God and
if we do not recognize this and under- leads back to Him, but not all of it leads
stand the manner in which it leads back to the same face of God. We have already
to Him, that knowledge will be of no use quoted Ibn al-'Arabi on this point:
to us, if not positively harmful.
What do the Avenger, the Terrible in
The root of every knowledge derives Punishment, and the Overpowering have
from knowledge of the divine things, 8 in common with the Compassionate, the
since "everything other than God" derives Forgiving, and the Gentle? For the
from God. (I 170.8) Avenger demands the occurrence of ven-
Everything in engendered existence geance in its object, while the Compas-
must be supported by divine realities and sionate demands the removal of ven-
comprised within knowledge of the di- geance from the same object. (II 93.19)
vine things, from which all knowledges
branch out. (I 293.5) Simply put, useful knowledge leads to
deliverance (ntijiit), which is none other
Again, true and useful knowledge is than happiness or "felicity" (sa'iida) and
knowledge of God, or knowledge of the the avoidance of "wretchedness" (shaqii')
cosmos inasmuch as it displays the signs in the stages of existence after death.
of God and points to Him. In a hadith al- "For any creature who has individual
ready quoted, in which the Prophet tells desires (aghrii4), felicity is to attain, in his
us that God taught him the knowledge of actual situation, to all the individual
why the Higher Plenum disputes, God desires created within him" (II 673.18). It
placed His palm between the Prophet's is to enter the Garden by becoming a
shoulders. In explaining one of the locus of manifestation for the divine
meanings of this hadith, the Shaykh re- names of gentleness and beauty. In con-
fers to the Koranic verse, "I created the trast, wretchedness is to burn in the Fire
jinn and mankind only to worship Me" through being overcome by the
(51:56). He alludes to the fact, well properties of the names of severity and
known to his readers, that many of the majesty.
Koran commentators, beginning with
the Prophet's companion Ibn 'Abbas, in- Because the next world is an abode of re-
terpreted the words "to worship Me" as compense (jazii') . . . wretchedness and
meaning "to know Me. " 9 felicity become manifest there. Wretched-
ness belongs to the divine wrath (ghaqab),
The Prophet said, "When God struck while felicity belongs to the divine ap-
His palm between my shoulders, I came proval (riqa). Felicity is the infinite ex-
to know the knowledge of the ancients panse of mercy. Wrath will be cut off, ac-
I 50 and the later folk" 10 through that placing cording to the prophetic report, so its
Knowledge & the Knower

property will come to an end, but the Any knowledge which does not lead
property of approval will never come to back to God by a road of felicity does
an end. (III 382.34) not deserve to be called "knowledge."
Ibn al-'Arabl often refers to it instead
Felicity is achieved through nearness as "surmise" (-?ann), a Koranic term,
or proximity (qurb) to God. In the words frequently discussed in the religious
of the Koran, "The Outstrippers, the sciences, which may also be translated as
Outstrippers! They are those brought opinion, conjecture, or supposition.
near [to God], in the Gardens of Delight
. . . " (56:11), and this nearness is If anyone sets up in himself an object of
worship which he worships by surmise,
achieved on the foundation of knowl-
not in certitude (qat'), that will avail him
edge. "All felicity lies in knowledge of nothing against God. God says, "[They
God" (IV 319.10). But in order to have no knowledge thereof; they follow
achieve felicity, man must seek nearness only surmise,] and surmise avails naught
to God in respect of His merciful names, against the Real" (53:28). Concerning
not His wrathful names. Ibn al-'Arabl their worship, He says, "They follow
makes this point while discussing the only surmise and the caprice of their
station of nearness, which, as a Sufi souls" (53:23). God attributes to them
term, had usually been defined as worshiping other than God only by way
"undertaking acts of obedience." of surmise, not by way of knowledge, for
in actual fact, that cannot be knowledge.
Hence you come to know that knowl-
The nearness which the Sufis define as edge is the cause of deliverance. If a per-
"undertaking acts of obedience" is a near- son should become wretched on the way,
ness to the servant's felicity through his in the end (ma' iii) he will reach deliver-
being safe from wretchedness. The "felic- ance. So how noble is the rank of knowl-
ity" of the servant lies in his attaining to edge! That is why God did not command
all his individual desires without excep- His Prophet to seek increase in anything
tion, and this takes place only in the Gar- except knowledge, for He said to him,
den. As for this world, he must necessar- "Say: 'My Lord, increase me in knowl-
ily abandon those of his individual desires edge!'" (20:114). He who understands
which detract from his felicity. The our allusions will know the distinction
"nearness" of the common people and of between the people of felicity and the
people in general is nearness to felicity. people of wretchedness. (II 612.6)
The person obeys in order to gain feli-
city.... The knowledge which leads to God
Were it not for the divine names and and felicity is not, of course, a theoreti-
their properties among the engendered cal knowledge. It is a knowledge con-
things, the property of nearness and dis- joined with practice or good works
tance (bu'tf) would never become manifest ('amal). Knowledge and practice are so
within the cosmos. In each moment
(waqt) every servant must be the possessor
closely connected in the Islamic con-
of nearness to one divine name and the sciousness that Ibn al-'Arabi rarely both-
possessor of distance from another name ers to remind his readers of the relation-
which, at that moment, has no ruling ship.
property over him. If the property of the
name which rules over him at the mo- In our view, knowledge requires prac-
ment and which is qualified by nearness tice, and necessarily so, or else it is not
to him gives him safety from wretched- knowledge, even if it appears in the form
ness and possession of felicity, this is the of knowledge. (III 333.17)
nearness desired by the Tribe. It is every- In our own view, God's deceiving
thing that bestows felicity upon the ser- (makr) the servant is that He should pro-
vant; if it does not bestow felicity, the vide him knowledge which demands
Tribe does not refer to it as "near- practice, and then deprive him of the
ness." (II 558.34) practice. (II 529.34) I 5I
Epistemology

Ibn al-'Arabl provides a wide def- side an egg; when the animal is perfected,
inition of the term "practice," includ- the egg breaks. The root of the existence
ing within it both inward (batin) and out- of the things is the Real, and He is unseen
ward (?ahir) activities. by them.
Kings are saluted because subjects stand
below them. The king possesses highness
and tremendousness. Hence, when a per-
There is an outward practice, which is son below him enters in upon him, he
everything connected to the bodily parts, prostrates himself before him, as if to say,
and ·an inward practice, which is every- "My station in relation to you is the sta-
thing connected to the soul (nafs). The tion of the low in relation to the high."
most inclusive inward practice is faith in People consider a king in respect of his
God and what has come from Him in ac- rank and level, not in respect of his [hu-
cordance with the words of the Messen- man] configuration, since they are equal
ger, not in accordance with knowledge of to him in that configuration.
it. Faith embraces all acts which are to be The angels prostrate themselves to the
performed or avoided. (II 559.20) level of knowledge. Their prostration is
their words, "We have no knowledge"
(2:32), so they are ignorant. 11
Shadows prostrate themselves because
of witnessing those who are outside of
One of al-J:Iakim al-Tirmidhi' s ques- themselves, the objects [which throw the
tions which Ibn al-'Arabl answers in the shadows].' 2 The shadow of the object
Futu~at is "What is prostration (sujucl) ?" becomes hidden from the light by the
Literally, the word signifies being lowly root from which it arose, lest the light an-
and bending the head to the ground. As a nihilate it. Hence the shadow has no sub-
technical term in the Islamic sciences, it sistence in existence except through the
signifies the placing of the forehead on existence of the root. Hence the cos-
the ground during the canonical prayer mos has no subsistence except through
(~alat); it is the servant's supreme act of
God ....
When the heart prostrates itself, it
humility before his Lord. In answering never rises up, since its prostration is to
al-Tirmidhl, Ibn al-'Arabi goes to the the divine names-not to the Es-
heart of this richly symbolic act: sence-for the names have made it a
"heart" (qalb); the names make it fluctuate
from state to state in this world and the
next. That is why it is called a "heart." 13
Everything which prostrates itself bears When the Real discloses Himself to the
witness to its own root from which it is heart as the Cause of Fluctuation
absent by being a branch. When a thing is (muqallib), it sees itself in the grasp of
diverted from being a root by being a Him who makes it fluctuate. And He is
branch, it is said to it, "Seek that which is the divine names, from which no created
absent from you, your root from which thing is separate. The names rule over the
you have emerged." So the thing pros- creatures. The heart of him who wit-
trates itself to the soil which is its root. nesses them prostrates itself, but the heart
The spirit prostrates itself to the Univer- of him who does not witness them does
sal Spirit (al-rii~ al-kull) from which it has not prostrate itself; he is the one who
emerged. The inmost consciousness (sirr) makes claims (mudda'l) by saying "I." On
prostrates itself to its Lord by means of the Day of Resurrection the reckoning
whom it has achieved its level. and the questioning will be directed to-
All roots are unseen (ghayb). Do you ward the person who has such an attri-
not see how they become manifest in bute, as also the punishment, if he is pun-
trees? The roots of trees are unseen, for ished. He whose heart has prostrated itself
the act of bringing to be (takwln) is un- has no claims (da'wa), so he will have no
seen. No one witnesses the embryo com- reckoning, questioning, or punishment.
ing to be in the womb of its mother, so it Hence there is no state more noble than
152 is unseen. Some animals come to be in-
Knowledge & the Knower

the state of prostration, since it is the state The infinity of knowledge is one of
of attainment to the knowledge of the Ibn al-'Arabi's frequent themes. In the
roots. And there is no attribute more no- following he explains one of the terms of
ble than knowledge, since it yields felicity the Sufi vocabulary, "quenching" (rl),
in the two worlds and ease in the two the third in a hierarchy of terms which
stations. (II 101.29) begins with "tasting" (dhawq) and
"drinking" (shurb). The Sufis had often
discussed whether the gnostic's thirst is
ever quenched. Ibn al-'Arabi takes a firm
Limits to Knowledge negative stand:

God commanded His Prophet to say,


All knowledge is knowledge of God, "My Lord, increase me in knowledge"
while God in Himself, in His very Es- (20:114). The thirst of him who seeks in-
sence, cannot be known. Nothing can be crease is never quenched. God did not
known of God except what He discloses command him to seek for a determined
time or within limited bounds. On the
of Himself. He discloses His names and
contrary, the command was absolute.
the entities-the creatures-which are Hence he seeks increase and bestowal in
precisely the properties and effects of His this world and the next.
names and attributes. But He never dis- Concerning the situation at the Day of
closes Himself as Essence. "None knows Resurrection, the Prophet said, "I will
God but God." praise Him," that is, when he intercedes
The objects of God's knowledge are with Him, "with words of praise which
infinite, though only a finite number ex- God will teach me and which I do not
ist at any given time and only a finite know now." 14
number can be known by a finite thing. God never ceases creating within us ad
infinitum, so the knowledges extend ad
God Himself is infinite in the direction of
infinitum. By "knowledge" the Tribe
the Essence, which is to say that He also means only that which is connected to
cannot be known. For man, the seeker of God through unveiling (kashf) or deno-
knowledge, the acquisition of knowledge tation (daltlla). "The words of God are
is endless, since the objects of knowledge never exhausted;" 15 these "words" are
are endless. This is the secret of man's fe- the entities of His existent things. Hence
licity. Knowledge, the greatest good, is the thirst of the seeker of knowledge
also the greatest joy and the greatest never ceases. He never experiences
pleasure. The never-ending trajectory of "quenching," because his preparedness
man's life in the next world has to be ex- (isti'diid) seeks to gain a knowledge. Once
this knowledge has been gained, it gives
plained in terms of his constant growth
to him the preparedness for a new knowl-
in knowledge. For the felicitous, this edge, whether engendered or divine.
knowledge is totally congruent and har- What he gains lets him know that there
monious with their own souls, which is something demanded by the new
have been shaped in this world through preparedness-which has been occa-
faith and practice, and hence every in- sioned by the knowledge acquired
crease in knowledge is an increase in fe- through the first preparedness-, so he
licity. For the wretched, knowledge of becomes thirsty to gain this [new] knowl-
things as they actually are is a searing edge. Hence the seeker of knowledge is
torture, since it contradicts their beliefs like him who drinks the water of the sea.
and practices in this world. Every new The more he drinks, the thirstier he be-
comes. Bringing to be (al-takwln) is never
knowledge-every new self-disclosure, cut off, so objects of knowledge are never
recognized now for what it is-is a new cut off, so knowledges are never cut off.
misery. It is only the precedence of How can there be quenching? No one be-
God's mercy over His wrath which lieves in quenching except him who is ig-
eventually alleviates the pain of knowing. norant of what is created within himself 1 53
Epistemology

constantly and continuously. And he perceiving what He had deposited within


who has no knowledge of himself has no him. Man is not alone in this. On the
knowledge of his Lord. 16 contrary, the whole cosmos is the same.
One of the gnostics said, "The soul is This is one of the divine mysteries which
an ocean without shore," alluding to in- reason denies and considers totally impos-
finity. But everything which enters into sible. The nearness of this mystery to
existence or is qualified by existence is fi- those ignorant of it is like God's near-
nite. That which does not enter into exis- ness to His servant, as mentioned in His
tence is infinite, and that is only the possi- words, "We are nearer to him than you,
ble things (al-mumkiniit). Hence only the but you do not see" (56:85) and His
temporally originated thing (mul}dath) can words, "We are nearer to him than the
be known, since first the object of knowl- jugular vein" (50:16). In spite of this near-
edge was not, then it was, then there was ness, the person does not perceive and
another. If the object of knowledge were does not know, except inasmuch as he
to be qualified by existence, it would follows the authority (of the Koran].
be finite and one could be satisfied with Were it not for God's report, no rational
it .... faculty would point to this fact.
He who has no knowledge imagines In the same way, all the infinite objects
that he knows God, but that is not cor- of knowledge that God knows are within
rect, since a thing cannot be known ex- man and within the cosmos through this
cept through positive attributes of its own type of nearness. No one knows what is
self, but our knowledge of this is impossi- within himself until it is unveiled to him
ble, so our knowledge of God is impossi- instant by instant. It cannot be unveiled
ble. So Glory be to Him who is known all at once, since that would require re-
only by the fact that He is not known! striction (l}a~r), and we have said that it is
The knower of God does not transgress infinite. Hence man only knows one
his own level. He knows that he knows thing after another, ad infinitum.
that he is one of those who do not This is one of the most marvelous of
know. (II 552.12) divine mysteries: that the infinite should
enter into the existence of the servant, just
as infinite objects of knowledge enter into
The potential infinity of the objects of
the Real's knowledge, while His knowl-
human knowledge goes back to the fact edge is identical with His Essence. The
that the creatures have already been Real's knowing the infinite is different
"taught" this knowledge, for it is latent from His depositing it in the servant's
in the cosmos through God's nearness or heart, since the Real knows what is
self-disclosure to all things. Since we within Himself and what is within the
already know everything, coming to soul of His servant through designation
know is in fact a remembrance or recol- (ta'yin) and differentiation (tafiil), while
lection (tadhakkur). In the process of the servant knows it only in an undiffer-
explaining this, Ibn al-'Arabi refers to entiated mode (ijmiil). But there is no
undifferentiation in the Real's knowl-
the "taking (of Adam's seed) at the
edge of the things, though He possesses
Covenant" (akhdh al-mlthaq), when the knowledge of undifferentiation in respect
children of Adam bore witness to God's to the fact that it is known to the servant
Lordship over them before their entrance in himself and in others. In short, every-
into the sensory world. The Koran says, thing known by man and by every exis-
"When thy Lord took from the children tent thing, without cease, is in reality a
of Adam, from their loins, their seed, recollection and a renewal (tajdld) of what
and made them testify touching them- he had forgotten.
selves: 'Am I not your Lord?' They said, This waystation demands that the Real
'Yes, we testify'" (7:172). may sometimes place the servant within a
station where his knowledge takes the in-
finite as its object. This is not impossible
This waystation includes the fact that in our view; what is impossible is that the
God deposited within man knowledge infinite should enter into existence, not
I 54 of all things, then prevented him from that it be known.
Knowledge & the Knower

Then God made the servants forget named Thyself or taught to any one of
this, just as He made them forget the fact Thy creatures or kept to Thyself in the
that they bore witness against them- knowledge of Thy Unseen." 18 Hence He
selves at the taking of the covenant, even has names known only to Himself and
though it happened and we have come to going back to Him. Through "keeping
know about it through the divine report. them to Himself" He has withheld them
So man's knowledge is always recollec- from the knowledge of His creatures. His
tion. Some of us, when reminded, re- names are not proper names ('alam), nor
member that we once knew that knowl- are they substantives (jiimid). They are
edge. Such was Dhu'l-Niin al-Mi~ri. 17 only His names by way of praise, enco-
Others of us do not remember that, mium, and laudation. Hence they are
though we have faith that we witnessed "beautiful" because of what is understood
it. (II 686.4) from their meanings. They contrast with
proper names, which simply denote the
Since knowledge of the Essence as entities named by them, neither in praise
Essence is impossible, in respect to the nor in blame....
In this waystation one gains knowledge
Essence we must declare God's in-
of the curbing and checking experienced
comparability, even if we declare His by him who says that he has known the
similarity in respect to His self-dis- Essence of the Real. This person will not
closure. have his ignorance uncovered for him un-
til the hereafter. Then he will know that
Do not let manyness veil you from the the situation of his knowledge is different
taw~fd of Allah! I have explained to you from what he had believed it to be and
the object of your taw~fd, without ad- that he does not know either in this world
dressing myself to the Essence in Itself, or the next. God says, "There will appear
since reflection upon it is forbidden ac- to them from God what they had never
cording to the Law. The Messenger of reckoned" (39:47), making this a general
God said, "Reflect not upon God's Es- statement. Hence there will appear to
sence," and God says, "God warns you every group which believed something
about His Self" (3:28), that is, that you which does not correspond to the actual
must not reflect upon It and judge by situation the negation of the belief. The
some matter that It is such and such. verse does not say how this will be ne-
But God did not forbid talking about gated, whether by incapacity [to know
the Divinity, though It is not grasped by the reality] or by knowledge of the con-
reflection, and the Folk of Allah declare trary, but both of these situations will ex-
witnessing It to be impossible. However, ist in the next world. . . .
the Divinity has loci of manifestation If knowledge were in actual fact the
within which It becomes manifest, and knowledge of certainty, then it would not
the vision of the servants becomes con- change, but it is only a reckoning and a
nected to these loci, while the religions surmise which has veiled its possessor
have mentioned this sort of thing. through the form of knowledge. He says
We have nothing of knowledge other that he knows, and the Real says to him
than attributes of declaring incomparabil- that he surmises and reckons. What does
ity and attributes of acts. He who sup- the one station have in common with the
poses that he possesses knowledge of a other? For not every affair is known, and
positive attribute of Self has supposed not every affair is unknown.
wrongly, for such attributes would limit The most knowledgeable of the know-
(~add) Him, while His Essence has no ers is he who knows that he knows what
limits. This is a door which is locked to- he knows and that he does not know
ward engendered existence and cannot be what he does not know. The Prophet
opened. The Real alone has knowledge of said, "I count not Thy praises before
it. Thee," 19 since he knew · that there is
The Messenger of God gave news of something that cannot be encompassed.
the knowledge of the Real which God Abii Bakr said, "Incapacity to attain com-
taught him. He said, "0 God, I ask Thee prehension is itself comprehension." In
by every name by which Thou hast other words, he comprehended that there 155
Epistemology

is something which he is incapable of "everything other than God," that is, ev-
comprehending. So that is knowledge/not erything other than the Essence as such:
knowledge. the self-disclosure of the Essence through
Man will come to know on the Day of the divine names and the cosmos. The
Resurrection that his reflection is incapa- "cosmos" includes all the possible things,
ble of comprehending what he had reck- whether or not they exist at any given
oned he had comprehended. He will be
moment, and these are infinite. There are
chastised by his reflection, through the
fire of its being uprooted, since the argu- as many possible objects of knowledge
ment of the Law stands against it, for the as there are possible things, so human
Law had explained and clarified that upon knowledge is potentially infinite. But
which it is proper to reflect .... just as all possible things cannot exist at
There is no blessing greater than the once, so also all objects of knowledge
blessing of knowledge, even though cannot be known at once. There always
God's blessings cannot be counted in re- remains an infinity of objects to be
spect of the causes which bring them known. The greatest and most knowl-
about. (II 619.11,27, 620.9) edgeable of all human beings was told to
God has no tongue by which He expli-
pray, "My Lord, increase me in knowl-
cates for us except what the messengers
have brought from Him. God's expli- edge!", and this increase continues for-
cation (bayiin) is true explication, not ever, in this world and the next. There is
that which reason supposes it explicates nothing static about paradise, since it is
through its demonstrations. "Explication" the continuous self-disclosure of the di-
is only that which admits no equivocality, vine Reality in forms of mercy, knowl-
and that occurs only through sound un- edge, and bliss.
veiling or plain report-giving. If a per-
son's reason, consideration, and demon-
stration rule over his Law, he has not God possesses relationships, faces, and
counselled his own soul. How great will realities without limit. Though they all go
be his regret in the next world when the back to a single Entity, yet the relation-
covering is lifted and he comes to see in ships are not qualified by existence, so
sensory form that which he had inter- they are not touched by finitude .... The
preted as a meaning! God will deprive relationships are infinite, so the creation
him of the joy of knowing it in the next of the possible things is infinite. Hence
world. Or rather, his regret (~asra) and creation is constant in this world and the
pain (alam) will be multiplied, since there next, and knowledge undergoes temporal
he will witness the ignorance which had origination constantly in this world and
made him turn away from that manifest the next. That is why He commanded
dimension to the meaning in this world [His servants] to seek increase in knowl-
and negate that which was denoted by the edge. Do you think He is commanding
manifest dimension. them to seek increase in the knowledge of
The regret of ignorance is the greatest the engendered things? No, by God, He
of regrets: God is unveiled for him in the commanded them only to seek knowl-
place where he had not been praising Him edge of God by considering the engen-
and no joy accrues to him. On the con- dered things which are temporally cre-
trary, he is exactly like someone who ated. Each engendered thing gives them
knows that he is about to be overcome by knowledge of the divine relationship from
an affiiction. He suffers terrible pain from which it became manifest. That is why
this knowledge, for not every knowledge the Prophet alerted hearts through his
brings about joy. (IV 313.22) words in his supplication, "0 God, I ask
Thee by every name by which Thou hast
named Thyself or taught to any one of
Thy creatures or kept to Thyself in the
The Infinity of Knowledge knowledge of Thy Unseen." The names
are divine relationships, and the Unseen is
infinite. Hence there must be constant
The Essence of God, as Essence, can creation, and the knowledge of the cre-
156 never be known. What can be known is ated knower must be finite in every state
Knowledge & the Knower

and time and receptive toward a knowl- tion is impossible and undesirable in any
edge which he does not have, a tempo- case, since to renounce the cosmos is
rally originated knowledge whose object to renounce the possibility of increasing
is God or a created thing which provides one's knowledge of God.
evidence of God. (II 671.5)
God cannot be measured in differenti-
ated mode (taftll), since increase in knowl- God never ceases gazing upon the enti-
edge of God will never be cut off in this ties of the possible things in the state of
world or the next. Here the actual situa- their nonexistence. The divine munifi-
tion is infinite. (III 317.31) cence never ceases showing kindness to-
The human soul gains security (aman) ward them by bringing them into exis-
through its being supported by manyness tence in accordance with His precedent
(kathra). "Allah" brings together all the knowledge, such that some are brought
names of good. When you verify the into existence before others. Since the en-
knowledge of the divine names, you will tity of the Universal Substance (al-jawhar
find that the names of taking to task al-kul/) 20 cannot subsist without certain
(akhdh) are few, while the names of mercy possible things existing within it-things
embraced by the name Allah are many. which cannot subsist in themselves-the
That is why God commanded you to flee divine preservation preserves their subsis-
(farar) to Allah (Koran 51 :50). So know tence, though in their own essences they
this! do not accept existence except in the time
There is no divine name that does not of their existence. So the divine munifi-
wish to attach you to itself and delimit cence never ceases bringing into existence
you, so that through you its authority those possible things which are necessary
may become manifest. At the same time, for the subsistence of the Universal Sub-
you know that felicity lies in increase. But stance, within which God opened up the
you will not have increase without pass- forms of the cosmos, for God never
ing to the property of another name. ceases creating constantly and preserving
Thereby you may gain a knowledge creation constantly.
which you did not have, though that In the same way, had God not caused
which you possess will not leave you. the mystery of life to permeate the exis-
This establishes "flight." But you are tent things, they would not possess ratio-
warned that the name which is with you nal speech (nutq). And were it not for the
must not continue to determine your fact that they are permeated by knowl-
property. So you flee to the place of in- edge, they would not speak in praise of
crease. Thus "flight" is a property that God, who brought them into existence.
accompanies the servant in this world and Hence God says, "There is nothing that
the next. (II 156.17) docs not glorify Him in praise fbut you
do not understand their glorification J"
Certain Sufis extolled the benefits of (Koran 17:44) ....
"Renunciation" of things can occur
"renunciation" or "asceticism" (zuhd).
only through the ignorance and lack of
Ibn al-'Arabi considers renunciation knowledge of the one who renounces and
useful perhaps at the early stages of the through the veil which covers his eyes,
path, but hardly a mark of perfection, that is, the lack of unveiling and wit-
since to renounce this world one has to nessing .... If he only knew or witnessed
renounce the secondary causes (asbiib), the fact that the whole cosmos speaks by
which are our only means of knowing glorifying and lauding its Creator and
God. In fact, the whole cosmos is con- that it witnesses Him, how could he re-
stantly singing God's praises by the very nounce it, as long as it has this attribute?
fact of its existence, and thus it serves Man's entity, essence, and attributes are
part of the cosmos. God has let him wit-
as the clearest possible denotation of its
ness and shown him His signs upon the
Maker. The claim to "have renounced horizons, that is, everything outside of
everything other than God" may serve a himself, and in himself, 21 that is, every-
rhetorical purpose and alert some peo- thing which he himself possesses. Even if
ple to the direction in which efforts he were able to come out (khuriij) of the
should be directed, but such renuncia- other, how could he come out of himself? 157
Epistemology

He who comes out of the cosmos and be actualized in any respect. Were anyone
himself has come out of God, and he who to gain independence through God, he
comes out of God has come out of possi- would be independent of God, and being
bility and joined himself with impossibil- independent of God is impossible. So be-
ity. But he is a possible thing in his very ing independent through God is impossi-
reality, so he cannot join the impossible. ble. Nevertheless, God gives the seeker
Hence his claim to have come out of ev- something during his seeking through
erything other than God is sheer igno- which He makes him independent; the
rance .... joy which he finds eliminates the pain of
His ignorance makes him imagine that that specific poverty, not the pain of the
the cosmos is far removed from God and universal poverty which cannot disappear
that God is far removed from the cosmos. from the possible thing-since poverty is
Hence he seeks to "flee" (fariir) to God. its essential description-whether in the
But this is an imaginary flight, and its state of nonexistence or in the state of ex-
cause is the lack of tasting (dhawq) of the istence. Therefore God places within the
things and the fact that he heard in recita- soul of the possible thing something
tion, "So flee to God!" (51:50). This verse through which he finds within himself the
is correct, except that the one who is flee- joy which eliminates the pain of seek-
ing did not pay attention to what is men- ing. Then God occasions another seeking
tioned in the following verse, that is, His of something else or of the subsistence
words, "And set not up with God another of that thing he has gained; and so it
god" (51:51). continues forever, in this world and the
Had he known this completing verse, next.
he would have known that God's words, Since this is a person's state, he must
"So flee to God" refer to the flight from withdraw and flee from those affairs
ignorance to knowledge. The situation is which divert him from this situation, so
one and unitary. He imagined some onto- that God may unveil his insight and his
logical thing, attributing divinity to it and sight. Then he will witness the situation
taking it as a god, but this was a nonexis- as it is in itself and he will know how to
tent impossible thing, neither possible nor seek, from whom to seek, who does the
necessary. This is what is meant by the seeking, and so on. He will know the
flight which God commands. Flight is "to meaning of God's words, "Surely God
Him" in respect of the attribution of Di- is the Independent, the Praiseworthy"
vinity to Him. . . . (31:26), that is, praised for His indepen-
God did not create man a knower of all dence ....
things. On the contrary, He commanded Once this is established, you will know
His Prophet to seek from Him an increase that the Messenger of God used to go
in knowledge, since He said to him, "Say: alone to the cave of Hira' to devote him-
My Lord, increase me in knowledge!" self to God therein a~d flee from seeing
(20:114). Hence in every state he takes people, since he used to find in himself
from knowledge that which gives him fe- straitness and constnct10n in seeing
licity and perfection. The cosmos and them. Had he gazed upon the face of God
man were created with innate knowledge within them, he would not have fled
of God's existence and of the fact that the from them, nor would he have sought to
temporally originated thing is poor to- be alone with himself. He remained like
ward Him and in need of Him. Since this this till God came to him suddenly. Then
is the situation, everyone who has this at- he returned to i:he creatures and stayed
tribute must flee to God in order to wit- with them ....
ness his own poverty and the pain in the Every seeker of his Lord must be alone
soul which poverty gives to him and in with himself with his Lord in his inmost
order that God may give him indepen- consciousness, since God gave man an
dence inasmuch as he cuts himself off outward dimension (;;;iihir) and an inward
from everything but Him. Perhaps He dimension (bii(in) only so that he might be
will take away the pain of his poverty alone with God in his inward dimension
through that which gives joy, which is in- and witness Him in his outward dimen-
dependence (ghinii) through God. sion within the secondary causes, after
However, this is a goal which cannot having gazed upon Him in his inward di-
Acquiring Knowledge

mension, so that he may discern Him (kha/wa) with God does so only for this
within the midst of the secondary causes. reason, since man's inward dimension is
Otherwise, he will never recognize Him. the cell of his retreat. (III 263.16,35,
He who enters the spiritual retreat 265.1)

1 0. A C Q U I R IN G K N 0 W L ED G E

Knowledge can be acquired through an 'aql. In such contexts, the word can be
reflection, unveiling, or scripture. The translated better as "intellect." Thus, for
human subtle reality (al-latifat al-insiin- example, the First Intellect IS the
iyya), also called the "soul" (nafs), knows luminous pole of creation, sometimes
in a variety of modes. When it knows identified with the Breath of the All-
through reflection, the mode of its merciful. In discussing the spiritual
knowing is called "reason" ('aql). When world, Ibn al-'Arabi will often speak
it knows directly from God, the mode of of angelic beings, disengaged from loci
knowing is called the "heart" (qalb), of manifestation, known as "intellects,
which is contrasted with reason. What- souls, and spirits. " 1 As a human faculty
ever the means whereby the soul acquires 'aql almost always implies restriction and
knowledge, the knowing subject is one. confinement, though on occasion the
There are not two different entities Shaykh will employ the term in a sense
known as "reason" and "heart," though which suggests that it has transcended its
there is a real difference between the mo- limitations and become identical with the
dalities of knowing. As we have already heart, in which case it might be better to
seen, reason knows through delimitation speak of man's "intellect." For the adjec-
and binding, while the heart knows tive 'aqll, the term "rational" will be em-
through letting go of all restrictions. ployed, though in some contexts "intelli-
'Aql, as shown by its root meaning, is gible" will render it better. As for the
that which limits the free and ties down active participle 'iiqil, this often refers to
the unconstricted. Qalb means fluctua- the "rational thinker" or "possessor of
tion, for the heart undergoes constant reason," in which case it !(las a rather
change and transmutation in keeping negative connotation, but it may simply
with the never-repeating self-disclosures mean the person who uses his reason
of God. correctly, in which case "intelligent per-
son" translates it more exactly.
By its nature reason perceives (idriik),
whether through an inherent, intuitive
The Rational Faculty knowledge that needs nothing from out-
side, or through various instruments,
such as the five senses and "reflective
"Reason" or the "rational faculty" is consideration" (na:?ar fikrl). "Reflection"
one of the fundamental powers of the (fikr) is the power of thought or cogita-
human soul. From one point of view it tion, the ability of the soul to put to-
defines the human state, setting man gether the data gathered by sense percep-
apart from all other animals. Spiritual be- tion or acquired from imagination in
ings may also possess the faculty known order to reach rational conclusions. It be-
as 'aql, but then it might be more accu- longs only to human beings. "Considera-
rate to say that the spiritual being is itself tion" (na:?ar) refers to the specific activity 159
Epistemology

of reason when it employs reflection. It by a created thing and cannot be per-


is the investigation of phenomena as well ceived by one of these modes of percep-
as the thought processes whereby reason tion. (I 213.30)
reaches conclusions. In this meaning
na:?ar is practically synonymous with Reason has a second, closely related
.fikr. However, the latter term designates meaning which plays an important role
a specific faculty possessed by reason, in Islamic moral and spiritual teachings.
while the term nazar is used in a wide va- It is the opposite of "passion" (shahwa),
riety of other me~nings in keeping with that is, any desire which has an object
its literal sense of "to look." Thus it is not sanctioned by the Law. Thus the
employed to refer to the gaze of the Koran says, "Then there succeeded after
physical eye, reason, or the heart, that them a later generation who have ne-
is, to the sensory, the rational, and the glected prayer and followed passions"
supra-rational levels. The terms "re- (19:59). In itself passion is positive, since
flective consideration," "reflection," and it is one of the constituent faculties of the
"consideration" all refer especially to the animate soul, through which all animals,
endeavors of the rational thinkers, such including human beings, remain alive. It
as the philosophers and the proponents manifests Nature (tabla), the loving and
of Kalam. Terms such as "possessors of nurturing mother through whom all
consideration" (ahl al-na:?ar) and "those things are sustained.
who consider" (al-nu:?:?iir) are used syn-
onymously with "people of reflection" There are two passions. The first is ac-
cidental ('araqf). It is the passion which
(ahl al-.fikr, a~~iib al-ajkiir), the "people of one must not follow, since it is false.
rational faculties" (ahl al-'uqiil), and "the Though it may have its benefits on some
rational thinkers" (al-'uqalii'). days, the possessor of reason should not
Reason, reflection, and consideration follow it. . . . The second passion is in-
can be treated as distinct realities, each herent (dhiitl), and it is incumbent upon
with a positive role to play. But when him to follow it. For within it lies the
misused, they share certain common de- well-being (~alii~) of his constitution
nominators which allow Ibn al-'Arabi (miziij), since it is agreeable to his nature~
to lump their possessors into a single In the well-being of his constitution lies
category. the well-being of his religion, and in the
well-being of his religion lies his felicity.
There are six things which perceive: However, he must follow this passion ac-
hearing, sight, smell, touch, taste, and cording to the Divine Scale (al-mlziin al-
reason. Each of them- except reason- ilahl) established by the Lawgiver, and
perceives things incontrovertibly (qariiri). that is the ruling of the established re-
They are never mistaken in the things vealed Law. (II 191.6)
which normally become related to them.
A group of the rational thinkers have As Ibn al-'Arabl points out, the very
erred on this point by attributing error to existence of the rational faculty, which is
sensation. That is not the case; the error able to discern between right and wrong
belongs only to that which passes judg- and judge accordingly, has made passion
ment. a negative human condition.
Reason perceives its objects in two
modes. One kind of perception is incon- God created the faculty named "rea-
trovertible, as in the case of the other son," placing it within the rational soul,
things which perceive. Another kind is to stand opposite natural passion when
not incontrovertible; in order to gain passion exercises control over the soul by
knowledge, it needs six instuments, in- diverting it from the occupation proper
cluding the five senses which we just to it as specified by the Lawgiver. (II
mentioned and the reflective faculty 319.13)
(al-quwwat al-mufakkira). There is no ob- God placed reason [within the soul] to
160 ject of knowledge which can be known stand opposite passion. Were it not for
Acquiring Knowledge

reason, natural passion would be praise- and a carpet of tar was laid down for it.
worthy. (II 190.8) But it relied upon something which it
imagined would deliver it from God's
Shahwa 1s a synonym or near chastisement. Then God came between it
and that upon which it relied and de-
synonym of the term hawa, "caprice,"
pended. Then it and everyone who fol-
which is the tendency in man which lowed it was destroyed. (II 583.16)
turns him away from divine guidance. 2 There is nothing stronger than caprice
except man, since he is able to root out
God said to His prophet David, "Give his caprice through his rational faculty,
rulings among men by the Real, and fol- which God has brought into existence
low not caprice, [lest it mislead you from within him. So he manifests his rational
the path of God]" (38:26). He also said faculty through its ruling power over his
"Have you seen him who has taken his caprice. (II 451.1)
caprice to be his god?" (25:43). Caprice is
nothing save the desire of the servant Inasmuch as reason rules over pas-
when it opposes (mukhiilafa) the Scale of sion and caprice, it leads man on the path
the Revealed Law (al-mzziin al-mashru'), of his felicity, which is the path of the
which God has established for him in this Law. In this respect it plays a positive
world. (III 305.16)
role.
Just as passion is made negative by the A king said to one of his sitting com-
existence of reason, so also caprice be- panions who used to offer sound opinions
comes a negative force only because of and considerations when he sought coun-
the existence of the Law. sel from him, "Whom do you think I
should place in charge of the affairs of the
people?"
There can only be caprice when there is
He replied, "Place in charge of them a
the ruling of the Shari'a. This is indicated
man of reason, for the man of reason will
by God's words to David, "Give rulings
go to great lengths to acquit himself. If he
among men by the Real, and follow not
has the knowledge, he will give rulings
caprice" (38:26). In other words: Follow
according to what he knows. If he does
not what you love, but follow what I
not have the knowledge of the ruling for
love, which is the ruling which I have de-
a given occurrence, then his rational fac-
lineated for you. Then God said, "Lest it
ulty will make him ask the person who
mislead you from the path of God." In
knows the divine ruling revealed in the
other words: Lest caprice bewilder you,
Law for that situation. Once he comes to
ruin you, and make you blind toward the
know it, he will rule accordingly. This is
path which I have laid down as Law for
the benefit of reason.
you and upon which I have asked you to
"Many of those who desire religion and
walk . . . . . So here "caprice" is every-
exoteric knowledge (a!-'ilm al-rasml) are
thing man loves. The Real commands
governed by their passion. But the man
man to abandon his loves if they corre-
of reason is not like that, since the rational
spond to something other than the path of
faculty refuses everything except qualities
the revealed Law. (II 336.5)
of excellence (faqii' il). For reason delimits
In a vision I saw caprice and passion,
its possessor, not allowing him to enter
whispering together. God has given to
into that which is improper. That is why
this caprice a penetrating power through
it is called 'reason,' from 'fetter'." (III
which it dominates over most rational
333.20)
faculties unless they are protected by
God. Caprice halted in that place and
According to Ibn al-'Arabi, all
said, "I am the god worshiped by every
existent thing." It turned away from created things know God through an
reason and everything that came to it inborn knowledge, with the exception of
through tradition (naql). The satans fol- man and the jinn. They alone were given
lowed it, while passion was in front of it. reflection in order to gain knowledge of
Finally it reached the center of the Fire, God. r6r
Epistemology

The angels, like inanimate things tive ('ilmf) and one practical ('amalf).
(jamadat), have an innate (mafi.ur) knowl- These are manifest in all those animals
edge of God; they have no rational facul- like bees, spiders, and birds which make
ties and no passion. Animals are born nests, and in other animals. The souls of
with both knowledge of God and passion. men and jinn, in contrast to other living
Mankind and the jinn have an innate pas- things, possess a third faculty-the re-
sion and cognitions (ma'iirif) in respect of flective faculty-which is not possessed
their outward forms, but not in respect of by animals nor by the Universal Soul (al-
their spirits. 3 God placed the rational fac- nafs al-kulliyya). 5 The human being ac-
ulty within them so that they can bring quires certain sciences by way of reflec-
passion into line with the Scale of the tion, while it shares with the rest of the
Law; thereby He prevented them from cosmos in taking sciences through the di-
having to contend with passion outside vine effusion (al-foy4 al-ilahf) and with
the locus designated by the Law. God did some of them-like the animals-in hav-
not bring the rational faculty into exis- ing innate knowledge (bi'l-fitra), such as
tence for them to acquire sciences. That an infant's accepting its mother's breast
which He gave them with which to ac- and drinking milk. Nothing other than
quire sciences was the reflective faculty. man acquires sciences which stay with it
That is why their spirits were not given by way of reflection.
innate cognitions as were the spirits of the In man reflection stands in the station
angels and everything other than mankind of the divine reality referred to in the text,
and the jinn. (III 99.12) "He governs (tadbfr) the affair, He differ-
entiates (tafi.ll) the signs" (13:2), as also in
His words in the sound hadith, "I never
waver (taraddud) in anything I do [the way
I waver in taking the soul of a man of
Reflection faith who hates death, while I hate to do
ill to him]." 6 This reality is not possessed
by the First Intellect, nor by the Universal
Reflection, as we have seen, is one of Soul. It pertains to that which is specific
the six instruments by which the rational to man because of the Form upon which
faculty gains knowledge, the other five no other thing was created. (I 260.18)
being the senses. If reflection is em-
ployed properly, it will aid in the acqui- Like other tools, reflection can be used
sition of right knowledge of God and for good and evil ends. But human
thereby lead to felicity. If it is employed beings possess no higher tool, since all
improperly, it can be one of man's great- other tools are controlled through it. Ibn
est obstacles. al-'Arabi calls it an "affliction" (bala'),
Reflection is a faculty found only in that is, a test and a trial which may very
human beings. It derives from their ex- well lead to man's ruin.
clusive possession of the divine "form,"
the fact enunciated in the hadith, "God God affiicted man with an affiiction
created Adam upon His own form. " 4 In with which no other of His creatures was
reading the following passage, one needs affiicted. Through it He takes him to fe-
to remember that "soul" (nafs) is that di- licity or wretchedness, depending upon
mension of man and other animals which how He allows him to make use of it.
stands between the disengaged spirit and This affiiction with which God affiicted
him is that He created within him a fac-
the corporeal body; it is the domain of
ulty named "reflection." He made this
imagination, which is neither the pure faculty the assistant of another faculty
light of spirit nor the darkness known as called "reason." Moreover, He compelled
clay. reason, in spite of its being reflection's
chief, to take from reflection what it
In the view of the people of unveiling, gives. God gave reflection no place to
the souls of men and jinn and the souls of roam except the faculty of imagination.
162 the animals have two faculties, one cogni- God made the faculty of imagination the
Acquiring Knowledge

locus which brings together everything can hand over to reason is the knowledge
given by the sensory faculties. He gave to of what God is not. Through reflection
it another faculty called the "form-giver" reason can grasp God's incomparability.
(al-mu~awwira). As a result, nothing is ac- But to gain any positive and affirmative
tualized within the faculty of imagination knowledge of God, any statement about
unless it is given by the senses or the
what God is rather than what He is not,
form-giving faculty. The material with
which the form-giver works is the im- it must have recourse to revelation.
pressions of the senses (ma~susat). Hence
it composes forms which have no exis- Know that except for men and jinn,
tence in entity, though all the parts exist everything other than God has knowl-
in the sensory realm. edge (ma'rifa) of God, receives revelation
Reason is a plain creature (khalq sadhij). (wa~y) from God, and knows who it is
It possesses nothing of the considerative that discloses Himself to them. That is in-
sciences. It is said to reflection: "Discern nate to all of them, and all of them are fe-
(tamylz) between the real and the unreal licitous. That is why God said, "Have
found in the faculty of imagination." Re- you not seen how before God prostrate
flection considers in accordance with themselves all who are in the heavens and
what occurs to it. It may fall upon an ob- all who are in the earth?"; so here He
fuscation (shubha) or upon a proof (dalll) makes an all-inclusive statement. Then He
without knowing which it is. However, it differentiates to clarify to mankind what
supposes that it knows obfuscations from has come down upon them. He says,
proofs and that it has fallen upon knowl- "The sun and the moon, the stars and the
edge. It does not consider the incapacity mountains, the trees and the beasts, and
of the material by which it supports itself many of mankind" (22:18). "Many of
to acquire the sciences. Then the rational mankind" is explained by His words,
faculty accepts the sciences from reflec- "Those who have faith and do deeds of
tion and judges accordingly. Hence the righteousness, and few they are not"
rational faculty has more ignorance than (38:24), that is, they are many. 7 This is
knowledge of what is not near to it. the same as His words [in the previous
Then God prescribed for the rational verse], "Many of mankind." He continues
faculty that it should come to know Him, by saying, "And many merit the chastise-
in order that it might turn to Him for ment" (22:18).
knowledge of Him, not to other than The reason for this is that, in respect of
Him. But reason understood the contrary the reflective faculty placed within his ra-
of what the Real meant by His words, tional soul which exists between light and
"Have they not reflected?" (7:184); Nature, God charged man to acquire
"[Thus do We differentiate the signs] for a knowledge (ma'rifa) of God through re-
people who reflect" (10:24). Hence reason flection, taking this knowledge freely
supports itself by reflection and makes it a from God. God also gave man the ra-
leader which it follows. It remains heed- tional faculty, as He gave it to other exis-
less of what the Real meant by "reflec- tent things. To the rational faculty He
tion." For He addressed reason in order gave the attribute of acceptance (qabul),
that it might reflect and come to under- and He enamored it of the reflective fac-
stand that the only way to know God is ulty in order for it to derive knowledges
for God to give it knowledge. (I 125.33) from it ....
When God gave to human beings the
The fundamental function of reflec- reflective faculty, He set up for them
tion is to lead man to the understanding marks ('a/a'im) and denotations (dala'il)
that he cannot reach knowledge of God which denote their temporal origination
(~uduth), since they subsist through their
through his own resources. Through re-
own entities. He also set up for them
flection, man sees that reason delimits marks and denotations which denote eter-
and defines everything that it knows, nity (qidam), which consists of the nega-
while the Divine Essence is beyond de- tion of beginning from God's existence.
limitation and definition. Hence the only These latter denotations are identical with
knowledge about God which reflection those which He set up to denote temporal 163
Epistemology

origination. Their negation (sa/b) from the dense and the subtle, the dark and the
Eternal Essence named God is itself the not-dark, all existent things confess to the
denotation, nothing else. existence of their Maker, without any
Hence denotations have two faces, doubt or uncertainty. They confess that
though they are one in entity. Their affir- the Absolute Unseen (al-ghayb al-mu{laq)
mation (thubiit) denotes the temporal belongs to Him. His Essence cannot be
origination of the cosmos, while their known through affirmation; rather, He is
negation denotes Him who brought the incomparable with anything appropriate
cosmos into existence. When man consid- for temporally originated things ....
ers with this consideration, he says, "I Then the divine reports (al-akhbar al-
have come to know (ma'rifo) God through ilahiyya) come on the tongues of the an-
the denotations which He has set up for gels, 8 who pass them on to the messen-
us to know ourselves and Him. They are gers, who pass them on to us. When a
the 'signs' (ayat) set up upon the horizons person has faith in these reports, leaving
and within ourselves that it may become his reflection behind him, accepting them
clear to us that He is the Real, and it has through the attribute of acceptance which
become clear to us." This is what we call pertains to his rational faculty, and at-
"self-disclosure" (tajalli), for self-dis- testing to the truthfulness of the report-
closure is put there in order to be seen. It giver in what he has brought, while act-
is referred to in God's words, "We shall ing as required, he is called "felicitous."
show them Our signs upon the horizons . . . He will be recompensed with the
and in themselves, until it is clear to them promised good in the Abode of Con-
that He is the Real" (41:53). In other stancy and permanent bliss ....
words, the self-disclosure which they But if a person does not have faith in
come to see is a mark. It is a mark of these reports, making his own corrupt re-
Himself, so it becomes clear to them that flection his leader and following it, and
He is the Real who is sought. Hence God rejecting the prophetic reports either by
completed this verse by saying, "Is not denying the root or by a corrupt interpre-
your Lord sufficient?", that is, sufficient tation ... , he is called "wretched." He is
as a denotation of Himself? The clearest so because of the darkness within him,
of denotations is a thing's denoting itself just as the felicitous person has faith be-
by its own manifestation. cause of the light within him. He will be
People's rational faculties gained this recompensed, with the evil which was
knowledge of declaring God's incompara- promised for denial, in the Abode of Ruin
bility by means of that which they attrib- and lack of constancy through the exis-
uted to the essences of the cosmos. It was tence of permanent chastisement. (II
a single denotation which went back and 648.7)
forth between negating knowledge of
God and affirming knowledge of the The Folk of Allah understand what
cosmos. (II 305.12) God meant when He commanded human
beings to seek knowledge. Hence they
Ibn al-'Arabi makes clear in many abandon reflection and return directly to
passages, including the continuation of God.
the above, that this knowledge of God's
incomparability can be attained by reflec- The Folk of Allah display their poverty
tion without revelation. But there is a toward God through their faith in Him,
good deal of knowledge about God in order to reach knowledge of Him,
and the next world that can only come which He has prescribed in the Law.
through a revealed Law; and again, there They know that what God desires for
is no way to actualize the felicity of the them is their return (rujii') to Him in that
next world without following the Law. and in every state. One of them says,
"Glory be to Him who has set down no
path to knowledge of Him except inca-
The creatures are divided into pacity to know Him!" Another says, "In-
"wretched" and "felicitous." Because capacity to attain comprehension is itself
164 Light pervades all existent things, the comprehension." The Prophet said, "I
Acquiring Knowledge

count not Thy praises before Thee." God to be mostly correct in knowledge of
says, "They encompass Him not in God, he should study each verse which
knowledge" (20:110). Hence they return has come down in the Koran in which re-
to God in knowledge of Him. They leave flection (tafakkur) and taking heed (i'tibiir)
reflection in its own level and give it its are mentioned. . . . For in the Koran God
full due (~aqq): They do not make it pass has mentioned nothing worthy of reflec-
on to that about which it is improper to tion and declared nothing productive of
reflect. And reflection upon the Essence heed or connected with reflection without
of God has been prohibited, while God there being correctness along with it ....
has said, "God warns you about His Self" But if you go beyond the verses of reflec-
(3:28). So God gives to them whatever tion to the verses of reason, the verses of
knowledge of Himself which He gives to hearing, the verses of knowing, or the
them, and He allows them to witness verses of faith and employ reflection
those of His creatures and loci of manifes- therein, you will never be correct....
tation which He allows them to witness. In the same way, the verses of consid-
They come to know that what is impos- eration can be classified along with re-
sible for reason by way of reflection is flection, like His words, "What, do they
not impossible as a divine relationship. not consider how the camel was cre-
(I 126.13) ated?" (88:17), or like His words, "Have
they not considered the dominion of the
heaven and the earth?" (7:185). (II
230.19)
Consideration Consideration has an important role to
play, but it must be limited to that role.
Those who depend upon consideration
The Arabic term na?ar, which is being
are misled when they deal with things
translated here as "consideration," means
which should be left, for example, to
to look, to gaze, to inspect, to investi-
faith. The possessor of consideration
gate. For the proponents of Kalam, it de-
(.ra~ib al-na?ar) is not wrong to consider.
notes the process of investigation and
He is wrong to depend upon considera-
reasoning whereby conclusions are
tion in all domains.
drawn. Ibn al-'Arabi uses the term tech-
nically to denote the speculative activities The possessor of consideration is de-
of rational thinkers in general, theolo- limited by the ruling power of his re-
gians and philosophers in particular. If flection, but reflection can only roam in
reflection denotes the faculty of reason its own specific playing field (maydiin),
whereby thought takes place, considera- which is one of many fields. Each faculty
tion denotes the specific kind of sophisti- in man has a playing field in which it
cated rational thinking indulged in by the roams and beyond which it should not
learned. step. If it goes beyond its field, it falls into
Like reflection, na?ar is a mental activ- error and makes mistakes and is described
as having deviated from its straight way.
ity commanded by the Koran, and in this
For example, visual unveiling may dis-
sense Ibn al-'Arabi sees it as totally posi- cover things where rational arguments
tive. But he holds that the learned classes stumble, because the arguments have left
have forgotten the original goal of con- their proper domain. The rational facul-
sideration, just as they have forgotten the ties which are described as misguided
proper use of reflection. have been led astray only by their own re-
flective processes, and their reflective pro-
Reflection is a state which offers no cesses have gone astray by moving about
preservation from error. Hence it is a sta- in that which is not their own abode. (II
tion of danger (khatar). He who possesses 281.15)
it does not know if he is mistaken or cor-
rect, since reflection accepts either. If the The greatest error of the possessors of
possessor of reflection wants his reflection consideration is to interpret the revealed 165
Epistemology

Law and to explain away those parts of it topic of discussion in such schools of Is-
which do not accord with their own lamic thought as principles of jurispru-
understandings of God and the cosmos. dence (u~Ul al-fiqh). The word is derived
The only way to escape the errors to from the same root as qilada, "necklace"
which reason, consideration, and reflec- or "collar." One person follows the au-
tion are prone is to adhere firmly to the thority of another by taking his words
Scale of the Law, which puts each thing and deeds as a collar around his own
back in its proper place. In this way the neck. Following authority is often con-
seeker opens himself up to the possibility trasted with ijtihiid, individual striving to
of gaining knowledge and certainty draw conclusions concerning the rulings
directly from God, as man was meant to of the Law, or mastery of the Law. It
do. This is the way of unveiling, or the may also be contrasted with ta~qlq, "veri-
witnessing of God's self-disclosure in all fication," which for Ibn al-'Arabi delin-
things. eates the station of the great gnostics,
those who have verified the truth of their
The eye is never mistaken, neither it knowledge through unveiling and direct
nor any of the senses. . . . The rational vision. Though Sufis often criticize fol-
faculty perceives in two modes: through lowing authority as the business of the
an inherent (dhiitf) perception in which it common people, the Shaykh bestows
is like the senses, never being mistaken; upon it an elevated degree in the hierar-
and by a non-inherent perception. The
chy of human situations, with the pro-
second is what it perceives through its in-
struments (iila), which are reflection and viso, or course, that man follow God's
sense perception. authority, nothing else. In any case, says
Imagination follows the authority (taq- the Shaykh, following authority is ines-
lfd) of that which sense perception gives capable. The question boils down to
to it. Reflection considers imagination what or whom we choose to follow.
and finds therein individual things (muf
radiit). Reflection would love to configure
Reason is full of meddling because re-
a form to be preserved by the rational fac-
flection governs over it, along with all the
ulty. Hence it attributes some of the indi-
faculties within man, since there is noth-
vidual things to others. In this attribution
ing greater than reason in following au-
it may be mistaken concerning the actual
thority. Reason imagines it has God-
situation, or it may be correct. Reason
given proofs, but it only has proofs given
judges upon this basis, so it also may be
by reflection. Reflection's proofs let it
mistaken or correct. Hence reason is a fol-
take reason wherever it wants, while rea-
lower of authority, and it may make
son is like a blind man. No, it is even
mistakes.
blinder in the path of God. The Folk of
Since the Sufis saw the mistakes of
Allah do not follow the authority of their
those who employ consideration, they
reflections, since a created thing should
turned to the path in which there is no
not follow the authority of another cre-
confusion so that they might take things
ated thing. Hence they incline toward fol-
from the Eye of Certainty ('ayn al-yaqfn)
lowing God's authority. They come to
and become qualified by certain knowl-
know God through God, and He is as He
edge. (II 628.27)
says about Himself, not as meddlesome
reason judges.
How is it proper for an intelligent man
to follow the authority of the reflective
Following Authority faculty, when he divides reflective consid-
eration into correct and corrupt? Neces-
sarily, he has need for a criterion (fiiriq)
In whatever knowledge it acquires, with which to separate the correct from
reason follows authority, so the wisest the corrupt, but he cannot possibly distin-
course is to follow the authority of God. guish between correct and corrupt reflec-
166 "Following authority" (taqlld) is a major tive consideration through reflective con-
Acquiring Knowledge

sideration itself. Necessarily, he has need ties. 9 Then he will know all affairs
for God in that. through God and he will know God
As for us, when we want to discern through God. In any case, there is no es-
correct reflective consideration from the cape from following authority. But once
corrupt so that we may judge by it, we you know God through God and all
first have recourse to God, asking Him to things through God, then you will not be
bestow upon us knowledge of the object visited in that by ignorance, obfuscations,
without the use of reflection. The Tribe doubts, or uncertainties. Thus have I
depends upon this and acts in accordance alerted you to something which has never
with it. This is the knowledge of the before reached your ear!
prophets, the friend~, and the possessors The rational thinkers from among the
of knowledge among the Folk of Allah. people of consideration imagine that they
They never transgress their places with know what consideration, sense percep-
their reflective powers. (II 290.14) tion, and reason have bestowed upon
No one can have knowledge unless he them, but they are following the author-
knows things through his own essence. ity of these things. Every faculty is prone
Anyone who knows something through to a certain kind of mistake. Though they
something added to his own essence is may know this fact, they seek to throw
following the authority of that added themselves into error, for they distinguish
thing in what it gives to him. Nothing in between that within which sense percep-
existence knows things through its own tion, reason, and reflection may be mis-
essence other than the One. The knowl- taken and that within which it is not mis-
edge of things and not-things possessed taken. But how can they know? Perhaps
by everything other than the One is a fol- that which they have declared to be a mis-
lowing of authority. Since it has been es- take is correct. Nothing can eliminate this
tablished that other than God cannot have incurable disease, unless all a person's
knowledge of a thing without following knowledge is known through God, not
authority, let us follow God's authority, through other than Him. God knows
especially in knowledge of Him. through His own Essence, not through
Why do we say that nothing can be anything added to It. Hence you also will
known by other than God except through come to know through that through
following authority? Because man knows which He knows, since you follow the
nothing except through one of the facul- authority of Him who knows, who is not
ties given to him by God: the senses and ignorant, and who follows the authority
reason. Hence man has to follow the au- of no one. Anyone who follows the au-
thority of his sense perception in that thority of other than God follows the au-
which it gives, and sense perception may thority of him who is visited by mistakes
be mistaken, or it may correspond to the and who is correct only by chance.
situation as it is in itself. Or, man has to Someone may object: "How do you
follow the authority of his rational faculty know this? Perhaps you may be mistaken
in that which it gives him, either the in- in these classifications without being
controvertible (qariira) or consideration. aware of it. For in this you follow the au-
But reason follows the authority of reflec- thority of that which can be mistaken:
tion, some of which is correct and some reason and reflection."
of which is corrupt, so its knowledge of We reply: You are correct. However,
affairs is by chance (bi'l-ittifliq). Hence since we see nothing but following au-
there is nothing but following authority. thority, we have preferred to folllow the
Since this is the situation, the intelligent authority of him who is named "Messen-
man who wants to know God should fol- ger" and that which is named "the Speech
low His authority in the reports He has of God." We followed their authority in
given about Himself in His scriptures and knowledge until the Real was our hearing
upon the tongues of His messengers. and our sight, so we came to know things
When a person wants to know the things, through God and gained knowledge of
but he cannot know them through what these classifications through God. The
his faculties give him, he should strive in fact that we were right to follow this au--
acts of obedience (ta'at) until the Real is thority was by chance, since, as we have
his hearing, his seeing, and all his facul- said, whenever reason or any of the facul- I 67
Epistemology

ties accords with something as it is in it- seeing. So also with the hearing, tongue,
self, this is by chance. We do not hold hand, foot, stomach, private parts, and
that it is mistaken in every situation. We heart. Outwardly there are only these
only say that we do not know how to dis- seven, and the heart is the eighth. Such a
tinguish its being wrong from its being person eliminates reflection from himself
right. But when the Real is all a person's completely, since it disperses his single-
faculties and he knows things through minded concern (hamm). He secludes
God, then he knows the difference be- himself at the gate of his Lord, occupying
tween the faculties' being right and their himself with examining his heart, in
being mistaken. This is what we main- hopes that God will open the gate for him
tain, and no one can deny it, for he finds and he will come to know what he did
it in himself. not know, those things which the mes-
Since this is so, occupy yourself with sengers and the Folk of Allah know and
following that which God has com- which rational faculties cannot possibly
manded you: practicing obedience to perceive on their own.
Him, examining (muriiqaba) the thoughts When God opens the gate to the pos-
that occur to your heart, shame (~ayii') sessor of this heart, he actualizes a divine
before God, halting before His bounds, self-disclosure which gives to him that
being alone (infiriid) with Him, and pre- which accords with its own properties.
ferring His side over yourself, until the Then he attributes to God things which
Real is all your faculties, and you are he would not have dared attribute to God
"upon insight"'" in your affair. earlier. He would not have described God
Thus have I counselled you, for we that way except to the extent that it was
have seen the Real report about Himself brought by the divine reports. He used to
that He possesses things which rational take such things through following au-
proofs and sound reflective powers reject, thority. Now he takes them through an
even though they offer proofs that the unveiling which corresponds with and
report-giver speaks the truth and people confirms for him what the revealed scrip-
must have faith in what he says. So fol- tures and the messengers have mentioned.
low the authority of your Lord, since He used to ascribe those things to God
there is no escape from following author- through faith and as a mere narrator,
ity! Do not follow your rational faculty in without verifying their meanings or
its interpretation (ta'wll)! (II 298.2) adding to them. Now he ascribes them
to Him within himself, with a verified
If on the one hand the Sufis follow the knowledge because of that which has
been disclosed to him. (I 271.27)
authority of God, on the other hand they
pass beyond mere following authority by
"verifying" the knowledge they have
received through the revealed Law. Thus
ta~qlq completes and perfects taqtid. Unveiling

This Tribe works toward acquiring


something of what the divine reports In many passages Ibn al-'Arabi ex-
have brought from the Real. They start to plains the difference between two basic
polish their hearts through invocations, kinds of knowledge: That which can be
reciting the Koran, freeing the locus [of acquired by the rational faculty, and the
God's self-disclosure] from taking possi- "gnosis" which can only come through
ble things into consideration, presence spiritual practice and the divine self-
(~u4ur), and self-examination (muriiqaba).
disclosure. In general, he refers to this
They also keep their outward dimension
second kind of knowledge as "unveiling"
pure by halting within the bounds es-
tablished by the Law, for example, by (kashf), "[direct] tasting" (dhawq), "open-
averting the eyes from those things such ing" (fat~), "insight" (ba~lra), and "wit-
as private parts which it is forbidden to nessing" (shuhiid, mushiihada), though he
look upon and by looking at those things employs other terms as well, and often
168 which bring about heedfulness and clear distinguishes among the various terms.
Acquiring Knowledge

The way of gaining knowledge is di- the various kinds of knowledge can be
vided between reflection (fikr) and be- ranked according to excellence:
stowal (wahb), which is the divine effu-
sion (fay4). The latter is the way of our The sciences are of three levels. [The
companions . . . . Hence it is said that the first] is the science of reason, which is
sciences of the prophets and the friends of every knowledge which is actualized for
God are "beyond the stage of reason" you by the fact that it is self-evident or
(waray tawr al-'aql). Reason has no entrance after considering proofs, on condition
into them through reflection, though it that the purport of that proof is discov-
can accept them, especially in the case of ered . . . .
him whose reason is "sound" (sallm), that The second science is the science of
is, he who is not overcome by any obfus- states (a~wal), which cannot be reached
cation deriving from imagination and re- except through tasting. No man of reason
flection, an obfuscation which would cor- can define the states, nor can any proof be
rupt his consideration. (I 261. 9) adduced for knowing them, naturally
Two ways lead to knowledge of God. enough. Take for example knowledge of
There is no third way. The person who the sweetness of honey, the bitterness of
declares God's Unity in some other way aloes, the pleasure of sexual intercourse,
follows authority in his declaration. love, ecstasy, yearning, and similar knowl-
The first way is the way of unveiling. It edges. It is impossible for anyone to know
is an incontrovertible knowledge which)s any of these sciences without being quali-
actualized through unveiling and which fied by them and tasting them ....
man finds in himself. He receives no ob- The third knowledge is the sciences of
fuscations along with it and is not able the mysteries (asrar). It is the knowledge
to repel it. He knows no proof for it by which is "beyond the stage of reason." It
which it is supported except what he finds is knowledge through the blowing (nafih)
in himself. One of the Sufis differs on this of the Holy Spirit (rii~ al-qudus) into the
point, for he says, "He is given the proof heart (rii'), 11 and it is specific to the
and what is proven by the proof in his prophet or the friends of God. It is of two
unveiling, since, when something cannot sorts:
be known except through proof, its proof The first sort can be perceived by rca-
must also be unveiled." This was the son, just like the first of the kinds above.
view of our companion Abu 'Abdallah However, the person who knows it does
[Mul,lammad] ibn al-Kattani in Fez. I not acquire it through consideration;
heard that from him. He reported about rather, the level of this knowledge grants
his own state, and he spoke the truth. it.
However, he was mistaken in holding The second sort is divided into two
that the situation must be like that, for kinds. The first kind is connected to the
others find the knowledge in themselves second kind above, but its "state" is more
through tasting without having its proof noble. The second kind is the sciences of
unveiled. This kind of knowledge may reports (akhbar), and concerning them one
also be actualized through a divine self- can say that they are true or false, unless
disclosure given to its possessors, who are the truthfulness of the report-giver and
the messengers, the prophets, and some his inerrancy in what he says have been
of the friends. established for the one who receives the
The second way is the way of reflection report. Such is the report given by the
and reasoning (istidlal) through rational prophets from God, like their reporting
demonstration (burhan 'aqll). This way is about the Garden and what is within it.
lower than the first way, since he who Hence the words of the Prophet that there
bases his consideration upon proof can be is a Garden is a science of reports. But
visited by obfuscations which detract his words that at the resurrection there is
from his proof, and only with difficulty a pool sweeter than honey is a science
can he remove them. (I 319.27) of states, a science of tasting. And his
words, "God is, and nothing is with
Him," is one of the sciences of reason,
At the beginning of the introduction perceived by consideration.
to the Futu~iit, Ibn al-' Arabi explains that The knower of this last kind--the sci- 169
Epistemology

ence of mysteries-knows and exhausts unveiling has no knowledge (man Iii kashf
all sciences. The possessors of the other lah Iii 'ilm lah). (I 218.19)
sciences are not like that. So there is no There is no knowledge except that
knowledge more noble than this all- taken from God, for He alone is the
encompassing knowledge, which com- Knower. He is the Teacher whose student
prises all objects ofknowledge. (I 31.11) is never visited by obfuscations in what
he takes from Him. We are those who fol-
True knowledge is unveiled by God, low His authority, and what He has is
without the intermediary of reflection or true. So we are more deserving in our
any other faculty. According to a saying following His authority of the name
"learned masters" ('ulamii') than the pos-
often cited in Sufi texts, "Knowledge is a
sessors of reflective consideration, those
light which God throws into the heart of who follow the authority of consideration
whomsoever He will." in what it gives to them. Necessarily they
never cease disagreeing in knowledge
Sound knowledge is not given by re- of God. But the prophets, in spite of
flection, nor by what the rational thinkers their great number and the long peri-
establish by means of their reflective ods of time which separate them, had
powers. Sound knowledge is only that no disagreement in knowledge of God,
which God throws into the heart of the since they took it from God. So also
knower. It is a divine light for which God are the Folk and Elect of Allah: The later
singles out any of His servants whom He ones affirm the truthfulness of the earlier
will, whether angel, messenger, prophet, ones, and each supports the others.
friend, or person of faith. He who has no (II 290.25)

11. THE SCALE OF THE LAW

Despite the complexity of Ibn al- to Islamic law as codified in the science
'Arabi's teachings, he offers a single basic of jurisprudence (fiqh). In this meaning,
solution for all questions and confusion. the term excludes Islamic intellectuality,
The Koran puts it succinctly: "Obey that is to say, most of the discussions
God, and obey the Messenger and those that occupy the philosophers or an Ibn
in authority among you; if you should al-'Arabi, su,ch as metaphysics, cosmol-
quarrel on anything, refer it to God and ogy, psychology, anthropology, proph-
the Messenger" (4:59). God and theMes- etology, eschatology, and so on. But
senger have set up the Scale of the Law when Ibn al-'Arabi employs the term
(al-mlzan al-shar'l), the norm which ap- sharla or the closely related term shar', he
plies to every human situation and puts often has in mind a more basic sense of
everything in its proper place. All the term, which is the "wide road" of Is-
knowledge and practice must be weighed lam, including all the teachings on every
in the Scale level that can properly be called Islamic.
Hence shar' or shari"' a in the sense of "re-
vealed Law" means for him not just the
legal statutes that guide activity, but also
The Revealed Law the intellectual principles which deter-
mine correct knowledge and the moral
principles and practical guidelines which
Both in Islamic texts and in English, give birth to noble character traits.
170 the term "Shari'a" is often used to refer In employing the term shan'a Ibn al-
The Scale of the Law

'Arabi may also mean the whole outward ters of the Shari'a. There is no single
dimension of Islam as opposed to the practice found in each and every proph-
(arlqa ("[spiritual] path") and ~aqlqa ("re- ecy, only the performance of the religion.,
ality") which make up its inward dimen- coming together in it, and the statement
sion. Thus the term "learned masters of oftawhid. This is indicated in God's words,
"He h~s laid down for you as Law what
the Shari' a" (' ulama' al-shart' a) means He charged Noah with, and what We
those scholars who have devoted them- have revealed to thee [0 Mul~ammad],
selves to jurisprudence and other rational and what We charged Abraham with, and
sciences, but who are not acquainted Moses, and Jesus: 'Perform the religion,
with Islam's more inward dimensions; and scatter not regarding it'" (42:13).
these are the "exoteric scholars" ('ulama' Bukhari has written a chapter entitled,
al-rusum). "The chapter on what has come concern-
The term shar' does not necessarily de- ing the fact that the religion of the proph-
note the revealed Law of Islam, since ets is one," and this one religion is noth-
every religion sent by God is a shar', and ing but taw~ld, performing the religion,
and worship. 2 On this the prophets have
religion in general may also be called
all come together. (II 414.13)
shar', especially when it is being con-
trasted with the path of reason. The term
shart'a may be used in the same way, The benefit of the Law is that it pro-
though mainly in the plural (sharii'i'), vides knowledge which is inaccessible
when it can perhaps best be translated as to reason without God's help, and this
"revealed religions." knowledge, as we have already seen,
Ibn al-'Arabi frequently affirms the provides the only means to achieve ulti-
validity of religions other than Islam, and mate felicity. In other words, human be-
in so doing he is simply stating the clear ings cannot reach God's saving mercy
Koranic position. His teachings on this without the Law.
point are far-ranging and cannot be dealt
with here, though they will be touched The opponents of the Folk of the ReaP
upon in several contexts. 1 For the pres- hold that the servant's reason can give
ent, a single quotation can suffice to pro- him knowledge of some-though not
vide his basic view. In discussing one of all-of the ways to gain nearness (qurba)
the thirty-six taw~lds or "declarations of to God. But there is nothing true in this
God's Unity" found in the Koran, Ibn al- statement, since no one knows the path
'Arabi declares that the nineteenth taw~ld which brings about nearness to God and
is expressed by the following verse: "We bestows endless felicity upon the servant
except him who knows what is in the Self
never sent a messenger before thee ex-
of the Real. And none of God's creatures
cept that We revealed to him, saying, knows that except through God's giving
'There is no god but I, so worship Me!"' knowledge of it, just as God has said:
(Koran 21:25). "They encompass nothing of His knowl-
edge save such as He wills" (2:255). There
This is a tawhld of the 1-ness . . . . It is is no subject in this book of ours nor
like God's words, "Naught is said to thee in any other book more difficult for all
but what was already said to the messen- groups to understand than this. (III
gers before thee" (41:43). 79.28)
In this verse God mentions "worship" God loves us for our sake. This is
('ibiida), but no specific practices (a'miil), shown by the following: He has given us
for He also said, "To every one [of the knowledge of our best interests (ma~iili~)
prophets] We have appointed a Law and a in this world and the next. He has set up
way" (5:48), that is, We have set down for us proofs so that we might know Him
designated practices. The periods of ap- and not be ignorant of Him. He has pro-
plicability of the practices can come to vided for us and blessed us, in spite of our
an end, and this is called "abrogation" negligence after corning to know Him
(naskh) in the words of the learned mas- and after the proofs which have been es- 171
Epistemology

tablished for us that every blessing in Then rulings become divided into com-
which we move about is His creation and mands (amr) and prohibitions (nahy).
returns to Him and that He has brought it Then commands become divided into
into existence only for our sake, so that two kinds: that in which man is free to
we may be blessed by it and dwell in it. choose, which is called "indifferent"
He left us in charge to do as we will. (muba~), and that in which he is encour-
Then, after this complete beneficence, aged. This second kind of command
we failed to thank Him, while reason re- becomes divided into two sorts: (1) If
quires that a benefactor be thanked. We a person refrains from the first sort, he
had already come to know that none does is blamed by the Law; this is the "incum-
good but God, and that among His good bent" (wajib) or "obligatory" ( far4). (2) If
doing toward us was that He sent a mes- he performs the second sort, he is praised,
senger to us to teach us knowledge and and if he refrains from it, he is not
courtesy (adab). So we knew what He blamed; this IS the "recommended"
Himself wanted for us, since He laid (mandub).
down the path of our felicity as the Law. Prohibition is divided into two kinds:
He clarified it and warned us against ig- (1) Prohibition in which he who does
noble affairs and told us to avoid base and something is blamed, which is the "for-
blameworthy moral traits. . . . So we bidden" (ma~;;;ur), and (2) prohibition in
came to know that if He did not love us, which he who refrains from a thing is
there would not have been any of praised, though he is not blamed if he
this. (II 328. 19) does it; this is the "reprehensible" (mak-
ruh).
The Law provides a wide variety of As for reports, they also are divided
into two kinds: One kind is concerned
knowledge, which can be divided into
with the situation of the Real, and the
two main sorts-rulings (ryukm) and re- other with the situation of the cosmos.
ports (khabar)-and a large number of Reports concerning the Real become
subdivisions. In Ibn al-'Arabi's view, divided into two kinds: (1) A kind which
these divisions manifest the very nature can be known, and (2) a kind which can-
of the revelatory Divine Word (al-kalimat not be known. That which cannot be
al-iliihiyya), which descends from God in known is His Essence. That which can
a manner which he often describes. 4 be known is divided into two kinds:
Once the single Word passes by God's (a) One kind demands the negation of
Throne and reaches His Footstool (kursl), likeness (mumathala) and interrelationship
(munasaba); these are the attributes of
it becomes differentiated into rulings
incomparability and negation, such as
and reports. Hence the five general cate- "Nothing is like Him" (42:11) and the
gories of actions set down in the Shari'a- name All-holy (al-quddus). (b) The sec-
incumbent, recommended, indifferent, ond kind demands likeness; these are the
reprehensible, and forbidden-have a attributes of Acts and every divine name
strict ontological basis. In the following that demands the cosmos. (II 257. 17)
passage Ibn al-'Arab1 is describing the
contents of a full revelation, or that
which is brought by a "messenger"
(rasiil). The revelation given to a "prophet"
(nabl) in the limited sense of the term The Scale
does not have the same scope. 5
The term "Scale" (mlziin) derives
The station of messengerhood is the
Footstool, since, beginning at the Foot- from a root which means "to weigh"
stool, the Divine Word becomes divided (wazn). As Ibn al-'Arab1 points out, the
into reports and rulings. The friends and Koranic term refers both to a pair of
prophets possess only reports, while the scales-or two pans and an indicator,
prophets of the religions and the messen- called a "tongue" (lisiin)-and to a steel-
gers possess both reports and rulings. yard or lever scale (qabbiin), which makes
The Scale of the Law

use of weights (ratl). 6 The Koran uses stricted to knowledge and practice. Prac-
the word in sixteen verses in several con- tice is of two kinds, that which pertains
texts, such as describing the Scale which to the sensory realm (~iss!) and that which
will be set up on the Day ofJudgment to pertains to the heart (qalbl). Knowledge is
weigh the works of the servants. Ibn al- also of two kinds: Rational ('aqll) and
Law-defined (shar'f). Each kind has a
'Arab1 summarizes the various meanings
known weighing (wazn) with God when
which have been given to the term in He bestows it. He asks from the servant,
commenting on the beginning of sura 55 when He prescribes the Law for him, to
of the Koran, "The All-merciful," espe- "set up the weighing with justice," so he
cially verses 7-9: must not exceed or cause loss in it. God
also says, "Go not beyond the bounds in
"He set up the Scale" in order to weigh your religion" (4:171); this is the meaning
the two weighty ones (al-thaqaltin [the jinn of "Exceed not the Scale". "And say not
and mankind]). "'Exceed not the Scale!"' as to God but the truth (al-~aqq)" (4:171),
by overdoing or underdoing for the sake which is the sense of His words, "Set up
of loss; "'but set up the weighing with the weighing with justice." Hence God
justice'," as in the equilibrium of the hu- seeks justice from His servants in their in-
man configuration, since man is the indi- teraction with Him and with everything
cator of the Scale, "'and cause not loss in other than Him, whether their own souls
the Scale'!", that is, do not underdo by or others. Hence, when God gives the
giving preponderance to one of the two servant success to set up the weighing,
pans, unless because of excellence. God there remains no good that He has not
also says, "We set up the Scales of justice" given him.
(21:47). For example, God has placed health and
Know that there is no art (~an'a), level, well-being in the equilibrium of the four
state, or station which does not have a natures' such that none of them prepon-
scale ruling over it in both knowledge and derates over the others, while He placed
practice. Meanings have a scale in the illnesses, diseases, and death in the pre-
hand of reason known as "logic" (manfiq); ponderance of one over the others. Hence
it includes two pans, known as "prem- equilibrium is the cause of subsistence,
ises." Speech has a scale known as "gram- while disequilibrium (in~iriif) is !the cause
mar" (na~w), by which words arc of destruction and annihilation. (III
weighed in order to verify the meanings 6.13,26)
which the words of that language denote.
Every possessor of a "tongue" has a scale, The specific scale which concerns us
which is the known quantity to which here is the Law, which is "the scale es-
God has joined him by sending down tablished within the cosmos to establish
provisions, for He says "[There is no
justice ('adl)" (II 463.16). Through it God
thing whose treasuries are not with us],
and We send it not down but in a known
shows man the way to right knowledge
measure" (15:21); "(Had God expanded of both Himself and the cosmos
His provision to His servants, they would and defines the path which leads to His
have been insolent in the earth]; but He mercy and gentleness in the next world.
sends down in measure whatsoever He
will" (42:27). He who desires the path of knowledge
God created man's body in the form of and felicity should not let the Scale of
the scale. He made the two pans his right the Law drop from his hand for a single
hand and his left hand, while He made the instant. For God keeps the scale in His
"tongue" the pillar of himself. So man be- hand, without letting it slip; "He lowers
longs to whichever side to which he in- the Just Scale (qist) and raises it. " 9 This
clines. God joined felicity to the right "Just Scale" is the state possessed by exis-
hand and wretchedness to the left. 7 • • • tence. Were the Real to let the Scale drop
God's words, "He gave each thing its from His hand, the cosmos would im-
creation" (20:50), pertain to the Divine mediately be annihilated through that
Scale .... dropping.
Know that the whole situation is re- In the same way, no one for whom the 173
Epistemology

Law is prescribed (al-mukallaj), or rather, Governing (al-mudabbir), for the Wise has
no human being, should let the Scale es- two properties: It determines the property
tablished by the Law drop from his hand of the places of affairs, and it determines
as long as he is prescribed for by the the actual putting of the things into their
Law, 10 for, should he let it drop from his places. How many a knower there is
hand for a single instant, the whole of the who does not put a thing in its place!
Law will be annihilated, just as the cos- And how many a placer of things who
mos would be annihilated were the Real puts them in places on the basis of chance,
to let the Scale drop from His hand. For not knowledge! (I 389.31)
the Law has a ruling which applies to
every movement and rest of the person The Prophet said, "Give to everyone
for whom it is prescribed so he cannot [or everything] who has a right (~aqq) his
put down the Scale as long as the Law [or her or its] right. " 12 Here the term
subsists. This is the Scale which pertains
~aqq may also be translated as "rightful
to him inasmuch as he is prescribed for by
the Law. (III 239.19) due" or simply "due." The right of a
person (or a thing) is that which he
deserves on the basis of his nature and in
keeping with the Law. Among those
people and things to which something is
Wisdom and Courtesy due, the Prophet mentioned one's Lord,
other people (guest, wife, friend), and
dimensions of one's self (soul, body,
Justice ('adl), which is achieved eye). One of the divine roots of giving
through the Scale, is closely allied to each thing its due is the principle
"wisdom" (~ikma). Justice is to put ev- enunciated by the Koranic verse, "God
erything in its proper place, while wis- gave each thing its creation, then guided"
dom is to act as is proper (kamii yanbaghl) (20:50).
in every situation, it being understood
that proper activity is impossible without [The gnostics] "give each thing its
discernment of the right relationships. due," just as God "gives each thing its
Ibn al-'Arabi follows a well-known for- creation." (III 106.18)
mula in defining the "sage" or "possessor The distinguishing feature of the gnos-
of wisdom" (al-~aklm)-whether God or tics ... is that they verify that which dis-
man-as "He who does what is proper tinguishes the realities. This belongs only
for what is proper as is proper" (II to those who know the order of God's
163.26). Wisdom is the hallmark of the wisdom in affairs and who "give each
thing its due." (II 480.31)
perfect friends of God, possessed in its
The Real described Himself as "gov-
fullness only by the "People of Blame," erning the affair" (10:3) only so that we
the highest of the perfect men. 11 might know that He docs nothing except
Since wisdom puts things in their that which is required by the wisdom
proper places, it rules over tartlb, that is, of existence (~ikmat al-wujud). He puts
arrangement, order, and hierarchy. "The everything in its own place, for if He did
name Wise arranges affairs within their not put it there, He would not be giving
levels and places the things within their wisdom its full due. But He it is who
measures" (II 435.15). It is the perfect "has given everything its creation." (III
combination of knowledge and practice. 163.19)
As Ibn al-'Arabi explains, God's name The perfection of every state lies in its
existence, for God says, "He gave each
the "Wise" has a compound meaning, thing its creation." When a person under-
since it shares the properties of two other stands and verifies this verse, he has no
names: r
way to plunge into meddling (foqul) with
God's wisdom in affairs]. However, med-
The name Wise has a face toward the dling is also one of God's creations, so
174 Knowing (a/-'a/im) and a face toward the God "has given" meddling "its creation;
The Scale of the Law

then He guided," that is, He explained character traits without being described
that he who begins to meddle is named by them. He brings together all the levels
the "one who occupies himself with what of the sciences, both those which are
does not concern him"" and the one praiseworthy and those which are blame-
who is ignorant of that which in fact does worthy, since, in the eyes of every intelli-
concern him. (II 654.20) gent person, knowledge of a thing is al-·
ways better than ignorance of it. Hence
The person who gives each thing its courtesy brings together all good (jirna
due is not only wise, but also "courte- al-khayr). (II 284.28)
The first thing which God has com-
ous" (adlb). Few concepts have been as
manded for His servant is "bringing to-
important in shaping the Islamic ethos as gether" (jam'), which is courtesy. "Cour-
"courtesy" or "etiquette" (adab), which, tesy" (ada b) is derived from "banquet"
in the view of the religious scholars, goes (ma'daba), which is to come together for
back to the Prophet's Sunna. He who has food. Likewise courtesy is to bring to-
courtesy has achieved perfect refinement gether all good. The Prophet said, "God
of words and deeds by weighing himself taught me courtesy." In other words: He
in the Scale of the Law as embodied in brought together in me all good things
the person of the Prophet. He always (khayrat); for he then says, "How beauti-
puts things in their proper places, says ful is my courtesy!" In other words: He
made me a locus for every beautiful thing
the proper thing at the proper time, and
(~usn).
acts according to the requisites of divine It is said to man, "Bring together the
wisdom. It is he alone among all human good things," for God placed His servant
beings who "gives each thing its due." in this world as a doer and a collector
who collects for His sake everything He
The Prophet said, "God taught me has designated for him. Hence in this
courtesy, so how beautiful is my cour- world he gathers together, so God created
tesy!"14 There are two ways to know the him only for gathering together. If he
stations in which the creatures-whether gathers together what he has been com-
the friends of God or others-stand with manded to gather and collect, he will be
God. The first way is unveiling. The per- "felicitous" and the Real will give him ev-
son sees the stations of the creatures with erything he collected and will favor him.
God and deals with each group in accor- Hence his recompense is everything he
dance with its station with Him. gathered together plus the beautiful divine
The second way is to cling to the Di- praise for carrying the Trust (amana),
vine Courtesy. "Divine Courtesy" (al- justice, and lack of wrongdoing and
adab al-ilaht) is that which God has laid treachery. (II 640.23)
down as Law for His servants through
His messengers and on their tongues.
The divine root of courtesy is that
The revealed religions (al-shara'i') are
God's rules of courtesy (adab Allah) which God creates the world in order to mani-
He set up for His servants. He who gives fest the properties of His names, and
God's Law its full due (~aqq) has gained each name requires specific situations.
the courtesy of the Real (al-~aqq) and These situations, when viewed as a whole,
come to know the friends of the Real. (IV may be called the "cosmos," the "exis-
58.26) tent things" and so on. Among these
Among the divine rules of courtesy is names are the "secondary causes" (asbiib),
everything that has come in the Koran in as discussed in an earlier chapter. Since
the mode of "Do this" and "A void that." God has established the secondary causes
So consider this in the Koran and gain a
for a purpose, the men of courtesy give
share of the Divine Courtesy, then put it
into practice. Then you will be given suc- each cause its due. Those pseudo-spiritu-
cess, God willing. (II 655.26) als who would ignore God's wisdom in
The man of courtesy (al-adlb) is he who creation and go "straight to Him" with-
brings together all noble character traits out the means He has established are far
(rnakarim al-akhlaq) and knows the base from Verification. Nevertheless, what 175
Epistemology

they say has a certain validity for those dom requires that the secondary causes be
who are still traveling within the "states" kept in subsistence while the servant's re-
(a~wiil) and have not passed to the more liance upon them be obliterated. (II
advanced "stations" (maqiimiit) of the 553.5)
gnostics.
The "wisdom" that requires the sub-
The great ones (al-akabir) never rely upon sistence of the secondary causes has to do
any of the things, only upon God. But with letting each reality play its proper
those who have refused to accept the exis- function. Thus, for example, the wisdom
tence of the secondary causes have refused in keeping the individual entity in exis-
to accept that thing whose existence the tence and never "obliterating" it has to
Real has established. Therefore they are do with the divine attributes of mercy
blamed by the High Tribe. 15 This refusal and jealousy.
to accept the secondary causes is an im-
perfection in station but a perfection in The poet says:
state, praiseworthy during wayfaring
(sulUk) but blameworthy at the end (al- You veil your heart from the mystery
ghaya). (II 602.22) of His Unseen:
If not for you, He would not have set a
Ibn al-'Arabi clarifies the relation- seal upon the heart. 17
ship between wisdom and the secondary
causes while explaining the term "oblit- For He made you identical with His
eration" (ma~w), which, he tells us, the curtain (sitr) over you. Were it not for this
curtain, you would not seek increase in
Sufis employ to mean "the removal of
knowledge. . . . Look at your human na-
the attributes of habit and the elimination ture (bashariyya). You will find it identical
of the cause ('illa)" (II 552.32). with the curtain of yourself from behind
which He speaks to you. For He says, "It
God would never remove the wisdom belongs not to any human being that
in things. The secondary causes are veils God should speak to him, except by rev-
established by God which will not be re- elation, or from behind a veil" (42:51).
moved. The greatest of these veils is your Hence, He may speak to you from your-
own entity. Your entity is the cause of the self, since you yourself are His veil and
existence of your knowledge of God, His curtain over yourself. And it is im-
since such knowledge cannot exist except possible for you to cease being human,
in your entity. So it is impossible for you for you are human in your very essence.
to be removed, since God wants you to Though you should become absent from
know Him. Hence He "obliterates" you yourself or be annihilated (fana') by a state
from yourself. Then you do not halt with that overcomes you, your human nature
the existence of your own entity and the subsists in its entity. Hence the curtain is
manifestation of its properties. Thus God let down, and the eye falls upon nothing
obliterated the Messenger of God in the but a curtain, since it falls upon a form.
property of throwing, though the throw- All this is required by the Divinity in
ing existed from him. God said, "You did respect of jealousy (ghayra) and mercy.
not throw," so He obliterated him, He is "jealous" lest the "other" (ghayr)
"when you threw," so He established the perceive Him and He be encompassed by
secondary cause, "but God threw" (8:17). him who perceives Him. 18 But He "en-
However, God only threw with the h<tnd compasses everything" (Koran 4:126), so
of His Messenger. In the same way, He He is not encompassed by him whom He
says in the .Sa~l~. "I am his hearing, his encompasses. He is "merciful" because
sight, and his hand. " 16 He knows that temporally originated
The "elimination of the cause" through things cannot remain along with the "glo-
obliteration lies only in the property, not ries of His face. "' 9 On the contrary, they
in the entity. Were the cause and second- would be burned away by them, so out of
ary cause to vanish, the servant would mercy toward them He curtains them so
I 76 vanish, but he does not vanish. So wis- that their entities may subsist. (II 554.3)
The Scale of the Law

The Real established the secondary For the person who abolishes secondary
causes in the cosmos since He knew that causes has shown discourtesy toward
there could be no name "Creator," nei-- God. He who dismisses that which God
ther in existence nor in supposition, has appointed has shown discourtesy
without the created thing, whether in and given the lie to God through dismiss-
existence or supposition. In the same ing the appointee. So look at the igno-
way, each divine name demands engen-- rance of him who misbelieves in second-
dered existence, such as Forgiver, Owner, ary causes and maintains that they must
Grateful, All-compassionate, and so on. be abandoned! He who abandons what
On this basis He established the second- the Real has established is a contender,
ary causes, and the cosmos became mani-- not a servant, an ignoramus, not a knower.
fest such that parts of it are related to I counsel you, my friend, lest you be
other parts. Hence no grain grows with- among the ignorant and the heedless! ...
out a planter, an earth, and rain. God So the divine man of courtesy (al-adib
commanded praying for water when tht: al-ilahl) is he who affirms what God has
rain does not come in order to affirm in affirmed in the place where God has af-
the hearts of His servants the existence of firmed it and in the manner in which He
the secondary causes. That is why no ser-· has affirmed it and who negates what
vant is addressed by the Law to leave God has negated in the place where God
aside the secondary causes, for his reality has negated it and in the manner in which
does not require that. On the contrary, He has negated it. (III 72.32)
God designated for him one cause rather God did not establish the secondary
than others. He said to him: I am your causes aimlessly. He wanted us to stand
cause, so depend upon Me. "Put all your . up for them and rely upon them with
trust in God, if you have faith" (Koran a divine reliance. The Divine Wisdom
5:23). makes this known. . . . So the divine
The Man (al-rajul) is he who affirms and courteous sage is he who places the
secondary causes, for if he were to negate secondary causes where God has placed
them, he would not come to know God them. (II 471.25)
and would not know himself. The No one abolishes the secondary causes
Prophet said, "He who knows himself except him who is ignorant that God has
knows his Lord." He did not say, "knows put them there. No one affirms the sec-
the Essence of his Lord," since the Lord's ondary causes except a great learned mas-
Essence possesses nondelimited Indepen- ter, a man of courtesy in knowledge of
dence. How could the delimited thing God. (II 123.4)
know the Nondelimited? But the "Lord" The sage among God's servants is he
demands the vassal, without doubt. So in who puts each thing in its place and does
"Lord" there is a whiff of delimitation. not take it beyond its level. He "gives
Through this the created thing knows its to each that has a due its due" and does
Lord. That is why God commanded him not judge anything according to his in-
to know that "There is no god but He" in dividual desire (gharaq) or his caprice
respect of His being a god, since "god" (hawa). Incidental desires have no affect
demands the divine thrall. But the Es- upon him. The sage considers the abode
sence of the Real is Independent of attri- where God has settled him for a fixed
bution, so there is no delimitation. term and he considers, without increase
The affirmation of secondary causes is or decrease, the scope of the activity
the clearest proof that he who affirms within this abode which God has laid
them has knowledge of his Lord. He who down for him in the Law. Then he walks
abolishes them has abolished that which in the manner which has been explained
cannot correctly be abolished. It is only to him and he never lets the Scale which
proper for him to support the First Cause, has been set up for him in this abode drop
who is He who created and established from his hand. (III 35.35)
these secondary causes.
He who has no knowledge of what
we are alluding to has no knowledge The courteous sage follows the Scale
of how to travel the path to knowledge of of the Law in all his activities. More
his Lord through the Divine Courtesy. than that, he follows the Scale of God's 177
Epistemology

knowledge, by means of which the Law bidden from doing, he looks upon what it
itself was established. has of the Real (al-~aqq) before it. Then he
gives that act its full due (~aqq). If it is one
of the affairs whose performance is com-
There is another Scale, besides the Scale manded, he gives it its due in its plane, so
of the Law, which man must not put that it stands up faultless in creation and
down and which will remain in his hand balanced in configuration. Hence that act
in this world and the next. That is the possesses nothing more which is due to it
Scale of Knowledge; the Scale of the Law from its performer. So to God belongs
is one of the properties of this Scale of creation (al-khalq) and to the servant be-
Knowledge. This Scale is like the Scale in longs the due (al-~aqq). The Real "gave
the hand of the Real. Through it man each thing its creation" and the creation
witnesses the Real's weighing. Its rela- "gives each thing its due." Hence the Real
tionship to the Scale of the Real is the re- enters into creation, and creation enters
lationship of one person who has a scale into the Real in this situation.
in his hand to another person who has If the affair should be one of those
a mirror. The person with the mirror sees things which are forbidden, then what is
in it the scale, the weighing, and the due for the servant is that he not bring it
weigher. He comes to know the form of into existence and not make manifest any
the situation through witnessing his own entity for it. If he does not act in this
existence .... manner, he has not given it its due, and it
The Unseen which weighs, the weigh- directs a claim against him. Hence he has
ing, and the Scale are the Presence of the not given everything its due. In the due
Real, while the mirror is the presence of he fails to stand in the station of the Real
man (~aqrat al-insan). The weighing be- in creation. Hence there is an argument
longs to God, while the witnessing be- against him. In this manner you should
longs to him whose soul is a mirror. He is know affairs and the divine commands.
the truthful man of felicity. The form of avoiding acts (tark) on
God unveils this mystery to whom He God's part is that He does not bring into
will in order to show him in his mirror existence one of two possible things, since
the form of the divine creation and how the other thing, whose existence has been
things emerge and become manifest in ex- given preponderance (al-murajja~), already
istence from Him. This situation is indi- exists. Hence, in respect of the fact that
cated by the words of Abu Bakr: "I have He did not bring it into existence, God
never seen anything without seeing God "avoided" it.
before it." Hence he saw from whence We bring this question to your notice
that thing emerged. because we know that you will not find it
The possessor of this unveiling is "ever- in any other book, since it is difficult to
creating" (khal/iiq), and that is what the conceive of, but easy to reach for him to-
Real desires from him through this un- ward whom God shows solicitude. You
veiling. Or rather, he comes to know will be given courtesy with God and al-
through this unveiling that he is ever-cre- lowed to preserve the Shari'a for His ser-
ating and has always been such, though vants. This is one of the mysteries stored
he was not aware. His unveiling gives away with God which does not become
him knowledge of the actual situation. He manifest except to the gnostics through
does not become ever-creating through God. It is not proper to conceal it from
the unveiling. any of God's creatures. If its knower con-
God commands the person who has ceals it, he has misadvised God's servant,
this unveiling to "give each thing its due" and "He who misadvises us is not one of
in its form, just as God "gave each thing us;" 20 in other words, misadvising is not
its creation" in its form. Then no claim part of the Prophet's Sunna....
will be directed against him by any cre- The courteous man is he who creates in
ated thing, just as no claim is directed this abode through works ('amal), not
against the Real by any created thing. through saying "Be!" Rather, he says, "In
This is the benefit of this unveiling. the name of God, the All-merciful, the
When the Real sets him in one of his All-compassionate." Thereby he is safe
I 78 acts which he is commanded to do or for- from his practice being shared by Satan.
The Scale of the Law

... When we name God over our works His servants enough of the light of guid-
when beginning them, we perform them ance so that they can walk in the darkness
alone and are preserved from Satan's of the secondary causes. . .. The veils of
sharing in them, for it is the divine name secondary causes are lowered down and
which conducts the work and comes be- will never be lifted, so wish not for that!
tween us and him. Some of the people of If the Real makes you pass beyond a sec-
unveiling witness this repulsion of Satan ondary cause, He will only make you pass
by the divine name when the servant be- to another secondary cause. He will not
gins a work. (III 239.23, 240.25) allow you to lose secondary causes com-
pletely, for the handhold to which God
commanded you to cling fast (3:103) is a
secondary cause, and that is the revealed
The Scale of Reason Law. It is the strongest and most truth-
ful of secondary causes, and it holds in its
grasp the light by which one can be guided
in the darknesses of the land and sea of
There is much that reason cannot these secondary causes. 21 For he who
come to know on its own (bi'l-istiqlal), does such and such-which is the secon-
that is, without the guidance of the Law. dary cause-will be recompensed with
Ibn al-'Arabi constantly criticizes the ra- such and such. So wish not for that which
tional thinkers for the wrong sources cannot be wished for, but ask God to
they employ in gaining knowledge and sprinkle that light upon your essence....
the fact that they do not make full use, if You should know, dear brother, that
any at all, of the Law. Somehow they fail the earth of your body is the true "wide
to notice that man is a creature utterly in earth" within which the Real commanded
you to worship Him. This is because He
need of a Creator, and that the faculty of
only commanded you to worship Him in
reflection, also created by the Creator, His earth as long as your spirit resides in
cannot be a sufficient means to know the the earth of your body. When it leaves
Creator. Because of God's utter incom- your body, this prescription by the Law
prehensibility in His Essence, man must will drop away from you, even though
come to know God through God, or at your body will continue to exist in the
the very least, through the revealed guid- earth, buried within it. Thus you know
ance of God. Any attempt to know God that this "earth" is nothing other than
without taking the Law into account is your body. He made it "wide" because
simply a lack of wisdom and courtesy. of the faculties and meanings which are
found only in this human, bodily earth.
But a rational faculty which follows the
As for His words, "So that you might
Law is well-guided and "sound" (saltm). have emigrated in it," this is because the
The following passage is taken from body is a place of both caprice and reason.
a chapter explaining the meaning of So "you might have emigrated" from the
"God's wide earth" (ar4 Allah al-wasi'a), earth of the caprice that is within it to the
which is mentioned in three Koranic earth of the reason that is within it, while
verses, including: "0 My servants who you were in the body; for you were in the
have faith, surely My earth is wide, so body, and you never left it. If caprice put
worship Me!" (29:56), and "But was not you to work, it ruined you and you were
God's earth wide, so that you might destroyed. But if the rational faculty
within whose hand is the lamp of the Law
have emigrated in it?" (4:97). The second
put you to work, you were saved and
verse quotes the words of the angels God saved you through it. For God took
to the evildoers whose souls they have the sound rational faculty, clear of the at-
taken after death, asking them why they tributes of imperfection and obfuscations,
did not do good works. and opened the eye of its insight to per-
ceive affairs as they are in themselves.
Since God established the secondary Therefore employ reason as it should
causes, He does not abolish them for any- be employed and "Give to each that has a
one. What God does is to give to some of due its due." (III 249.22) 179
Epistemology

One of the greatest proofs of reason's Him through these positive attributes.
inability to gain sufficient knowledge for Then, having set down the relationships
human perfection and felicity through its and established the cause and the kinship
own independent efforts is the fact of which bring about love, He said, "Noth-
God's having sent the prophets. ing is like Him" (42:11).
Hence He affirmed those secondary
causes which bring about love and which
Know, my friend, that God did not are denied by the rational faculty through
send the messengers aimlessly. If reason its proofs. This is the meaning of His
were able to grasp the affairs of its felicity words, "I created the creatures and I made
on its own, it would have no need for Myself known to them. Then they came
messengers, and the existence of the mes- to know Me. " 23 They only came to know
sengers would be useless ('abath). God through that which He reported
He by whom we are supported is not about Himself: His love for us, His mercy
similar to us, nor are we similar to Him. toward us, His clemency, His tenderness,
Were He similar to us in entity, our being His loving kindness, His descent into lim-
supported by Him would not be prefera- itation that we may conceive of Him in
ble to His being supported by us. Hence imaginal form (tamthil) and place Him be-
we know with certitude, with a knowl- fore our eyes within our hearts, our kibla,
edge not visited by obfuscations in this and our imagination, just as if we see
station, 22 that He is not like us and that Him. 24 Or rather, we do indeed see Him
no single reality brings us together with within ourselves, since we have come to
Him. Hence, man is necessarily ignorant know Him through His giving knowl-
of his final end (ma' al) and the place to edge, not through our own rational con-
which he will pass on. He is ignorant of sideration. (II 326.12)
that which will bring about his felicity, if
he should be felicitous, or his wretched-
ness, if he should be wretched, with Him Here we come back explicitly to a
by whom he is supported. For he is igno- familiar theme of earlier chapters: The
rant of God's knowledge of him. He does contrast between the incomparability of
not know what God wants from him, and God that is perceived by reason and the
why He created him. Hence he necessar- similarity that is perceived by imagina-
ily needs a divine bestowal of knowledge tion. Rational thinkers will never gain
(ta'rif ilahf) concerning this. (III 83. 7) true knowledge of God as long as they
cannot grasp that God is similar through
Another proof of reason's incapacity His self-disclosure just as He is incom-
before the reality of God is the fact that it parable in His Essence. This similarity is
cannot comprehend love, though God is not a matter of poetic "imagery," but of
by definition full of love and mercy. "imaginalization" in an ontological
Were reason in charge, no one would mode. God actually manifests Himself in
love God. the forms of self-disclosure, forms which
make up the contents of the cosmos and
By God, were it not for the Shari'a our minds. God "imaginalizes" Himself
brought by the divine report-giving, everywhere; wherever we look, we per-
no one would know God! If we had re- ceive His "dream." Or again: The words
mained with our rational proofs-which, of God are in and around us, since we
in the opinion of the rational thinkers, es- and the cosmos are the articulations of
tablish knowledge of God's Essence, show- the Breath of the All-merciful. Hence,
ing that "He is not like this" and "not like
says Ibn al-'Arabi, continuing the
that" -no created thing would ever have
loved God. But the tongues of the reli- passage just quoted, we love God in
gions gave a divine report saying that "He everything that we love. The love of
is like this" and "He is like that," men- God that is made possible through
tioning affairs which outwardly contra- revelation and the divine reports has a
dict rational proofs. He made us love salvific function, leading to felicity. But
!80
The Scale of the Law

even without revelation, love of God is a Affirming Similarity


fact of existence, though it cannot lead to
our felicity unless we are aware of Him
whom we love. God reveals Himself in The roots of God's similarity go back
every form, thus making it necessary to the Barzakh within which God mani-
that we love Him in any form which we fests Himself in the attributes of the crea-
love. Just as the possible thing by tures. Ibn al-'Arabi employs the term
definition has need of the Necessary "Barzakh" to remind us that the realm of
Being to stay in existence, and just as the the divine self-disclosure is an "isthmus"
creature is by definition poor toward the between two realities, Non delimited
Independent, so also all things love God Being and the nonexistent things. The
by their very nature. Barzakh is the Cloud, "within which
God came to be before He created the
creatures." The Cloud stands between
There are those among us who see God God and the cosmos. It is neither the one
but are ignorant of Him. But just as no
nor the other, or it is both the one and
one is poor toward anyone else, so also-
by God-none but God is loved in the the other. God in Himself is free of the
existent things. It is He who is manifest attributes of the created things, while the
within every beloved to the eye of every creatures in themselves have none of
lover-and there is nothing which is not God's attributes, since they do not exist.
a lover. So the cosmos is all lover and be- Through the Barzakh, God assumes the
loved, and all of it goes back to Him .... attributes of the creatures, and they take
Though no one loves any but his own on His names. Without the Barzakh,
Creator, he is veiled from Him by the God would be incomparable but in no
love for Zaynab, Su'ad, Hind, Layla, this way similar. In other words, there would
world, money, position, and everything
be no creation. It is the Barzakh that
loved in the world. Poets exhaust their
words writing about all these existent brings the cosmos into existence and al-
things without knowing, but the gnostics lows us to speak of His similarity to the
never hear a verse, a riddle, a panegyric, creatures and the creatures' similarity to
or a love poem that is not about Him, Him. The Barzakh is the ontological lo-
hidden beyond the veils of forms. (II cus for tashblh.
326.18)
Once you have verified that to which I The ocean of the Cloud is a barzakh be-
have alluded in this chapter, you will tween the Real and creation. Within this
come to know all the divine attributes, ocean the possible thing becomes quali-
whether eternal or temporally originated, fied by Knowing, Powerful, and all the
which were brought by the Law in the divine names of which we are apprised,
Book and the Sunna and which reason re- and the Real becomes qualified by won-
jects, since rational demonstrations are in- der, receiving joyfully, laughter, rejoic-
adequate for this perception. The knowl- ing, withness (ma'iyya), and most of the
edge that the Real exists is perceived by attributes of engendered things. 25 So re-
rational faculties in respect of the fact that turn what belongs to Him, and take what
they reflect and furnish proofs, but exis- belongs to you! He possesses descent
tence gives to every perception in the cos- (nuzul), and we possess ascent (mi'rtij). (I
mos the knowledge of the situation of the 41.31)
Real in Himself. There is none but a Real The Breath of the All-merciful is the
and he who is correct (mu~lb) [in his per- substance of the engendered things. That
ception]. So glory be to Him who laid is why God described Himself by attri-
out the stages, placed daytime and night- butes that belong to temporally originated
time within the reality of the day, and things, attributes which are considered
sent down the rulings, differentiating the impossible by rational and considerative
Law rather than leaving it undifferenti- proofs. (II 404. 9)
ated! (II 183.31) The substance of the cosmos is the
r8r
Epistemology

All-merciful Breath, within which the God is the Manifest, while the loci
forms of the cosmos become manifest. . . . of manifestation, though nonexistent
Hence, all the cosmos is noble (sharfj) in themselves, bestow their properties
in respect to its substance. There is no upon Him. Hence He possesses all the at-
ranking in excellence (tafoqul) within it. A tributes of temporally originated things.
maggot and the First Intellect are the
Ibn al-' Arabi makes this point while dis-
same in the excellence of the substance.
Ranking in excellence becomes manifest cussing the reality of "freedom" (~ur­
only within the forms, which are the riyya).
properties of the levels. There is a noble
and a more noble, a lowly and a more In reality, one does not say that the Real
lowly .... The forms [of the cosmos] are is "free." One says that He is not a slave,
nothing but the entities of the possible since He can only be known through neg-
things .... ative descriptions, not through positive
Do you not see that the Lawgiver, who descriptions of self. However, the loci of
gives reports from God, has never de- manifestation exercise a property upon
scribed the Real with any attribute within Him in respect to the fact that He is the
which there is differentiation without that Manifest. Then all things attributed to the
being an attribute of a created, temporally locus of manifestation are attributed to
originated thing, even though that which Him, whether these be what are com-
is described-God-is eternal? Reason, monly considered attributes of imperfec-
in respect of its consideration and re- tion or attributes of perfection and com-
flection, has no entrance into this. It does pletion.
not know the root of the cause of this,
nor does it know that the form of the cre- There is nothing but the Real,
ated thing lies within the substance of the nothing more,
cosmos. On the contrary, reason imag- so His Manifest Entity is the description
ines that the thing is the substance itself. of the slaves.
If you want to be safe, worship a Lord Say not that He is they,
who has described Himself as He has de- but say,
scribed Himself: Negate similarity and af- "Just as you have said,
firm the property! For such is the actual nothing more!"
situation, since the substance is not identi-
cal with the form, so similarity has no The tongues of the divine religions
property within it. That is why God says, have spoken of this as reality (~aqlqa), not
"Nothing is like Him"-because of the as metaphor (majiiz), even though consid-
lack of mutual similarity, since the reali- erative, rational proofs negate this sort of
ties reject that- "and He is the Hearing, thing from the Divine Side. But since the
the Seeing" (42:11), and thereby He af- religions have brought it, their stalwart
firms the forms. . . . He who does not learned masters interpret (ta'wll) the like
know his Lord through His reports about of this because they have no unveiling,
Himself has gone far astray .... since the Real is not their sight. 26
Affairs interpenetrate and properties be-
come united, while the entities are dis- You follow the authority of reflection
tinct. It is said about Zayd and 'Amr, "In in spite of its incapacity,
one respect he is not he." And it is said, and you have not been illumined
"In another respect, he is he, since the for an instant by the light of God.
two are human beings." That is what we Glory be to Him whose Essence
say about the cosmos in respect of its sub- is concealed from the eye,
stance and in respect of its form, just as but manifest among His creatures
God has said it: "Nothing is like through their attributes! (II 502.21)
Him, and He''- that is, He who has no
likeness- "is the Seeing, the Hearing."
But the property of hearing is not the The Barzakh or Breath of the All-
property of sight, so He separated and merciful is one entity ('ayn wa~ida),
joined, but He is neither separate nor which is neither Being nor nothingness;
182 joined. (III 452.30, 453.1,8) it is imagination, which is He/not He. In
The Scale of the Law

this intermediary realm, every attribute it corresponds to the actual situation of


necessarily goes back to God, who is the God.
source of each reality, even the reality of This entity actualizes perfection
"nonexistence." The nonexistent things through existence, which is one of the
remain immutably nonexistent, though states which make it undergo fluctuation.
So it is not lacking in perfection, except
they are qualified by their own at- that it negates the property of the Neces-
tributes, such as obeying the divine sity of Being, in order that it may be dis-
command "Be!" when it comes to them. tinct from God, since that distinction is
Then they pass from the "thingness of never abolished, and it can have no en-
immutability" to the "thingness of trance into Necessity.
existence," though they never really There is also another distinction, which
leave their state of nonexistence. is that the Real undergoes fluctuation in
states, but states do not make Him un-
dergo fluctuation, since it is impossible
In the state of immutability, the thing that a state should exercise a property
obeyed the command of its Lord to come over God. Rather, He exercises a prop-
to be (takwln). For a command cannot ap- erty over it. Hence He undergoes fluctua-
ply to something unless it is qualified by tion in them, but they do not make Him
hearing (sam'). The Divine Speech has no undergo fluctuation. "Each day He is
beginning and the immutable hearing has upon some task" (55:29), for if they made
no beginning, while that which under- Him undergo fluctuation, they would im-
goes temporal origination is the existen- pose upon Him properties.
tial hearing (al-sam' al-wujiidl), which is a But the entity of the cosmos is not like
branch of the immutable hearing. Hence that. States make it undergo fluctuation,
the state (~iii) of hearing's entity shifted so their properties and their making it un-
(intiqiil), but the hearing itself did not dergo fluctuation become manifest within
shift, since entities do not shift from state it through God's hand. The Real's under-
to state. On the contrary, states clothe going fluctuation in states is obvious
them in properties, so they become through descent, sitting, withness, laugh-
clothed in them. He who has no knowl- ter, rejoicing, approval, wrath, and every
edge imagines that the entity has shifted. state by which the Real has described
The states (a~wiil) [of the entities] de- Himself. So He undergoes flutctuation
mand (!alab) the divine names, but the en- in them through property. This is the
tities themselves are not described by de- difference between us and the Real; it
mand. Then the entities come to have i.s the clearest and most obvious differ-
temporally originated names and titles in ence.
keeping with the properties of the states Sharing (mushiiraka) takes place in the
within which they undergo fluctuation. states, as it takes place in the names, since
Were it not for the states, the entities the names are the names of the states,
would not become distinct (tamayyuz). while that which they name is the entity.
For there is only one entity, 27 which is Likewise they have another relationship in
distinct through its very essence from the which they name the Real. So He is Hear-
Necessary Being, just as it shares with It ing, Seeing, Knowing, Powerful, and you
in the necessity of immutability. are hearing, seeing, knowing, and power-
So God possesses the Necessity of Im- ful. The state of hearing, sight, knowl-
mutability and Being, while this entity edge, and power belongs both to us and
possesses the necessity of immutability. to Him, but it has two different relation-
The states are to this entity as the divine ships, since He is He, and we are we. So
names are to the Real. Just as the names we have instruments (iiliit), and we are
of the One Entity [of Being] do not plu- His instruments .... "You did not throw
ralize or multiply the Named, so also the when you threw, but God threw" (8:17),
states do not pluralize or multiply this en- while the instrument was the Messenger
tity, even though manyness and number of God. Hence the Real undergoes fluctu-
are intelligible within the names and the ation in states to make manifest our enti-
states. Hence it is correct to say about this ties, just as the number "one" undergoes
entity that it is "upon the Form," that is, fluctuation in the levels of the numbers to I 83
bpistemology

make manifest their entities. 28 (III wadd) and makes them manifest through
314.2) them. No meaning is able to hold itself
back from imagination.
As we saw in an earlier chapter, rea- The third talisman is habits ('adat).
son understands only one-half the know- God gave it power to rule over rational
souls ....
ledge of God; imagination and sense
As for the second talisman, which is
perception must supply the other half. imagination: It embodies meanings and
Reason declares God incomparable, but places them within the mold of sensory
imagination, itself manifesting the very forms. It also acts as a talisman upon in-
substance of the cosmos, perceives Him adequate understandings, which have no
as similar. The Barzakh is Nondelimited knowledge of meanings disengaged from
Imagination, so imagination provides the substrata. They do not witness them, wit-
key to grasping the nature of similarity. nessing instead only corporeous forms
Ibn al-'Arabi stresses once more the (~uwar jasadiyya). 29 Hence, he over whom
importance of imagination in Chapter the talisman of imagination exercises its
ruling property is deprived of perceiving
352 of the Futii~at, which is entitled,
affairs as they are in themselves without
"Concerning the true knowledge of the their imaginalization. Such a person re-
waystation of three talismanic mysteries, ceives nothing of the meanings, even
which are formed and governed by the though he knows that meanings are not
Muhammadan Presence." He explains corporeous forms and only become so
that the meaning of the word talisman when he gives form to them within his
(tilism, written (.l.s.m. in Arabic) can be imagination as distinct, spatially confined,
understood from its palindrome, the embodied forms, thereby bringing to-
word musallat (written m.s.l.(.), which gether two contraries. He knows that
means "a thing given ruling power (over they are not forms, yet he does not re-
ceive them except as forms.
something else)." A "talisman" is given
Even if someone desires to abolish this
the power to rule over everyone with talisman, he can never abolish it on this
whom it has been charged. plane (nash' a), since it has been established
by God. In the same way no divine talis-
Hence everything given power to rule mans-neither their entities nor their
is a talisman, as long as it keeps its ruling properties-can be abolished in the place
power. One kind of talisman has power where God has put their properties. How-
to rule over rational faculties. It is the ever, some people remove the talismans
strongest of talismans, since it does not let from their proper paths, and the property
the rational faculties accept from the di- of this removal can be abolished, but
vine reports and the prophetic sciences of nothing else. Know this!
unveiling anything except that which can The property of the possessor of this
come under their interpretation (ta'wll) talisman will be abolished when he sees
and the weighing of their scale. If it is not how reflection enters into the treasury
of this sort, they do not accept it. This of imagination, then turns away and
is the most intractable ruling power in emerges from it. He accompanies reflec-
the cosmos, for the person put under its tion to reason, in order to witness mean-
charge loses abundant knowledge of ings disengaged from forms as they are in
God. This talisman is reflection. God themselves. The first of these that he wit-
gave it power to rule over man so that he nesses is the reality of reflection, which he
would reflect by it and come to know had accompanied as far as reason. He sees
that he knows no affair whatsoever except it disengaged from the substrata which
through God. Then the one to whom rul- imagination had been giving to it. So he
ing power was given inverted the affair thanks God and says, "I knew it in this
and said, "You will not know God, 0 manner before I witnessed it," meaning
reason, except through me!" thereby to show that witnessing agrees
The second talisman is imagination. with knowledge.
God gave it power to rule over meanings When he ascends to reason, he wit-
184 (ma'anl). It clothes them in substrata (rna- nesses reason also as disengaged from
The Scale ofthe Law

substrata in itself, and he becomes inti- transmuted Himself (ta~awwul) in keeping


mate with the world of me~nings disen- with the property of that presence. But
gaged from substrata. Once he verifies the servant has already apprehended from
this witnessing, he passes on to witness- Him in the first place what he appre-
ing the Real, that is, His effect within the hended, so he knows that He has trans-
disengagement of the meanings. Though formed Himself into something else.
contingent meanings are disengaged, they Hence after this he is never ignorant of
are not disengaged from their contin- Him or veiled from Him, since God
gency (~uduth) and their possibility. So never discloses Himself to anyone only to
the possessor of this station witnesses veil Himself after that; this is totally im-
within them the original nonexistence possible.
which belongs to them, and he witnesses When the servant descends to the world
their contingency and their possibility of his own imagination, having come to
-all of that without any material form. know affairs as they are in themselves
When he climbs up to the Real, the first through witnessing, while before that he
thing he witnesses is the entity of His had known them through knowledge and
possibility, so he is overcome by bewil- faith, he sees the Real in the Presence of
derment (ta~ayyur) in Him, since this Imagination as a corporeous form. Hence
knowledge is impossible. Then the Real he never denies Him, unlike the passer-by
takes him by the hand in that by letting ('abir) and the outsiders (ajtlnib).
him know that what he witnessed from Then he descends from the world of
the Real at the beginning was the possibil- imagination to the world of sensation and
ity that goes back to the witnesser. In sensory things, and the Real descends
other words, he witnessed the reality con- along with him through his descent, since
cerning which he says, "It is possible that He never leaves him. He witnesses Him
the Real will give me to witness Himself, as the form of all corporeal bodies and ac-
and it is possible that He will not." Hence cidents which he witnesses in the cosmos,
this possibility which became manifest to not making Him specific to one form
him from the Real at the beginning of his rather than another. He sees that He is
witnessing had given preponderance identical with himself, while he knows
(tarjl~) to one of the two modes of possi- that He is neither identical with himself
bility. At this he becomes still and his be- nor identical with the cosmos. But he is
wilderment disappears. not bewildered in that, for he verifies that
Then the Real discloses Himself to him the Real accompanies him in his descent
without any substratum (madda), since at from the station appropriate to Him, be-
this point he is not present in the world of yond which there is no world. He trans-
substrata. He gains knowledge from God mutes Himself within every presence in
in the measure of that self-disclosure; but accordance with the property of that
no one is able to designate what is dis- presence.
closed to him from the Real, except the This is a rare place of witnessing. I have
fact that He disclosed Himself without seen no one who acknowledges it without
substratum, nothing else. The cause of having witnessed it except on the level of
this is that God discloses Himself to every the world of corporeal and corporeous
servant in the cosmos within a reality bodies. The cause of this is that they do
which is not identical to His self- not accompany the Real when He de-
disclosure to any other servant, nor is it scends from the station appropriate to
identical to what He discloses to that ser- Him. Hence those who acknowledge this
vant in another locus of self-disclosure. within the world of corporeal and corpo-
Hence, that within which He discloses reous bodies do so only as followers of
Himself does not become designated, nor authority. This is recognized by the fact
can it be communicated. that they do not stay in the company of
When this servant returns from this sta- this place of witnessing and are repeatedly
tion to his own world, the world of sub- overcome by heedless moments. Only
strata, the Real's self-disclosure accom- when they are present with themselves do
panies him. Hence he does not enter a they acknowledge it. But the possessor of
single presence which possesses a prop- tasting is not heedless of this for an m-
erty without seeing that the Real has stant, since it is known by him. 18 5
Epistemology

Heedlessness occurs in relation to one things as proof of their temporal origin-


thing or another thing, but not every- ation.
thing. The possessor of tasting witnesses Once the people heard what was de-
the Real within everything within which nied and rejected by rational, considera-
the heedless person does not witness tive proofs, they split into a number of
Him, such that He is not witnessed in the groups.
state of his heedlessness. He who does not One person turned back on his heels
possess this station through tasting is and had doubts about the proof which
made heedless of the Real by the things, had shown him that the messenger was
until He calls him into His presence at speaking the truth. He set up against that
certain times. This is what separates the proof various obfuscations that detracted
people of tasting from others, so do not from it and turned him away from faith
deceive yourself! and knowledge of it. So he turned back
I have not seen anyone who possessed on his heels.
this station through tasting, though One group said: "Here in our group
my wife, Maryam hint Mul_tammad ibn there are some who have nothing but
'Abdiin, told me about someone whom the light of faith. They know nothing
she had seen and she described his state to of knowledge or its path. We do not
me. I understood that he possessed this doubt the truthfulness of this messenger
witnessing, except that she mentioned or his wisdom. And one part of wisdom
various states of his which show that he is to take into account the weakest. Hence,
was not strong in it and was weak, even through these attributes by which the
though he had attained to verification of messenger described his Lord, he has ad-
this state. (III 232.20, 234.15) dressed this weak fellow who does not
possess the proofs of consideration and
has nothing but the light of faith.
Thereby the messenger has been merciful
toward him, for his faith will not grow
Reactions to the Revelation of Similarity except through descriptions like this. And
the Real can describe Himself as He likes
according to the measure of the rational
faculty of the recipient, even if in Himself
Ibn al-'Arabi divides people into a He is different from that. The report-
number of groups according to their re- giver has relied upon this description,
action to the reports of the revealed while observing the right of the weakest
Law concerning God's attributes of simi- one. For the messenger knows that we
larity. He describes what happens when a have knowledge of God and has verified
messenger comes from God and is ac- our sincerity concerning him and our
cepted by the people, but then he begins dependence upon our proofs. None of
to speak about God in terms of similar- this detracts anything from what we
ity. The Shaykh maintains that this situa- have, since we have understood what this
messenger really meant." Hence this
tion occurs in all religions, though as
group remained firm in their faith, but in
usual he employs Koranic references themselves they concluded that the mes-
showing the specific Islamic examples senger's descriptions of his Lord were im-
which he has in mind. possible. They accepted it as a wisdom
and a means of attracting the weakest.
The messenger began to describe the Another group of those present said:
Real, on behalf of whom he had come, "This description contradicts our proofs,
to the people, in order that they might but we are certain concerning the truth-
come to know Him through a knowledge fulness of this report-giver. The most we
which they had not had. They had main- can grasp in our knowledge of God is
tained that the like of this was impossi- the negation of everything we ascribe to
ble for the Real, since the people of con- Him, since all that has a temporal origin.
siderative proofs had negated it from But the messenger has more knowledge
Him. These were attributes which they than we concerning this relationship. So
186 affirmed for the temporally originated we have faith in it in order to attest to
The Scale of the Law

him, and we depend in that upon him and Presence of Imagination. These people
upon God, since faith in these words will had no knowledge of the disengagement
not hurt us. But the attribution of this of meanings or the abstrusities of the
description to God is unknown to us, mysteries, nor did they know the mean-
since His Essence is unknown by way of ing of God's words, "Nothing is like
positive attributes or by negation, so this Him," or His words, "They measured
is not reliable. The root is ignorance of not God with His true measure" (6:91). In
God, so ignorance of the relationship to all their affairs they stopped with imagi-
Him of what the Real ascribes to Himself nation, while the light of faith and attesta-
in His Book is even greater. So let us sub- tion was in their hearts. They were igno-
mit (islam) and have faith in His knowl- rant of the language, they ascribed the
edge of what He says about Himself." affair to its outward significance, and they
Another group of those present said: "We did not refer its knowledge back to God.
do not doubt concerning the proof of the They believed that the description was re-
truthfulness of this report-giver. But in lated to God as it was related to them-
describing God to us, he has brought var- selves. There is no group weaker than this
ious things which, if we remain with their group, because they have only one-half of
outward significance (~ahir) and ascribe faith, since they accept the description of
them to God just as we ascribe them to similarity but have no rational
ourselves, will lead us to conclude that He understanding of the attributes of incom-
is temporally originated, and He will parability derived from "Nothing is like
cease being a god. However, these things Him."
have been established. So let us consider: Those who are surely saved among the
Do these descriptions have a proper ap- groups which have reached the truth are
plication in the tongue in which they those who have faith in that which comes
came? For the messenger is only sent in from God as God means it and knows it,
the tongue of his people." Hence they while negating similarity through "Noth-
considered various stratagems by which ing is like Him."
those descriptions could be interpreted These, my friend, are the tongues of
(ta'wtl) and which would require incom- the revealed religions in the cosmos. They
parability and negate similarity. They have brought, for the Real Himsellf, [attri-
applied those words in accordance with butes such as] form, eye, hand, foot, hear-
that interpretation. When it was said to ing, seeing, approval, wrath, wavering,
them, "What called you to do that?", receiving joyfully, wonder, rejoicing,
they replied, "Two things. First, the fact laughter, boredom, deception, guile,
that those descriptions detract from our mockery, derision, running, rushing, de-
proofs. For we have established through scent, sitting, limitation through near-
rational proofs the truthfulness of the ness, patience with injury, and other de-
messenger's claim, but we do not accept scriptions of created things of this sort.
that which detracts from rational proofs, All of this came so that we might have
for that would detract from the proof of faith in all of it and so that we might
his truthfulness. Second: This truthful know that the divine self--disclosure
messenger has said to us that God Him- within the entities of the possible things
self says, 'Nothing is like Him' (42:11), bestows these descriptions, for there is no
and this corresponds with rational proofs. witnesser and nothing witnessed except
So his truthfulness in our view is God. The tongues of the religions are the
strengthened through the like of this. But proofs of the self-disclosures, and the self-
if we were to say what he says about God disclosures are the proofs of the divine
in the manner given by the outward sig- names. (II 306. 9)
nificance of the words, and if we were to
apply that description to Him just as we
Those who are "surely saved" affirm
apply it to temporally originated things,
then we would go astray. So we began God's similarity and negate it at the same
interpreting in order to affirm these two time through affirming His incompara-
points." bility. The divine root of the necessity
Another group, which is the weakest of for man to affirm both incomparability
them all, was not able to go beyond the and similarity is the fact that he was ere- r 87
Epistemology

ated "upon the form" of the all-compre- In the cosmos, the root is ignorance
hensive name (al-ism al-jiimi'), Allah. (jahl), while know!Cdge is acquired (mus-
Hence he contains within himself all the tafod). Knowledge is existence, and exis-
attributes of God. The name Allah is the tence belongs to God, while ignorance is
"coincidence of opposites," since it nonexistence, and nonexistence belongs
to the cosmos. Hence it is best to follow
includes all the contrary names. So also
the authority of the Real, who possesses
man, the "all-comprehensive presence" Being, rather than the authority of him
(al-~a4rat al-jiimi'a), combines all opposite who is created like you. Just as you have
qualities within himself. acquired existence from Him, so also ac-
quire knowledge from Him. Halt with
Following authority is the root to which the reports that He has given about Him-
returns every knowledge, whether it be self, and pay no regard to contradiction
derived from consideration, self-evidence (tan.iquq) in the reports, since each report
(4arura), or unveiling. But in following dwells within a specific level, while you
authority, people are ranked in levels: are the presence (~a4ra) which compre-
Some of them follow the authority of hends all those levels.
their Lord. They are the highest group, So stand "upon a clear sign" (11:17)
the possessors of sound knowledge. from your Lord, and speak not on the ba-
Some of them follow the authority of sis of your rational faculty, since it will
their rational faculties while being posses- turn you over to none but itself. God cre-
sors of self-evident knowledges, such ated you only for Him, so let not your ra-
that, were anyone to try to make them tional faculty take you away from Him.
fall into doubt through some possible When He discloses Himself to that
affair, they would not accept it. Even which is self-evident to your reason, you
though they know it is possible, they will necessarily find that you are sup-
would never accept it. When this is men- ported by something which you cannot
tioned to them, they say that the affair know through following the authority of
does not detract from self-evident knowl- this rational self-evidence. When He dis-
edge. There are many examples of this, closes Himself to you in your reason's
but I will not mention these-for the sake consideration, you will find in yourself
of weak souls, who might accept them, that the Support of your existence is an
and that would lead to loss and foolish- ontological thing which is not similar to
ness. you, since your own entity and every-
Some of them follow the authority of thing by which you are described is tem-
their rational faculty in respect of what porally originated and in need of One to
their reflection gives to it. bring it into existence, just like you. Your
There are only these three groups, so reason will say to you in respect of its
following authority includes all knowers. consideration that "Nothing is like" this
Following authority is a delimitation, Existent in the cosmos. And you arc the
so the cosmos never leaves its reality, for whole cosmos, since every part of the
the cosmos is the delimited existent and cosmos shares with the whole in denota-
its knowledge has to be delimited like it- tion, as we have explained.
self. ... When He discloses Himself to you in
Since following authority is the ruler- the Law, He will explain to you the dis-
there being no escape and no alterna- parity of the levels of the cosmos. He will
tive--it is best to follow the Lord in the disclose Himself to you in each level. So
knowledge of Him which He has revealed follow the authority of the Lawgiver in
through the Law. Do not swerve aside that until you experience unveiling. Then
from that, for He has given you reports you will see the situation in the form of
of Himself concerning knowledge of yourself.
Him. Why should you follow the author- Therefore, follow the authority of your
ity of your rational faculty, in respect of Lord. You will see Him declared similar
its following the authority of its reflec- and declared incomparable. You will
tion, which considers Him through its ev- gather together and separate, declare in-
idence and gives to you the contrary of comparable and declare similar. And all
r88 what He has given concerning knowledge of this is you, since it is a divine self-
of Himself? disclosure in the levels, and you comprc-
The Scale of the Law

hend all of them. They all belong to you and a "mark" denotes only that which is
and to the cosmos. They determine the limited (ma~dud). Hence it only denotes
properties of everyone who becomes you, since "God is Independent of the
manifest within them. So He becomes worlds" (3:97). Hence the cosmos does
colored by them in the eye of the ob- not denote knowledge of His Essence,
server. Hence we said that they belong only knowledge that He exists. (III
"to you" and "all of this is you." For 160.13)
"worlds" derives from "mark" ('alama),
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5

Hermeneutics
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1 2. FA I T H A N D R A T I 0 N A L
INTERPRETATION

Though reason cannot grasp the full into practice. iman is often employed
significance of God's Reality on its own, synonymously with ta~dlq, which means
it provides the indispensable support for to attest, declare or acknowledge some-
understanding His Unity. When Ibn al- one's truthfulness. The theologians nor-
'Arabi criticizes the rational thinkers, for mally define "faith" as believing (i'tiqiid)
the most part he has in mind people who or attesting (ta~dlq) in the heart and ac-
have faith in the prophetic message, not knowledging with the tongue, though
those who have rejected it completely. most of them add that this belief must
Reason is the tool of the theologians and also be put into practice ('amal) through
philosophers who insist on interpreting following the Law. The fact that "heart"
the revealed texts in keeping with their is mentioned should not lead us to think
own presuppositions. The outright un- that belief is emotive, since the heart is
believers are hardly worth mentioning the seat of reason and unveiling. The
and can be dismissed with a wave of the synonym ta~dlq brings this out clearly,
hand, since no one can claim human sta- since acknowledging someone's truthful-
tus without faith in God. What then is ness means that one has recognized he is
faith? speaking the truth, and truth is under-
stood through intelligence. Hence we see
Ibn al-'Arabi defining faith as a kind of
knowledge, though he also differentiates
Faith it from knowledge in many passages. In
the following he shows the difference be-
tween faith and the knowledge which
The word "faith" (!man) is derived comes by way of evidence and proofs
from the root '.m.n., whose basic mean- (daUZ).
ing is to be or to feel secure and safe, a
sense also contained in the word lmiin. There is no need for the messenger to
To have faith is to feel secure concerning provide proofs to those to whom he has
the knowledge one has received about been sent. . . . Hence, even when the
God and to commit oneself to putting it proofs exist, we do not find everyone to
Hermeneutics

whom the message is sent having faith believes. That is why God says concern-
in it, only some of them. If the proof ing the faithful, "[Upon the day when
brought about the faith, everyone would God will not degrade the Prophet and
have faith. Moreover, we see faith in those who have faith with him,] their
those who have not been provided with light running before them and on their
proofs. This shows that faith is "a light right hands" (66:8). Here He means by
which God throws into the heart of whom- "light" the righteous works with God
soever He will of His servants." 1 Faith which they had sent ahead. "(Men and
does not belong to the proof itself, so we women who have submitted, men and
do not make proofs its precondition. women who have faith . . . ], for them
Faith is a self-evident (4arnri) knowl- God has prepared forgiveness and a
edge which a person finds in his heart and mighty wage" (33:35). The Prophet said,
is not able to repel. When someone gains "The person of faith is he before whom
faith through proofs, his faith cannot be people feel secure (amn) with their posses-
relied upon, since he will be susceptible to sions and themselves." 2 He also said,
obfuscations detracting from his faith, be- "The person of faith is he before whose
cause it derives from rational considera- calamities his neighbor feels
tion, not from self-evidence. (II 259.1) secure." 3 (II 26.35)
It may happen that a messenger brings
about a miracle (mu'jiza), that it is known One of the differences between knowl-
that it is a miracle, and that the observers
edge and faith is that faith demands that
acquire knowledge of the truthfulness of
the messenger, but that they are not given we ascribe a truth to God, whereas
faith in him. "[When Our signs came to knowledge of the same truth does not
them visibly, they said, 'This is plain sor- demand its ascription to anyone.
cery';] they denied them, though their
souls acknowledged them, wrongfully Iblis came to Jesus in the form of an old
and out of pride" (Koran 27:14). Hence man of outward beauty . . . . He said to
you come to know that faith is not given Jesus, "0 Jesus, say 'There is no god but
by the furnishing of proofs. On the con- God'!", being satisfied that Jesus would
trary, it is a divine "light which God obey his command to this extent.
throws into the heart of whomsoever He Jesus replied, "I will say it, but not on
will of His servants." It may come after the basis of your words. 'There is no god
proofs, and it may come after no proof but God'." So Iblis went away defeated.
whatsoever, just as God says, "[You did From here you come to know the dif-
not know what the Book was, nor faith;] ference between knowing something and
but We made it a light, whereby We having faith in it, and you will know that
guide whom We will of Our servants" felicity lies in faith. Faith is to say what
(42:52). (II 374.24) you know or what you used to say from
your first messenger-who is (for exam-.
"Belief" (i'tiqiicl) does not coincide ple] Moses-on the basis of the words of
with "faith" as defined here. Before the this second messenger, who is
detailed discussion of belief in Chapter Mul:_lammad. You do not say it on the
19, it will be sufficient to say that belief basis of your knowledge of your first say-
ing of it. Then you will be seen to have
is to accept something as true, while faith
faith, and felicity will come to you. But
is not only to accept it, but also to ac- when you do not say it on the basis of his
knowledge it verbally and put it into words, but you make it appear that you
practice. said it on the basis of his words, then you
are a hypocrite (munii.fiq).
Faith is speech (qaw/), practice ('amal), God says, "0 you who have faith,"
and belief (i'tiqiid). Its reality is belief, ac- meaning either the People of the Book-
cording to both the Law and lexicogra- since they were saying what they were
phy; it appears in speech and practice ac- saying on the basis of their prophets Jesus
cording to the Law, but not lexicography. or Moses-or anyone who had faith on
The person of faith (mu'min) is he whose the basis of the previous scriptures; hence
194 speech and act {fi'l) accord with what he He said, "0 you who have faith." Then
Faith & Rational Interpretation

He says to them, "Have faith in God" The veil of associating comes between the
(Koran 4:136). In other words: Say, servant and the Covenant faith like a
"There is no god but God," on the basis cloud which comes between the eye and
of Mul:].ammad's words, not on the basis the sun. When the cloud passes by, the
of your knowledge of that, nor on the ba- sun appears to the eye. Such is the appear-
sis of your faith in your first prophet. [In ance of faith to the servant when associat-
the second case] you will bring together ing others with God is eliminated, if the
two faiths, and you will have two re- one who associates admits the existence of
wards. (I 283.4) God. (11616.19)

According to a famous hadith, "Every One of the means whereby God tests
child is born according to primordial the truthfulness of faith is prescription of
nature (fi(ra); then his parents make him the Law.
into a Jew, a Christian, or a Zoroas-
trian. " 4 This primordial nature first man- When God created this human con-
ifested itself at the Covenant made with figuration and ennobled him as He did
God before the children of Adam entered through the all-comprehensiveness Uam-
into this world. It is woven out of faith. 'iyya) which He placed within him, He
put within him claims (da'wa) in order to
perfect the form of his configuration, for
Original faith (ai-rman al-a~lr) is the pri-
making claims is a divine attribute. God
mordial nature in accordance with which
says, "Verily I am God, there is no god
God created mankind. It is their wit-
but I; so worship Me!" (Koran 20:14).
nessing to His Oneness (wa~doniyya) at
Hence He claims that there is no god but
the taking of the Covenant. Hence every
He, and this is a truthful claim. No ar-
child is born in keeping with that Cove-
gument is directed against anyone who
nant. However, when he falls by means
makes a truthful claim, and he has
of the body into the confines of Nature-
authority over everyone who rejects his
the place of forgetfulness-he becomes
claim....
ignorant and forgets the state which he
A claim is a report, and in respect of
had had with his Lord. Hence, when he
being a report both truthfulness and false-
reaches the state which allows rational
hood may equally be attributed to it and
consideration, he needs to consider proofs
understood from it. Hence we come to
concerning the oneness of his Creator. If
know that there must be testing. The per-
he does not reach this state, his property
son of faith claims faith, which is attesta-
is the same as that of his parents. If they
tion to the fact of God's existence and His
had faith, he will take the declaration of
Unity, the fact that there is no god but
God's Unity from them, as a following of
He, that "Everything is annihilated except
authority. Whatever their religion might
His Face" (28:88), and that "To God be-
be, he joins with them. longs the affair, before and after" (30:4).
He whose faith is a resolute following
When he claims with his tongue that this
of authority is more protected and firm in
is what is enfolded within his breast and
his faith than he who takes it from proofs,
fastened in his heart, it is plausible that he
because of the bewilderment, unsound-
may be truthful in his claim to possess
ness, and obfuscations to which proofs
this attribute, and it is plausible that he
are susceptible if he should be clever, as-
may be lying in claiming to possess it. So
tute, and strong in understanding. Hence
God tests him -to establish the argument
he has no firm foot nor any leg upon
for or against him-through the worship
which to stand. One must fear for him.
that He has prescribed for him in the
If the faith in the declaration of God's
Law. (III 248.18)
Unity which he gains should be preceded
by an associating of others with Him
(shirk) which he inherits from his parents,
Like prescription of the Law, the send-
from his rational consideration, or from ing of prophets itself is a means whereby
the community of which he is a member, God tests His servants. Ibn al-'Arabi
then his [new-found] faith will be identi- makes this point while discussing the
cal with his Covenant faith, nothing else. nature of envy (IJasad). 195
Hermeneutics

Had God willed, He would have given "which dispels the darkness of ignorance
each person knowledge of the causes of from the soul" (II 154.27). Likewise rea-
his felicity and explained to him the proper son, which perceives knowledge, may
way for him to pursue. However, He also be called a light. But faith is brighter
only willed to send to each community a than knowledge or reason, since faith can
messenger of their own kind, not of an-
perceive not only the knowledge of in-
other kind. He placed the messenger be-
fore them and commanded them to fol- comparability, which is accessible to the
low him and to obey him, as a trial from independent rational faculty, but also the
Him, in order to set up an argument knowledge of similarity perceived by
against them because of His precedent imagination.
knowledge concerning them. . .
Reason possesses a light through which
The vicegerent of the people it perceives specific affairs, while faith
is a son of their own kind possesses a light through which it per-
since that is more annoying ceives everything, as long as there is no
to their souls; obstruction. Through the light of reason,
Were he not one of them, you reach the knowledge of the Divinity,
they would declare his truthfulness, what is necessary for it and impossible,
for they would have no envy and what is permitted for it and not im-
toward other than their own kind. possible. Through the light of faith, rea-
son perceives the knowledge of the Es-
Man knows that the beasts and all ani- sence and the attributes which God
mals are below himself in level. Suppose ascribed to Himself. (I 44.32)
an animal were to speak-even a black Though the created thing's knowledge
beetle-and were to say, "I am a mes- has a perfect excellence whose rank is
senger from God to you. I warn you of not unknown, nothing bestows felicity
such and such. Do such and such!" There through nearness to God except faith.
would be many among the common peo- Hence the light of faith in the created
ple claiming to follow it and to seek bless- thing is more excellent than the light of
ing from it and venerate it. Kings would knowledge not accompanied by faith.
obey it and they would not seek from it But when faith is actualized along with
any sign of its truthfulness. They would knowledge, the light of that knowledge,
make its speech the very sign of its truth- born from the light of faith, is higher.
fulness, even were it not so. But since Through it the person of faith who has
other than their own kind had reached knowledge (al-mu'min al-'iilim) surpasses
this level, they do not envy it at all. the person of faith who does not have
Hence, the first trial with which God tries knowledge. For "God raises up . . .
His creatures is His sending the messen- those" of the faithful "who have been
gers to them from among themselves, not given knowledge in degrees" (58:11) over
from other than themselves. (III 83.12) those of the faithful who have not been
given knowledge. He means here knowl-
edge of God, for God's Messenger said to
According to the Koran, "God is the his companions, "You are more knowl-
Light of the heavens and the earth" edgeable [than I] in the best interests of
(24:35), and for Ibn al-'Arabi as for other this world of yours." 5 (I 144.27)
Sufis, His light becomes manifest not only According to the tasting of our path, it
through existence itself but also through is not possible to attest to a messenger
knowledge. Thus Ibn al-'Arabi defines through rational proofs (daliila), only
tajalll or God's "self-disclosure," in the through a divine self-disclosure in respect
broadest epistemological sense of the of His name "Light." When the person's
inward dimension (bii(in) becomes colored
term, as "the lights of unseen things that
by that light, then he attests to the mes-
are unveiled to hearts" (II 485.20). Among senger. This is the light of faith. Another
the many forms of light or divine self- person does not actualize in himself any-
disclosure which become manifest in thing of that light, even though in respect
196 the cosmos is the light of knowledge, of rational proofs he knows that the mes-
Faith & Rational Interpretation

senger is speaking the truth. But he does prophet, even if it is the weight of a mus-
not know this fact as a light thrown into tard seed or less than that in size. All will
the heart. Hence such people deny in spite be taken out by the intercession of the
of their knowledge. This is indicated by prophets and the faithful. There will re-
God's words, "They denied them, though main the people of taw~ld, those who
their souls acknowledged them, wrong- knew taw~ld through rational proofs and
fully and out of pride" (27:14). Below did not associate anything with God,
them in this level is he about whom God though they had no faith in a Law and
says, "God has misguided him in spite of "had never done any good whatsoever"
knowledge" (45:23). This knowledge is in respect of their following one of the
the light of knowledge of Him, not the prophets. They have not a dust mote of
light of faith. (II 305.35) faith, or they have even less. They will be
brought out by the "Most Merciful of the
merciful," though "they had never done
Ibn al-'Arabi does not claim that a
any good," that is, any act laid down in a
person without faith cannot enter para- Law in respect of its being laid down in a
dise, but he does claim that only knowl- Law. There is no good greater than faith,
edge of the declaration of God's Unity but that is a good which they did not do.
(taw~IJ) can save without faith. The The following is a hadith related by
Koran declares that God can forgive any 'Uthman quoted in Muslim's !)a~l~: The
sin except shirk or "associating others Messenger of God said, "He who dies,
with God," the opposite of taw~ld (4:48, knowing"- he did not say "having faith"
4:116). --"that there is no god but God will en--
ter the Garden. " 7 Nor did he say, "say-
ing"; on the contrary, he mentioned only
God ordained felicity for His servants knowledge. God has precedent solicitude
through faith and knowledge of the decla- toward such as these in the Fire, s:ince the
ration of God's Unity specifically. There Fire, by its very essence, cannot accept
is no way to felicity other than these two. everlastingly in any respect one who de-
Faith's objects are the reports brought by clares God's Unity. The most complete
the messengers from God. Faith is an un- mode of taw~ld is faith on the basis of
adulterated following of authority. We knowledge, such that the two are brought
accept the reports whether or not we have together.
knowledge of them. Knowledge is that You may object, "Iblis knows that God
which is given by rational consideration is One." I reply: You arc right, but he
or divine unveiling. If this knowledge is was the first to set down associating oth-
not actualized as self-evident, such that no ers with God as a custom (awwal man sann
obfuscations can detract from it for the al-shirk). Therefore he must bear the pun-
knower, then it is not knowledge. (III ishment of those who associate, 8 and
78.12) their punishment is that they do not come
out of the Fire. This holds if it is estab-
In discussing a long hadith about in- lished that he died declaring God's Unity.
tercession (shafila) on the day of resur- But how do you know? Perhaps he died
rection, Ibn al-'Arabi explains that the associating others with Him because of
last part of the hadith, where God Him- some obfuscation which came over him
self, the "Most Merciful of the merciful," in his rational consideration (na::;ar). We
have already spoken of this question in
removes from the Fire a group "who
earlier chapters. So Iblis will never leave
had never done any good," refers to the the Fire. (I 314. 9)
deliverance of those who had knowledge
of taw~ld, but not faith in it. 6
Just as reflection and consideration
can act as a nearly irremovable "tal-
Once intercession has taken place, no
one who had faith in a Law will remain in isman" upon man's reason, so also they
the Fire, nor any person who did a work can cause "intoxication." Many Sufis
laid down by a Law in respect of its being employed the terms intoxication (sukr)
laid down by the Law on the tongue of a and sobriety (.~a~w) to indicate two 197
Hermeneutics

"states" which mark the two basic modes you see Him" or like His words, "God is
in which the travelers experience the in the kibla of him who performs the
divine self-disclosures. In discussing in- prayer." ... In the case of some of those
toxication as a standard Sufi term of this who achieve this station, God causes the
sort, Ibn al-'Arabl shows that it can be imaginalized form to remain with them in
the state of their sobriety. He establishes
applied on three basic levels, the same it for them as a sensory object after it had
three levels that he perceives in many been imaginal. This was the case with the
other realities. These are the "natural" garden which Iblis made to appear to Sol-
(tabl'l), the rational or intelligible ('aqll), omon at the level of discontiguous imagi-
and the divine (iliihl), corresponding to nation (al-khayal al-munfa~iQ in order to
sense perception (including imagination), tempt him, while Solomon knew nothing
reason and spirit, and God. 9 of that. He prostrated himself to God in
gratitude for His giving it to him, so God
made it subsist for him as a garden to en-
God says, "Rivers of wine, a pleasure joy at the sensory level, and Iblis went
to the drinkers" (47:15). This is the sci- away a loser ....
ence of states (a~wal), so intoxication be- "Rational intoxication" is similar to
longs to him within whom there is de- natural intoxication in that it takes things
light and pleasure. The Sufis have defined back to that which its own reality re-
it as "An absence (ghayba) brought about quires, not to that which is required by
by a strong inrush (warid)," but it is only the situation in itself. The divine report
an "absence" from everything that contra- comes from God to the possessor of this
dicts joy, delight, happiness, and the dis- station making attributes of temporally
closure of wishes (amant) as forms sub- originated things the attributes of God.
sisting within the entity of the possessor So he refuses to accept these things in this
of this state. mode, since he is intoxicated by his proof
The Men of Allah are ranked in levels and demonstration. Hence he rejects the
in intoxication, as we shall mention, God report in accordance with what his own
willing: consideration requires, while he is igno-
The first is "natural intoxication." It is rant of God's Essence and whether or not
the delight, pleasure, joy, and happiness It accepts this description. Or rather, he
found by souls through the inrush of imagines that It does not accept it. Hence,
wishes, when those wishes stand up be- because of its intoxication, this rational
fore them in their imagination as forms faculty stretches out its legs on another's
subsisting within it which they govern carpet. He falls on God because of his in-
and control. Their poet says, toxication, and God excuses him in that,
since the drunkard is not taken to task for
When I become intoxicated, what he says. For he disengages from
I am lord of palace and throne. God that which God has attributed to
Himself.
He sees the fact that he owns these things When this man of reason, after having
as the utmost limit of his wish. When he been intoxicated, becomes sober through
is intoxicated, the form of palace and faith, he no longer rejects the truthful re-
throne stand up before him as his posses- port and the true word. He says: "God
sions which he controls within the pres- knows better about Himself and what He
ence of his imagining and imagination. attributes to Himself than reason, for rea-
This is given to him by the state of intox- son is a created thing, and the created
ication, since it has a strong effect upon thing cannot judge the Creator." Every-
the imaginal faculty. Those of the Folk of thing made is ignorant of its maker, for
Allah who halt with imagination possess the garment is ignorant of the weaver;
this natural intoxication, since they never such also are the elements (arkan) in rela-
cease examining those affairs desired by tion to the celestial spheres, and such also
them which can be actualized through are the spheres in relation to the Soul, the
imagination. Finally that becomes firm Soul in relation to the Intellect, and the
with them and rules over them, like the Intellect in relation to God. The most any
198 Prophet's words, "Worship God as if of those who know can know is their
Faith & Rational Interpretation

poverty toward their maker and their be- written. In the present context, we can
ing supported by him in their existence. only look at Ibn al-'Arabi's own use of
None of them can judge anything about the term ta'wll.
its maker, especially when the maker Those who have been introduced to
gives reports about himself in certain af- Ibn al-'Arabi through the writings of
fairs. The thing which is made can only
Henry Corbin have learned that ta'wll is
accept the reports. If it rejects them, that
is because it is intoxicated. one of the cornerstones of his thought.
The wine which reason drinks is its One cannot object to Corbin for saying
proof and its demonstration. It is helped that Ibn al-'Arabi interprets the verses of
in that by the descriptions which it is the Koran, but one can object to his
given by certain divine reports which choosing the word ta'wll to designate the
agree with its demonstration and proof. process, since Ibn al-'Arabi does not use
Such is an intoxication of reason. Natural it in the positive sense in which Corbin
intoxication is the intoxication of the understands it. 11 Without doubt, Corbin
faithful, while rational intoxication is the was led to employ the term because of
intoxication of the gnostics.
ta'wll's primary importance in Shi'ite
There remains the intoxication of the
perfect among the Men. It is intoxication thought. As he remarks, "It is not pos-
with God. The Messenger of God said sible to utter the word ta'wll without
concerning it, "0 God, increase my be- suggesting Shi'ism." 12 Corbin means
wilderment in Thee!", 10 for the drunkard to imply that Ibn al-'Arabi leaned to-
is bewildered. (II 544.16) ward Shi'ite beliefs, but in fact Corbin is
merely expressing his own conviction
that anyone as important as Ibn al-'Arabi
had to be influenced by Shi'ism. 13 This
is not to claim that Ibn al-'Arabi never
employs the term ta'wll in a positive
Interpretation sense corresponding roughly to what
Corbin had in mind. But such rare pas-
sages-one is quoted below-invariably
Faith demands unquestioning accep- speak of ta'wll in its Koranic context and
tance of the divine reports that have do not contradict Ibn al-'Arabi's gener-
come through revelation, while reason ally critical views of ta'wll.
interprets anything which it does not For the most part, Ibn al-'Arabi con-
consider appropriate for the Divine Real- siders ta'wll as interpretation of the Ko-
ity. The word Ibn al-'Arabi uses for this ran and the sayings of the Prophet in a
type of interpretation is ta'wll, a Koranic way that will not compromise the princi-
term employed in seventeen verses, ples of rational thought. Instead of hav-
though not in a blameworthy sense. The ing faith in the literal accuracy of the rev-
literal meaning of the term is to return, elation and trying to understand it on
to take back, and to take back to the ori- God's terms (e.g., through the practice
gin. By extension it means to discover, of the religion and "godfearing"), the in-
explain, and interpret. Many Muslim au- terpreter accepts the supremacy of reason
thorities held that ta'wll and tajslr or and its ability to judge all things. In ef-
"commentary" are basically synonymous fect, reason becomes the scale in which
when applied to the Koran, but most au- everything else must be weighed, includ-
thorities drew various distinctions be- ing the Word of God. Practically all mod-
tween the two terms, with ta'wll nor- ern hermeneutics and scriptural exegesis
mally designating a more mystical and fit neatly into the category of ta'wll as
esoteric sort of interpretation. The his- Ibn al-'Arabi understands it.
tory of these two terms and their inter- Perhaps the most famous Koranic us-
relationship is one of the many mono- age of the term ta'wll, frequently cited in
graphs on Islamic thought waiting to be Shi'ite sources, is the following: 199
Hermeneutics

It is He who sent down upon thee the Book of God and that which has been
Book, wherein are verses which are the sent down to them from their Lord. They
Mother of the Book, and others ambig- are the ones who "vie in good works,
uous. As for those in whose hearts is outracing to them" (23:61). Some of them
swerving, they follow the ambiguous outrace to good works, and others lift up
part, desiring dissension, and desiring its the Book from its bed, since interpreta-
interpretation; but none knows its inter- tion on the part of the learned ('ulamii')
pretation, save only God and those firmly has made the Book lie down after it had
rooted in knowledge; they say, "We have been standing. The person to whom God
faith in it; all is from our Lord" (3:7). has given success comes and makes the
Book stand up after it had been lying
down. In other words, he declares it in-
The above reading of the verse is fol-
comparable with his own interpretation
lowed by those who maintain that ta'wil and exerting effort through reflection.
is a valid mode of knowledge, such as Hence he stands up in worship of his
most Shi'ites. But many authorities read Lord and asks Him to give him success in
the verse with a full stop separating understanding what He meant by the
"God" and "those firmly rooted in words included in the Book and revela-
knowledge": "None knows its interpre- tion, that is, the meanings themselves,
tation save only God. And those firmly purified of substrata. Then God gives to
rooted in knowledge say, 'We have faith such people untainted knowledge. God
in it'." Ibn al-'Arabi accepts the first says, "None knows its interpretation,
save only God and those firmly rooted in
reading, but without ignoring the impli-
knowledge." God teaches them that to
cations of the sentence "We have faith in which the written, revealed word goes
it." In the following passage, he explains back (mii ya'Ul ilayhi), that is, the mean-
this verse while commenting upon an- ings He had deposited within it. They do
other Koranic verse, "Had they per- not employ their reflection, since in itself
formed the Torah and the Gospel, and reflection is not preserved from error for
what was sent down to them from their anyone. That is why God says, "And
Lord, they would have eaten both what those firmly rooted in knowledge; they
was above them, and what was beneath say, ... 'Our Lord, make not our hearts
their feet. Some of them are a moderate to swerve," in other words, through re-
flecting upon what Thou hast sent down,
people, but many of them-evil are the
"after Thou hast guided us" to take from
things they do!" (5:66). Thee the knowledge which Thou hast sent
down upon us. "And bestow upon us
Know, dear friend-God illuminate mercy from Thee; Thou art the Be-
your insight and beautify your awareness stower" (3:8). Hence they asked Him in
-that the sciences are of two kinds: One respect of bestowal, not in respect of
kind is bestowed (mawhub). It is referred earning ....
to in God's words, "They would have The verse continues, "Some of them
eaten what was above them" (5:66). It is are a moderate people." These are the
the result of godfearing, as God has said, people of earning, who interpret God's
"Be godfearing, and God will teach you" Book and do not make it stand up
(2:282). He also said, "If you are god- through the practice for the sake of which
fearing, He will give you discrimination" it was sent down. They do not observe
(8:29). And He said, "The All-merciful: courtesy (adab) in taking it. These people
He taught the Koran" (55:1-2). are of two types:
The second kind of sciences is earned A few of them are the "moderate" in
(muktasab). God alludes to it in His that. They are the ones who draw near to
words, "what was beneath their feet," the truth, and they may achieve the truth
alluding to their hard work (kadd) and in what they interpret, in virtue of com-
their effort (ijtihiid). These are the people patibility, but not by virtue of certitude,
of "moderation." . . . for they do not know exactly what God
[The ones upon whom the sciences are meant in what He sent down, since that
200 bestowed] are the ones who lift up the can only be known by way of bestowal,
F'aith & Rational Interpretation

which is a divine report-giving by which tional faculties were forced to interpret


God addresses the heart of the servant some of it in order to accept it, and to
within the mystery (sirr) which stands be- submit and admit their incapacity in other
tween them. affairs which accepted no interpretation
The second type are they who are not whatsoever. The upshot was that a person
moderate but instead plunge deeply into had to say: "This affair has ·an aspect
interpretation such that no correspon- known only to God and inaccessible to
dence (muniisaba) remains between the re- our rational faculties." All of this is to
vealed words and the meaning. Or else make souls feel comfortable--it is not
they establish the words by way of de- knowledge-in order that they will not
claring similarity and do not refer the reject anything brought by prophecy.
knowledge of it back to God. They arc And this is the state of the intelligent per-
the ones concerning whom God says, in son of faith, while he who has no faith ac-
the same verse, "But many of them -evil cepts none of this.
are the things they do!" (II 594.28) Many reports have been revealed which
rational faculties declare impossible, some
One of the first negative results of concerning the Highest Side, and others
concerning realities and the overturning
ta'wtl is that it weakens faith.
of entities. That which concerns the
Highest Side includes everything requir-
The degrees of nearness to God are ing faith by which God described Himself
made known by the knowledge of the in His Book and upon the tongue of His
Lawgiver, who acts as God's spokesman. messengers and the outward significance
God commanded us to have faith in the (;;ahir) of which reason cannot accept on
Koran's clear (mu~kam) and ambiguous the basis of its proofs, only by means of
(mutashabih) verses. Let us accept every- interpreting it with some far-fetched in-
thing that the Prophet has brought, for if terpretation. Then reason's faith is in its
we interpret any of it, saying, "In fact, own interpretation, not in the report ....
this is what the Speaker meant by His The views of the rational and reflective
words," then the degree of faith will dis- thinkers concerning God diverge in accor-
appear from us. Our proof will rule over dance with the measure of their consider-
the report, thereby rendering the ruling ation. The god worshiped by reason de-
property of faith ineffectual. void of faith is as if he were-or rather,
When this happens, the person of faith he is-a god put there in accordance with
comes forward with sound knowledge. what has been given by that rational fac-
He says to the person who has this proof: ulty's consideration. Hence the god's real-
"Your certitude that your consideration ity is diverse in respect to each rational
has allowed you to understand the aim of faculty, and rational faculties conflict.
the Clarifier in that which He has clearly Each group among the people of rational
spoken is ignorance itself and the lack of faculties declares that the others are igno-
sound knowledge. Even if it happens to rant of God. Even if they should be Mus-
coincide with knowledge, your faith has lim considerative thinkers all of whom
left you, and felicity is tied to faith and to interpret, each group declares the others
sound knowledge based upon doctrine. unbelievers.
'Sound knowledge' is that along with But no disagreement has been related
which faith remains." (II 660. 7) from the messengers, from Adam down
to Mu]:lammad, concerning the descrip-
The person who interprets the re- tions they attribute to God. On the con-
vealed reports has faith in his own inter- trary, all of them speak with a single
tongue. All the books they brought speak
pretation, not in the reports. Hence he is
about God in a single tongue. No two of
not able to escape from his own limita- them disagree. Some of them attest to the
tions. truth of the others, in spite of the great
lengths of time and the prophets' not hav-
The messengers and the divine knowl- ing met . . . .
edge-giving brought that which rational In the same way, those who have faith
faculties declare impossible. Hence the ra- "upon insight" -the Muslims who have 201
Hermeneutics

surrendered (tasllm) themselves and do things (munkariit) and the wrongdoing


not allow themselves to enter into inter- (:?ulm) that go on in my country and king-
pretation- are either of two people. They dom. I, by God, believe as you do, that
are either a man who has faith and has all of it is ugly. But, by God, my friend,
surrendered and turned over the knowl- not a single ugly thing happens without
edge of all to God until he dies, thus be- the legal pronouncement of a jurist. I
ing a follower of authority (muqallid), or a have his own handwriting with me saying
man who puts into practice the branches it is permissible. So God's curse be upon
of the rulings (foru' al-a~kiim) which he them!
knows and who has firm faith in that "A jurist named so and so," and he
which the messengers and books have specified for me the most excellent jurist
brought. Then God lifts the veil from his of his country in religion and mortifica-
insight and makes him a possessor of in- tion (taqashshuj), "gave me a pronounce-
sight in his own situation, just as He did ment that it is not necessary to fast during
with His Prophet and Messenger and the the month of Ramadan itself. On the con-
people toward whom He was solicitous. trary, what is oblig~tory for me is fasting
He gave them unveiling and insight, and during one month of the year, and I can
they called to God "upon insight," just as choose it myself. So," said the sultan, "I
God said concerning His Prophet, giving cursed him inwardly and did not show
news on his behalf: "I call to God upon that to him. He is so and so," and he
insight, I and whoever follows after me" named him for me. God have mercy on
(12:108). Those who "follow after him" all of them!
are the knowers through God, the gnos- You should know that God has given
tics. Though they are neither messengers Satan power from the Presence of Imagi-
nor prophets, they "stand upon a clear nation. He has given him an authority
sign" 14 from their Lord in their knowl- from it. Hence, when Satan sees a jurist
edge of Him and what has come from inclining toward an act of caprice which
Him. {I 218.21) will ruin him with God, he embellishes
for him his evil action by means of a
Many of the learned have interpreted strange interpretation which will provide
the Law in order to gain favor with those it with a good aspect in his rational
in power and thereby attain to high posi- consideration. {III 69.30)
tions. Ibn al-'Arabi: frequently criticizes
the worldly 'ulama for this shortcoming.

When the winds of caprice dominate


The Rational Thinkers
over souls and the learned seek high de-
grees with kings, they leave the clear path
and incline toward far-fetched interpreta- Both Kalam and philosophy based
tions. Thus they are able to walk with their views of God on reflection and ra-
the personal desires of the kings in that tional consideration. Ibn al-'Arabi dis-
within which their souls have a caprice, cusses their positions in all sorts of con-
and the kings can support themselves texts and his remarks deserve detailed
by a Shari'ite command. It may happen scholarly attention. He criticizes them
that the jurist (foqih) does not himself be- mainly for their reliance upon reflection,
lieve the interpretation, but he gives pro- which, in his view, undermines whatever
nouncements (fotwii) in accordance with
it. We have seen a group of the judges
they say. He makes this point while ex-
and jurists who were like this. plaining how man should "take heed"
Al-Malik al-Zahir Ghazi ibn al-Malik (i'tibiir) as is urged by the Koran.
al-Na~ir Salal) · al-Dln ibn Ayyub 15 re-
ported to me, after we had discussed such Among the people who take heed are
things, as follows: He called a slave and possessors of tasting. They take heed on
said, "Bring me the wallet." I said to him, the basis of tasting, not reflection. Taking
"What is the story of the wallet?" He heed may also be based on reflection. The
202 replied, "You are ignorant of the ugly stranger to these matters is confused by
Faith & Rational Interpretation

the form, and concerning each he says, messengers. They did this by judging
"This is one who takes heed. " He does through consideration on the basis of
not know that taking heed may derive their corrupt reflection concerning the
from reflection or from tasting and that root of prophecy and messengerhood and
taking heed in the people of tasting is the concerning that by which these two are
root, while in the people of reflection it is supported. Hence the situation became
the branch .... confused for them.
Is there anything which cannot be If, while loving wisdom, they had
reached by way of unveiling and finding? sought it from God, not from reflection,
We say that there is nothing, and we for-· they would have hit the mark in every-
bid reflection totally, since it makes its thing. As for the people of consideration
possessor heir to deceit and lack of sincer-· among the Muslims other than the phi-
ity. There is nothing whose knowledge losophers, such as the Mu'tazilites and
cannot be attained through unveiling and the Ash'arites, Islam had already reached
finding. In contrast, occupying oneself them and exercised its property over
with reflection is a veil. Others refuse them. Then they began to defend it in ac-
to accept this, though not a single one cordance with what they understood
of the Folk who follow Allah's path re- from it. So they have hit the mark at the
fuses it. Those who refuse belong to the root and are mistaken in some of the
people of consideration and reasoning branches, since they interpret Islam in ac-
among the exoteric scholars, those who cordance with what they are given by
have not tasted the states. If they had only their reflection and rational proofs. They
tasted the states-like the divine Plato hold that if they were to apply to God
among the sages! But that is rare among some of the words of the Lawgiver in ac-
these people. If they had only found their cordance with the outward significance of
breath emerging from the place where the the words, while the proofs of reason
breath of the People of Unveiling and hold this to be impossible, they would fall
Finding emerges! into unbelief. Hence they interpret these
Those among the people of Islam who words. They do not know that
dislike Plato only dislike him because of God has a faculty in some of His servants
his relationship to philosophy and because which bestows a judgment different from
of their ignorance of the meaning of this what the rational faculty bestows in cer-
word. In reality the "sages" are those tain affairs, while it agrees with reason in
who know God and all things and who others. This is a station which is outside
also know the station of that which is the stage of reason, so reason cannot per-
known. And God, "He is the Sage, the ceive it on its own. No one has faith in
All-knowing" (Koran 43:84). "He who [what reason holds to be impossible] ex-
has been given wisdom has been given cept him who has this faculty in his per-
much good" (2:269). Wisdom is the knowl- son. He knows reason's incapacity and
edge of prophecy, as God said about Da- the truth of what it denies.
vid: "God gave him the kingship and Faculties are ranked in degrees, and
wisdom, and He taught him such as He they provide [knowledge] in keeping with
willed" (2:251). The meaning of"philoso- the realities according to which God has
pher" is lover of wisdom, since sophia in brought them into existence. Thus, if the
Greek is "wisdom," and phil is "love," so property of sight were presented to the
the word means "love of wisdom." Every faculty of hearing, it would declare it im-
man of intelligence loves wisdom. possible, and so on with all the faculties.
However, the mistakes of the People of Reason is one of the faculties. Or rather,
Reflection in the divine things (iliihiyyiit) it acquires from all the faculties, while it
are more than their hitting the mark, gives nothing to any of them. . . .
whether they are philosophers, Mu'tazi- Everyone who makes a mistake is mis-
lites, Ash'arites or any other sort of the taken only in the relationship. He attrib-
people of consideration. Hence philoso- utes something where it does not belong.
phers are not blamed only because of this The Folk of Allah take the relationship
name. They are blamed because they and put it in its proper place, joining it to
make errors in the knowledge of God by its object. This is the meaning of "wis-
opposing the reports brought by the dom," since the Folk of Allah-the mes- 203
Hermeneutics

sengers and the friends of God-are the God says "Be!", which is a word denot-
sages in reality, and they are the people of ing existence (~arf wujudJ). If the thing
"much good." (II 523.2) had already come to be (kii'in), He would
not have said to it "Be!" ... The possible
Certain of the Mu'tazilites came close things exist in respect of this Barzakh.
to Ibn al-'Arabi's position on the ques- Through them God has a vision of the
tion of the "nonexistence" of the entities. things before they come to be. When any
human being who possesses an imagina-
He often supports them on this and criti- tion and the power to imagine imagines
cizes the Ash'arites, though he also something, his gaze extends into this Bar-
points out that the Mu'tazilites did not zakh, though he does not know that he is
perceive the whole picture. looking upon that thing in this presence.
In relation to the entities which are em-
The Prophet related that God said, "I braced by this Barzakh, the existent possi-
was a Treasure but was not known. So I ble things which God brings into exis-
loved to be known, and I created the crea- tence are like shadows in relation to
tures and made Myself known to them. corporeal bodies. Or rather, they are the
Then they came to know Me." In the true shadows. It is they which God de-
words, "I was a Treasure," one finds scribed as prostrating themselves to Him
an affirmation of the immutable entities along with the prostration of their enti-
which were upheld by the Mu'tazi- ties, 16 for those entities never cease pros-
lites. (II 232.11) trating themselves to Him before they
Know that there are three objects of come into existence. So when their shad-
knowledge, without a fourth. The first is ows come into existence, they come into
Nondelimited Being, which does not be- existence prostrating themselves to God,
come delimited. This is the Being of God, since their entities from which they come
the Necessary Being through Himself. into existence have prostrated themselves
The second object of knowledge is non- to God. These shadows are heaven, earth,
delimited nothingness, which is nonexis- sun, moon, star, mountain, tree, crawling
tence in itself. It never becomes delimited. creature, and every existent thing ....
It is the impossible (al-mu~iil). It stands The Barzakh Presence is the shadow of
opposite Nondelimited Being .... Nondelimited Being in respect of the
Two contradict_ories never stand oppo- name "Light" (al-niir), which is ascribed
site each other without a separator (fo~il) to God's Being. That is why we call it
through which each is distinguished from a shadow. The existence of the entities
the other and which prevents the one [in the cosmos] is the shadow of that
from being described by the attribute of shadow. Sensory shadows are the shad-
the other. If a scale were to judge this re- ows of these existent things within the
ality which separates Nondelimited Being sensory world. Since the property of a
from nothingness, it would find its mea- shadow is to disappear, not to remain im-
sure equal, without increase or decrease. mutable, and since the possible things-
This is the Supreme Barzakh, or the even if they exist- have the property of
Barzakh of Barzakhs. It possesses a face nonexistence, they are called "shadows"
toward Being and a face toward nothing- to separate them from Him who has non-
ness. It stands opposite each of these two delimited immutability in Being, that
known things in its very essence. It is the is, the Necessary Being, and from that
third known thing. Within it are all possi- which has nondelimited immutability in
ble things. It is infinite, just as each of the nothingness, that is, the impossible. Thus
other two known things is infinite. the levels are distinguished.
The possible things have immutable en- When the existent entities become man-
tities within this Barzakh in the respect in ifest, they are within this Barzakh, for
which Nondelimited Being looks upon there is no presence into which they go
them. In this respect the possible things in order to gain the state of existence.
are called "things." When God wants to Within the existent entities, the existence
bring a "thing" into existence, He says to that becomes actualized (~u~iil) is finite,
it, "Be!", and it is. In the respect in which but bringing into existence (ljiid) is infi-
nondelimited nothingness gazes upon the nite. So there is no existent form which
204 Barzakh, it has no existent entities. Hence is not identical to its own immutable
Faith & Rational Interpretation

entity, while existence is like its clothing the immutable entities-or call them the
(thawb) . ... possible things, the existent/nonexistent
If you have doubts about the situation things, the creatures, the objects of God's
of this Barzakh and are of the Folk of AI-· knowledge, the loci of manifestation. We
lah, look at His words, "He let forth the have seen that Ibn al-'Arabi's own posi-
two seas that meet together, between
tion on the things can be epitomized by
them a barzakh they do not overpass"
(Koran 55:19). In other words, if not for the expression He/not He. The things
that barzakh, the two would not be distin- pertain to "imagination," since they are
guished from each other and the situation neither existent nor nonexistent.
would be confused, and this would lead The nature of the things was con-
to the overturning of the realities (qa/b stantly discussed and disputed in Kalam.
al-~aqii' iq). Most commonly, however, the problem
There are never two opposite things was posed in terms of human acts (af'iil)
unless there is a barzakh between them or works (a'miil). Clearly God created
"which they do not overpass." In other man, but to what extent or in what re-
words, the one thing is not described
spect does He also create his acts? If we
by those attributes of the other through
which the distinction between them is say in every respect, then our perception
made . . . . of free choice is false and the sending of
The Barzakh is like the dividing line the prophets becomes meaningless. But
between existence and nonexistence. It is if we say that man is free, what happens
neither existent nor nonexistent. If you to God's omnipotence? In short, this
attribute it to existence, you will find a problem brings up the question of free
whiff of existence within it, since it is im- will and predestination, surely the peren-
mutable. But if you attribute it to nial theological stumbling block. Ibn al-
nonexistence, you will speak the truth, 'Arabi's allusions to the theologians most
since it has no existence. I wonder at the
often occur within this context.
Ash'arites! How could they reject him
who says that the nonexistent is a thing in
As is well known, the Ash'arites up-
the state of its nonexistence and that first held the view that the acts belong to
it possesses an immutable entity, then ex- God, and thus they stressed predestina-
istence is added to the entity? ... tion. In contrast, the Mu'tazilites attrib-
The reason that immutability is attrib- uted the acts to the servant, thus uphold-
uted to this Barzakh, which is the possible ing free choice. In attributing the acts
thing between Being and nothingness, is to one side or the other, each group took
that it stands opposite the two things by an extreme position, and Ibn al-'Arabi
its very essence. This is as follows: Non- praises them for this, since they thereby
delimited nothingness stands before Non-
avoided "associating" (shirka) God with
delimited Being like a mirror. Within the
mirror, Being sees its own form. This the creatures or the creatures with God.
form is the entity of the possible thing. Both upheld the declaration of unity
That is why the possible thing has an (taw~ld), though here we see Ibn al-
immutable entity and a thingness in the 'Arabi employing this word in a sense
state of its nonexistence, and that is why not usually given to it. 17 He is in the
it comes out in the form of Non delimited midst of discussing the nature of the
Being. That also is why it is qualified by "motion" (~araka) which is found in the
infinity, and it is said concerning it that it sensory realm:
is infinite. (III 46.27, 47.25)

People disagree as to the cause of this


motion. Is its cause life, the worM of the
Acts of God and Acts of Man breaths ('a/am al-anfos), 18 or nothing
other than the divine command?
Know that the real situation is the exis-
Nothing is as crucial to an understand- tence of the divine command in the world
ing of the nature of our own existence as of the breaths. The command turns to- 205
Hermeneutics

ward this engendered world and brings it The Ash'arite position is strong in the
into motion, while the cosmos accepts view of unveiling because in the final
the motion through its nature. In the analysis, everything returns to God, and
same way, wind turns toward the trees to this is seen most clearly through vision-
bring them into motion through its blow- ary expenence.
ing. The observer sees the motion of the
branches because of the blowing of the
wind. Knowledge sees that if the branches I was not able to free myself to ascribe
were not free to move in their places, the creation of works to one of the two
they would not find the wind when it sides [that is, God or man]. It was diffi-
blows. So they have a governing property cult for me to distinguish between the
over the wind in one respect, and no "performance" (kasb) upheld by one
property in another respect. The goal to group [the Ash'arites) and the "creation"
be realized by the wind bringing the trees upheld by another group [the Mu'tazi-
into motion is the elimination of the cor- lites). Then God acquainted me through a
rupt vapors of the trees, so that there may visual unveiling (kashf ba~arl) with His
not be deposited within them that which creation of the first created thing,' before
causes illness and disease in the cosmos which there was no created thing, since
when animals feed upon the trees. . . . there was none but God. He said to me,
Hence the blowing of the winds is di- "Is there anything here that gives rise to
rected toward the best interest of the obscurity and bewilderment?"
cosmos. . . . So the wind is a secondary I replied that there was nothing. He
cause which is desired and which leaves said, "So also is every temporally origi-
no effect upon what it causes, since here nated thing that you see. No one and no
the effect belongs to Him who set up the creature has any effect upon any of them.
secondary causes and made them a veil I create the things at ('ind) the secondary
over Himself, in order that the creatures causes, not by means of the secondary
may be distinguished according to their causes, so they come to be at My com-
excellence in recognizing God and in or- mand .... "
der that he who associates others with I said to Him, "What dost Thou say if I
Him will be separated from him who de- should address Thy words, 'Do!' and 'Do
clares His Unity. not do!'"
He who associates others is absolutely He replied, "If I should make some-
ignorant, since association in this sort of thing clear to you, observe courtesy, since
affair is not correct in any respect, for the the Presence does not put up with dispute
bringing of acts into existence does not (mu~iiqaqa)."
take place through association. That is I said, "But that is exactly what we are
why the Mu'tazilites did not join up with doing. And who is the disputer, and who
those who associate, since they declared the observer of courtesy? For Thou art
the unity of the acts of the servants in the the Creator of courtesy and dispute. ·If
servants. They did not give the servants Thou shouldst create dispute, there is no
any associates. They attributed the acts to escape from its property, and if Thou
the servants in accordance with reason, shouldst create courtesy, there is no es-
while the Law declares that they spoke cape from it."
the truth in that. The Ash'arites declared He said, "So it is. Therefore listen when
the unity of the acts of all possible things the Koran is recited and give ear to it."
in God without any classification accord- I said, "That belongs to Thee. Create
ing to reason, while the Law supports listening so that I may listen and create
them in that, though only through cer- giving ear so that I may give ear. And
tain plausible senses (mu~tamaliit wujiih) nothing addresses Thee now save that
of its address. The arguments of the Mu'- which Thou hast created."
tazilites are stronger outwardly, while He said, "I create only what I know,
the position of the Ash'arites in this is and I know only the object of knowledge
stronger in the view of the people of un- as it actually is. 'To God belongs the con-
veiling among the Folk of Allah. But clusive argument' (6:149).' 9 I have al-
both groups are upholders of taw~ld. (II ready let you know this, so cling to it in
206 629.33) witnessing, since there is nothing else.
Faith & Rational Interpretation

Then your mind will be at ease. But do Other divine reports and rational
not be secure until the prescription of the proofs show that the act attributed to the
Law is cut off, and it will not be cut off servant belongs only to God. Hence there
until you cross over the Narrow Bridge. is a contradiction both in the revealed re-
Then people will worship by their own ports and the view of reason. This results
essences, not by the command or prohibi- in bewilderment and causes the disagree-
tion demanded by what is obligatory, rec- ment which has occurred in this question
ommended, forbidden, or reprehensi- between the rational thinkers in their con-
ble." 20 (II 204. 8) sideration of their proofs and the people
of reports in their proofs. The truth of the
matter is known only to the people of un-
The Ash'arites avoided the contradic-
veiling among the Folk of Allah.
tion involved in declaring that God cre-
The fact that man was created in the
ates the acts and then punishes His ser- Form demands that the existence of the
vants for evil deeds by their doctrine of act belong to him, and this is confirmed
kasb, "acquisition," or more accurately, by his being addressed by the Law. Sen-
"performance." 21 Man performs the acts sory perception bears witness to this, so
but does not create them, while God cre- it is stronger in proof. The fact that at
ates the acts but does not perform them. root all of this goes back to God does
Ibn al-'Arabi is not especially pleased not detract from it, since the going back
with this idea and often criticizes it, as does not contradict this explanation.
Hence the arguments of those who up-
will be seen below.
hold "performance" are weak, not be-
The Mu'tazilite argument, like the
cause they uphold performance-for their
Ash'arite position, is based upon certain opponents also uphold it, since it is a re-
select Koranic verses which clearly sup- port of the Law and a rational affair
port what they want to say. The Koran which man knows in himself. No, their
is full of verses which indicate God's arguments are weak because they negate
total control over His creation, yet it the effect of the temporally originated
frequently attributes choice and respon- power. (II 604.11)
sibility to man. In effect, each group "in-
terpreted" the verses cited by their oppo- One of the several types of "annihila-
nents, but read the verses supporting tion" (fanii') which the spiritual traveler
their own position literally. may experience is the "annihilation of
acts." Ibn al-'Arabi explains as follows:
If you attribute the act to the power
(qudra) of the servant, a support can be The servant is annihilated from his acts
found for that in the divine report-giving, through God's standing over them. This
and if you attribute the act to God, a sup- is indicated by His words, "What, He
port can also be found for that in the di- who stands over every soul for what it
vine report. As for rational proofs, they performs" (13:33). Hence the servants see
contradict each other among the rational the act as belonging to God from behind
thinkers, though not in actual fact. How- the veil of the engendered things, which
ever, it is extremely difficult for rational are the locus wherein the acts become
thinkers to discern a proof from an obfus- manifest. This is indicated by God's
cation; and it is also difficult in respect to words, "Surely thy Lord is wide in con-
the divine report-giving and in respect of cealment"22 (53:32), that is, His covering
the reality of the servant. For the servant is wide. All engendered things are His
is commanded, and a command is only covering, while He is the one who acts
given to someone who possesses power (.fii'i/) from behind this covering, "but
to do what he is commanded and is able they are unaware" (7:95).
to refrain from what is prohibited to him. Those of the theologians who affirm
Hence it is difficult to negate the act from that the acts of the servants are a creation
the person to whom the Law is addressed, of God are aware, but they do not wit-
that is, the servant, since then there would ness, because of the veil of "performance"
be no wisdom in addressing him. through which God has blinded their in- 207
Hermeneutics

sight. In the same way, He has blinded The gnostics among the Folk of Allah
the insight of him who saw that the acts see that there is no temporally originated
belong to the creatures when He placed power whatsoever, so in their view it has
him with that which he witnesses with his no effect upon anything. What in fact
eyes. So this one is "unaware," and he is takes place is that one divine name pre-
the Mu'tazilite. The other one "does not scribes the Law for another divine name,
witness," and he is the Ash'arite. Both addressing it within the locus of an en-
have blinders over their eyes. (II 513.17) gendered servant. The servant is then
called "the one for whom the Law is
Since all acts are ultimately God's, prescribed" (mukallaj) and the address is
all of them are praiseworthy in them- called "prescribing the Law."
selves. But inasmuch as the acts become Then there are those who say that the
attached to the servant who is addressed acts which emerge from the creatures are
by the Law, some of them are blame- the creation of the servants, like the Mu'-
worthy. In the next world, once a person tazilites. When the covering is removed
from them, the actual situation will be-
has left the arena of the Law, he will see
come clear to them, either to their benefit
that all his evil acts were in fact-in or to their loss. (III 403.21)
relation to God though not in relation to
himself-good acts. This, in Ibn al- By Ibn al-'Arabi's own admission, his
'Arabi's view, is one of the meanings of position on the acts wavers. Or rather, it
the Koranic statement, "God will change depends on the point of view he has in
their evil deeds into good deeds" (25:70). mind. That which allows him to ascribe
acts to man is the fact of man's being
This verse means that he will see as made upon the divine form and his abil-
good exactly what he had been seeing as ity to assume the traits of all God's names
evil. Before this, its goodness had been
and attributes (takhalluq). Since God's at-
hidden from him by the rulings of the
Law. When he reaches the place of the ab- tributes are within him, he manifests
olition of the Law's rulings, that is, the God's desire and power. Inasmuch as he
hereafter, and the covering is removed, is the form of God and not God Himself,
he will see the good that was in all his his decisions and acts belong to himself.
works. It will be unveiled to him that the Ibn al-'Arabi points out that the dis-
one who acted was God, no one else. So agreement in this question goes back to
the acts were God's, and His acts are all an argument over the manner in which
perfect in goodness, without any imper- God discloses Himself. Some say He dis-
fection or ugliness. The evil and ugliness closes Himself in the acts of the crea-
which had been attributed to the acts
tures, and some disagree. Those who are
were because of opposition to God's rul-
ings, not because of the entities of the aware of His self-disclosure attribute the
acts. acts to God. Those who are not aware
Anyone who has the covering removed attribute them to the creatures. Hence
from his insight and sight, whenever that the difference among the theologians
might be, will see what we just men- goes back to the fact that one group says
tioned. But the time of the removal var- the acts are "He," the other says they are
ies. Some people see that in this world. "not He."
They are the ones who say that all God's
acts are good, that there is no one who Then there is "self-disclosure in the
acts except God, and that the servant acts." It is the relationship which is the
has no act other than the performance manifestation of the engendered things
which is attributed to him. This "per- from the Essence from which they come
formance" consists of the free choice to be and the manifestation of the loci of
(ikhtiyar) which he has in the work. As manifestation from the Essence from
for temporally originated power, that has which they become manifest. It is alluded
no effect upon anything according to their to in God's words, "I did not let them
view, since it does not go beyond its own witness the creation of the heavens and
208 locus. the earth" (18:51). As for this self-disclo-
Faith & Rational Interpretation

sure, God has fixed its occurrence in the It is impossible that one who is Wise
beliefs of one group and has not allowed and All-knowing would say, "Do!" and
another group to accept it. God has estab- "Act!" to him whom He knows will not
lished in one group the belief that it hap- do and will not act, since he has no power.
pens, and in another group the belief that But the divine command for the servant
it does not happen. And He has men- to do works has been established, like,
tioned that He discloses Himself within "Perform the prayer, and pay the alms"
the forms of beliefs. 23 (2:43 etc.), "Be patient, vie you in pa-
Someone may recognize that his own tience, and be steadfast" (3:200), "Strug-
acts and those of others are created by gle" (5:35) and so on. Hence, there has to
God. But he witnesses them deriving be some connection between the servant
from his own power, even though he and what he does in respect of the act, by
knows that they derive from the divine means of which he comes to be called the
power. At the same time, he does not one who acts and does. If this is so, then
witness how His power or the power of to the extent of that relationship, self-dis-
another becomes connected to the object closure will occur within him.
of power when the object is brought into In this way I was affirming self-disclo-
existence and made to appear from non- sure within the acts. And this is an ap-
existence. Such a person will refuse to ac- proved way, extremely clear, showing
cept that God discloses Himself in acts that temporally originated power has the
except to the extent that it occurs here. relationship of connection to that work
Hence he refuses to accept the self-disclo- which is prescribed for it in the Law. I
sure in acts. saw that the argument of the opponent
Someone else recognizes that his own was flimsy and extremely weak and
acts are created by himself, not by the defective. Then one day, when this son
eternal power. However, he does not rec- Isma'll ibn Sawdakin was conferring with
ognize them through witnessing except in me about this question, he said to me,
the state of their existence, nor does he "Which proof of the attribution and
see-if he is fair-his power becoming ascription of the act to the servant and of
connected to bringing them into exis- self-disclosure within him is stronger than
tence. Rather, he only witnesses the bod- the fact that his attribute is that God has
ily limb becoming connected to the created man upon His own form? Were
motion that takes place. Such a person the act to be disengaged from him, it
will uphold the occurrence of this self- would no longer be correct for him to be
disclosure. upon His form and he could not accept
There is a disagreement over this among the assumption of the traits of the names.
the people of this affair which will not be But it is established for you and for the
lifted either in this world or the next. People of the Path without any dis-
Each one of them has been established in agreement that man is created upon the
his belief by God. In the next abode He form, and so also assumption of the traits
will preserve the one in the imaginal per- of the names is established."
ception (wahm) that He discloses Himself No one can know the joy that came to
to him in his acts, and He will preserve me through his calling my attention to
the other in his knowledge that He does this. Hence it is possible that the master
not disclose Himself in his acts. (II (ustiidh) gain something from the disciple
606.33) (tilmldh) which God has decreed he will
My dear son, the gnostic Shams al-Din attain only in this way. (II 681.24)
Isma'il ibn Sawdakin al-Niiri, 24 called
my attention to something which had The proper human attitude toward the
been verified for me, but in a different acts adds another dimension to the ques-
mode. . . . I mean self-disclosure in acts,
that is, whether or not it is correct. Some-
tion. Though one group may ascribe all
times I would negate it in one respect, acts to God, in fact "courtesy" (adab) de-
and sometimes I would affirm it in the re- mands that only good and beautiful acts
spect in which the address of the Law re- be ascribed to God, while evil and ugly
quired and demanded it, since man is ad- acts must be ascribed to the servants.
dressed by the Law for the sake of works. Man must see all good as belonging to 209
Hermeneutics

God and all evil as belonging to himself, 4ir], "I desired to damage it" (18:79). This
thereby putting everything in its proper courteous and just knower alluded to
place and becoming qualified by justice, himself by desiring to damage. But he
wisdom, and courtesy. In one passage said concerning the praiseworthy act,
where Ibn al-'Arabi classifies the names "Thy Lord desired" (18:82) in the case of
the two orphans. Then in the place of
of God into various categories, he pro- praise and blame he said, "We desired,"
vides a distinction between the "names of with the plural pronoun (18:81), because
acts" and the "names of deputation" of the blame involved in killing the youth
(niyiiba) which helps clarify this point. without any retaliation for a soul slain,
and the praise involved in God's protect-
God says, "To God belong the most ing his parents by his being killed. Hence
beautiful names, so call Him by them" he said "We desired," without specifying.
(7:180) . . . . Know that some of God's Such is the state of the Courteous (al-
names are features (ma'iirif), such as the udabii'). Then he said, "I did not act"-
well-known names. These are the obvi- that is, "He did not act"- "on my bid-
ous names. ding" (18:82); on the contrary, the whole
Some of the names are hidden things affair belongs to God. (IV 318.26)
(muqmariit), like the [pronouns] ka and tii' The distinguishing marks of works
of address, the tii' of the first person, the which lead to felicity are that man per-
third person pronoun . . . , and the first forms the works in a state of presence
person plural pronoun, as in "Surely We (~uqur) with God in all his movements and
sent down." . . . rests and that he witnesses the attribution
Some of the names are denoted by acts, of the acts to God in respect of their com-
though no names are built from [the acts ing into existence and their praiseworthy
mentioned in such verses as] "God derides relationship. But if he should attribute
them" (9:79) or "God mocks them" (2: their blameworthy relationship to God,
15). he has been discourteous and displayed
Some of the names are names of depu- his ignorance of the knowledge of the
tation: They belong to God, but they act prescription of the Law (tak/if), of the
as His deputies, such as when we say, Law's object, and of whom it addresses,
"[He has appointed for you] shirts to pro- that is, the person to whom it is said,
tect you from the heat" (16:81). Every "Act!"
name given to every act ascribed to every If the one to whom the Law is ad-
engendered thing among the possible dressed had no relation to the act whatso-
things functions as God's deputy, since all ever, he would not have been told to act,
acts belong to God. Whether blame or and the whole of the Shari'a would be a
praise becomes connected to the act, this game, but it is true in itself. Hence the
connection exercises no effect upon what servant must have a sound relationship
is given by sound knowledge. Hence with the act, a relationship in respect of
every act attributed to a created thing acts which he is told to perform the act. This
as God's deputy within that thing. If it relationship is not connected to his desire
occurs in a praiseworthy way, it is attrib- (iriida), as held by those who uphold per-
uted to God in laudation, since God loves formance. On the contrary, it is a subtle
to be lauded-so has it been recorded in phenomenon of power included within
the $a~!~ from the Messenger of God. 25 the divine power and known through
But if blame becomes connected to it, or proofs, just as the light of the stars is
a defect is joined to it, we do not attribute included within the light of the sun.
it to God. Through proofs you know that the stars
An example of the praiseworthy is the possess a light which spreads over the
words of A braham, "He heals me" (26: earth, but you do not perceive it with
80). But concerning illness he said, your senses because of the overwhelming
"Whenever I am sick" (26:80). He did not power of the light of the sun. In the same
say, "Whenever He makes me sick," even way, sense perception tells us that the acts
though nothing made him sick but God. of the servants belong to them in the sen-
God made him sick just as He healed him. sory realm and according to the Law and
2 I0 Another example is [the words of Kha- that the divine power is included within
Faith & Rational Interpretation

them. Reason perceives the divine power, as in His words, "The strugglers in the
but the senses do not, like the light of the path of God" (4:95). The third kind are
stars included in the light of the sun. But those who struggle in Him, as in His
in fact the light of the stars is identical words, "Those who struggle in Us,
with the light of the sun, and the stars are surely We shall guide them on Our paths"
its loci of disclosure. 26 All the light be-- (29:69). . . . The fourth kind are those
longs to the sun, but the senses attribute who struggle in God "as is His due"
the light to the stars and then say that the (22:78); thereby He distinguishes them
light of the stars has been included within from those who struggle in Him without
the light of the sun. But in reality, there is this delimitation. . . .
only the light of the sun whose light is in-· We now come to the strugglers whom
eluded in itself, since there is no other God has not delimited by any specific at-
light. (II 659.1) tribute, not "in the path of God," nor "in
Him," nor "as is His due." They are the
The theological problem of the ascrip- strugglers through God, who does not
tion of the acts to God or the servant can possess the attribute of delimitation, so
never have a simple solution, since it is struggling through Him takes place in all
one more version of the question, "What things. It is the all-pervasive struggle....
The "strugglers" among His servants
is a thing in relation to God?" The radical
are those who do not become delimited,
ambiguity of existence does not allow just as God has made them nondelimited.
a straightforward answer. Those who They waver in the acts, the entities of
see with penetrating vision will always which emerge within themselves. Should
affirm that the thing is He/not He, they attribute them to God? But there
while those who cannot gain a complete are those acts which courtesy does not al-
knowledge of the situation will affirm low us to attribute to Him and of which
one or the other. The rational thinkers God has declared Himself quit, as in His
are tied and bound by their own means words, "A declaration of being quit on
of knowledge, while the people of heart God's part" (9:1), that is, "Let them at-
tribute it to themselves." There are also
fluctuate with the actual situation. The
acts which courtesy demands that we at-
people of reason will say, "The acts are tribute to Him and which have a true re-
God's" (Ash'arites) or "The acts are lationship with Him.
man's" (Mu'tazilites), but the Folk of The strugglers saw that God said, "You
Allah will follow the Koranic path by did not throw when you threw," so He
saying, "You did not throw when you negated and then affirmed exactly what
threw, but God threw" (8:17). Ibn al- He negated. Then He said, "But God
'Arabi alludes to many of these points in threw" (8:17). Hence He placed the affir-
discussing those whom the Koran calls mation between two negations, so the ne-
the "strugglers" (mujahidun), that is, gation is stronger than the affirmation,
since it surrounds what is affirmed. Then
those who carry out the jihad, the strug- He said in the same verse, "That He
gle against their own limitations. In the might test the faithful [with a good test)."
following passage, Ibn al-'Arabi differen- Hence we come to know that God has be-
tiates the strugglers in an absolute sense wildered the faithful, which is His testing
from those who struggle in a specific and of them through what He mentioned: the
delimited sense. negating and the affirming of the throw-
ing. And He made it "a good test." In
The "strugglers" are the people of ef- other words, if the servant negates the
fort, toil, and putting up with difficulties. throwing from Him, he will be correct,
They are four kinds: Those who struggle and if he affirms it in Him, he will be cor-
without being delimited by anything, as rect. There only remains which of the
mentioned in God's words, "God has pre- two correct views is better for the ser-
ferred the strugglers over those who sit at vant, though both are good. And this
home" (4:95). The second kind are the is a place of bewilderment (~ayra). (II
strugglers delimited by the path of God, 145.29, 147.26)
211
Hermeneutics

13. KNOWING
GOD'S SELF-DISCLOSURE

God's self-disclosure appears in two As Ibn al-'Arabi puts it, quoting a classi-
modes-ontological and cognitive, or as cal definition, wajd is "the states (a~wiil)
existence and as knowledge- but Ibn al- that come upon the heart unexpectedly
'Arabi usually does not distinguish be- and annihilate it from witnessing itself
tween them. Sometimes he deals primar- and those present" (II 537.1). 1 Tawiijud
ily with one mode, but more commonly signifies "inviting ecstasy, since it is self-
he describes self-disclosure in terms exertion in order to experience ecstasy"
which apply to both. We need to keep in (II 535.26). Wujud then means "Finding
mind that wujud or Being/existence (wijdiin) the Real (al-~aqq) in ecstasy" (II
means also "finding." It is a subjective 538.1).
experience as much as an objective oc-
currence. God's "Being" is identical In the view of the Tribe wujud is find-
with His knowledge, that is, His self- ing the Real in ecstasy. They say that if
consciousness. The expression wiijib al- you are a possessor of ecstasy, but you do
wujud has been consistently translated in not witness the Real in that state-for it
Western sources as "Necessary Being" or is witnessing Him which annihilates you
from witnessing yourself and witnessing
"necessary existence," but it can also be those present-then you are not a posses-
rendered as "necessary finding" or "nec- sor of ecstasy, since you do not possess
essary awareness." God finds Himself the finding of the Real in it.
and cannot not find Himself The possi- Know that finding (wujiid) the Real in
ble thing may or may not find itself and ecstasy is not known, since ecstasy is an
God, depending upon whether or not unexpected occurrence (mu~iidafo), and
God gives preponderance to its finding that through which the unexpected occurs
over its not-finding ('adam). The Verifi- is unknown, for it could have come
ers arc the People of Unveiling and Find- through some other situation. Since its
property is not connected to the audition,
ing (ahl al-kashf wa'l-wujud), since the re-
the Real is found therein in an unknown
ality of things has been disclosed to them mode ....
and they have found God in both the The finding of the Real in ecstasy is di-
cosmos and themselves. verse among the finders because of the
property of the divine names and the en-
gendered preparednesses. Each breath of
engendered existence possesses a pre-
paredness not possessed by any other
Finding Light breath. The "Possessor of the Breath"
(~ii~ib al-nafos) is the one who is described
by ecstasy. His ecstasy takes place in
In Sufi terminology-as opposed to keeping with his preparedness, while the
philosophical terminology-wujud had divine names watch and guard. The en-
long been used in the context of discus- gendered thing has nothing of God but
sions of samii', "listening" or "audition," ascription to His names and His solicitude
that is, the "spiritual concert" which the ('iniiya). Hence the finding of the Real in
Sufis employed as a means of opening ecstasy takes place in keeping with the di-
vine name which watches over him, and
themselves up to the inrushes of knowl- the divine names go back to the Self of
edge and awareness. In this context, the the Real. ...
term wujud is contrasted with two other For the gnostics, the term "ecstasy"
words from the same root, wajd and loses its property of being a technical
212 tawiijud. Briefly, wajd signifies "ecstasy." term. They apply it everywhere. In their
Knowing God's Self-Disclosure

view, there is no possessor of sound sama in their hearts and given to them by
ecstasy-whoever may experience it-un- the samii' in the state of ecstasy. So he
less God is found (wujurl) in that ecstasy in who has not listened to the samii' of exis-
a mode known to those who are gnostics tence/finding has not listened. Hence the
through God. Hence they take from Tribe has placed existence/finding after
every possessor of ecstasy the finding of ecstasy. •
Him that comes to him in ecstasy, even if · The cosmos can have no existence
the possessor of that ecstasy does not rec- without Speech on God's part and lis-
ognize it as the finding of the Real. But tening on the part of the cosmos. Hence
the gnostic recognizes this. Hence he the existence of the paths of felicity only
takes from every possessor of ecstasy the becomes manifest, and the differences be-
finding of the Real which he brings. He tween them and the paths of wretched-
recognizes that the Real discloses Himself ness only become known, through the
in that ecstasy in the form in which this Divine Speech and the engendered lis-
report-giver delimits Him-that is, the tening. Therefore all the messengers came
one who gives a report concerning the with Speech, such as the Koran, the To-
finding of what he finds in his ecstasy. rah, the Gospels, the Psalms, and the
(II 538.1,21) Scriptures. 2 There is nothing but speech
and listening. There can be nothing else.
Were it not for Speech, we would not
Ibn al-'Arabi knows full well that know what the Desirer desires from us.
most people understand wujud as dis- Were it not for hearing (sam'), we would
cussed in the context of "listening" or not reach the point of gaining what is said
sama' in a different sense from the wujud to us. Through Speech we move about,
which is discussed in the context of and as a result of Speech, we move about
existence and nonexistence. Neverthe- in listening. Hence Speech and listening
less, he sees the meanings as basically are interrelated. Neither can be indepen-
identical. In order to indicate the iden- dent from the other, since they are two
terms of a relationship. Through Speech
tity, I translate wujud in the follow- and listening, we come to know what is
ing as existence/finding. in the Self of the Real, since we have no
knowledge of Him except through the
God says, "[God is] Listening, Know- knowledge that He gives to us, and His
ing" (Koran 9:98), and He says, "[God is] giving of knowledge takes place through
Listening, Seeing" (22:61). Hence He His Speech. (II 366.27)
places listening before knowledge and
sight. The first thing we knew from God In short, we come to find our own
and which became connected to us from existence through listening to the Divine
Him was His speech (qawl) and our lis- Speech, which is "Be!" By the same
tening (sama). Hence existence/finding token, we come to find God through
derived from Him. In the same way, in
listening to His Speech in the form of
this path we say that every samii' without
an ecstasy possessing existence/finding is revelation. Finding and existence are two
not truly a samii'. This is the level of sama aspects of the same reality, which at root
to which the Folk of Allah refer and to is God's own Finding of Himself, His
which they listen. Necessary Being. All goes back to Him
Thus, when the singer sings, the one and His names.
worthy of sama sees God's speech "Be!" God's Being is Light (nur), as we have
to the ·thing before it comes to be. The seen in an earlier chapter. The impossible
readiness to come into existence possessed thing or nothingness is darkness (?ulma),
by the listener to whom it is said "Be!" and the existence of the cosmos is a
corresponds (hi manzila) to ecstasy in
sama. Then its existence/finding in its en- domain of brightness or shadow between
tity by means of His speech "Be!" -as the two.
He says, "[We say to it] 'Be!' and it is"
(16:40)-corresponds to the existence/ Light is perceived, and through it per-
finding found by the ones worthy of ception takes place. Darkness is per- 2I 3
Hermeneutics

ceived, but through it no perception takes Were it not for light, nothing whatso-
place. . . . God is sheer Light, while the ever would be perceived, neither object of
impossible is sheer darkness .... Creation knowledge, nor sensory object, nor imag-
is the Barzakh between Light and dark- inal object. The names of light are diverse
ness .... in keeping with the names set down for
God says, "And to whomsoever God the faculties. The common people see
assigns no light, no light has he" (24:40). these as names of the faculties, but the
The light "assigned" to the possible thing gnostics see them as names of the light
is nothing other than the wujud of the through which perception takes place.
Real. Just as He has described Himself as When you perceive sounds, you call that
obligating Himself through mercy and light "hearing." When you perceive
help, in verses like, "Your Lord has writ- sights, you call that light "seeing." When
ten for Himself mercy" (6:54) and "It is you perceive objects of touch, you call
ever a duty incumbent upon Us to help that light "touch." So also is the case with
the faithful" (30:47), so also He has de- objects of imagination . . . . The faculties
scribed Himself as "assigning" to the pos- of smell, taste, imagination, memory,
sible thing: Were there no light, the possi- reason, reflection, form-giving, and ev-
ble thing would find no entity for itself, erything through which perception takes
and it would not be qualified by wujud. place are all light.
That which becomes qualified by wujud As for the objects of perception
has become qualified by the Real, since (mudrakiit), if they did not have the pre-
there is nothing in wujud but God. paredness to accept the perception of the
Though Being is One Entity, the entities one who perceives them, they would not
of the possible things have made It many, be perceived. Hence they first possess
so It is the One/Many (al-wii~id al-kathir). manifestation (;;;uhur) to the perceiver,
. . . Without Him, we would not be then they are perceived. And manifesta-
found, and without us, He would not be- tion is light. Hence every perceived thing
come many through the many attributes must have a relationship with light,
and the names diverse in meaning which through which it gains the preparedness
He ascribes to Himself. The whole situa- to be perceived.
tion depends upon us and upon Him, Hence every object of knowledge has a
since through Him we are, and through relationship to the Real, and the Real is
us He is. But all of this pertains specifi- Light. So every object of knowledge has
cally to the fact that He is a god, since the a relationship to light. . . . So there is
Lord demands the vassal through an in- no object of knowledge but God. (III
herent demand, whether in existence or 276.32, 277.12)
supposition. But "God is Independent of
the worlds" (3:97) .... The cosmos is not Like wujud, light is both ontological
independent of Him in any sense, since it and epistemological. The word idrak or
is a possible thing, and the possible thing "perception" in Arabic means primarily
is poor toward the Preponderator. to reach, to attain, to overtake. It is some-
The dark and luminous veils through
times translated by classical authors into
which the Real is veiled from the cosmos
are the light and the darkness by which Persian by ya.ft, that is, "finding," a
the possible thing becomes qualified in word which is also employed to translate
its reality because it is an intermediary wujud. 3 So the "perception" which takes
(wasat). It only looks upon itself, so it place through light is the "finding" that
only looks upon the veil. Were the veils takes place through wujud. The "per-
to be removed from the possible thing, ceived things" (mudrakat) are the "found"
possibility would be removed, and the or "existent things" (mawjudat). Since
Necessary and the impossible would be light in itself is the Real, one stage of
removed through its removal. Hence the finding God has to do with the elimina-
veils will be hung down forever, and
tion of darkness from the heart, the dark-
nothing else is possible. (III 274.25,
276.9,18) ness connected to engendered existence.
Hence in Istilahat Ibn al-'Arabi offers the
Through the Being of God, which is following defi~ition of light: "Any di-
214 Light, all perception takes place. vine inrush which dispels engendered
Knowing God's Self-Disclosure

existence from the heart" (14; II 130.1). ment and concerning which they come to
Likewise revelation is light: no conclusions ....
The prophets and the friends among the
Folk of Allah have no knowledge of God
The Koran is "light" because of its verses
derived from reflection. God has purified
which dispel misleading doubts. . . .
them from that. Rather, they possess the
Every verse it brings acts as evidence
"opening of unveiling" through the Real.
(dalala) because of the fact that it is light.
Among those who see Him is he who
For light dispels darknesses. (III 96. 7)
sees Him without delimitation. Another
sees Him through Him. Another sees
Just as Being is the Manifest, so also Him through himself. Another does not
light is manifestation, and all manifesta- see Him with himself, though he has seen
tion takes place through it. Him and does not know that he has seen
Him. This last group possesses no "mark"
There is nothing stronger than light, since ('aliima) 4 and does not know the form of
it possesses manifestation, and through it His manifestation in existence.
manifestation takes place. Everything has Among them is he who does not see
need of manifestation, and there is no Him because he knows that His Entity
manifestation without light. (II 466.20) becomes manifest here to the cosmos only
in the forms of the properties of the enti-
ties of the cosmos, while He is their locus
Just as light is being, finding, and of disclosure. Hence the seer perceives
manifestation, so also it is knowledge, only the form of the property, not the
which, as we have seen, is a "light which Entity. Hence he knows that he has not
God throws into the heart of whomso- seen Him. "To God belongs the highest
ever He will." Ibn al-'Arabi makes this similitude, and He is the Inaccessible,"
connection clear in discussing the vision who is not seen in respect of His He-
(ru'ya) of God promised to the faithful. ness, "and the Wise" (16:60) in His self-
He mentions in passing that real knowl- disclosure, lest it be said that He was
edge of God derives from God's unveil- seen.
Look at the form manifest to the eye in
ing the mysteries and opening the door a polished surface and verify your vision.
to direct knowledge of Him, a state You will find that the form has come be-
known technically as the "opening of un- tween you and your perception of the
veiling" (fotu~ al-mukiishafo). polished surface, which is its locus of dis-
closure. So you will never see the surface.
There is not one of us who will not see The Real is the locus of disclosure for
his Lord and speak to Him face to face. the forms of the possible things. Hence
All of this will be a giving of knowledge the cosmos sees only the cosmos in the
through the form in which He discloses Real ....
Himself to us, which is the form in which The object of vision (mar'f), which is
He created us. We know for certain that the Real, is light, while that through
the tasting of the messengers is far be- which the perceiver perceives Him is
yond the tasting of their followers. So do light. Hence light becomes included in
not suppose that when Moses asked to see light. It is as if it returns to the root from
his Lord (Koran 7:143), he was lacking which it became manifest. So nothing
the vision which was the state of Abi.i sees Him but He. You, in respect of your
Bakr in his words, "I have never seen entity, are identical with shadow, not
anything without seeing God before it." light. Light is that through which you
This is not the vision that Moses was perceive all things, and light is one of the
seeking from his Lord, since he already things. So you perceive light only inas-
possessed this vision through the eleva- much as you carry light in your shadow
tion of his level. . . . itself Shadow is ease, and darkness is a
Tasting and tradition (naql) allow no veil. When the star of the Real rises and
doubt as to the fact that there will be vi- enters into the servant's heart, the heart is
sion of God. But reason doubts this, since illuminated and irradiated. Then bewil-
vision of God is one of the things which derment and fear disappear from the pos-
throws rational faculties into bewilder- sessor of the heart, and he gives news of 2I 5
Hermeneutics

his Lord explicitly, through hints, and uted to that existent thing. All of this is
by means of various modes of report- known by the knowers of God by way of
giving. (III 116.18) witnessing and finding. (III 101.20)

We saw in the last chapter that one of


the definitions of self-disclosure is "the
The Lights of Self-Disclosure lights of unseen things that are unveiled
to hearts" (II 485.20). Self-disclosure is a
light, so it is existence and knowledge.
For the Sufi to give news of God, the But the term self-disclosure places stress
light of God must first dawn in his heart. upon the dynamic nature of light and
This dawning of light is called by many existence, the fact that the two are con-
names, "self-disclosure" (tajalll) being stantly moving from nonmanifestation
one of the most common. As we have into manifestation.
seen on several occasions, this term, like
wujud and light, has both ontological and The divine loci of self-manifestation (al-
epistemological dimensions. God dis- ma~iihir al-iliihiyya) are called "self-disclo-
closes Himself through the cosmos and sures." The fundamental Light is non-
through all knowledge. The following manifest within them and unseen by us,
passage is typical: while the forms in which self-disclosure
takes place are the locus within which the
loci of manifestation become manifest.
God brought the cosmos into existence
Hence our sight falls upon the loci of
as two sides and a center. He made one
manifestation. (II 575.17)
side like the point of a circle and the other
side like its circumference, while He con-
figured the cosmos between the two sides Since knowledge is intrinsic to exis-
within levels and circles. He named the tence/light, the self-disclosure which
circumference the "Throne," the central brings about existence also brings about
point the "earth." Everything between knowledge. All things know God to the
the two is the circles of the elements and extent that they share in existence and
the celestial spheres. He made them all light, and to the extent of their knowl-
loci for the individuals of the species and edge they constantly glorify God. How-
genera which He created in the cosmos. 5
ever, those creatures who possess ra-
Then God disclosed Himself in an all-
inclusive, all-encompassing self-disclo- tional speech (nu(q) do not perceive
sure, and He disclosed Himself in a spe- God's self-disclosure immediately.
cific, individual self-disclosure. The all-
inclusive self-disclosure is an all-merciful Life is intrinsic to all things, since it de-
self-disclosure, as indicated in His words, rives from the divine self-disclosure to
"The All-merciful sat upon the Throne" each and every existent thing. He created
(20:5). The specific self-disclosure is the the existent things to worship and know
knowledge of God that belongs to each Him, and not one of His creatures would
and every individual. Through the second know Him unless He disclosed Himself to
self-disclosure there is entrance and exit, it. Then it comes to know Him through
descent and ascent, motion and stillness, itself, since no created thing has the ca-
joining and separation, infringement, and pacity to know the Creator. . . . Self-
that which stays in its place. He distin- disclosure is forever constant, witnessed
guished parts of the cosmos from other by and manifest to all existent things, ex-
parts through place, position, form, and cept the angels, mankind, and the jinn,
accident. Hence no distinction takes place since this constant self-disclosure belongs
except through Him, for He is identical to only to that which has no rational speech,
what becomes distinguished and to that like all inanimate things and plants.
through which distinction takes place. He As for those things which have been
is with each existent thing wherever it is given rational speech and the ability to
216 through the manifest form that is attrib- express what is in themselves-that is,
Knowing God's Self-Disclosure

the angels, mankind, and the jinn in re- Lord?" He replied, "He is a light. How
spect of their governing spirits and their should I see Him?" 8 He means "radiant
faculties 6 -for them self-disclosure oc- light," since the rays take away sight and
curs from behind the veil of the unseen. prevent perception of Him from whom
Hence the angels' knowledge derives the rays derive. The Prophet also alluded
from God's giving knowledge (ta'rif), to this with his words, "God has seventy
while the knowledge of mankind and the veils of light and darkness; were they
jinn derives from consideration (na;;:ar) to be removed, the Glories of His Face
and reasoning (istidliil). But the knowl- would burn away everything perceived
edge possessed by their bodies and by all by the sight of His creatures." 9 Here
created things below them derives from "glories" are the lights of His Reality,
the divine self-disclosure. (III 67.15) since the "face" of something is its reality.
As for the light which has no rays, it is
Everything perceived on any level the light within which self-disclosure
of existence is a divine self-disclosure. takes place without rays. Then its bright-
Only God's Essence is never disclosed, ness does not go outside of itself and the
viewer perceives it with utmost clarity
which is to say that God does not dis-
and lucidity without any doubt. At the
close Himself as Essence, only as other same time, the presence in which he
than the Essence. dwells remains in utmost clarity and ut-
most limpidness, such that nothing of it
The self-disclosure of the Essence is becomes absent from him. Concerning
unanimously declared impossible (mam- this self-disclosure the Prophet said, "You
nii') by the People of the Realities. They shall see your Lord just as you see the
also agree unanimously that self-disclo- moon on the night when it is full." 10
sure in loci of manifestation, that is, self- One of the things he meant by this decla-
disclosure in the form of beliefs, takes ration that vision of God is similar to
place, as does self-disclosure in rational seeing the moon is that the moon itself
concepts (ma'qiiliit). These last two are the is perceived, since the moon's rays are
self-disclosure through which man "takes too weak to prevent sight from perceiv-
heed" (i'tibiir), since these loci of manifes- ing it ....
tation-whether they be the forms of Then the Prophet said in the same had-
rational concepts or the forms of be- ith, "or just as you see the sun at noon
liefs-are bridges over which one when there is no cloud before it." At this
"crosses" ('ubiir) through knowledge. In time its light is strongest, so all things be-
other words, man knows that behind come manifest through it and sight per-
these forms there is Something which ceives everything it falls upon when this
cannot be witnessed and cannot be known sun is unveiled to it. But when it desires
and that beyond that Object of knowl- to verify its vision of the sun itself in this
edge which cannot be witnessed or state, it is not able to do so. This declara-
known there is no reality whatsoever to tion of similarity shows that this self-
be known. (II 606.30) disclosure does not prevent people from
seeing one another. In other words, they
Ibn al-' Arabi divides self-disclosure will not be annihilated. That is why he
into different kinds in a number of pas- declared similarity with both the vision of
the full moon and the vision of the sun,
sages. One of these can suffice to illus-
and he did not restrict himself to one
trate the types of knowledge which the of the two. He emphasized that people
spiritual traveler is given when God illu- will subsist in this locus of witnessing by
minates his heart. 7 his words in the rest of the hadith, "You
will not be harmed and you will not be
Lights are of two kinds: a light having crowded."
no rays and radiant light. If self-disclosure When I entered into this waystation,
takes place through radiant light, it takes the self-disclosure without rays fell upon
away sight. It was alluded to by the Mes- me, so I saw it knowingly. I saw myself
senger of God when it was said to him, through it and I saw all things through
"0 Messenger of God, hast thou seen thy myself and through the lights which 217
Hermeneutics

things carry in their essences and which ception may separate him from many
are given to them by their realities, not things which he would perceive if not for
through any extraneous light. I saw a tre- this obstruction. He is like the person
mendous place of witnessing, in sensory who has been struck by blindness or deaf-
form-not in intelligible form-, a form ness or something similar.
of the Real, not a meaning. In this self- Since sciences are high and low in ac-
disclosure there became manifest to me cordance with the object of knowledge,
the manner in which the small expands in spiritual aspirations (himma) attach them-
order for the large to enter into it, while it selves to the noble and high sciences,
remains small and the large remains large, those which, when man comes to know
like the camel which passes through the them, purify his soul and magnify his
eye of the needle. II That is contemplated level. The science with the highest level is
in sensory, not imaginal, form, and the knowledge of God, and the highest way
small embraces the large; you do not to knowledge of God is knowledge of
know how, but you do not deny what self-disclosures. Below that is the knowl-
you see. So glory be to Him who is edge of rational consideration. There is
exalted high beyond a perception that no knowledge of God below considera-
satisfies rational faculties and who pre- tion. Most people have only beliefs, not
ferred the eyes over rational faculties! sciences.
"There is no god but He, the Inaccessible, These sciences are those concerning
the Wise" (Koran 3:6). which God commanded His Prophet to
Through this self-disclosure-which seek increase. . . . He meant the sciences
makes the power of the eyes manifest and of self-disclosure-for self-disclosure is
prefers them over rational faculties-God the noblest way to gain sciences-and
makes manifest the incapacity of rational these are the sciences of tastings.
faculties. And through His self-disclosure Know that increase and decrease has
in radiant light He makes manifest the in- another chapter which we shall also men-
capacity of the eyes and the power of the tion, God willing. It is as follows: God
rational faculties, preferring them over placed within each thing-and the soul of
the eyes. Thus everything is qualified by man is one of the things-a manifest di-
incapacity, and God alone possesses the mension (?iihir) and a nonmanifest dimen-
perfection of the Essence. (II 632.29) sion (biitin). Through the manifest dimen-
sion, man perceives things which are
called "entities," and through the non-
Since God alone is perfect in every
manifest dimension, he perceives things
respect, man is forever imperfect. Even which are called "knowledge." God is
"perfect man" is imperfect in relation to the Manifest and the N onmanifest, so
God's perfection, which explains why through Him perception takes place. For
God commanded the most perfect of all it is not in the power of anything other
perfect men, the Prophet MuQ.ammad, to than God to perceive something through
pray, "My Lord, increase me in knowl- itself; it can only perceive through that
edge" (20:114). Ibn al-'Arabi analyzes which God places within it.
this Koranic verse in relation to the di- God's self-disclosure to whomsoever
vine self-disclosure in chapter 19 of the He discloses Himself in whatsoever world
it may be, whether unseen or visible,
Futu~at, "On the cause of the decrease
takes place from His name the Manifest.
and increase of knowledge": As for His name "Nonmanifest," the real-
ity of this relationship demands that self-
Every animal and everything described disclosure never occur within it, neither
by perception receives a new knowledge in this world nor in the next, since "self-
at each instant in respect of that percep- disclosure" consists of His manifestation
tion. However, the person who perceives to the one to whom He discloses Himself
may be among those who do not pay any in that particular locus of disclosure, so it
attention to the fact that it is knowledge, belongs to the name "Manifest." The sig-
even though, in fact, it is knowledge. So nification of the relationships does not
if a knower's knowledge should be de- change....
2 18 scribed as decreasing, that is because per- When God discloses Himself, either out
Knowing God's Self-Disclosure

of gratuitous kindness or in answering a is no decrease whatsoever and that man


request, He·discloses Himself to the man- constantly and forever undergoes increase
ifest dimension of the soul, and percep- in knowledge in respect of that which he
tion takes place through sensation in a is given by his senses and the fluctuations
form within the barzakh of imaginaliza- of his states in himself and his thoughts.
tion (tamaththul). Then if the person who Hence he increases in sciences, but there is
perceives the self-disclosure is one of no profit in them ....
those who have knowledge of the Shari'a, From the time man begins to climb the
increase will take place in the sciences re- ladder of ascent (mi'rii]), he receives divine
lated to the rulings of the Law. If he is a self-disclosure in accordance with the lad-
logician, it takes place within the sciences der of his ascent. Each individual among
of the scales of meanings. If he is a gram- the Folk of Allah has a ladder specific to
marian, it will take place in the sciences of him which no one else climbs. Were one
the scale of speech. So it is in the case of person to climb another's ladder, then
anyone who is proficient in any of the sci- prophecy could be earned (iktisab), since
ences of the engendered things and the each ladder by its essence gives a specified
non-engendered things: Increase occurs level to each person who climbs it. The
within his soul in that knowledge with men of knowledge would then climb the
which he concerns himself. ladder of the prophets, and they would
The people of this path know that the attain to prophecy through their climb-
increase occurs because of the divine self- ing. But that is not the situation. If it
disclosure to these classes of people, for were, the Divine Vastness would disap-
they cannot deny what has been unveiled pear through repetition of the affair. But
to them. But those other than the gnostics it has been established for us that there is
sense the increase and attribute it to their no repetition in that Side.
own reflective processes. Other than these However, all the steps of the meanings
two groups find the increase but do not for the prophets, the friends, the faithful,
know that they had sought increase in and the messengers are the same. No lad-
anything. Their likeness is as God said: der has a single step more than any other.
"[The likeness of those who have been The first step is islam, which is submis-
loaded with the Torah, then they have sion (inqiyad). The last step is annihilation
not carried it,] is as the likeness of an ass ({ana') in going up ('uriij) and subsistence
carrying books. Evil is the likeness of (baqa) in coming out (khuriij). Between
the people who have cried lies to God's the two steps are the other steps: faith,
signs" (62:5), the "signs" being these in- virtue (i~san), knowledge, declaring holy,
creases and their root .... declaring incomparable, independence,
Self-disclosure also occurs through the poverty, abasement, exaltation, variega-
name Manifest to the nonmanifest dimen- tion, and stability in variegation. Then
sion of the soul. Then perception takes comes annihilation if you are leaving [the
place through. "insight" (ba.flra) in the ladder], or subsistence if you are entering
world of realities and meanings disen- it [from the top).
gaged from substrata. These are called When you leave each step, the sciences
"plain texts" (na.f.f), since the "plain text" of self-disclosure decrease in your non-
has no confusion within it, nor any sort manifest dimension to the measure in
of equivocality. This only takes place which they increase in your manifest
within the meanings. Hence the possessor dimension, until you reach the last step. If
of meanings is at rest from the toil of re- you are leaving the ladder and you have
flection. When self-disclosure takes place attained to the last step, God becomes
in his case, he is increased in the divine manifest through His Essence in your
sciences, the sciences of the mysteries, the manifest dimension in keeping with your
sciences of the nonmanifest, and every- measure. Then you make Him manifest
thing connected to the next world. This in His creation, and nothing of Him what-
pertains exclusively to the people of our soever remains in your nonmanifest di-
path.... mension. The self-disclosures of the non-
When I say that decrease of sciences in manifest dimension disappear from you
man is a fault, I only mean the divine sci- completely.
ences, since the reality demands that there When He calls you to enter in upon 219
Hermeneutics

Him, this is the first step; He discloses not the case. Tasting derives only from a
Himself to you in your nonmanifest di- self-disclosure. Knowledge may be gained
mension to the measure that the self- through the transmission of a true, sound
disclosure decreases in your manifest di- report. (II 546.5)
mension. When you reach the last step,
He manifests Himself in His Essence to Often Ibn al-'Arabi speaks of tasting
your nonmanifest dimension, and there as a knowledge connected more to spiri-
remains no self-disclosure whatsoever in tual and psychological "states" (a~wal)
your manifest dimension. All this takes
place because the servant and the Lord al-
than to entities. In other words, unveil-
ways remain together in the perfection of ing alludes to an experience that may be
the existence of each in himself. The ser- conveyed through describing the imag-
vant always remains servant and the Lord inal forms in which it occurs, while tast-
Lord throughout this increase and de- ing-like tasting an apple in the sensory
crease. (I 166.4) realm-cannot be described but must be
experienced.

The knowledge of tasting given by


Naming the Perception of Light each existent thing cannot be given by
any other existent thing. Man may find in
himself a distinct taste in each bite of an
As we have already seen, Ibn al-'Arabi apple he eats, a taste not found in any
employs a number of terms to refer to other bite. The apple is one, yet he finds a
sensory distinction in each bite, even if he
the perception of God's self-disclosure. is not able to explain it. (II 671.29)
Probably the most often used and the
most general in meaning is "unveiling"
When Ibn al-'Arabi defines tasting as a
(kashf). If that which is perceived by the standard technical term of Sufism, he
heart is looked upon primarily in relation makes it one of the stages of unveiling,
to the source, it is usually called "self-
contrasting it with "drinking" (shurb) and
disclosure." If it is looked upon primarily "quenching" (rl).
in relation to him who perceives, it is
more likely to called "unveiling." For the "Tasting" is the first beginnings of self-
most part unveiling takes a visionary disclosure, which give rise to drinking.
form. The person who experiences un- ... "Drinking" is the middle of self-dis-
veiling "sees" the lights as "loci of mani- closure within a station (maqiim) that calls
festation" (ma:?har) within the imaginal for quenching, though it may be in a sta-
world. tion that does not call for quenching, and
One of the several terms that is often it may be that the constitution of the
employed as a virtual synonym for un- drinker does not accept quenching. . . .
veiling is "tasting" (dhawq). Just as Ibn "Quenching" is the final stages of drink-
al-'Arabi can say that "He who has no ing in every station. (II 133.2) 12
In the view of the Tribe tasting is "the
unveiling has no knowledge" (I 218.21), first beginnings of self-disclosure." It is a
he can also say that "Any knowledge not state which comes upon the servant sud-
derived from tasting is not the knowl- denly in his heart. If it should stay for
edge of the Folk of Allah" (II 574.27). two instants or more, it is "drinking." . . .
The saying, "the first beginnings of
When the possessor of knowledge is as- self-disclosure" lets us know that every
sailed by obfuscations, that is not knowl- self-disclosure has a beginning, that is, a
edge. Knowledge comes only through tasting that belongs to the self-disclosure.
tastings. That is what we call "knowl- This only takes place if the self-disclosure
edge." (II 473.29) should be within (1) forms or (2) the di-
It could be imagined that when man vine or engendered names, nothing else.
possesses the knowledge of something, he If the self-disclosure should take place
220 possesses the "tasting" of it, but such is within (3) meaning, then its beginning is
Knowing God's Self-Disclosure

itself, since it has no property after the be- In one passage Ibn al-'Arabi distin-
ginning which man can gain gradually, guishes between unveiling and tasting by
[in contrast to the first two kinds, within saying that the first is something that one
which] he gains gradually the meanings of sees outside oneself, while the second is
those (1) forms within which self-disclo- one's own, inward experience. He is de-
sure takes place, or the meanings of each
and every (2) name. Hence he sees at the
scribing the mysteries which the traveler
beginning what he does not see from that comes to perceive upon entering into the
name afterwards. waystation (manzil) of familiarity (ulfa).
But for the possessor of (3) meaning,
the beginning of each thing is identical When you enter into this waystation,
with its entity. He gains nothing after this you join with a group of the messengers
all-inclusive giving of knowledge. Then and you receive sciences from their spe-
he differentiates when he expresses this cific tasting which you did not possess.
one reality. This is what is meant by our For you these will be an unveiling, just as
words at the beginning of this book: for them these had been a tasting. You
gain from them the science of proofs and
marks, so nothing is hidden from you in
[When I kept knocking on God's door earth or in heaven when He discloses
I waited mindfully, not distracted,] Himself to you. On the contrary, you
Until there appeared to the eye the glory distinguish and recognize each thing,
of His Face while others, who have not reached this
and a call to me, nothing else. station, are ignorant of it. This is a
[I encompassed Being in knowledge- knowledge of unveiling, since you wit-
nothing is in my heart but God. ]13 ness it through the mark (' aliima). You do
not see it from yourself, since it is not
For its beginning was itself, and every- your own tasting. (II 605.20)
thing we have mentioned after that in all
our speech is only the differentiation of In the following passage Ibn al-'Arabi
that all-inclusive reality which was con- employs the term tasting in a broad sense
tained in that look at the One Entity. to refer to all knowledge given by God
Most people work contrary to this to His messengers, His prophets, and His
tasting. That is why their speech is not
friends. At the same time, he clarifies the
tied together. He who considers their
speech looks for a root to which all their
distinction which he commonly draws
words go back, but he does not find it. among these three highest types of hu-
But each part of our speech is interrelated man being.
with the other parts, since it is one entity,
while this is its differentiation. A person The speech of the folk of God's path
will know what I am saying if he knows derives from tasting, and no one has any
the interconnection of the verses of the tasting of the share that a messenger re-
Koran in the way that some of them are ceives from God, since the tastings of the
arranged next to others. Then he will messengers are specific to the messengers,
know the factor that brings together (al- the tastings of the prophets are specific to
jiimi') two verses, even if there is an obvi- the prophets, and the tastings of the
ous distance between them; yet the factor friends are specific to the friends. A mes-
is correct. There must be some interrelat- senger may have all three tastings, since
ing factor which brings the two verses to- he is a friend, a prophet, and a messenger
gether, and that is what gives the interre- [all at once]. Khaqir said to Moses, "What
lationship with the neighboring verses, thou hast never encompassed in knowl-
for this is a divine arrangement. I have edge" (18:68). He says: I have a knowl-
seen no one who attempted to investigate edge taught to me by God and unknown
this except Rummani, the grammarian. 14 to you, and you have a knowledge taught
He has a commentary on the Koran, and to you by God and unknown to me. This
someone who has seen it reported to me is "tasting."
that he walks on this road, but I have not I was in a gathering within which there
seen it myself. (II 548.4) was a group of gnostics. One of them 221
Hermeneutics

asked another, "From which station did specific attribute. If that attribute does not
Moses ask for vision of God?" The other produce states in this world for everyone,
said, "From the station of yearning yet it will necessarily produce them in the
(shawq)." I said, "Be not heedless of this next world. But since there is no condi-
principle of the way: 'The final stages tion that this producing should take place
of the friends are the first states of the in this world, it is said concerning the
prophets.' Hence the friend has no tasting knowledge of the states that the states are
of the state of the Law-bringing prophets, "bestowals." This knowledge of them is
so he cannot taste it. One of our princi- to · gain them through tasting. By
ples is that we only speak on the basis of "through tasting" is meant at the begin-
tasting, but we are neither messengers nor ning of self-disclosure.
Law-bringing prophets. So how can we Take for example, "trust" (tawakkul),
know from which station Moses asked to which is reliance upon God in what He
see his Lord? True, if a friend of God had does or promises. The tasting of trust
asked that, you might be able to answer, which is added to knowledge of trust is
for it is within the realm of possibility that the person does not become agitated
that you would also have that tasting. But when he lacks that upon which the soul
we have come to know by way of tasting relies. Instead, the soul relies upon God,
that the tasting of the station of the mes- not upon the specific secondary cause.
sengers is impossible for any one other Hence he finds in himself a confidence in
than a messenger." (II 51.23) God greater than the confidence found by
someone else who has the secondary
The Sufis distinguish between various cause which would lead to it. For exam-
ple, someone is hungry, and he does not
"states" (a~wal) which one may experi-
have the secondary cause-the food
ence upon the path to God and the "sta- -which will eliminate his hunger. An-
tions" (maqamat) which one must pass other person is hungry, and he has the
through in order to reach Him. In gen- means to eliminate his hunger. The per-
eral the states are fleeting and may or son who has the secondary cause is strong
may not come, while the stations are the through the existence of the food which
necessary foundation for actualizing hu- will eliminate the hunger, but the other
man perfection. More will be said about person, who does not have it, equals him
the former in Chapter 15 and the latter in in calm and lack of agitation, since he
Chapter 17. For the moment it is enough knows that his provision-if he is to re-
ceive any more provision-must reach
to recall that one of the standard ways
him. This lack of agitation in a person
of distinguishing between states and who has such an attribute while he does
stations is to say that states are divine not possess the secondary causes is called
"bestowals" (mawahib), while the stations "tasting."
are "earnings" (makasib). In a similar Every competent person feels the dif-
way, knowledge acquired through tast- ference between these two individuals.
ing is a bestowal. Nevertheless, this does The person who has the knowledge but
not mean that God may give tasting to not the tasting is agitated by not having
just anyone. The servant must first have that which will eliminate his hunger, even
exerted himself and made himself though he knows that his provision-if
any provision remains for him-must
worthy of it. The Shaykh uses the term
reach him. Nevertheless, he finds no calm
"opening" (fat~) in the following as a with God in his soul. The possessor of
near synonym for unveiling. tasting is the one who finds the calm, just
as the one who possesses the appropriate
"Opening through tastings" is a knowl- secondary cause finds it. There is no dif-
edge gained by him who knows it through ference between them in calm; or rather,
exerting himself to acquire it. . . . This the possessor of tasting may be
knowledge belongs exclusively to the stronger. (IV 221.2)
people of the path, that is, the Folk and
Elect of Allah. It is the science of states. Unveiling takes place when God il-
Though states are "bestowals," they are luminates the heart, enabling it to see
222 only bestowed upon those who have a into the unseen world. "Opening" (fat~,
Knowing God's Self-Disclosure

fotu~). as discussed in the introduction, for sight, while insight in the inside world
is for God to "open the door" to the un- (al-ba(in) is the locus for that eye which is
seen world through disclosing Himself to sight in the eye of the face. Sight's names
the heart, or to "open up" the heart to are diverse, but it is not diverse in itself
direct knowledge of Him. The term also Just as eyes do not see Him through
their sight, so also insights do not see
signifies the beginning of something, and Him with their eyes. The Messenger of
hence it is often used to refer to that God said, "God is veiled from intellects
stage of the spiritual ascent when a per- just as He is veiled from sight; the Higher
son enters into the realm of unveiling. Plenum seeks Him just as you yourselves
The door is opened for him, and he no seek Him." 15 (IV 30.5)
longer has to follow an authority outside The World of the Unseen is perceived
himself. through the eye of insight, just as the
World of the Visible is perceived through
If the seeker desires divine loci of wit- the eye of sight. Sight perceives nothing
nessing and lordly sciences, he should of the World of the Visible except dark-
multiply his nightly vigils and continually ness, so long as the veil of darknesses or
multiply within them his concentration similar impediments are not lifted. Once
(Jam'iyya). If scattered lights should ap- the impediments are lifted and lights
pear to him such that between each light spread out upon the sensory objects, and
darkness is interspersed, and if those once the light of sight meets the light of
lights have no subsistence but disappear the locus of manifestation, then the seer
quickly, this is one of the first marks of sees objects with sight.
acceptance and opening. Those noble In the same way, the eye of insight is
lights will never cease becoming manifest veiled by such things as rust (rayn), pas-
to him through his acts of spiritual strug- sion (shahwa), and gazing upon "others"
gle (mujahada) and his striving until a (aghyar) within the dense natural world. 16
greatest light is unveiled for him. Then These things come between it and the vi-
the obstructions which prevent people sion of the World of Dominion, that is,
from reaching these knowledges will be the World of the Unseen. But when man
removed and mysteries of which he had applies himself to the mirror of his heart
nothing in himself and by which he was and polishes it with invocation and the
not described will be unveiled for him in recitation of the Koran, he thereby gains
their stations. (II 626. 3) some light. And God possesses a light
called the "light of existence" which is de-
ployed over all existent things. When
There are two basic worlds, the "un- these two lights come together, unseen
seen" and the "visible." The outward eye things are unveiled as they are in them-
or "sight" (ba~ar) perceives the visible selves and as they occur in existence.
world, while the inward eye or "insight" However, there is a subtle meaning that
(ba~lra) perceives the unseen world. separates the two lights: Sense perception
is veiled by impediments, excessive dis-
The cosmos is two worlds . . . , the tance, or excessive nearness. But the eye
Unseen . . . and the Visible. The second of insight is not like that, since nothing
world is perceived by sight, while the veils it except the rust, covering, 17 and
world of the Unseen is perceived by in- the like which we just mentioned. How-
sight. (III 42. 5) ever, there is also a subtle veil which I
God says, "Sight perceives Him not" shall mention:
(Koran 6:103), that is, the sight of any The light which becomes deployed
eyes, whether the eyes of faces or the from the Presence of Munificence upon
eyes of hearts. For hearts perceive only the World of the Unseen within the onto-
through sight, and the eyes of faces per- logical presences does not pervade all of
ceive only through sight. Wherever there them and does not become deployed from
is sight, perception occurs. Sight in the Him over all of them in respect to this
rational faculty is called the "eye of in- person who experiences unveiling. This
sight," while sight in the outside world only takes place in the measure desired by
(al-~ahir) is called the "sight of the eye." God. It is the station of "revelation." 18
The eye in the outside world is the locus For ourselves our proof for this is that 223
Hermeneutics

we taste it. For others, the proof is His opening of expression ('ibiira) in the out-
words to the Prophet, "Say: ... 'I know ward dimension, opening of sweetness
not what shall be done with me or with (haliiwa) in the inward dimension, and
you. I only follow what is revealed to opening of unveiling (mukiishafa) through
me"' (46:9), and this in spite of the ex- God.
treme Muhammadan lucidity. This is also
indicated by God's words "[It belongs not
to any human being that God should What brings all of this together is that
speak to him, except by revelation,] or whatever comes to you without self-
from behind a veil" (42:51). (II 241.1) exertion, or raising up your gaze, or seek-
ing, is "opening," whether outward or in-
Unveiling takes place through light, ward. Opening has a mark in him who
but the light that comes from God must tastes it, which is that he does not take
coincide with the light inside the heart. from the opening of anyone else, or from
Sometimes a person may perceive an the conclusions of reflection. One of the
conditions of opening is that it not be ac-
excess of radiance in self-disclosure so
companied by reflection or be acquired
that he does not gain in knowledge. This through reflection.
is because his own light is not equal to Our shaykh, Abii Madyan, used to say
the task of matching the outside light. In concerning opening, "Feed us with 'fresh
explaining this, Ibn al-'Arabi reminds flesh' as God said; feed us not with dried
us of the definition of darkness: "That meat." 19 In other words: Do not tell us
which is perceived but through which no concerning opening anything but what
perception takes place." has been opened up to you in your hearts.
Do not tell us about the opening of oth-
When the darkness of ignorance takes ers. By this he wanted to raise the aspir-
up residence in the heart, it makes it ation of his disciples (a.r~ab), so that
blind. Then the heart is not able to per- they would strive to take from God. (II
ceive those realities in respect of perceiv- 505.17)
ing which it is called a "knower" ('a/im). When the shaykhs ask their disciples
God says, "Why, is he who was dead, questions in order to teach them how to
and We gave him life, and appointed take from God, they do not allow them
for him a light to walk by among the to reflect upon the answer, lest their an-
people as one whose likeness is in the swer be the result of reflection. They say,
darknesses?" (6:122). Here [by light and "Answer only with that which comes to
darkness] He means knowledge and ig- your mind immediately when I ask you
norance. the question. Look at what is cast into
But it is not true that everything which your heart when the question enters it.
is "perceived, and through which percep- Mention it at the outset of the idea." If
tion does not take place" is darkness, the disciples do not follow this instruc-
since when light is stronger than the light tion, the shaykh does not accept their
of sight, man perceives it, but he does not answers. (II 558.14)
perceive through it. That is why the Mes- In this path, it is not proper for the
senger of God said concerning God, "His shaykh to apprise the disciple (murld)
veil is light." Hence unveiling only takes of what will take place when he gains a
place through a light which is equivalent knowledge in himself through opening.
to the light of sight. Do you not see that . . . Otherwise, the disciple may make
bats only come out in light which is equi- that form manifest, while his inward self
valent to the light of their sight? (III is devoid of that which would demand
369.31) that form.
You may object, "But it is not proper
for the shaykh to conceal that from the
Ibn al-'Arabi employs the term mu- disciple." I will reply: On the contrary, it
kiishafa, from the same root as kashf or is proper for him to conceal it and even
unveiling, in basically the same meaning incumbent. He knows that when the
as kashf In his chapter on opening (fo- meaning which necessitates the manifesta-
224 tuh), he discerns three kinds of opening: tion of that form takes up residence in the
Knowing God's Self-Disclosure

disciple, the disciple will have to manifest nonmanifest, since He is the Manifest and
that form. Then the shaykh will know the Nonmanifest. So there is a Real and a
that God has given the disciple the apti- creation. If you witness creation, you will
tude to become one of the People of the not see the Real, and if you witness the
Real. But if the shaykh were to give him Real, you will not see creation. So you
knowledge of the meaning which necessi- will never see both creation and the Real.
tates that form, while the ego (nafs) is dis- On the contrary, you will witness this
posed to treachery and untruthfulness, in that and that in this-a witnessing
then he might make that form manifest through knowledge-since one is a wrap-
without the meaning, and there could per and the other enwrapped. (II 496.11)
be a misunderstanding. Thus, for exam-
ple, the hypocrite manifests the form of
the man of faith in outward practice,
while his inward dimension is devoid of
that which would necessitate that prac- Witnessing and Vision
tice. (III 272. 32)

Ibn al-'Arabi explains the "opening of Another important synonym for un-
unveiling" as follows: veiling is "witnessing" (shuhud, mushii-
hada). This term has a wider sense than
unveiling since it is commonly used for
The third kind of opening is the open-
ing of unveiling, which brings about sight as well as insight. It is employed in
knowledge of the Real. The Real is typical fashion as a synonym for unveil-
greater and more exalted than that He ing in the first passage below, where Ibn
should be known in Himself, but He is al-'Arabi is discussing one of the many
known through the things. Hence un- kinds of lights which may be seen by the
veiling is the cause of knowledge of the heart during self-disclosure. In the pro-
Real in the things. The things are like cur- cess, he touches upon one of his favor-
tains over the Real. When they are raised, ite eschatological themes, the fact that
unveiling takes place.... mercy and light will overcome in the
The Real is not known in the things
end, so the "final end" (ma'iil) for every-
without the manifestation of the things
and the lifting of their properties. The one will be felicity. In the second pas-
eyes of the common people fall only upon sage, he tells us that witnessing, like un-
the properties of the things, but the eyes veiling, can be divided into several kinds.
of those who have the opening of un-
veiling fall only upon the Real in the The first self-disclosure [being dis-
things. Among them is he who sees the cussed here) is the lights of meanings dis-
Real in the things, and among them is he engaged from substrata. Such a light is
who sees the things while the Real is any knowledge which is unconnected to a
within them. Between these two there is a body, a corporeal thing, an imaginal
difference. When opening takes place, the thing, or a form, and which we do not
eye of the first falls upon the Real and he know in respect of our giving form to it
sees Him in the things, but the eye of the (ta~awwur). On the contrary, we come to
second falls upon the things, and then he understand it as it is in itself-though in
sees the Real within them because of the accordance with what we are. This cannot
existence of the opening. (II 507.30) happen until I become a light. As long as
Engendered existence is darkness, while I am not a light, I will not perceive any-
light is the Evident Real. Light and dark- thing of this knowledge. This is indicated
ness never come together, just as night by the words of the Prophet in his prayer,
and day never come together. On the "Make me into a light!" 21' God says,
contrary, each of them conceals its com- "God is the light of the heavens and the
panion and makes itself manifest. He who earth" (24:35), so He only gives him light
sees the day does not see the night, and from Himself. In the same way He says,
he who sees the night does not sec the "And the earth" of the Resurrection "will
day. The actual situation is manifest and shine with the light of its Lord" (39:69). 225
Hermeneutics

In other words, there will be no sun all. Among the people in this presence,
there, and the lack of light is darkness, some witness Him in the things, some
but there must be witnessing, so there witness Him before the things, some after
must be light, for that is the day when them, some with them, and some witness
God comes to judge and decree. Hence Him Himself, in accordance with the di-
He only comes within his name Light, versity of many stations (maqiim), which
so "the earth will shine with the light of are known by the folk of God's path, the
its Lord." Then each "soul will know" possessors of tasting and drinking. (II
through that light "what it has sent before 601.18)
and left behind" (82:5), since it will see it
all made present, unveiled for it by that
light. The term shuhud is of special interest,
Were it not for the light that belongs to since certain Sufis in India-especially
the souls, there could be no witnessing Shaykh A}:!mad Sirhindi (d. 1624)-
(mushiihada), since witnessing (shuhud) undertook to criticize the idea of wa~dat
only takes place when two lights come al-wujud or the "Oneness of Being"
together. When a person has a share of in the name of wa~dat al-shuhud or the
light, how can he be wretched forever?
"Oneness of Witnessing," and the con-
For light does not come from the world
of wretchedness. And there is no soul troversy between the supporters of the
which does not have a light, through two positions has reverberated down to
which its works will be unveiled to it. It recent times. But we have already seen
will become happy through everything that Ibn al-'Arabi never employs the
good, and as for the evil, "It will wish if term wa~dat al-wujud, and that wujud in
there were only a far space between it and his usage signifies not only Being/exis-
that day" (3:30). That is why God finishes tence but also the "finding" of God by
this verse with the words, "God is Clem- God Himself or by the servant; as such it
ent to the servants," for He has appointed is a synonym for kashf, and the great
for them lights whereby they perceive,
Sufis are the "People of kashf and wujud."
and they have come to know that light
has no share in wretchedness. Hence the We saw above that the knowers of God
final end must be the agreeable and at- recognize His self-disclosure "by way of
taining the individual desire (gharaq), and shuhud and wujud" (III 101.31). These
this is what is called "felicity." For in this few indications are enough to show that
verse He said, "(The day) every soul," when Ibn al-'Arabi was designated as the
not just some specific souls rather than great expositor of wa~dat al-wujud and
others, "(shall find what it has done of criticized in terms of wa~dat al-shuhud,
good brought forward, and what it has Ibn al-'Arabi's own position was not the
done of evil)." He mentions good and real issue. 21 By the seventeenth century
evil. Existence is light, while nonexist-
ence is darkness, so evil is nonexistence,
there was a received wisdom concerning
while we are in existence, so we are in what he had said, and it was this that be-
good. If we become ill, yet we will be- came the object of debate. In the present
come well, since the root is the Restorer, context, we can only point to the wide
and He is Light. (II 485.29) range of meanings covered by both wu-
God has let His servants know that He jud and shuhud.
has presences (~aqariit) designated for spe- When Ibn al-' Arabi distinguishes be-
cific affairs and that He has called His ser- tween wujud and shuhud, he usually con-
vants to enter into them and gain from siders wujud as belonging to God and
them. Thus He has made the servants shuhud as belonging to the servant. God
poor and needy in respect to these pres-
is present and finds Himself in all things,
ences. Some people accept these presences
and some reject them out of ignorance. and man witnesses this presence and
Among these presences is the presence finding to the extent of his capacity. Wu-
of witnessing (mushiihada), which pos- jud as such belongs to the N onmanifest,
sesses diverse waystations (manzil), even though its reverberations fill the cosmos.
226 though a single presence embraces them In contrast, shuhud is the vision of self-
Knowing God's Self-Disclosure

disclosure and belongs to the manifest Ibn al-'Arab1 often distinguishes wit-
realm. nessing from vision (ru'ya) by referring
to another well-known term of the Sufi
Everyone in wujud is the Real, vocabulary, shahid or "witness," that is,
and everyone in shuhud is creature. that which gives information or testi-
(III 306.8) mony about what has been seen. In
I~tila~at 7, Ibn al-'Arabi: defines "witness"
The Folk of Allah follow Him whose as "The trace which witnessing (mu-
folk they are, so His property flows over shahada) leaves in the heart of the wit-
them. And His property is the lack of de- nesser (mushahid). This is the witness,
limitation. Hence He possesses the all- and in reality, it is what the heart retains
inclusiveness of wujud, while they possess from the form of the witnessed (mash-
the all-inclusiveness of shuhud. That per-
son who delimits His wujud has delimited
hiid)." The longer version of I~tila­
his own shuhud. He is not one of the Folk ~at has "vision of the witnessed" in place
of Allah. (III 161.15) of "form of the witnessed" (II 132.25).
The cosmos has nothing of the cosmos In other words, the divine self-disclo-
except a wujud and a shuhud in this world sure leaves a trace in the heart, which
and the next, without end and without gives testimony and "witnesses to" what
being cut off, for the entities become has been seen.
manifest and are seen. (IV 324.30) In chapter 266 of the Futii~at on the
The gnostics are . . . the people of shu- "witness," the Shaykh provides a slightly
hud within wujud. I only ascribe wujud to different definition: "The witness is the
them because of the temporal origination
subsistence of the forms of the loci of
of the properties, which do not become
manifest except within an existent/found witnessing (mashahid) in the soul of the
thing (mawjud). (II 529.22) witnesser. So the form of the witnessed
in the heart is identical to the witness,
and through it the witnesser experiences
If shuhiid can be distinguished from
bliss (na'!m)" (II 567.5). Then he explains
mushahada, it may be in the sense that
the difference between witnessing and
shuhiid is used more generally, as a
VISion:
synonym for seeing and vision on any
level of existence, whereas mushahada is The witness is the actualization of the
more often used as a synonym for un- form of the witnessed in the soul during
veiling. In his I~tila~iit al-~iifiyya Ibn al- witnessing. Hence the witness. gives
'Arab1 gives three meanings to mushahada something different from what is given
as a technical Sufi term. I quote from by vision, since vision is not preceded by
the longer version of I~tila~at with ad- knowledge of the object of vision (a/-
ditions in brackets from chapter 209, mar'l), while witnessing is preceded by
where he provides an expanded defini- knowledge of the witnessed, a knowledge
tion in connection with unveiling (mu- which is named "belief' ('aqlda). Hence in
kashafa). witnessing there occurs admission and de-
nial, but there is nothing in vision but ad-
mission, never any denial. The witness is
"Witnessing" is [the witnessing of cre- called by that name because it gives wit-
ation in the Real, which is] to see the ness to the viewer of the correctness of his
things by the proofs of declaring His belief. Hence every witnessing is a vision,
Unity (taw~!d). It is also [the witnessing but not every vision is a witnessing, "but
of the Real in creation, which is] to see they do not know" (Koran 2:13). (II
the Real within the things. It is also [the 567.10)
witnessing of the Real without creation, When the Sufis define witnessing as the
which is] the reality of certainty (yaqln) "reality of certainty without doubt and
without any doubt. Witnessing follows hesitation," this refers to a witnessing that
unveiling, or it may be said that it is fol- takes place outside the Presence of Imag-
lowed by unveiling. (II 132.4, 495.23) inalization. An example of the [witnessing 227
Hermeneutics

within the Presence of Imaginalization] is veil of the things inasmuch as He has en-
the divine self-disclosure in the hereafter compassed them, as indicated in His
which will be denied. Then, when He words, "Allah is behind them, encom-
transmutes Himself into the mark ('alama) passing" (85:20).
by which they recognize Him, they admit Or he may see the Real as identical
to Him and recognize Him. 22 He is iden- with the things. Here the Men of Allah
tical to the one denied at first and to the are divided into two kinds. One kind sees
one recognized at last. They do not admit the Real as identical with the things in the
except to the mark, not to Him. Hence properties and the forms. Another kind
they only recognize Him as limited (ma~­ sees the Real identical with the things in
~iir), so they do not recognize the Real. respect to the fact that He is the receptacle
This explains why we make a distinc- for the properties and characteristics of
tion between vision and witnessing. We the forms, not in respect of the forms
say concerning witnessing that it is the themselves, since the forms are some of
witnessing of the witness which comes the properties of the immutable entities.
into the heart from the Real. It is this wit- As for the person who is sober through
nessing which is delimited by a mark. But himself, he only sees his own likeness and
vision is not like that. That is why Moses similitudes. He says only "Nothing is like
said, "Give me vision that I may gaze Him." His station and state do not allow
upon Thee" (7:143). He did not say, "Let him to complete the verse through tast-
me witness," since He was witnessed by ing, even if he recites it. That is His
him, never unseen (ghayb) by him. How words, "He is the Hearing, the Seeing"
should He be unseen for the prophets (42:11).
when He is never unseen by the friends, The possessor of the first tasting says,
the gnostics? (II 495.27) "He is the Hearing, the Seeing," through
both tasting and recitation. Hence the
Despite the distinctions Ibn al-'Arabi possessor of the sobriety of self sees that
sometimes draws between vision and the Real is far removed from himself, like
witnessing, in practice it is often difficult him who places Him in his kibla when he
prays. He does not see that it is He who
to say why he has chosen one term over
performs the prayer. (II 547.24)
the other. Like the other terms employed
to refer to the perception of self-disclo-
sure, vision seems to have both a general Whatever term Ibn al-'Arabi applies to
meaning, according to which it is more the acquisition of knowledge of God,
or less synonymous with unveiling, one must always remember that the
tasting, and witnessing, and a specific knower acquires knowledge through
meaning, where it signifies a special kind God's self-disclosure, not His Essence.
of unveiling in certain contexts. In the Vision may be higher than witnessing,
following passage, where Ibn al-'Arabl and witnessing higher or lower than un-
is discussing the station of "sobriety" veiling, but these are modes of knowl-
(~a~w), he tells us how the gnostic "sees" edge which are acquired by other than
(ru'ya), that is, has a vision of, his Lord. the Essence of God, and hence the Es-
This vision does not differ significantly sence Itself is never known. None knows
from the "witnessing" mentioned above. the Essence but the Essence.

Some of the sober arc sober through


their Lord, and others through them- In respect to His Essence and His Being,
selves. He who is sober through his Lord nothing stands up to the Real; He cannot
never addresses any but his Lord in his be desired or sought in His Essence. The
sobriety, nor does he hear any but Him. seeker seeks and the desirer desires only
His eye falls only upon his Lord in all the knowledge (ma'rifa) of Him, witnessing
existent things. He will have one of two of Him, or vision of Him, and all of these
stations: are .from Him; they are not He Him-
He may see the Real from "behind" the self. (II 663. 9)
228
Knowing God's Self-Disclosure

Perceiving the Veil in that Presence, much less another, ex-


traneous entity.
However, one can conceive of this sit-
That which comes from God is al- uation in the self-disclosure of images
(mithiil). Once the two gnostics come to-
ways colored by the receptacle which
gether, then one of two things is true: Ei-
receives it. As Junayd said, "The water ther (A) they have been brought together
takes on the color of its cup." This prin- with each other in a single station, higher
ciple-to which Chapter 19 is de- [than their own stations], or lower, or in
voted-is of fundamental importance in between; or (B) they have not come to-
Ibn al-'Arabi's teachings, since, from the gether.
creaturely point of view at least, it ex- (A) If they have been brought together
plains all diversity and all multiplicity. It in a single station, the station must re-
explains why religions must be different, quire the declaration of (a) incomparabil-
and why the beliefs of the followers of ity, or (b) similarity, or (c) both at once.
In any case, the property of the self-dis-
the same religion diverge. It is the prin-
closure in respect of manifestation is one,
ciple of continual creation and of "Self- but in respect to what the recipients of
disclosure never repeats itself' viewed self-disclosure find, it is diverse in tasting,
from the side of the receptacle. It also has because of their diversity in entities: The
important applications to the question of one gnostic is not the other, neither in
"states" and "stations" on the spiritual natural or spiritual form, nor in location.
path. Why is it that practically every Though the one is like the other, he is not
book written on the stations provides an identical with him.
original description? Is it that Sufis can- The most that can happen is one of the
not agree whether there are seven, ten, following: (1) Each of them fully realizes
(ta~aqquq) the knowledge of himself. But
forty, 100, or 1000 stations on the path?
the self of the one is different from the
Not at all. There is no question of agree- self of the other. Hence the one acquires
ment, since there is no argument. It is knowledge which is not acquired by the
simply that each person who has traveled other. Hence we know that they have
the path to God speaks from his own come together while remaining apart.
viewpoint and recounts his own experi- (2) One of them fully realizes the
ence. And "Self-disclosure never repeats knowledge of himself, while the other is
itself." Ibn al-'Arabi applies the principle annihilated from the witnessing of him-
of non-repetition to a question he was self. Then they have remained apart while
asked about witnessing: coming together, or one of them gives
what is given by the object of desire (mu-
riid) and the other gives what is given by
When two gnostics come together in a him who desires (murld). In any case, they
single presence of witnessing (~a4ra shu- are different in existence (wujiid), while
hudiyya) with God, what is their prop- coinciding (muttafiq) in state and witness-
erty? I was asked this question by our ing (shuhud).
shaykh, Yiisuf ibn Yakhlaf al-KiimP' in (a) If the station requires the declaration
the year 586 [1190]. I said to him as fol- of incomparability for each of them, the
lows: utmost that each can do is to declare Him
Master, this is a question which is sup- incomparable with the form that belongs
posed but which does not occur, unless to himself, so the two are different, with-
the self-disclosure happens to take place in out doubt, even if they be alike (mithl).
the Presence of Images (1Ja4rat al-muthul), (b) If the station requires the declaration
like the dream of the dreamer or the state of similarity, its state is like the first. So
of an Incident!' But in the Reality, no, also (c) if it requires bringing together
since the Presence does not embrace two both incomparability and similarity. For
such that something else might be wit- bringing the two together is to combine
nessed along with It. On the contrary, the them in a middle presence. So the one
witnesser does not even witness himself state is like the other.
229
Hermeneutics

Hence the two gnostics never come to- and I am not he, for the Real does not re-
gether in existence, even if they come to- peat a form." (II 475.32)
gether in witnessing.
(B) They may not be brought together The forms in which the Real shows
by a single station. Rather, each of them Himself are not the Real Himself, but the
stands in a station which is different from
veils which hide the Essence. The gnostic
the station belonging to the other while
he becomes manifest in the form which never sees God directly, since he never
belongs to the other. Then, although they sees anything but His self-disclosure.
come together in form, each will be given And that is precisely His veil.
a power whereby he will witness the
· presence of the other upon the carpet of God says, "Those are they whom God
the object of his witnessing, since the ob- has guided," i.e., to the good and the bet-
ject of witnessing is a self-disclosure in an ter, "and those-they are the possessors
imaginal form. It is this self-disclosure of the kernels" (39:18). In other words,
and object of witnessing within which the they bring out the kernel (lubb) of the af-
two will come together in what is ad- fairs hidden by the shell (qishr). The eye
dressed to them and what they witness, if falls only upon the veil, while that which
the Object so desires. But in any other is veiled belongs to the possessors of the
presence, neither witnessing, addressing, kernels. This alerts us to the form of the
nor vision allows for any "other." veil within which the Real discloses Him-
Should this be their situation, then their self. Then He transmutes Himself from it
property is that of two people who have into another veil. In reality, there is noth-
been brought together by a single station ing but passage from veil to veil, since no
in the knowledge of self, or the annihi- divine self-disclosure ever repeats itself.
lation of one of them, or one of them Hence the forms must be diverse, while
stands in the station of the object of desire the Real is behind all of that. We possess
and the other in that of him who desires nothing of Him but the name Manifest,
-such that he who desires gives news of whether in vision or veil. As for the name
severity and strength while the object of Nonmanifest, it remains forever nonman-
desire gives news of softness and tender- ifest. It is the intelligible kernel perceived
ness. 25 There is no other possibility. N ei- by the possessors of the kernels. In other
ther of them will give news of what was words, they know that there is a kernel
acquired by his companion. Each will be and it is over Him that a veil has become
instructed (ilqii') according to the affinity manifest. . . . Hence, he who maintains
(muniisib) required by the specific consti- that there is vision speaks the truth, and
tution which brought about the diversity he who holds that there is no vision
of the forms of their spirits at their origi- speaks the truth. (IV 105.3)
nal configuration.
When each of them returns to his com- He who sees the Real plainly and openly
panions, he will say-even if one of them sees Him only from behind a veil.
is in the West and the other in the East He does not recognize it, yet it exists
-"In this hour I witnessed so-and-so. I through Him-
saw him face to face and came to know this is indeed a marvelous affair!
his form. Among his qualities is such and No seer sees anything
such," and he will describe his attributes but his own bliss or chastisement.
as they actually are. He among them who The form of the Seer has disclosed itself
does not have knowledge of the realities to him
will then say, "The Real gave to him the while he is the Seer-no, he is the veil.
like of what He gave to me." But that is
not the situation. Neither of them heard It has been mentioned in the Sahlh that
what the other heard, and that is because the Real discloses Himself within. forms
they differ in affinity, as we said. But if and undergoes transmutation within
he is one of the people of realities and them. This is what we mean by "veil." It
complete knowledge and he is asked what has been established by reason, the Law,
the other gained, he will reply, "I know and unveiling-and unveiling yields ex-
230 only what is required by my own form actly the same as the Law-that the Real
Understanding the Koran

accepts no change. As for reason, the that is, the entities of these forms. He is
proofs of that are well known, and this not seen except from behind a veil, just as
book is not their place, since this book is He does not speak except from behind a
based upon the Law and the results of un- veil. ...
veiling and witnessing .... He never manifests Himself to His
As for the Law, that is His words, creatures except within a form, and His
"Nothing is like Him" (42:11). If He un- forms are diverse in each self-disclosure,
derwent changes in His Essence, this since "He never discloses Himself in a
property would not be true. But it is true, single form twice or in a single form to
so it is impossible for Him to undergo two individuals." 26 Since He is so, the
change in His Essence. . . . actual situation cannot be apprehended by
The forms seen by sight and perceived reason or the eye. Reason cannot delimit
by rational faculties, and the forms imag- Him by one of those forms, since He de-
inalized by the faculty of imagination are stroys that delimitation by the next self-
all veils, behind which the Real is seen. disclosure. But in all that He is God ....
. . . Hence the Real remains forever Un- All of this-praise belongs to God-is
seen behind the forms which become man- in actual fact imagination, since it never
ifest within existence. The entities of the has any fixity in a single state. But "Peo-
possible things in the thingness of their ple are asleep," and the sleeper may rec-
immutability and with all the variations in ognize everything he sees and the pres-
their states witnessed by the Real also re- ence in which he sees it, "and when they
main unseen. The entities of these forms die, they awake" from this dream within
manifest within Being, which is the En- a dream. 27 They will never cease being
tity of the Real, are the properties of the sleepers, so they will never cease being
entities of the possible things in respect of dreamers. Hence they will never cease un-
the states, variation, change, and alter- dergoing constant variation within them-
ation which they have in their immutabil- selves. Nor will that which they perceive
ity. These become manifest within the with their eyes ever cease its constant
Entity of Real Being. But the Real variation. The situation has always been
does not change from what He is in such, and it will always be such in this life
Himself. ... and the hereafter. (IV 18.32, 19.22,34)
Hence the veils are forever let down,

1 4. UN D E R S T A N D IN G THE K 0 R A N

The knowledge acquired by reason the revelatory reports which refer to it.
through reflection is confined and con- In contrast, unveiling perceives the self-
stricted by the instrument of knowledge. revelation in the forms of the cosmos, so
The light thrown into the heart by God it knows for certain the literal truth of
also has certain limitations, since it is a the Koranic statements.
created light deposited within a created According to Ibn al-'Arabi, one can
receptacle, but the fact that God has never doubt the accuracy of the revealed
taken the initiative and "bestowed" text in its literal form. To suggest that
(wahb) the knowledge makes it radically God's "real meaning" lies below the sur-
different from the knowledge "earned" face or has to be found through interpre-
(iktisab) through personal efforts. Reason tation is to cast aspersions upon God and
is limited by its inability to perceive amounts to blatant ill manners and dis-
God's self-disclosure in all things, so it courtesy (sii' al-adab). The literal sense of
denies His similarity and explains away the text must always be honored. If, after 231
Hermeneutics
that, God "opens" up one's understand- concermng God's Essence, attributes,
ing to perceive other meanings which and acts.
preserve the literal sense while adding
new knowledge, one accepts the new un-
derstanding and thanks God. However, This book is not a place for that which
one cannot interpret the text on the basis is given by the proofs of the reflective
powers, only for that which is given by
of "common sense" or "scientific fact" or divine unveiling. So we will not list these
any other product of reason. One does proofs systematically as their supporters
not go charging into the text without have established them in their books.
preparation. If a person has not fulfilled Then these rational thinkers turned
the requirements of the Law upon him- their consideration toward transmitted
self and has not searched for the interpre- knowledge (al-sam'iyyiit}, which is our
tation from God through faith, practice, knowledge. We rely upon it in the out-
and godfearing (taqwa), he has no basis ward rulings of the Law and we take it
upon which to understand the text. through divine unveiling while exerting
ourself through godfearing. Then God
The preconditions for understanding
undertakes to teach us through self-dis-
preclude the possibility of a "novel" or closure. We witness that which rational
"original" interpretation. The required faculties cannot perceive through their re-
piety, godfearing, strict adherence to the flective powers, but concerning which
Shari'a and the Sunna, deep respect for transmitted knowledge has come. Reason
those who have gone before in the way has declared it impossible, the reason of
of the Prophet, and the acknowledgment the man of faith has interpreted it, and the
of one's own nothingness in the face of simple man of faith has simply assented to
the Divine Teacher all work against any it.
attempts at innovation. A new interpre- The lights of unveiling have come with
the news that it is forbidden to reflect
tation must first take into account those
upon the Essence. We saw that the Es-
interpretations that have been made by sence is contrary to that which rational
one's spiritual forebears and not contra- faculties prove through their reflective
dict them. If it adds another dimension powers, since the possessors of unveiling
to the tradition and harmonizes with pre- witness the right hand of God, His hand,
vious interpretations, while the inter- His two hands, the eye and the eyes at-
preter possesses all the requisite personal tributed to Him, the foot, and the face.
qualities, then it might be valid. They witness such attributes as rejoicing,
wonder, laughter, and self-transmutation
from form to form-all of this.
Hence the God who is worshiped by
the faithful and the people of witnessing
The Goal of Rational Inquiry among the Folk of Allah is not the same
as that worshiped by the people who re-
flect upon God's Essence. They are de-
Ibn al-'Arabi frequently claims that prived of knowledge of Him, since they
the knowledge acquired by means of un- have disobeyed God and His Messenger
veiling is superior to that which is earned by reflecting upon the Essence of God.
through the efforts of intellectual investi- They have transgressed the level of speech
gation and rational inquiry. Neverthe- (kaliim} and rational consideration-the
less, he does not denigrate rational fact that He is one God-and gone on to
that for which they have no need. Some
knowledge. He merely points out its
have done that who wished for God, like
limitations. Certain subjects lie "beyond Abii I:J.amid al-Ghazali and others, but
the stage of reason," so man can gain no this is a place where feet slip, even if Abii
knowledge of them without the help of I:J.amid made this a covering for himself,
revelation. In the first passage below, he since in some places he called attention to
has just mentioned the great divergence the opposite of that. But in short, he was
232 of views among the rational thinkers discourteous. (II 389.6)
Understanding the Koran

The word kalam, translated as about His Self' (3:28). So also the Mes-
"speech" in the above passage, is also the senger of God forbade us to reflect on the
name of the discipline of the theologians, Essence of God. "Nothing is like Him"
and this, in fact, may be what Ibn al- (42:11), so how can one reach the knowl-
'Arabi has in mind, since he makes it edge of His Essence? But He said, com-
manding us to declare His Unity, "Know
synonymous with rational consideration
that there is no god but God" (47:19).
(na?ar), the specific mental activity Hence there is no knowledge of Him ex-
through which the theologians reach cept in respect of the fact that He is a god.
their conclusions. He is saying that the This is the knowledge of God's appropri-
proper domain of theological reflection is ate attributes, through which He becomes
the existence and Unity of God, nothing distinguished from that which is not a
else. This point needs to be emphasized, god and from the divine thrall. This is the
since there is just as much danger in ig- knowledge commanded by the Law, [but
noring reason as there is in ignoring one cannot know His Essence,] since
imagination. Those who fail to utilize the "None knows God but God."
In the view of both the people of con-
full possibilities of reason run the risk of
sideration and the people of unveiling,
falling into shirk, associating other gods unequivocal rational proofs have been es-
with God, the opposite of taw~ld. And tablished that He is One God, since there
taw~ld alone is a knowledge sufficient for is no god but He. Then, after rational
salvation. If someone ignores the proper proof of His taw~ld and the self-evident
perceptions of reason, he will perceive rational knowledge of His existence, we
the manyness of God's self-disclosures, see that the people of the path of God-
but like contemporary contextualists, he the messengers, prophets, and friends-
will claim that there is no supreme Real- have brought other modes of knowledge,
ity lying behind the myriad forms of various attributes of God which rational
proofs consider impossible. (I 271. 7)
imaginal "experience." The Shaykh, a
You say concerning the Real that He is
true representative of the "perennial phi- Hearing and Seeing. He has a hand, two
losophy," would agree that "The water hands, hands, eyes, leg, and everything
takes on the color of the cup." But the He has ascribed to Himself. None of these
innate resources of the healthy rational can be ascribed to Him by the rational
faculty-the "intellect" -pierce the veils faculty, since it knows that they can only
of self-disclosure and perceive the One. be ascribed to temporally originated
The gnostic never ceases understand- things. Were it not for what has been
ing God's Oneness, even ifhe sees God's brought by the Law and the divine pro-
self-disclosures in all things. He declares phetic reports, we could not ascribe these
things to Him rationally. However, we
God incomparable because he perceives
negate the declaration of similarity and do
through his rational faculty that "Noth- not discuss anything specific, since we are
ing is like Him," and he declares Him ignorant of His Essence. We negate simi-
similar because he perceives His presence larity only because of His words, "Noth-
in all things through imagination and the ing is like Him" (42:11), not because of
senses. Though Ibn al-'Arabi sometimes what has been given by rational proofs.
says that unveiling can perceive all Thereby nothing judges Him except His
knowledge, he says that this is only own Speech. This is how we want to
partly true in the case of taw~ld, and he meet Him when we meet Him and He
repeatedly affirms the positive role of unveils from our insight and our sight the
covering of blindness ....
reason in perceiving God's Unity.
But there can be no unveiling in the
knowledge of taw~ld . . . . Taw~ld is not
God has commanded us to gain knowl- something ontological (amr wujudi). It is
edge of the declaration of His Unity, but merely a relationship, and relationships
He has not commanded us to know His cannot be seen through unveiling. They
Essence. On the contrary, He forbade can only be known by way of proofs. For
that with His words, "God warns you unveiling is a vision. Vision only becomes 233
Hermeneutics

connected to its object through the quali- tion of His existence is self-evident to
ties (kayfiyya) which the object possesses. reason, because of the fact that prepon-
But does the Divine Side have any qual- derance has been given to one of the two
ities? Rational proof negates that He properties of the possible thing" (II
should have any . . . . But if God should 289.9).
embody these meanings in the Presence
of Imaginalization-like knowledge in
the form of milk-then this knowledge When the spmt, through which the
can be attained through unveiling. (II body experiences life in the sensory
291.30) world, departs from the body, this is
When the misbelievers were invited to called "death." It occurs for spirit and
the profession of the Unity of God, they body after they had been described as be-
replied, "'What, has he made the gods ing joined, a joining which is the cause of
One God?' This is indeed a marvelous life.
thing" (38:5). People understand the In the same way, "death" occurs for the
sentence, "This is indeed a marvelous soul through lack of knowledge. You
thing," as the words of the misbelievers, may object: "Knowledge of God, which
since the Prophet had invited them to is the life of the souls, is an added factor,
profess the Unity of God, but they be- while ignorance is fixed within them be-
lieved that the gods were many. But in fore the existence of knowledge. So how
our view, this sentence represents the can you describe the ignorant person as
words of the Real or the words of the dead?"
Messenger .... We reply: Knowledge of God is the
Man knows that God does not come to precedent property of the soul of every
be through the making of a maker, since human being because of the "taking at the
He is a god in Himself. That is why God Covenant," when He made them testify
chides them with His words, "Do you against themselves. Then, when the souls
worship what you yourself carve?" (37: came to inhabit the natural bodies in this
95), since it is self-evident (4arura) to rea- world, knowledge of the profession of
son that "God" cannot be receptive to- God's Unity left them. Then, after that,
ward effects. But here was a block of God brought some souls to life through
wood which they played with, or a stone knowledge of the profession of His
which they used to throw around. Then Unity, and He brought them all to life
they took it and made it a god, abasing through knowledge of God's existence,
themselves before it and displaying need since knowledge of God's existence is
for it, calling upon it in fear and craving. self-evident to the rational faculty. That
It is this which is marvelous, given the is why we called the ignorant person
fact that they have rational faculties. (II "dead."
590.31) God says, "Why, is he who was dead,"
that is, because God has taken away from
him the spirit, which is knowledge of
Ibn al-'Arabi discusses the necessity God, "and We gave him life and ap-
of the rational faculty for understanding pointed for him a light to walk by among
taw~ld while speaking of the meaning of the people." In other words, God re-
"death," which already in the Koran is a turned his knowledge to him and he came
clear synonym for ignorance, as in the to life through it, just as He will return
verse, "Why, is he who was dead, and the spirits to their bodies in the next
We gave him life, and appointed for him world on the Day of Resurrection. As for
a light to walk by among the people as God's words in the rest of the verse, "as
one whose likeness is in the darknesses, one whose likeness is in the darknesses"
(6: 122), here He means to contrast this
and he comes not forth from them?" (6:
with the light by which man walks
122). Part of the discussion is based upon among the people.
the Shaykh's often repeated assertion that But this light is not life itself. "Life" is
there is no real need to prove the exis- the admission of the existence of God,
tence of God, since a sound rational fac- while the "light which is given" is knowl-
234 ulty perceives it innately. "The affirma- edge of the declaration of God's Unity.
Understanding the Koran

The "darknesses" are the ignorance of the In the same way, the object of man's
declaration of His Unity, while "death" is knowledge of God is the declaration of
ignorance of His existence. That is why, the Unity of the Divinity (taw~id al-
in the verse of the taking at the Covenant, uluha), that which is named "Allah," not
God mentioned only that we admitted the taw~id of the Essence, since the Es-
His existence, not that we declared His sence cannot be known at all. Hence the
Unity. He did not address Himself to knowledge of Allah's taw~ld is a knowl-
taw~id in that verse. He says, "Am I not edge of reflective proofs, not a knowledge
your Lord?" They answer, "Yes" (7:172), of unveiled witnessing, since knowledge
thereby admitting Lordship, that is, the of taw~ld can never be acquired through
fact that He is their master. But a slave tasting. It becomes connected to the lev-
may be owned by two people in a part- els. (II 618.15)
nership. Then, when one of these two
masters says to him, "Am I not your
lord?", the slave must answer "yes" and
attest to him. That is why we say that in
this verse man admits only that God exists Reason versus Unveiling
as his Lord, i.e., his owner and master.
This explains why, in the above verse,
after saying "And We gave him life," God Ibn al-'Arabi usually mentions the
added something else. He was not satis- great al-Ghazali with praise, calling him
fied until He said, "and We appointed for one of "our companions." Sometimes,
him a light to walk by among the peo-
however, as in the first passage quoted
ple." He means by "light" the knowledge
of the declaration of God's Unity, noth-
above, he criticizes him for entering into
ing else. For it is this knowledge which the arena of theological and philosophical
establishes eminence and felicity. Any reflection. 1 In another passage, he points
other knowledge does not stand in the out that occupying oneself with such
same station.... concerns is an obstruction on the path to
In this waystation man comes to under- God. He is discussing the station of "un-
stand that when the one knows the many, lettered knowledge" (al-'ilm al-umml). In
the one becomes ignorant of itself, be- employing the term umml, he has in
cause of its witnessing manyness. This mind the sobriquet of MuJ:tammad, the
can be explained as follows:
"unlettered Prophet" (Koran 7:158). Like
The spirit cannot rationally understand
('aql) itself without the body, which is the
many other authorities, Ibn al-'Arabi un-
locus of "how many" and manyness. It derstands this to mean that the Prophet's
never witnesses itself alone in the respect knowledge came only from God, not
that it is undivided in itself. It does not from reflection and consideration. To
know its humanness without the exis- employ another term derived from the
tence of the body along with it. That is Koran, his knowledge was "from God"
why, when it is asked about its own defi- or "God-given" (ladunnl): "We had
nition and reality, it replies, "a feeding, taught [Kha<;lir] knowledge from Us"
sensory, rational body." This is man's re- (18:65).
ality, the definition of his essence and self.
Hence, when man is asked about his defi-
nition in respect of being human, he al- For us, being "unlettered" does not
ways takes into account this manyness in contradict memorizing the Koran or the
his definition. He does not rationally un- prophetic hadiths. In our view, that per-
derstand his unity (a~adiyya) in his es- son is "unlettered" who does not employ
sence. He only perceives the unity of the his reflective consideration and his ratio-
genus, not the unity of his own reality. nal judgment to bring out the meaning
When man learns through acquired and mysteries which the Koran embraces.
knowledge that he is one in his entity, He does not use rational proofs to attain
this is the knowledge of reflective proofs, to the knowledge of divine things. And
not the knowledge of tasting, witnessing, he does not employ the juridical proofs,
and unveiling. analogies, and assigning of causes that oc- 235
Hermeneutics

cupy the legal authorities (al-mujtahidiin) and the ruling of the legal authority hold
in order to grasp the rulings of the Law. to be the scales of speculative considera-
When the heart is safe from reflective tion and the demonstrations of the ratio-
consideration, then, according to both the nal faculty?
Law and reason, it is "unlettered" and re- God gives His servant mercy by com-
ceptive toward the divine opening in the ing between him and his considerative
most perfect manner and without delay. knowledge and legal ruling in respect of
It is provided with God-given (ladunnl) Himself. Then He assists him in that
knowledge in all things to an extent un- through divine opening and a knowledge
known except to a prophet or one of His which He gives him "from Himself."
friends whom He has given of it through Concerning His servant Kha<;lir God said,
tasting. Through this knowledge the de- "[Then they found] one of Our servants"
gree and plane of faith are perfected. -thereby relating him to the pronoun
Through it the one who receives it be- which denotes the plural (jam' [=bring-
comes aware of the correctness and the ing together, gathering])-"whom We
mistakes of reflective powers and in what had given mercy from Us" -employing
respect soundness and disorder are attrib- the plural pronoun-"and whom We
uted to them. All of this comes from had taught knowledge from Us" (18:65),
God. again with the plural pronoun. In other
The person also comes to know, while words: God had brought together (jam')
judging the unreal (batil), that there is for him in this unveiling knowledge of
nothing unreal in existence, since every- the manifest and the nonmanifest, knowl-
thing that enters into existence, whether edge of the secret and the open, knowl-
entity or property, belongs to God, not to edge of judgment and wisdom, knowl-
other than Him. Hence there is nothing edge of reason and convention (waq'),
useless or unreal in any entity or prop- knowledge of proofs and obfuscations.
erty, since there is no act that does not be- He who is given all-inclusive knowl-
long to God, there is no agent but God, edge and is commanded to employ it, like
there is no property that does not belong the prophets and those whom God wills
to God, and there is no property-giver among His friends, is denied (inkar), but
except God. this individual denies the sciences given to
It is unlikely that he who already has no one. Even if he makes a ruling differ-
knowledge of these things will gain from ent from someone else, he knows the
the divine, God-given knowledge the place of that person's knowledge and in
same thing which the unlettered one what respect he makes rulings. He gives
among us will gain, he who beforehand to sight and to all the other senses their
had no knowledge of what we men- due in their ruling, and he gives to reason
tioned. This is because the scales of ratio- and to all the other spiritual faculties their
nal thought and the outward aspects of rulings. He gives to the divine relation-
the scales of legal investigation among the ships and the divine opening their rulings.
jurists reject much of what we have men- Thus it is that the divine knower (al-'iilim
tioned, since the greater part of this affair al-ilahl) excels everyone else. This is the
lies beyond the stage of reason and its "insight" which the Koran mentions in
scale, which cannot be used here, and His words, "Say [0 MuQ.ammad!]: This
beyond the scale of the legal authorities is my way. I call to God upon insight, I
among the jurists, though not beyond and whoever follows after me" (12:108).
'jurisprudence" (fiqh), since what we This complements His words, "It is He
mentioned is identical with sound juris- who has raised up from among the unlet-
prudence and genuine knowledge. In the tered people a Messenger from among
story of Moses and Kha<;lir there is a them" (62:2). The "unlettered prophet" is
strong proof of what we have mentioned. he who calls upon insight while being un-
So [if this is the case with Moses, a lettered, while the "unlettered people" are
prophet, then] what is the state of the ju- those who call to God upon insight along
rist? Where do the locatedness (ayniyya) with him. They are his "followers" in the
and similar things which both the Law- ruling, since he is the head of the group.
giver and unveiling attribute to God stand The legal authority and the reflective
in relation to those things which reason thinker will never be "upon insight" in
Understanding the Koran

their rulings. The legal authority may repeated all that many times, and the state
make a ruling today concerning a Shari'ite stayed the same.
case and tomorrow something may hap- "Thus I was distinguished from other
pen that will make clear to him that he considerative thinkers and the possessors
was mistaken in yesterday's ruling . . . . of reflective powers through this mea-
Were he upon insight, he would not rule sure, but I did not reach the degree of the
mistakenly in his first consideration .... Tribe in that. I came to know that writing
The situation of the rational thinker is upon what has been erased (ma~w) is not
the same. This happens when a group of the same as writing upon that which has
rational thinkers exercise consideration not been erased. Do you not see the trees?
and consider the proofs exhaustively. In some of them, the fruit precedes the
They discover the purport of the proofs, flower; that is like the level of the learned
and this gives them knowledge of what men of consideration when they enter
has been proven. Then another time you into the path of God, such as the jurist
see that an adversary has stood up against and the theologian. In other trees, the
them from another group-like a Mu'- flower is not preceded by any fruit. That
tazilite, an Ash'arite, a Brahmin (barhami), is the unlettered person whose God-given
or a philosopher-offering something knowledge is not preceded by any reflect-
else which contradicts the proof about ive, outward knowledge. Hence that
which the first person was certain. This God-given knowledge comes to him
detracts from his proof, so he considers it most easily."
and sees that his first position was a mis- This can be explained as follows: Since
take and that he had not treated the pil- there is no agent but God, while this ju-
lars of his proof exhaustively and had rist and theologian comes to the Divine
upset the scale in that without being Presence with his scale to weigh God, not
aware. How can this be compared with recognizing that God gave him those
insight? scales only to weigh with them for God,
Since this does not happen in that not to weigh God Himself, he is deprived
which is self-evident (qarnriyyat) to rea- of courtesy. And he who lacks courtesy is
son, the property of insight in people of punished by ignorance of the God-given
this station is like that which is self-evi- knowledge of opening. Hence he will not
dent to rational faculties. A person must be upon insight in his affair.
rejoice in knowledge like this. If he should have an ample rational fac-
Some of what the "unlettered" realize ulty, he will know from whence he is
has been related from Abii Hamid al- stricken. Among them are those who en-
Ghazali:, the spokesman for the. people of ter in and leave their scale at the door.
this path. He said, "When I desired to join Once they come back out, they take it
their way, to take from whence they were along to weigh with it for God's sake.
taking, and to ladle from the ocean from This is the best state of those who enter
which they were ladling, I retreated into upon God with the rational faculty. How-
myself and withdrew from my rational ever, the heart of such a person is attached
consideration and my reflection. I oc- to what he left behind, since in his soul he
cupied myself with invocation, and a will return to it. Hence he is deprived of
knowledge was kindled in me which I the sought-for Truth to the extent that
had not had. I rejoiced in that and I said his mind is attached to what he has left
to myself, 'I have gained what the Tribe behind, because of the regard he pays
has gained.' I studied it and I found to it.
therein a juridical faculty like what I had Even better than this person is the state
had before. Hence I came to know that of him who smashes his scale. If it is
that knowledge was not pure for me. I re- made of wood, he burns it, and if it is
turned to my retreat and put into practice something that melts, he melts it. Or he
what the Tribe practices, and I found the freezes it, so that it ceases being a scale. If
like of what I had found the first time, its substance remains, he does not care.
but clearer and higher. I became happy But this is exceedingly rare. I have not
and studied it, but I found therein the heard that anyone has done it, though we
juridical faculty which I had had. The can suppose it, and it is not impossible
knowledge had not become pure for me. I that God should strengthen one of His 237
Hermeneutics

servants until he does something like the servant and the Creator and the crea-
this. (II 644. 17) ture.
He who stands with his reason in the
The ideal rational faculty is that which state of his love will not be able to accept
accepts from God the knowledge of Him anything from the ruling authority of
love except what is required by his con-
that He gives to it and does not try to go siderative proof. But if a person stands
beyond its own limitations by reflecting with his reason's acceptance, not its con-
upon Him. Hence the virtue of reason is sideration, accepting from God that
to accept or receive (qabiil) unveiling and whereby He describes Himself, then the
revelation. ruling power of love will dominate over
him in accordance with what his reason
I have opened for you a door to gnostic has accepted. Hence reason stands be-
sciences which are not attained by reflec- tween consideration and acceptance, and
tion, though rational faculties can attain the property of love within the consider-
to their acceptance, either through divine ing reason is not the same as its property
solicitude, or through the polishing of the within the accepting reason. Understand
heart by invocation and recitation of the this, for here there are mysteries!
Koran. Then the rational faculty will ac- God is the Lover. The relationship be-
cept what is given to it by the self-dis- tween us and our rational faculty is the re-
closure and it will know that what has lationship between Him and His knowl-
come is outside its own power in respect edge. Nothing comes to be except that
of its reflection and that its reflection can about which He has precedent knowl-
never give that to it. It will thank God for edge. In the same way, nothing occurs
configuring it within a configuration that from us except what is required by our
accepts the like of this-the configuration rational faculty. Hence the property of
of the messengers, the prophets, and the His love among His creatures does not go
people of solicitude among the friends. beyond His knowledge, and the property
That takes place so that it will know that of our love for Him does not go beyond
its acceptance is nobler than its reflec- our reason, whether its consideration
tion. (I 305.21) or its acceptance. So understand! (II
358.22)
The people of witnessing and finding
The Shaykh makes the same point surpass others. Though the attribute may
while reminding us of the limitations of be the same, he who knows his station
reason, the fact that it constricts and with God is not like him who does not
binds reality by its very nature. In fact, know it. "Say: 'Are they equal-those
he points out, "reason" is merely a name who know and those who know not?'
given to the cognitive act of distin- Only those who possess the kernels re-
guishing between ourselves and God. member" (39:9). This verse tells us that
True love of God will never be actualized they knew, then forgetfulness overcame
some of them. Some of them continue to
until the spell of reason is broken and be ruled by the property of forgetfulness.
separation is overcome. "They forgot God, so He forgot them"
(9:67). Others are reminded and remem-
Love for God exercises its property ber. These are the "possessors of the ker-
over the lover to the extent of his rational nels."
faculty, since his reason delimits him, so The "kernel" (lubb) of the rational fac-
it is his shackle. God addressed only those ulty is that which becomes the food of the
who have rational faculties (al-'uqala'). rational thinkers. So the "possessors of
They are the ones who are delimited by the kernels" are those who employ reason
their own attributes and who distinguish as it should be employed, in contrast to
them from the attributes of their Creator. the "men of rational faculties," who are
When dissimilarity occurs, delimitation the people of the shell (qishr). They have
takes place, and the rational faculty comes missed the kernel, while the possessors of
to be. Hence the proofs of the rational kernels have seized it. The men of rational
2 38 faculties distinguish between the Real and faculties have not employed what they
Understanding the Koran

should have employed, since reason must The Koran is one book among others ex-
be employed as a shell upon a kernel. cept that, to the exclusion of all other
Reason is properly employed through its books, it alone possesses all-comprehen-
attribute of accepting everything that siveness (jam'iyya). (III 160.34)
comes from God. But reason without a
kernel does not accept that in respect of Ibn al-'Arabi comments upon the all-
its reflection. That is why the Folk of Al- comprehensive nature of the Koran in
lah are the people of the kernels. The ker-
nel is their food, so they employ that many contexts, most commonly in con-
within which is their sustenance. (III junction with the perfect and all-compre-
120.32) hensive character of the Prophet, which
made him the only possible receptacle for
the Koran.

The Koran unveils all the knowledges


The Character of Mu~ammad sent down in the scriptures and contains
that which is not contained by them. He
who has been given the Koran has been
What is the nature of this divine book given the perfect luminosity (4iya') which
whose truths cannot be grasped through comprises every knowledge. . .. Because
of the Koran it is true to say that Mul;tam-
rational interpretation? As is well mad was given the "all-comprehensive
known, the word Koran, Arabic qur' an, words" (jawami' al-kalim). So the sciences
derives from the root q.r.'., and is gener- of the prophets, the angels, and every
ally said to mean "recitation." But the known tongue are comprised in the Ko-
primary significance of the root is "gath- ran and elucidated by it to the "Folk of
ering" and "collecting together," and the Koran." (II 107.20)
some of the early authorities maintained
that this is the significance of the name. The "Folk of the Koran" are those
From this point of view, the two pri- whom we have met elsewhere as the
mary names of the holy book, al-Qur'an "Folk of Allah," since, according to a
and al-Furqan (the latter of which means hadith, "The Folk of the Koran are the
"separation" or "discrimination") to- Folk of Allah and His elect." 2 In Ibn al-
gether mean that the Koran gathers ev- 'Arabi's view, "The most felicitous peo-
erything together and at the same time ple with God are the Folk of the Koran"
separates everything out into clear and (II 443.4).
distinct domains. Ibn al-'Arabi often em- Ibn al-'Arabi provides long and fre-
ploys the term Koran strictly in accor- quent commentaries on various sayings
dance with this literal meaning, which is of the Prophet to show his superiority
particularly significant to him because over all other messengers, prophets, and
it is synonymous with the word jam', friends of God. Thus the Prophet said
"bringing together," "gathering," or that on the Day of Resurrection he will
"all-comprehensiveness." The name Al- be singled out for the "banner of
lah is the "all-comprehensive name" (al- praise" 3 and the "praiseworthy sta-
ism al-jami') of God, since it gathers to- tion." 4 He was given "the knowledge of
gether in itself all other names. Perfect those of old and the later folk." 5 He
man is the "all-comprehensive engen- said, "I will be the master of mankind on
dered thing" (al-kawn al-jami'), because the Day of Resurrection." 6 He "was
he gathers within himself everything in given the all-comprehensive words
the Divine Reality and everything in the (jawiimi' al-kalim)" 7 and "was a prophet
cosmos. The Koran is "al-Qur'an," be- when Adam was between water and
cause it gathers together all the revealed clay." 8 Only a few brief comments on
scriptures that were sent down before it some of these sayings can be quoted
and thereby all knowledge of God. here." 239
Hermeneutics

When God taught Adam the names by way of disinterested kindness and be-
(Koran 2:30), he was in the station second neficence, this very bestowal gives wit-
to the station of MuJ:lammad, since Mu- ness to the generosity of the bestower.
J:lammad had already come to know the Hence no equivocality enters into it. This
all-comprehensive words, and all the is the meaning of the praise of praises
names are words. (II 88.15) called the "banner of praise." It is named
MuJ:lammad was the greatest locus of a "banner" because it brings together all
divine self-disclosure, and thereby he praises ....
came to know "the knowledge of the an- In order to merit the banner of praise,
cients and the later folk." Among those of the Prophet will praise his Lord by the
old was Adam, who had knowledge of Koran, which brings together all praises.
the names. MuJ:lammad was given the all- That is why it is called qur' an, that is,
comprehensive words, and the words of "bringing together" (jiimi') . ... The Ko-
God are never exhausted. 10 (II 171. 1) ran did not descend upon anyone before
The Messenger of God said, "I will be him and it is not proper for it to descend
the master of mankind on the Day of Res- except upon someone who possesses this
urrection." The reason for this is his per- station. For He should not be praised
fection. He said, "Were Moses alive, he except by the praises which He has set
would find it impossible not to follow down in the Law, in respect of the fact
me," 11 because of the all-inclusiveness of that He has set them down in the Law,
the Prophet's messengerhood and the all- not in respect of the fact that His Perfec-
embracingness of his Law; for he was tion demands attributes of praise. That
singled out for things never given to any is the divine laudation. But if He were
prophet before him, and no prophet was · praised in accordance with what is de-
ever singled out for anything that Mu- manded by His attributes, that would be
J:lammad did not possess, since he was the praise of common usage ('urf) and
given the all-comprehensive words. He reason. But such a praise is not worthy of
said, "I was a prophet when Adam was His majesty. (II 88.5,21)
between clay and water," while every
other prophet was only a prophet during The Koran employs the expression
the state of his prophethood and the time "mother of the Book" (umm al-kitab) in
of his messengerhood. (III 141. 7) three verses, and the term has been ex-
plained in various ways. One of the most
In his answers to al-J:Iakim al-Tir- common interpretations is that it refers
midhi, Ibn al-'Arabi defines the "banner to the Fatil;la, the first chapter of the Ko-
of praise" (liwii' al-~amd) which will be- ran. One of al-Tirmidhi's questions is,
long to the Prophet on the Day of Resur- "What is the interpretation of 'Mother
rection and explains why the Prophet of the Book'?" Parts of Ibn al-'Arabi's
deserves that banner. answer throw light on his understanding
of the relationship between the Prophet
The "banner of praise" is the praise of and the Koran:
praises, the most complete praise, the
highest and most elevated praise in level. A "mother" is that which brings to-
People gather around a banner, since it is gether (jiimi'). Hence we have "mother of
the mark of the level and existence of the the cities" [that is, Mecca, the place of
king. In the same way, all praises gather coming together for the pilgrimage). The
around the praise of praises, since it is the head is the "mother of the body." It is
correct praise which has nothing equivo- said [in reference to the brain), "the
cal about it, nor any doubt or suspicion mother of the head," since it brings to-
that it is a praise, since it denotes by its gether all the sensory and supra-sensory
very essence, since it itself is a banner. (ma'nawl) faculties that belong to man.
You might say concerning a person, The EitiJ:la is the "mother" of all revealed
"He is generous," or that person might books, which are the Tremendous Koran,
say about himself that he is generous. that is, the tremendous totality that has
This laudation may be true and it may been brought together (majmii') compris-
240 not. But when it is found that he bestows ing all things.
Understanding the Koran

Mul;lammad was given the "all-com- par excellence for the divine name Allah.
prehensive words." Hence his Law com- Hence the Prophet synthesizes every-
prises all revealed religions (sharii' i'). He thing and possesses all knowledge. "He
was a prophet when Adam had not yet encompasses the knowledge of all know-
been created. Hence from him branch out ers who know God, whether those who
the Laws to all the prophets. They were
had gone before or those who would
sent by him to be his deputies in the earth
in the absence of his body. If his body had come after" (III 142.27). To say that his
existed, none of them would have a Law. character is the Koran means, according
Hence he said, "Were Moses alive, he to the literal sense of the term, that he
would find it impossible not to follow brings together in himself all noble char-
me." acter traits, just as the revealed Koran
God says, "We sent down the Torah, brings together all knowledge. In other
wherein is light and guidance; thereby the words, it is the Prophet who has as-
prophets, those who are Muslims, judge sumed as his character traits all the names
for those who are Jews" (5:44). We are of God, since he "brings together all
the Muslims, and the learned masters
things" by being the qur'iin, "that which
among us are prophets. 12 We judge the
people of each Shari'a by their Shari'a, brings together." "The character of the
since the Shari'a of our Prophet has estab- messenger of God was the Koran and
lished it. His Law is its root, and he was the assumption of the divine names as
sent "to all people" (34:28), while this be- his own traits" (III 61.2). Coming to
longed to no other prophet. "People" ex- know the Koran is to come to know the
tend from Adam to the last human being, Prophet, God, and all things.
and among them there have been Laws,
so they are the Laws of Mul;lammad in
the hands of his deputies. For he is sent God says, "Surely thou art upon a tre-
out "to all people," so all the messengers mendous char_acter (khuluq 'a;rlm)" (68:4).
are his deputies, without doubt. . . . When 'A'isha was asked about the
When the Prophet himself became character of the Messenger of God, she
manifest, there remained no ruling that answered, "His character was the Koran."
did not belong to him and no ruling au- She said that because he was unique in
thority which did not go back to him. character, and that unique character had
But his level demanded that when he be- to bring together all noble character traits
came manifest in his own entity in this (makarim al-akhlaq). God described that
world, he should be singled out for some- character as being "tremendous," just as
thing that was not given to any of his He described the Koran in His words,
deputies. That something had to be so "the tremendous Koran" (15:87). So the
great that it comprised everything which Koran is his character. If a person in the
was scattered among his deputies and community of the Messenger who has
something in addition. Hence God gave not met the Messenger of God desires to
him the Mother of the Book, which com- see him, let him look upon the Koran.
prised all the scriptures and books. It When he looks upon it, there is no differ-
became manifest among us as an epit- ence between looking upon it and looking
ome, seven verses which comprise all upon God's Messenger. It is as if the Ko-
verses. (II 134.21) ran takes the configuration of a corporeal
form which is named Muhammad ibn
According to_ a famous hadith, the 'Abdallah ibn 'Abd al-Mugaiib. The Ko-
Prophet's wife 'A'isha was asked to de- ran is God's Speech and His attribute, so
scribe the character (khuluq) of God's Mul;lammad in his entirety is the attribute
of God. "So he who obeys the Messenger
Messenger. She replied, "Have you not
has obeyed God" (Koran 4:80), since "He
read the Koran?" The questioner said does not speak out of caprice" (53:3), for
that he had. She said, "Surely the charac- he is the tongue of God. (IV 60.33)
ter of the Prophet was the Koran." 13 The lovers of God are called the "carri-
The Prophet is the most perfect of the ers of the Koran" (~amalat al-Qur'an).
perfect men, the locus of manifestation Their Beloved brings together (}ami') all 241
Hermeneutics

attributes, so they are identical with the tammg to reflective thought whereby
Koran. When asked about the Prophet's every verse which does not coincide with
character, 'A'isha said, "His character was a preconceived idea of God's incompara-
the Koran." She did not answer with any- bility is explained away. More generally,
thing but this. (II 346.12) ta'wll is to take one's understanding of
God as the standard or "scale" by which
to weigh the revelation. Everything
which corresponds to that understanding
The Context of the Koran is accepted, while everything else is in-
terpreted to bring it into line with that
understanding. Man becomes the stan-
It is not uncommon for contemporary dard for judging the revelation, and the
scholars to criticize Ibn al-'Arabi or other Koran is no longer the standard for
Koran interpreters for reading the Koran judging man. Ibn al-'Arabi rejects this
out of context. But the context of a text approach entirely, insisting instead that
is defined by one's own understanding of man must allow himself to be judged,
the text's limitations and horizons. Ibn shaped, and formed by the Divine
al-'Arabi had many good reasons for Speech. Man must devote himself to
claiming that "Every existent thing finds worship and godfearing, to recitation of
in the Koran what it desires" (III 94.2). the Koran, and to all the spiritual disci-
Modern scholars find historical and liter- plines set down by the Law and the Way.
ary contexts, and traditional Muslims He must constantly pray to God to en-
find the Speech of God, escaping all hu- lighten him as to the meaning of the
man attempts to delimit and define it. Holy Book and to increase him in
If we accept the primacy of historical knowledge. When and if God unveils to
and literary considerations in the text of him the meaning of a verse or a portion
the Koran, then perhaps Ibn al-'Arabi of the Book, he must weigh his un-
read it out of context. But Ibn al-'Arabi veiling in the scales of the Law and the
himself does not accept the primacy of tradition. Only if it harmonizes with
such considerations, since, at best, they these can it be taken seriously. In any
are the products of the reflective power case, there is no guarantee that man will
of reason and as such are constricted and be given such understanding. The Koran
confined within limited, created hori- is much too sacred to be taken by storm.
zons. Moreover, contemporary rational It must give of itself when and if it
faculties can certainly not be described as wants.
wholesome and "sound" (sallm), since To come back to the question of
they are governed by the prejudices and "context," for Ibn al-'Arabi, the Koranic
presuppositions of a scientistic and mate- context is the divine knowledge, from
rialistic age. A sound rational faculty which nothing is hidden. Once we come
would at least have faith in the divine or- to know that the text is God's own
igin of the Koran. Once its divine origin Speech, historical considerations are of
is accepted, then there is room for dis- no account-at least not for understand-
cussion about what God means and what ing what God meant by the text, since
He does not mean in a text. But as long there is no denying that the Koran can
as that is not accepted, there is not much throw light on any number of phenom-
room for exchange between the modern ena connected to the historical situation
interpreter and the traditional hermeneut. at the time of Mul).ammad. But for the
It has already been said that ta'wil is most part these phenomena are of no in-
not an appropriate term to indicate Ibn terest to Ibn al-'Arabi, since they pertain
al-'Arabi's method of interpretation, to "useless knowledge," that is, knowl-
since he himself almost invariably uses edge which has no bearing on ultimate
242 the term to refer to a mental process per- human felicity.
Understanding the Koran

As we will see below, Ibn al-'Arabi's blessed station among the early genera-
basic answer to anyone who would criti- tions was Abii Sa'Id al-Kharraz.' 4 I had
cize his Koran commentary is that any taken this vision on his authority until I
interpretation supported by the literal myself entered the station, and I gained
what I gained. I came to know that it is
text is valid. He might say something
the truth, and that the people who deny
like this: I do not object to your interpre- (inkiir) it are correct, since they deny it on
tations, though I consider them bound the basis of reason. The rational faculty
and constricted by your limited perspec- can do nothing else in respect of its con-
tive. And you should not object to my sideration. He who gives to the extent of
interpretations, since they are supported his own capacity in respect of what the
by the literal text, usually much more so point of view demands has fulfilled the
than yours. If you say that my interpre- right of the situation. This is where our
tation is wrong, you are saying that God feet are established and fixed. So we do
could not have meant that in this verse, not deny the claims of anyone who makes
claims, except as we are commanded to
and you reach this conclusion through
deny, so we deny according to the Law.
your constricting rational faculty, which This denial is also a reality; we only wit-
would tie God down to your idea of ness a condition that demands denial. In
what He is. But God cannot fit into your the same way we deny it on the basis of
constrictions. Or rather, though He dis- reason.
doses Himself within them, He also The Law has a power (quwwa) whose
stands infinitely beyond them. I base reality will not allow it to be overstepped,
my interpretation upon a meaning which just as reason also has such a power.
God has unveiled to me, so it is His Tasting also has a power by which we put
meaning. Your interpretation at best is it into practice, just as we put into prac-
tice everything else which has a power in
based upon your own understanding of
accordance with its power. We live with
the text. Unveiling allows me to see that the present moment (waqt). With reason
your interpretation is also correct in a we deny what reason denies, since then
certain limited way. It is unfortunate that our present moment is reason, but we do
you cannot make the same concession to not deny it by unveiling or the Law. With
me. Instead, you prefer to squeeze God the Law we deny what the Law denies,
into your own mold. since our present moment is the Law, but
As Ibn al-'Arabi well knows, denial is we do not deny it by unveiling or by rea-
one of the characteristic traits of reason son. As for unveiling, it denies nothing.
and the Law, nor does he himself refrain On the contrary, it establishes each thing
in its proper level. He whose present
from denying wrong views on these
moment is unveiling will be denied, but
levels. Both affirmation and denial have he will deny no one. He whose present
positive roles to play. moment is reason will deny and be de-
nied, and he whose present moment is the
In this waystation, a person comes to Law will deny and be denied. So know
know the coming together of opposites, that! (II 605.14)
which is the existence of the opposite
within its own opposite. This is the Since the Koran is God's Speech,
strongest knowledge by which one can and since God's knowledge embraces all
know oneness (wa~diiniyya), since the wit- things, God knows every possible mean-
nesser witnesses a state in which it is im- ing that can be understood from the text.
possible for him not to know that the en- He also intends every one of those mean-
tity of the opposite is itself identical with ings, though not necessarily for every-
its opposite. Hence he perceives Unity in
manyness, though not in the manner of
one. Other scriptures also, by being the
the arithmeticians (a~~iib al-'adad), since Speech of God, share in this attribute. In
that way is illusory, while this is a wit- the following passage, Ibn al-'Arabi uses
nessed, verified knowledge. the verbs ta'awwul and ta'wtl, "to inter-
One of those who excelled in this pret," in a neutral sense. 243
Hermeneutics

Every sense (wajh) which is supported according to his own opinion (ra'y) be-
(i~timiil) by any verse in God's Speech comes an unbeliever" -so it has been rec-
(kaliim)--whether it is the Koran, the To- orded in the IJad!th of a!-Tirmidh!. 16 But
rah, the Psalms, the Gospel, or the Scrip- the commentary will not be "according to
ture-in the view of anyone who knows his own opinion" until the speakers of
that language (lisiin) is intended (maq~ud) that language do not recognize that sense
by God in the case of that interpreter in that word. (II 567.19)
(muta'awwil). For His knowledge encom-
passes all senses . . . . Hence, every inter-
preter correctly grasps the intention of
God in that word (kalima). This is the
Truth, "[a Mighty Book:] to which false- The Commentary of the Folk of Allah
hood comes not from before it nor from
behind it; a sending down from One
Wise, Praiseworthy" (41 :42) upon the Ibn al-'Arabi usually remarks on Ko-
heart of him whom He chooses from ran commentary in the context of his
among His servants. Hence no man of own interpretations of a verse. In the fol-
knowledge can declare wrong an interpre- lowing he is discussing the profession of
tation which is supported by the words God's Unity, taw~ld. He points out the
(laf;;). He who does so is extremely defi- difference between the terms a~ad and
cient in knowledge. However, it is not
wa~id, both of which mean "one," and
necessary to uphold the interpretation nor
to put it into practice, except in the case explains one of the senses of the word
of the interpreter himself and those who a~adiyya or "unity," which derives from
follow his authority. (II 119.21) a~ad.
We say concerning the senses of a verse
that all are intended by God. No one The word a~ad is applied in the Koran
forces anything upon God. On the con- to other than God. God says, "Let him
trary, it is an affair verified by God. The not associate one" with his Lord's wor-
reason for this is as follows: The verse of ship" (18:119). In respect to the commen-
God's Speech, of whatever sort it may be tary on meaning practiced by the Folk of
-Koran, revealed book, scripture, divine Allah, what is understood from this verse
report-is a sign or a mark signifying is that He is not worshiped in respect of
what the words (laj;;) support in all senses His Unity, since Unity contradicts the ex-
and intended by the One who sent down istence of the worshiper. It is as if He is
His Speech in those words, which com- saying, "What is worshiped is only the
prise, in that language, those senses. For 'Lord' in respect of His Lordship, since
He who sent it down knows all those the Lord brought you into existence. So
senses without exception. He knows that connect yourself to Him and make your-
His servants are disparate in their consid- self lowly before Him, and do not associ-
eration of those words and that He has ate Unity with Lordship in worship. Do
only prescribed His address as Law for not make yourself lowly before Unity as
them to the extent that they understand you make yourself lowly before Lord-
it. 15 Hence, when someone understands ship. For Unity does not know you and
a sense from the verse, that sense is in- will not accept you. Hence you would be
tended by God in this verse in the case of worshiping Him who is not worshiped,
the person who finds it. desiring Him who cannot be desired, and
This situation is not found outside practicing without object. That is the
God's Speech. Even though the words worship of the ignorant." Hence God
might support a sense, it may be that it negates the worship of the worshipers
was not intended by the speaker; for we from having a connection to Unity, since
know that he is incapable of encom- Unity is established strictly and only for
passing all the senses of the words. . . . Allah. As for everything other than Allah,
Hence, everyone who comments (tafs!r) it has no Unity whatsoever. This then is
the Koran and does not go outside of what we understand from this verse in re-
what the words support is a true com- spect of our way of Koranic commentary.
244 mentator. However, "He who comments The exoterics (ahl al-rusum) also take
Understanding the Koran

their share from this verse, commentating thinkers let go of the outward sense,
upon its meaning. They ascribe the men- while the Folk of Allah, who make a
tioned "one" to the associates which peo- similar crossover, never let go of it.
ple take. This also is a sound commen- Thus, the rational thinkers cannot accept
tary. For the Koran is the shoreless ocean, that a verse such as, "Everything in the
since He to whom it is ascribed intends all
heavens and the earth glorifies God" (57:
the meanings demanded by speech-in
contrast to the speech of created things. 1) can be taken literally, so they try to
When you know this, you will know "give expression" to its meaning through
what God meant when He said to His various interpretations.
Prophet, "Say: 'He is God, One'" (112:1),
that is, He has no associate in this attri- Know-God confirm you, 0 you who
bute. seek knowledge of the things as they are
As for the term wii~id: We considered in themselves-that you will never gain
the Koran. Does God ascribe it to other this knowledge unless God acquaints you
than Himself, as He ascribes unity? I did with it from yourself and lets you witness
not find it. But here I am not certain. If it in your own essence. Then you will
He does not ascribe it, then it is more spe- gain what you seek through tasting, while
cific than unity. It is a name of the Es- you become acquainted with it through
sence, a proper name ('alam), but it is not unveiling. But there is no way to gain this
an attribute like unity, since attributes are except through a beginningless solicitude
a place of sharing (ishtiriik). That explains which gives you a complete preparedness
why unity is ascribed to everything other to accept it; [and this preparedness will
than God in the Koran. show itself] by means of ascetic discipline
The speech (kaliim) of people and their in the soul, bodily struggles, the assump-
technical terminology (i~tilii~) are of no tion of the traits of the divine names, the
account. Instead, what has come in the realization of pure and angelic spirits, pu-
Koran-which is the Speech of God- rification by a purity designated and de-
must be considered. If the word wii~id is tailed by the Law and not by reason,
found [applied to other than God] in the nonattachment to any engendered things,
Speech of God, then its property is that of and freeing the locus [of self-disclosure]
a~ad, because of what it shares in com- from all "others" (aghyiir). The Real has
mon verbally. But if the word wii~id is chosen out for Himself from you only
not applied to other than God in the your heart, since He illumined it with
Speech of God, then it has to be given the faith, and it encompasses the majesty of
characteristics which pertain to the Es- the Real.
sence. It will be like the name Allah, by When someone gains this description,
which no one else is named. (II 581.4) he sees the possible things with the eye of
the Real, so he witnesses them. Even if
they are not found in themselves [through
Ibn al-'Arabi sees a profound differ-
existence in the cosmos], he does not lose
ence between the ta'wll of the men of them. When the light of faith spreads
reason and the tafslr performed by the over the entities of the possible things, it
Folk of Allah. Since the philosophers and may unveil to his insight-or rather, to
theologians have neither unveiling nor his insight and his sight-the fact that, in
firm faith that God means what He says, the state of their nonexistence, the entities
they try to pass from the outward or both see and are seen, hear and are heard,
"exoteric" sense (:?cihir) of the verse to through an immutable sight and an im-
the inward or "esoteric" sense (batin). mutable hearing which have no existence.
The process of interpretation is a cross- The Real designates whichever of those
entities which He wills. He turns toward
ing over ('ubiir), as we have already seen
it, but not toward others like it, through
in speaking of the "interpretation" (ta'blr) His speech which in the Arabic language
of dreams. Once crossing over is made, is expressed as "Be!" The entity hears His
one "gives expression" ('ibiira) to the in- command, and hurries to what is com-
ward sense through outward forms. But manded. It comes to be from the word
in making this crossover, the rational (kalima), or rather, it itself is the word. 245
Hermeneutics

In the state of their beginningless non- to the meaning, without "giving expres-
existence (a/-'adam al-azalt) the possible sion" to it. Hence they see things with
things never cease knowing Him who is "two eyes" and, through the light of their
the Being Necessary through His Es- faith, witness "the two highways." 19
sence. They glorify and magnify Him They are not able to deny what they wit-
with a beginningless glorification and an ness, nor do they reject that about which
eternal and inherent magnification. They they have certainty. For God has let them
have no existent entity, while they lose hear the rational speech of the existent
not a single property. Since the state of all things, or rather, the rational speech of
the possible things is to have these attri- the possible things before they come into
butes, which are accompanied by no ig- existence. (III 257.16)
norance, what then is their state in their
existence and their becoming manifest to
themselves? Is there an inanimate object
which does not possess rational speech
(nufq), a plant which has not realized the Commentary by Allusion
magnification of its Creator, an animal
which does not attest through its state, or
a human being not connected to his Lord? Ibn al-'Arabi devotes Chapter 54 of
That would be impossible. Hence every the Futu~iit to the "True knowledge of
possible thing in existence must glorify allusions," explaining therein why the
God with a tongue that is not understood Sufis do not always express their teach-
and a dialect that not everyone compre-
ings in the clearest of languages. The
hends. But the people of unveiling hear it,
and the faithful accept it in faith and wor-
word translated here as "allusion" (ishiira)
ship, for God says, "There is nothing that means literally to point to or to give a
does not glorify Him in praise, but you sign, as for example, to nod the head
do not understand their glorification. in agreement. It is used in a single in-
Surely He is Clement, Concealing" (17: stance in the Koran. When Mary brought
44). the infant Jesus to her folk, they said,
In this verse He brings the name of the "Mary, thou hast surely committed a
veil and the curtain, that is, "Conceal- monstrous thing! Then Mary
ing." 18 He also brings the name which 'pointed to' the child" (19:29), that is, she
requires a delay in calling to account until made an allusion which he understood,
the future and prevents calling to account
in the present, that is, "Clement." For He
and then he spoke in her defense. In the
knew that among His servants are those following passage, Ibn al-'Arabi refers to
deprived of unveiling and faith, that is, the fact that the word iiya or "sign" in
the rational thinkers (al-'uqalii'), the slaves the Koran is employed both for the
of their powers of reflection, those who verses of the Book and for the outward
halt with crossing over (i'tibiir). They pass and inward phenomena of the cosmos. In
from the outward sense (:?iihir) to the in- mentioning Sufi commentaries which are
ward sense (biifin) and separate themselves called "allusions" rather than commen-
from the outward sense. Hence they taries, he has in mind such works as
"give expression" ('ibiira) to it, since they Latii'if al-ishiiriit ("Subtle Allusions") of
are people neither of unveiling nor of
faith, God having veiled their eyes from
Abu'l-Qasim al-Qushayri (d. 465/1072-
witnessing the true situation of the exis- 73). 20
tent things. Nor have they been provided
in their hearts with a faith to be "a light, When God created the creatures, He
running before them" (66:8). created man in various stages (fawr).
As for the faithful, the truthful, the Among us are the knower and the igno-
possessors of steadfastness among the rant, the just and the stubborn, the over-
friends of God, they cross over, taking powering and the overpowered, the ruler
the outward sense along with them. They and the ruled, the dominating and the
do not cross from the outward sense to the dominated, the leader and the follower,
inward sense, but they take the letter itself the commander and the commanded, the
Understanding the Koran

king and the subjects, and the envier and the common people the sciences of the
the envied. God created no one more meanings of election which He allows His
onerous and troublesome for the Folk of servants to understand when He opens up
Allah than the exoteric scholars ('ulamii' the eye of understanding which He has
al-rusum). Yet the Folk of Allah are those provided for them.
who have been singled out for His ser- Were the exoteric scholars to be fair,
vice. They are the gnostics by way of di- they would take into account their own
vine bestowal (wahb), those whom He has souls when they consider the verse with
given His mysteries among His creatures, the outward eye which is acknowledged
letting them understand the meanings of amongst them. Then they would see that
His Book and the allusions of His ad- they are ranked in degrees (tafoqul) in that.
dress. In relation to the Folk of Allah the Some of them are better than others in
exoteric scholars are like the pharoahs in speaking (kaliim) about the meaning of
relation to God's messengers. that verse. Then the one who fell short
Since, in accordance with God's eternal would admit to the superiority of the one
knowledge, the situation in existence oc- who did not fall short. Yet all of them
curs as we have mentioned, our compan- walk in the same path.
ions have turned to "allusions" -just as Then, in spite of this superiority which
Mary turned to allusion-because of the they witness in what they have among
people of lies and deviation. The speech themselves, they denounce the Folk of
of our companions in explaining (shari]) Allah when they bring something which
His Mighty Book, "to which falsehood is hidden from their perception. They
comes not from before it nor from behind do this because they believe the Folk of
it" (41:42), is allusions, even if it is a real- Allah are not men of knowledge and that
ity and a commentary upon its beneficial knowledge can only be gained through
meanings. They refer it all back to their the ordinary learning (ta'allum) that is well
own souls, even though they discourse known. And they are right in that, since
about it in general and discuss the mode our companions only gain that knowl-
in which it has been sent down, as known edge through learning, that is, through a
by the people of the language in which giving of knowledge by the All-merciful
the Book was revealed. Hence God com- Lord. God says, "Recite: In the name of
bines the two modes in them, as He said, thy Lord, who created, created man of a
"We shall show them our signs on the ho- blood-dot. Recite: And thy Lord is the
rizons and themselves" (41:53), that is, Most Generous, who taught by the Pen,
We shall show them the verses which are taught man what he knew not" (96:1-5).
sent down concerning both the horizons For it is He who says, "He brought you
and themselves. forth from your mothers' wombs, not
Every revealed verse has two senses knowing anything" (16:78). And He says,
(wajh): A sense which they see within "He created man, He taught him the
themselves and a sense which they see explication" (55:3-4). So God is man's
outside of themselves. That which they teacher.
see inside themselves they call an "allu- We do not doubt that the Folk of Allah
sion" in order that the jurist (faqih)-the are the inheritors of the messengers. God
exoteric scholar-will be comfortable says to the Messenger, "He has taught
with it. They do not say that it is a "com- thee what thou knewest not" (4:113). He
mentary." Thereby they defend them- says concerning Jesus, "He will teach him
selves against the evil of the jurists and the Book, the Wisdom, the Torah, and
their vile accusations of unbelief. The ju- the Gospel" (3:38). He says concerning
rists do that because they are ignorant of Khac;lir, Moses' companion, "Whom We
the modes in which the address of the had taught knowledge from Us" (18:65).
Real descends. But in this they follow So the exoteric scholars are right in
the road of guidance, for God had the what they say-that knowledge comes
power to state explicitly the interpreta- only through learning. But they are wrong
tions (ta' awwul) of the Folk of Allah in in their belief that God does not teach him
His Book, yet He did not do that. On the who is not a messenger or a prophet. God
contrary, He inserted into those divine says, "He gives wisdom to whomsoever
words which descend in the language of He will" (2:269), and wisdom is knowl- 247
Hermeneutics

edge. He says, "whomsoever," which which falsehood comes not from before it
means anyone. nor from behind it" (41:42). The root
But the exoteric scholars have preferred which is spoken about [i.e., the Koran]
this world to the next and the side of cre- comes from God, not from man's reflec-
ation to the side of the Real. They have tion and deliberation, and the exoteric
become accustomed to taking knowledge scholars know that. Hence it is only
from books and from the mouths of men proper that the Folk of Allah, those who
of their own kind. They think they are of put the Book into practice, be more de-
the Folk of Allah because of that which serving of explaining the Book and expli-
they know and by which they surpass the cating what God has sent down in it than
common people. All of this has veiled the exoteric scholars. Therefore its expla-
them from knowing that God has ser- nation will also be a sending down from
vants whom He has undertaken to teach, God, as was the root, upon the hearts of
in their inmost mystery, what He has sent the Folk of Allah.
down in His Books and upon the tongues 'Ali: ibn Abi: Talib said in this respect,
of His messengers. This is sound knowl- "This is nothing but an understanding of
edge from the Knower- Him who the Koran which God gives to whomso-
teaches and concerning whose knowledge ever He will of His servants." He made
no man of faith has any doubt, nor any this a "gift" from God, and He expressed
man without faith. this gift as an "understanding" from God.
Those [without faith] who say, "God So the Folk of Allah are more worthy of
does not have knowledge of the partic- that than others.
ulars (juz'iyyat)," did not mean to negate The Folk of Allah saw that God had
His knowledge of them. 21 They only given the turn of fortune in the life of this
intended that His knowledge of a thing world to the people who deal in outward
does not come to Him newly. On the significance, the exoteric scholars. He
contrary, He knows the particular things gave them domination over the creatures
as inserted within His knowledge of the through the pronouncements they make
universals. Hence they affirmed that He and He joined them to those "who know
has knowledge, though they are not among an outward significance of the present
the faithful. They intended thereby to de- life, but of the next world they are heed-
clare His incomparability, but they were less" (30:7). In their denial of the Folk of
mistaken in their way of expressing that. Allah, "they think they are working good
God undertook, because of His solici- deeds" (18:104). Hence, the Folk of Allah
tude toward some of His servants, to let them have their states, since they knew
teach them about Himself through inspi- on what basis they are speaking. Then
ration and giving them understanding of they protected themselves from these
Him. After saying, "By the soul and Him scholars by naming the realities "allu-
who proportioned it," He says, "and in- sions," since the exoteric scholars do not
spired it as to its lewdness and godfear- deny "allusions." However, when tomor-
ing" (91:8). Hence He made its lewdness row, the Day of Resurrection comes, the
distinct from its godfearing, as an inspira- situation in all things will be as the poet
tion from God to the soul, in order that it said:
would avoid lewdness and practice god-
fearing. When the dust clears
Just as, at root, God sent down the you will see
Book upon His prophets, so He sends if you sit on a mare
down understanding upon the hearts of or an ass.
some of the faithful. The prophets never
said anything about God which He had In the same way, the Verifier from among
not said to their hearts. They did not ex- the Folk of Allah will be distinguished
tract what they said from their own souls, from him who claims to be worthy on
nor from their powers of reflection, nor the Day of Resurrection ....
did they exert themselves in that. On the How can the exoteric scholar be com-
contrary, it came to them from God. God pared with the state indicated by 'Ali ibn
says, "A sending down from One Wise, Abi: Talib, when he said of himself that
Praiseworthy," and He has just said, "to were he to speak of the Fatil}.a of the
Understanding the Koran

Koran, he would make it carry seventy Thereby he would lift up the aspirations
loads? Does this come from any place of his companions. He meant: This is the
other than the understanding which God words of so and so. What do you yourself
gave to him concerning the Koran? say? What God-given knowledge has God
Hence the name faqlh" is much more singled out for you? Speak from your
appropriate for the Tribe than for the ex- Lord, and forget about, "so and so related
oteric scholar, for God says about the from so and so." They ate fresh meat, and
Jaqlhs, "[Why should not a party of every the Giver has not died. He is "nearer" to
section of the faithful go forth] to gain you "than the jugular vein" (50:16).
understanding (tafaqquh) in religion, and The divine effusion is perpetual, the
to warn their people when they return to door to heralding visions (mubashshiriit)
them, that haply they may be aware" has not been shut, and "these are one of
(9:122). Hence God places them in the the parts of prophecy." 25 The way is
station of the Messenger in the gaining clear, the door is open, the practice is set
of understanding of the religion and in down in the Law. God rushes to meet
warning. It is he who calls to God "upon him who comes to Him running. 26
insight," just as the Messenger of God "Three men whisper not together, but He
calls upon insight. He does not call on the is the fourth of them" (58:7). He is with
basis of the "predominance of surmise" them wherever they are. 27 If He is with
( ghalabat al-;;:ann), 23 as does the exoteric you through this kind of nearness, while
scholar. When a person is upon insight you claim to have knowledge of that and
from God and "upon a clear sign from his faith in it, why do you fail to take from
Lord" (11:17) when he calls to Him, his Him and speak with Him? Instead you
giving pronouncements and speaking are take from others, and you do not take
totally different from those of the one from Him. Why do you not become
who gives pronouncements in the religion "newly acquainted" with your Lord?
of God by the predominance of his sur- Even rain is higher in level than you, for
mise. the Messenger of God exposed himself
One of the characteristics of the exo- to the rain when it fell and uncovered
teric scholar in defending himself is that his head so that the rain would strike it.
he is ignorant of him who says, "My When asked about that, he said, "It is
Lord has given me to understand." He newly acquainted with my Lord."'" He
considers himself superior to the one said that to teach and alert us.
who says this and to the true possessor of Our companions have chosen the term
knowledge. But he who is of the Folk of "allusion" rather than other terms for
Allah says, "God has cast into my inmost their explanations of the Book of God be-
consciousness what He meant by this rul- cause of a divine teaching of which the
ing in this verse." Or he says, "I saw the exoteric scholars have no knowledge.
Messenger of God in an Incident, and he This is the fact that an "allusion" only
gave me news of the soundness of this re- takes place through the intention of the
port which has been related from him and one who alludes, not in respect of that to
what it signifies for him." which the allusion is made. When an exo-
Concerning this station and its sound- teric scholar asks them to explain what
ness, Abu Yazid addressed the exoteric they mean by the allusion, they compare
scholars with his words, "You take your the allusion to a good omen. For exam-
knowledge dead from the dead, but we ple: A person is in a situation in which his
take our knowledge from the Alive who breast becomes constricted. He is reflect-
does not die!" 24 ing upon his situation, and one man calls
The likes of ourselves say, "My heart out to another, whose name is Faraj
told me of my Lord." You say, "So and ["relief'], "0 Faraj!" The person whose
so told me." Where is he? "Dead." "And breast is constricted hears this. He takes it
he had it from so and so." Where is he? as good news and says, "God's relief has
"Dead." When someone said to Shaykh come, God willing." In other words, he
Abu Madyan, "It is related from so and will be relieved from this constriction and
so, from so and so, from so and so," he his breast will be expanded. The Messen-
used to say, "We don't want to eat dried ger of God did just this when making
meat. Come on, bring me 'fresh flesh'!" peace with the polytheists. They had 2~~9
Hermeneutics

blocked him from reaching God's House. that there was a people among the Folk
Then a man came from among the poly- of Allah who employed special technical
theists who was called Suhayl. The Mes- terminology and that they speak using
senger of God said, "The situation has be- those terms which only those who have
come 'easy' (sahala)," since he took the taken from them know. Then this sincere
man's name as a good omen. 29 And the seeker understands everything they are
situation turned out just as the Messenger talking about, as if he himself had estab-
had augured. Thus everything was put lished the technical terms. He shares with
in order at the hand of Suhayl. But his fa- them in the conversation and does not
ther did not intend that when he named find that strange from himself. On the
him Suhayl. He gave him the name as a contrary, he finds it all a self-evident
proper name, to distinguish him from knowledge which he is unable to repel.
others, though he only meant to give him He does not know how he gained it. But
a beautiful name for the sake of good. the one who comes from outside, in all
Since the Folk of Allah saw that the the other groups, never finds this unless
Prophet took "allusions" into account, someone has first acquainted him with the
they employed them in their affairs. But terms.
they clarified their meaning, their place, This then is what is meant by "allu-
and their time. They do not employ allu- sion" in the view of the Tribe. They only
sions in their affairs and among them- employ allusions when outsiders are pres-
selves, only when someone sits with them ent, or in their writings and composi-
who is not one of them, or when the situ- tions, but no place else. (I 279. 7)
ation rises up spontaneously within
themselves.
The Folk of Allah set down technical
terms (i~tila~) unknown to others unless Knowledge of Hadith
learned from them. They followed a path
in these terms unknown to others. In
the same way the Arabs employ in their
Ibn al-'Arabi quotes sayings of the
speech analogies and metaphors so that
some of them may understand others. Prophet nearly as often as he quotes the
Then, when they are together with their Koran. In most cases, these are taken
own kind, they speak about the situation from the standard sources and would be
clearly and explicitly, but when someone accepted as "sound" (~a~l~) by the
who is not one of them is present with learned masters of the science of Hadith.
them, they employ the words which they However, he often quotes other sayings
have established as special terms. Then which are not found in the standard
the stranger who sits with them does not collections and which, on occasion, have
know what they are doing or saying. been condemned as forgeries by some of
One of the most marvelous things in
the learned. Such, for example, is the
this path-it is not found in any other-
is the following: Every group which has a case of the famous hadiths, "He who
science-logicians, grammarians, geo- knows himself knows his Lord," or "The
meters, arithmeticians, astronomers, the- first thing God created was the intellect."
ologians, philosophers- has technical The Shaykh's justification for employing
terms not known to him who comes such hadiths is summed up by a remark
from outside unless a master or someone he makes in passing concerning the fa-
familiar with it acquaints him with it. The mous saying, "I was a Treasure but was
only exception is this path [of Sufism]. not known ... ": It is "sound on the ba-
The sincere seeker-and by this they sis of unveiling, but not established
know his sincerity-enters in among
them and has no news of their technical
(thiibit) by way of transmission (naql)" (II
terms. Then God opens up the eye of 399.28). Unveiling provides the means
his understanding and he takes from his whereby the authenticity of such hadiths
Lord at the beginning of his tasting, even has been tested.
though he had no news of the terminol- Ibn al-'Arabi sometimes refers to the
250 ogy they were using. He did not know great friends of God as the "prophets
Understanding the Koran

among the friends," thereby meaning transmitter shares in having heard the
that they also, like the prophets, receive hadith, then the hadith will be accepted
reports (khabar) from God. At the same by way of the reliable transmitter. But
time he frequently remarks that even this friend may have heard the Spirit cast-
ing this very hadith upon the reality of
reports given directly by God cannot
Mul;tammad, just as the Companions
have any effect upon the rulings (~ukm) heard along with Mul}ammad in the had-
of the Law, since only the prophets in ith of Gabriel concerning submission,
the proper sense possess the function faith, and virtue, when Gabriel confirmed
of "Law-giving" (tashri"""). In one of the the truth of what the Prophet said. 31
passages describing the station of the When the friend hears it from the Spirit
"prophets among the friends," he points who casts it, he is like the Companion
to the method in which God gives them who heard it from the mouth of God's
knowledge of the hadiths. Messenger, since he gains a knowledge
about which he does not doubt. He is dif-
ferent from the Follower-who accepts it
The prophets among the friends in this only on the basis of the "predominance of
community are those individuals whom surmise"- since there is no suspicion
God places within one of His self-dis- which might impair its truthfulness.
closures. Then He makes the loci of man- There is also many a hadith which is
ifestation30 of Muhammad and Gabriel sound by way of its transmitters and
stand before him. Then the spiritual locus which has been learned by this possessor
of manifestation [Gabriel] allows him to of unveiling who sees this locus of mani-
hear as he addresses Mul;tammad's locus festation. Then he asks the Prophet about
of manifestation with the rulings of the this sound hadith, and he denies it and
Law. Once the addressing is finished says, "I did not say it or judge by it."
and the heart of the friend who possesses Thereby the friend comes to know of its
this locus of witnessing is delivered from weakness, so he ceases putting it into
fright, he perceives through his rational practice "upon a clear sign from his Lord,"
faculty all the rulings of the Law com- even if the people of transmission put it
prised in that address and appearing into practice because of the soundness of
within the Muhammadan community. its line, though in fact it is not sound.
This friend takes those rulings just as the The like of this has been mentioned by
Muhammadan locus of manifestation Muslim at the beginning of his book, al-
took them. . . . Then the friend is re- $a~i~. 32 This possessor of unveiling may
turned to himself, and he has retained in even come to know who forged this had-
his memory everything by which the ith, the line of transmission of which is
Spirit has addressed the locus of mani- supposed to be sound. Either the name of
festation of Muhammad. He has come the forger would have been mentioned to
to know the so~ndness of that address him, or the form of the person would
through the knowledge of certainty, or have been set up before him.
rather, the eye of certainty ('ayn al-yaqin). These are the prophets among the
He takes the ruling of the Prophet, and he friends. In no way have they their own
puts it into practice "upon a clear sign Law, nor are they addressed with a Law.
from his Lord" (11 :17). They are given only knowledge (ta'rif)
There is many a weak hadith which is that this is the Law of Mul;tammad, or
not put into practice because of the weak- they witness the Spirit descending upon
ness of its line of transmission-because him with a ruling in the Presence of
certain forgers (wiiqi') transmitted it-yet Imaginalization, which is both outside
which is sound in fact, since in this partic- and inside their own essence. In the case
ular case the forger told the truth and of the dreamer, this is called "heralding
did not forge it. The scholar of Hadith visions." But the friend shares with the
(mu~addith) rejects it only because he can- prophet in that he perceives during wake-
not rely on that person's transmission. fulness what the common people perceive
But that is only when this forger is the during sleep. The folk of our path have
only person to transmit it, or the hadith affirmed that this is the station of the
goes back only to him. But if a reliable friends-along with other things, such as 251
Hermeneutics

acting by Resolve, and coming to know gaze only at what that form casts to him,
without any created teacher, only God; nothing else, since Satan will never
this is the knowledge of Khac.{ir. If God imaginalize himself in the form of any
gives the friend knowledge of this Shari'a prophet. 34 This is the reality and spirit of
by which he worships according to the that prophet, or the form of an angel in
tongue of the Messenger of God, and He his likeness, one who knows his Law
does so by removing all intermediaries- I from God. Whatever the form says is
mean the jurists and the exoteric scho- correct.
lars-then this is God-given knowledge, We had taken many Shari'ite rulings
but he is not one of the "prophets" of this from a form such as this which we had
community. Only that one among the not learned from the learned masters,
friends is a "prophet" who is the inheritor nor from books. When I presented the
of a prophet in this specific fashion, that Shari'ite rulings which that form had ad-
is, the witnessing of the angel when he dressed to me to one of the learned mas-
casts to the Messenger. ters of our country, one who knew both
These then are the "prophets among Hadith and the schools of Law (madhiihib),
the friends." All of them are equal in that he reported to me that everything I re-
they call to God "upon insight," as God ported to him had been related from the
commanded His prophet to do. . . . The Prophet in the $alii~. Not a single word
like of these preserve the sound Law in was missing ....
which there is no doubt both for them- If the form becomes manifest in other
selves and for those in this community than the form of his messenger, then it
who follow them. Among the people goes back to his state, without doubt, or
they have the greatest knowledge of the to the specific waystation of the Law at
Law, although the jurists do not concede that time and place in which he saw the
that to them. (I 150.13)33 image of the vision. However, this person
When man renounces his own individ- sees this in wakefulness, while the com-
ual desire, shrinks from his own ego, and mon people see that while asleep. He
prefers his Lord over all else, then God should not take any rulings of the Law
sets up before him in place of the form of from this form when it discloses itself to
his own soul the form of a divine guid- him in this manner. However, he is not
ance, a real form from the Real, so that he prohibited from taking whatever sciences
may walk proudly in diaphanous capes of and mysteries it brings-anything other
light. This form is the Law of his prophet than declaring lawful or unlawful-
and the messenger hood of his messenger. whether in beliefs or anything else. For
It casts to him from his Lord that within the Divine Presence accepts all beliefs
which lies his felicity. other than associating others with God
Some people see this in the form of (shirk). It does not accept that, since the
their prophet, while others see it in the associate is sheer nonexistence, and Non-
form of their own state. When it discloses delimited Being does not accept nonexis-
itself to a person in the form ofhis prophet, tence. (III 70.23)
he should let the eye of his understanding

252
6

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1 5. WE I G H I N G S E L F - D I S C L 0 S U R E

How can reason merely "accept" that upon the basis of sound unveiling. (I
which comes from God, without em- 218.5)
ploying its power of discernment? First,
this "acceptance" is the acceptance of As for reflection, reason's specific
what comes from God-not just any- power, it has an important role to play
one-as revealed in the Koran and the on its own level, as was pointed out. But
Hadith. It is an acceptance based upon reflection cannot gainsay God's word. If
faith in the double testimony, "There is the proofs provided by rational thought
no god but God, and Mul,Iammad is His contradict revelation, the proper road is
Messenger." Hence it is merely the ac- not to reject the revelation, but to rec-
ceptance in fact of what any Muslim ac- ognize that the proofs are limited by the
cepts in theory. The unveiling that the powers which have brought them into
traveler experiences adds nothing to the existence and that these limitations can-
principles and corollaries of faith. At not give the lie to Him who created rea-
most it fills in some of the details. Pri- son and its powers.
marily, it transforms the theoretical
knowledge which makes up the content
of the creed into direct vision. No longer When knowledge from God comes to
does the traveler merely have faith that, you, do not place it in the scale of reflec-
tion and do not appoint any route for
for example, "God's hand is above their
your rational faculty to reach it, lest you
hands" (Koran 48:10), since he witnesses immediately perish. For the Divine
this face to face. Unveiling is the verifi- Knowledge does not enter into any scale,
cation of faith. since it set up the scale. How can the scale
bring Him who established it under its
The knowledge of the Folk of Allah property? ...
which is derived from unveiling takes the Knowledge contradicts reason, since
exact form of faith. The unveiling of the reason is a limitation (qayd), while knowl-
Folk of Allah accords with everything ac- edge ('ilm) is that which is gained from a
cepted by faith, since faith is all true mark ('alama). The mark that best denotes
(~aqq), while he who gives news of it- a thing is the thing itself. As for every
that is, the Prophet- gives news of it mark other than the thing itself, that is
Soteriology

correct in respect to us only by chance. Knowledge and Practice


(II 291.3)

As we have already seen in earlier We saw above that the knowledge


chapters, the proper route is to pray provided by the Law is basically of two
for understanding from God. "Be god- kinds: Reports and rulings. Reports deal
fearing, and God will teach you" (2:282). with the contents of faith. Hence, ac-
But another question of fundamental cording to the standard formula derived
importance which has not been addressed from various Koranic verses, they com-
inserts itself here. Given that we enter prise knowledge of God, the angels, the
the path and follow the guidance of God, messengers, the scriptures, the Last Day,
and given that we experience an and the measure (qadar) of the good and
"unveiling" that makes all sorts of things evil that appear within the cosmos. Rul-
clear to us that we never understood ings embrace the Shari'a proper, that is,
before, can we be sure that the unveiling commands and prohibitions concerning
is from God? Is there no possibility of all dimensions of life and practice. To
satanic intervention and our going understand Ibn al-'Arabi's position on
astray? Is not a person who claims that the efficacy of unveiling, one must first
he is following his own "tasting" in clearly separate these two categories. The
effect claiming independence from the first may be called loosely knowledge or
prophets and setting up his own religion, theory or doctrine ('ilm), the second
at least for himself? practice or works ('amal). As the Shaykh
Ibn al-'Arabi is well aware of such constantly reiterates, unveiling can add
dangers and discusses them in many depth of understanding, clarity of vision,
contexts. Once again, it will only be certainty, and so on to the doctrine,
possible to provide a few brief examples though it cannot change any of the doc-
of how he deals with an important ques- trine's principles (u~ul) or corollaries
tion. But his fundamental answer can be (fitrii'). But unveiling can add nothing to
given quickly: Any knowledge, tasting, practice except understanding. The rul-
insight, witnessing, self-disclosure, or ings and statutes of the Law are inviola-
whatever that contradicts the literal sense ble and must be followed by everyone.
of the Koran and the Hadith must be No possessor of unveiling can claim any-
abandoned. Unveiling, like reason, must thing to the contrary without proving
submit itself to the Scale of the Law. that he has gone astray.
One of the m~or areas in which Ibn
al-'Arabi deals with this problem is in
The traveler who wants to reach the
discussing the relationship between the goal safely must avoid the deceptions that
prophets and the friends of God, a theme lie in wait for him on the path. Once he
which cannot be dealt with here except has reached the stages of unveiling and
in passing. 1 It is sufficient to say that witnessing, he will be tempted by Satan
the friend of God (wall) is always a and his own caprice to depend upon him-
"follower" (tabi') of the Prophet, never self rather than follow the Prophet. He
independent of his guidance. The friend's must move forward according to the scale
role is summed up by the Koranic verse of knowledge derived from the revealed
mentioned above and frequently quoted Law. If a divine command should come
to him in that which becomes manifest to
by Ibn al-'Arabi: "Say [0 Mul}.ammad]:
him making lawful (~alii/) for him some-
'I call to God upon insight, I and who- thing which has in fact been declared
ever follows after me"' (12:108). Our unlawful (~ariim) by the Muhammadan
task here is to ask what criteria and Law, then he has been duped (talbls) in
yardsticks can be employed in measuring that. He must abandon that command
"insight." and return to the established ruling of
Weighing Self-Disclosure

the Law. For it has been established while they think they are working good
among all the people of unveiling that deeds" (18:104).
there is no making lawful or unlawful and It may happen that the possessor of
nothing of the rulings of the Law for such an unveiling continues to practice
anyone after messengerhood and pro- the outward sense of that ruling, while he
phecy have been cut off from the Folk of does not believe in it in respect of himself.
Allah. Hence the possessor of that com- He practices it by stipulating the outward
mand does not rely upon it. He knows situation (;;;ahir), saying to himself, "To
for certain that it is a caprice of the soul. this commandment of the Law I only give
the outward dimension (;;;ahir) of myself,
But it is not forbidden that the Folk of for I have gained knowledge of its secret
Allah be given knowledge by God con- (sirr). Hence its property in my inmost
cerning the soundness of a ruling of the consciousness (sirr) is different from its
Law in something whose textual basis is property in my outward dimension."
not universally acknowledged (mutawatir). Hence he does not believe in it in his in-
As for that whose textual basis is univer- most consciousness while practicing it. If
sally acknowledged, if a divine knowl- someone practices it like this- "[Whoso
edge-giving should arrive contrary to it, disbelieves in the faith,] his practice has
the knowledge-giving cannot be relied failed, and in the world to come he shall
upon. There is no disagreement in this be among the losers" (Koran 5:5). "Their
among the Folk of Allah who are people commerce has not profited them, and
of unveiling and finding. they are not right guided" (2:16). They
Some of those who wish for God have have ceased being the Folk of Allah and
been duped in their states without being joined up with "him who has taken his
aware. This is a hidden deception, a caprice to be his god, and God has mis-
strong divine guile, and a being led on guided him in spite of knowledge" (45:
step by step without their being aware. 2 23). He supposes he is gaining, but he is
Beware lest you throw the Scale of the slipping away.
Law from your hand in exoteric knowl- So preserve yourselves, my brothers,
edge (al-'ilm al-rasmf) and in accom- from the calamities of this station and
plishing what it sets down as rulings. If the deception of this unveiling! I have
you understand from it something differ- counselled you and I have counselled this
ent from what the people understand, Tribe, thus fulfilling the command that is
such that your understanding comes be- mandatory upon me. (II 233.34)
tween you and the performance of the When the friends of God climb in the
outward significance (;;;ahir) of its rulings, ascents of their aspirations (ma'arij al-
then do not rely upon your understand- himam), the goal of their arrival is the di-
ing! For it is a deception of the ego (makr vine names, since the divine names seek
najsl) in a divine form without your be- them. When they arrive at the names in
ing aware. their ascents, the names effuse upon them
We have come across sincere people sciences and their own lights to the mea-
among the Folk of Allah who have been sure of the preparedness which the friends
duped by this station. They prefer their bring. They receive only in the measure
own unveiling and that which becomes of their own preparednesses. In this the
manifest to them in their understanding friends have no need for an angel or a
such that it nullifies the established ruling. messenger, since these are not the sciences
They depend upon this in their own case, of Law-giving (tashrl'), but rather lights
and they let other people observe the es- which allow them to understand that
tablished ruling in its outward signifi- which the messenger has brought in his
cance. But in our view this is nothing, revelation, or the scripture that has been
nor is it anything in the view of the Folk sent down upon him, or the book, but
of Allah. Anyone who relies upon it is to- nothing else. It makes no difference
tally confused and has left his affiliation whether the friend knows the book or has
with the Folk of Allah, thereby joining heard its details.
the "greatest losers" in works: "Their The knowledge of this friend can never
striving goes astray in the present life, go outside of the revelation brought by
257
Soteriology

the messenger from God, or the scripture, in the Law that he should legislate to this
or the book. That is the case in every extent, so he sets down the Law only by
friend who is the sincere devotee of his command of the Lawgiver. . . . If you
messenger, except in this community, say, "Where did God appoint that for
where the friends, in respect of their sin- the learned friend in the tongue of the
cere devotion to all the messengers and Law?" We reply: The Messenger said,
prophets, have knowledge, opening, and "If a person sets down a good custom
divine effusion in accordance with every- (sunna), he will receive its reward and the
thing required by the revelation, attri- reward of those who put it into practice
bute, scripture, and book of every until the Day of Resurrection, while [his
prophet. Through this they are more ex- receiving their rewards] will decrease
cellent than the friends of God in any nothing from their rewards. " 4 Hence
other community. the Prophet has set down in his Sunna
Each friend's unveiling in the divine that the friend may set down a custom,
sciences does not go beyond that which is though it must be something which does
given by the scripture and revelation of not oppose an established Law through
his prophet. In this station Junayd said, making lawful that which is unlawful or
"This knowledge of ours is delimited by making unlawful that which is lawful.
the Book and the Sunna." 3 Another said, Such is the friend's share in prophecy.
"Every unveiling not borne witness to by (III 55.29)
the Book and the Sunna is nothing."
What is opened up to any friend of God
is only the understanding of the Mighty
Book. That is why God says, "We have
neglected nothing in the Book" (6:38). The Inviolability of the Law
Concerning the Tablets of Moses He
says, "We wrote for him on the Tablets
concerning everything, an admonition, Ibn al-'Arabi's summary of the vari-
and a distinguishing of everything" (7: ous meanings of the term "scale" (mlzan)
145). was quoted in Chapter 11. In the contin-
Hence the knowledge of the friend
never leaves the Book and the Sunna in
uation of the same passage, he explains
any way. If someone should leave them, the various kinds of scales in accordance
that is not knowledge, nor is it knowl- with his division of the "whole situa-
edge of friendship. On the contrary, tion" into knowledge ('ilm) and practice
when you verify it, you will find it to be ('amal).
ignorance, and ignorance is nonexistence,
while knowledge is verified existence. The Verifier is he who upholds the
The friend is never commanded to fol- Scale in every presence, whether of
low a knowledge within which there is a knowledge or of practice, in accordance
Law-giving which abrogates his Law. with what the Scale requires. . . .
However, he may be inspired to arrange a As for the scale of rational knowledge,
form which has not been specified in the it is of two kinds. One kind is perceived
Law in respect of its whole, though in re- by reason through reflection. It is called
spect of the differentiation of its parts, "logic" in the case of meanings and
you will find it to be something set down "grammar" in the case of words. But this
by the Law. Hence, that is the composi- is not the way of the people of this sta-
tion of various affairs set down in the tion. . . . Though we join them in the
Law. The friend joins some of them to meanings, and necessarily so, this joining
others, or it is joined for him by way of in the meanings does not have to go only
casting (ilqii'), encounter (liqii'), or writing by way of these words ... , for the pos-
(kitiiba). Hence he makes manifest a form sessor of unveiling is "upon insight" from
which had not been manifest in the Law his Lord in that to which he calls His
as a whole. The friend has this measure of creatures.
Law-giving, and by doing this he does Just as reason possesses reflection, so
not leave the Law by which he is ad- also it possesses acceptance, and this ac-
dressed, since the Lawgiver has set down ceptance has a scale in unveiling. This
Weighing Self-Disclosure

scale may be known and upheld in every the Book or Sunna, and that this principle
object of knowledge which the rational be derived from a Book or a Sunna on the
faculty can perceive on its own. How- tongue of a prophet from the time of
ever, the friend does not know the scale Adam down to Muhammad. This is be-
by way of reflection or logic. The scale of cause many matters ~nter upon the friends
rational knowledge which comes into our of God during unveiling and the divine
path has to do with knowledge which is knowledge-giving, matters which are not
gained as a result of godfearing, in respect accepted but rather rejected by rational
to God's words, "Be godfearing, and God faculties. If the messenger or prophet
will teach you" (2:282) and His words, "If speaks of these, the rational faculties ac-
you are godfearing, He will give you dis- cept them in faith and through interpreta-
crimination" (8:29). When the gnostic tion, but they do not accept them from
gains such knowledge, he considers his anyone else, and that because of a lack of
godfearing, the affairs in which He had fairness. For when the friends practice
feared God, and his practice; and he con- what the Law has set down for them, the
siders the knowledge and weighs its affin- Divine Presence bestows upon them fra-
ity with his godfearing in the practice he grant blasts of divine munificence, 5
had performed, for the scales of affinities which arc unveiled to them from the very
(muniisabiit) do not make mistakes. When entities of those divine affairs which they
he sees that the affinity between the had accepted from the prophets to the ex-
knowledge which was opened up to him tent God wills. Then when the friend
and the practice is verified, and he sees mentions them, this person disbelieves in
that the practice demands it, then he has them, though he would have faith in ex-
earned (iktisiib) that knowledge through actly the same thing if brought by the
his practice. When the knowledge is out- Messenger. How blind is this individual's
side the scale and has no affinity with it insight! The least he could say is, "If it is
... , then this is one of the sciences of be- true as you say that you have been ad-
stowal (wahb), even if it has a root in dressed by this, or it has been unveiled to
earning .... you, its interpretation (ta'w!l) is such and
As for the Scale set down by the Law, such," if he is one of those who interpret.
that is what you employ when God gives If he is an exoteric (::;iihirf), then he could
you one of the divine sciences-not any say, "There has entered into the prophetic
of the other sciences, since we are not tak- report something similar to this." For un-
ing into account other sciences in this spe- veiling is not a mark of prophecy, nor did
cific Scale. We consider the Law, if we the Lawgiver prohibit it, either in the
should be knowers of it, and if not, Book or the Sunna ....
we ask the authorities on Hadith (al- Let us now explain the scale of practice:
mu~addithiin) from among the learned Practice is sensory (~iss!) or of the heart
masters of the Law. We do not ask those (qalbl), and its scale is of its own kind.
who have opinions of their own (ahl al- Hence the scale of practice is to look at
ra'y). We say to them, "Has it been re- the Law and how it has set up the forms
lated from any of the messengers that he of practices in accordance with their most
said about God such and such?" lfhe says perfect goals, whether the practice is of
yes, then you weigh it against what you the heart, sensory, or a combination of
have come to know and what has been the two, such as the ritual prayer, [which
said to you. You understand that you is a combination of] the intention (al-
have inherited from that prophet in that niyya) and the sensory movements. The
issue. You should also look to see if the Law has set up for it a spiritual form
Koran denotes this knowledge. which is grasped by the rational faculty.
This way is indicated by the words of When you begin the practice, gaze upon
Junayd: "This knowledge of ours is de- that ideal image (mithiil) which you have
limited by the Book and the Sunna." This taken from the Law-giver. Practice what
is the Scale. But it is not necessary in this you have been commanded in setting up
Scale that the issue be mentioned exactly that form. When you have finished,
in the Book and the Sunna. That which is compare your prayer with the spiritual
sought after by the Tribe is that a single form-referred to as the ideal image
principle (a~l) bring together the issue and which you have gained from the Law- 259
Soteriology

giver-limb by limb, joint by joint, out- Seeing" (42:11). This is the word of Real-
wardly and inwardly. If your prayer coin- ity itself.
cides exactly with the form, without Hence the Shari'a is the Reality:
decrease or increase, then you have "set Though the Reality bestows the Unity of
up the weighing with justice" and you the Divinity, it also bestows relationships
have not "exceeded it" nor "caused loss" within the Divinity. Hence the Reality af-
therein (Koran 55:7-9) .... firms only the unity of the relational
Just as the Law has set up for you the manyness, not the Unity of the One, for
form of the praiseworthy work and ex- the Unity of the One is manifest in itself,
plained it so that you will recognize it, so while the Unity of Manyness is difficult
also it has set up the form of the blame- to attain. Not every possessor of consid-
worthy work so that you will recog- eration perceives the Unity of the Many.
nize it and distinguish it from the praise- Hence the Reality, which is the Unity of
worthy. (III 6.34, 7.22, 8.10, 9.6) Manyness, is not discovered by everyone.
When the Sufis saw that both the elect
The Law is an outward dimension and the common people practiced the Sha-
(?ahir) of the Reality, while the Reality ri'a and that only the elect knew the Re-
ality, they distinguished between the
(~aqlqa) is the inward dimension (batin) of
Shari'a and the Reality. They made the
the Law. Hence Ibn al-'Arab:i, in contrast Shari'a pertain to the properties and rul-
to many Sufis, denies any real distinction ings of the Reality which were manifest,
between sharl'a and ~aqlqa, the Law and and they made the Reality pertain to its
the Divine Reality which it manifests. properties and rulings which are nonman-
Some people suppose that the Law only ifest. (II 563.4, 13)
pertains to the sensory realm, and that
once a person attains to the Divine Pres- The spiritual traveler who is not suffi-
ence, all multiplicity is overcome and ciently rooted in the doctrine may think
no more distinctions can be drawn. Ibn he no longer has need for the Law. Ibn al-
al-'Arabi frequently rejects this way of ' Arabi explains this sort of danger in
looking at things by affirming the real discussing the role of the angels in un-
manyness established by the "relation- veiling. These angels are known as the
ships" -the divine names-at the level "casters" (al-mulqiyat), since they cast the
of Divinity. There is no ontological knowledge of unseen realities into the
plurality, since Being is One, but the heart.
names demand a plurality of aspects and
attributions, making all sorts of dis- The friends of God witness the angels,
tinctions necessary. The contrasts and but they do not witness the casting itself;
contradictions so apparent in the revealed or they witness the casting and they know
that it was done by an angel, but they do
texts of the Law merely offer a faithful
not witness the angel. No one combines
mirror of Reality itself. the vision of the angel and the angel's
casting except a prophet or a messenger.
The "Reality" is the actual situation of For the Tribe, this is how the friend
Being (ma huwa 'alayhi'l-wujiicf), with all is differentiated and distinguished from
that It entails of diversity, mutual similar- the prophet, that is, the Law-bringing
ity, and conflict. If you do not recognize prophet.
the Reality in this, you have not recog- God has locked the door of angelic
nized it. The Shari'a is identical with the descent with rulings of the Law, but He
Reality .... has not locked the door of descent with
There is no reality that opposes a Sha- knowledge of those rulings into the hearts
ri'a, since the Shari'a is one of the reali- of the friends. He has assured that the
ties, and the realities are likenesses and spiritual descent with knowledge would
similars. The Law negates and affirms. It subsist for them so that they may stand
says, "Nothing is like Him," so it ne- "upon insight" in their calling to God, as
gates, and at the same time it affirms, as do those who follow after the Messenger.
260 He has said, "and He is the Hearing, the Hence He says, "Say: 'This is my way. I
Weighing Self-Disclosure

call to God upon insight, I and whoever command whatsoever. For the Shari'a has
follows after me'" (12:108) .... been established, and the obligatory, the
As for how the casting takes place, un- incumbent, the recommended, the indif-
derstanding of that depends upon tasting, ferent, and the reprehensible have all been
which is the state (~a/). However, I can clarified. 7 Hence the divine command
tell you that it occurs through affinity. was cut off with the cutting off of proph-
The heart of him who receives the casting ecy (nubuwwa) and messengerhood (ri-
must have the preparedness for what is stlla). That is why the Messenger of God
cast into it. Without it, there would be no did not content himself with the cutting
reception. But preparedness is not identi- off only of messengerhood, lest someone
cal with reception, since preparedness de- imagine that prophecy still remains in the
pends upon a divine designation. Indeed, community, for he said, "Verily proph-
certain souls may walk upon the path ecy and messengerhood have been cut
which takes them to the door from be- off, so there will be no prophet after me
hind which, when opened, there takes and no messenger." 8 Hence not a single
place this specific casting and other kinds. one of God's creatures remained to whom
Then, when they reach the door, they God would give a command which would
stop until they see that through which it be a Law whereby he would worship.
will be opened for them. When it is If, for example, [someone should say
opened, the command emerges one in en- that] God has commanded him to per-
tity, and they receive it from outside the form an obligatory act which the Prophet
door to the measure of their preparedness. had commanded him to perform, then the
They perform no works in this. On the command belongs to the Prophet. Hence
contrary, God specifies each of them with that command is fantasy, a claim to a
a preparedness. It is here that distinctions prophecy which has been cut off. If he
are drawn among the various groups, be- says that God has commanded him to
tween followers and those who are not do something [which according to the
followers, between the prophets and the Shari'a is] "indifferent" (muba~), we
messengers, and between the messengers would say: This means that the indifferent
and those followers who are called in thing becomes incumbent upon him, in
common usage the "friends." which case it abrogates the Law [of
He who has no knowledge imagines Mul;tammad] which he is following,
that traveling to this door is the cause by since, through this "revelation" the indif-
which was earned that which was gained ferent, made so by the Messenger, has be-
when opening took place. Were this the come incumbent, so to refrain from per-
case, those who experience the opening forming it is a sin. If the one who makes
would all be equal. Hence this takes place these claims-the possessor of this
only through the preparedness, which is station-leaves it indifferent as it was,
not earned. It is from here that those ra- then what is the profit of the command
tional thinkers who claim that prophecy is brought to him by the angel?
earned fall into error. (II 569.10) If he says, "No angel came with it, but
God commanded me without intermedi-
The prophets established the Laws ary," I would reply: This is worse than
through the command of God brought. the first case, since you are claiming that
God speaks to you like He spoke to Mo-
by the angels of revelation. With the
ses. But no one has maintained this, nei-
prophecy of Mul}.ammad, this sort of ther exoteric scholar nor possessor of
revelation came to an end, and anyone tasting. Even if He did speak or talk to
who claims anything of the sort is by you, He would not cast to you through
definition an impostor. His words anything but sciences and re-
ports, not rulings or a Law. He would
The angels of revelation descend upon never command you, since, if He did
the prophets, or certain "tenuities" 6 de- command you, it would be like what we
scend from the angels upon the hearts of said concerning the revelation of the
the friends of God. No angel ever de- angel.
scends with revelation upon the heart of If what you keep on mumbling about
other than a prophet, nor with any divine consists of the fact that God has created 261
Soteriology

knowledge of something in your heart, natures (al-taba'i') 10 when the two spmts
well, there is nothing at any instant but meet. The strength of the hot air which
the creation of knowledge in every hu- brings the moistures out of the body
man being. No friend of God is singled floods the pores, so cool air cannot enter
out for this over anyone else. Moreover, in from the outside.
we have explained in this book and others When the prophet or the possessor of
the actual situation. We have declared it the state regains his composure and when
impossible that God should command the angel leaves the prophet or the spiri-
anyone with a Shari'a by which he him- tual tenuity leaves God's friend, then the
self would worship or that He should constitution becomes calm, the heat
send him with it to others. But we do not abates, the pores begin to breathe, the
declare it impossible that God should body accepts and is penetrated by cold air
teach him -in the manner which we have from the outside, the constitution cools
stipulated and the people of our path have and increases in coldness, and the cold
stipulated-in accordance with the Law overcomes the heat, which becomes less.
by which he worships on the tongue of This is the coldness experienced by the
the Messenger, without any one of the possessor of the state and explains why he
exoteric scholars teaching him that, begins to shiver and puts on more clothes
through heralding visions, which have as- to warm up. Then, after that, he tells
sured the subsistence of the traces of what he gained through that herald of
prophecy among us. 9 These are dream- good news (bushra), if he is a friend, or
visions (ru'ya) seen by a Muslim or seen that revelation, if he is a prophet. All of
for him. They are a truth and a revela- this takes place if the descent is that of a
tion. A person does not have to be asleep spiritual attribute upon the heart.
to see them; they may occur during sleep If, however, the descent is an inblow-
or they may occur at other times. In ing (nafih), then this is "inspiration"
whichever state they occur, they are a (ilham) and can occur for a friend or a
dream-vision in imagination through prophet. 11 If something is narrated
sense perception, but not in the sensory to him and he hears it without a vision,
realm. That which is seen imaginally may then he is a "possessor of narration"
lie on the inside, within the faculty, or it (mu~addath). If he is shown the an-
may come from the outside through the gel-given that he is a prophet in the
imaginalization of a spiritual being or time of the existence of prophecy-or if
through the self-disclosure well-known to he is shown the tenuity as an imaginal
the Tribe- but it is a true imagination man, or the form of an animal that ad-
(khayal ~aqlql). dresses him with what it has brought for
If there is a harmonious constitution him, then, if he is a friend of God, he
(mizaj mustaqlm} prepared for the Real, places it next to the Book and the Sunna.
then, when the angel brings a ruling or a If it conforms (muwafaqa) to them, he sees
report containing knowledge to a prophet it as an address (khitab) which is true and a
. . . , the human spirit encounters (liqa} bestowal of honor, nothing else. It is not
the [imaginal] form and the two meet, the an addition to a ruling, nor the occa-
one through giving ear (i~ha') and the sioning of a ruling. However, it may be
other through casting (ilqa'), which are the explanation of a ruling or a giving of
two lights. The constitution becomes ex- the knowledge of the actual situation,
cited and inflamed. In the two lights the whereby that which was conjectured by
native heat of the constitution is strength- him becomes known. If it does not con-
ened and its magnitude is increased. The form to the Book and the Sunna, he sees
color of the individual's face changes be- it as addressing him with the truth and a
cause of this. This is what is called a trial for him, without doubt. He knows
"state" (~iii}, and it is the most intense for certain that the tenuity is not the tenu-
that might be. The bodily moistures as- ity of an angel nor the locus of divine self-
cend in vapors to the surface of the body disclosure, but a satanic tenuity. For the
because of the domination of heat, and angels have no such station; they are
this is why the possessors of these states greater than that. Most often this sort of
perspire. All of this derives from the thing occurs for the people who hear (ahl
262 compression (inqighat) undergone by the al-sama') from God in the creatures.
Weighing Self-Disclosure

So nothing remains for the friends to- during his journeys and not be misled by
day, because of the end of prophethood, the swirling forces which lie just beyond
but God's giving knowledge. The door to the horizons of stability and balance. For
the divine commands and prohibitions the Sufis, the Law, which governs the
has been shut. He who claims these doors inward realm as much as it governs
after Mu):Iammad has claimed that a
the outward, provides the indispensable
Shari'a has been revealed to him, whether
it conforms to our Law or opposes it. framework for entering into the imaginal
However, in other than our time, before world. Without it the traveler will be
the Messenger of God, there was no such thrown about by every blast of deceiving
prohibition. That is why the righteous wind.
servant Kha<;lir said, "I did not act on my We have just seen a vivid description
bidding" (18:82), for his time allowed of the physiological effects of the "state"
that; he had a Shari'a from his Lord. God which overcomes the adept when the
gave witness of that for him to Moses and light of his own spirit encounters a light
to us, and He attested to his blameless- from the unseen world. It is well known
ness. As for today, Elias and Kha<;lir ad-
that nowadays most people interested in
here to the Shari'a of Mu):Iammad, either
by way of conformity, or by way of fol- the spirituality of the East desire the "ex-
lowing. 12 In either case, they have that perience," though they may call what
only by way of having been given the they are after intimate communion with
knowledge (ta'rij), not by way of proph- God. Those familiar with the standards
ecy. In the same way, when Jesus de- and norms of spiritual experience set
scends, he will only judge us by our down by disciplined paths like Sufism
Sunna. God will give him knowledge of are usually appalled at the way Western-
it by way of knowledge-giving, not by ers seize upon any apparition from the
way of prophecy, even though he is a domain outside of normal consciousness
prophet.
as a manifestation of the "spiritual." In
So preserve yourselves, my brothers,
from the calamities of this place, for dis- fact there are innumerable realms in the
tinguishing it is extremely difficult! Souls unseen world, some of them far more
find it sweet, and then within it they are dangerous than the worst jungles of the
duped, since they become completely en- visible world. No person familiar with
amored of it. (III 38.23) the teachings of Sufism would dare lay
himself open to such forces without the
guidance of a shaykh who has himself
traveled the path, faced the dangers and
Spiritual States overcome them, and been given a man-
date from heaven to guide other seekers.
Before looking at the role of the
The experience of unveiling opens up shaykh, it will be useful to look at the
an infinite expanse of previously unseen "states," which, in a broad sense of the
realities to the heart of the spiritual trav- term, include all the experiences and de-
eler. One of the major tasks of the Sufi lights which so many Western seekers
masters is to guide the disciples through are anxious to achieve. As we have al-
the dangers and pitfalls faced by the soul ready seen, the "states" provide the way-
when it meets the Unknown. The realm farers with the sciences of tasting. In
into which the adept first enters is, after other words, by being taken up in a state
all, the World of Imagination, whose by- of love, yearning, fear, thanksgiving,
ways never end. It is the domain of the dread, or any other positive psychologi-
satans and other deceiving forces. One cal and spiritual attribute, the adept gains
might say that unveiling opens the door first-hand knowledge of the unseen reali-
to direct experience of the myriad worlds ties which these states manifest. But
of Samsara. states, in Ibn al-'Arabi's view, are a sign
The traveler needs to keep a clear head of immaturity and instability. Like a 263
Soteriology

madman, the possessor of the state loses In the most general sense, the "states"
his reason in the overpowering experi- of the things are the divine "tasks," the
ence of his state. Hence, just as a mad- continually transmuting self-disclosures
man is not held responsible by the Sha- of God, the new creation at each instant.
ri'a, so also the possessor of the state is "Within the creatures He creates the
not responsible for what he experiences states perpetually" (II 384.34).
and does, and none of it is counted for or A state is by definition ephemeral, as
against him (II 358.2). The true masters is shown by its derivation from the root
have passed beyond the ruling properties ~.w.l. Some Sufis, however, have read
of the states, always keeping a "cool the term as ~all, deriving it from the root
head," no matter what they may experi- ~.l.l. In this case it would mean that
ence inwardly. The masters travel within which dwells in something else, imply-
the "stations" (maqamat), which are ac- ing a certain permanence. Ibn al-'Arabi
quired permanently and have none of the explains these points in his I~tila~at while
instability and fleeting nature of the defining the term in its usual sense:
states.
The word ~al or state is derived from A "state" is that which enters in upon
the root ~.w.l., from which we have the heart without self-exertion or the at-
ta~awwul or self-transmutation. The ba- tempt to attract it. One of its conditions is
sic meaning of the root is to change from that it disappear and be followed by its
one situation to another, or from state to like and so on, until it subsides, though it
state. In a non-technical sense, a state may also not be followed by its like. Here
may signify situation, condition, case, there is a disagreement in the Tribe con-
predicament, anything that changes, the cerning the permanence of states. He who
present moment, and so on. In a broad sees the succession of likes and does not
technical sense the state is the present sit- know that they are likes claims that the
state lasts. He derives the word from "in-
uation of any existent thing, though the
dwelling" (~ulUI). He who does not see it
Sufis have classified the particular psy- followed by its like maintains that it does
chological and spiritual states that the not last and derives it from the root ~.w.l.
travelers experience into many catego- . . . It has also been said that the state is
ries, commonly as pairs of opposites. the changing of the attributes of the ser-
vant. Once they become established and
A "state" is for you to be subsistent or fixed, this is the "station." (II 133.25; c£
annihilated, sober or drunk, concentrated II 384.21)
or dispersed, absent or present. . . . It
was concerning the states that God com-
As pointed out earlier, the state is also
manded His Prophet to say, "My Lord,
increase me in knowledge" (20:114), so distinguished from the station by the fact
that through the new knowledge he that the states are bestowals (mawahib)
might climb to a waystation with God while the stations are earnings (makasib)
that he did not possess. These states do (II 157.31, 384.29).
not pertain exclusively to human beings, Ibn al-'Arabi frequently uses the term
nor to this world. Rather, they are per- "state" in another important technical
petual forever in this world and the next, sense, closely related to the first and
and they belong to every created thing. perhaps even more relevant to the subject
(II 498.27) at hand. In this second sense, state sig-
God says, "He is with you wherever
nifies certain dimensions of spiritual
you are" (57:4) . . . , that is, in your
states. No existent thing ceases to be in a realization that differentiate advanced
state. Or rather, there is no entity, exis- Sufis from ordinary individuals, and
tent or nonexistent, which does not have more specifically, it denotes the special
a state, whether ontological or non-on- powers which accrue to them as a result
tological. (II 118.22) of their station. Hence the term state is
Weighing Self-Disclosure

used in conjunction with several other the names" (al-takhalluq bi'l-asmii'). This
terms of the same type denoting the is what the people nowadays mean by
extraordinary feats or miracles which "state," and we also use the term in this
the friend of God may on occasion per- sense. However, we do not maintain that
form. These terms include charismatic the state produces an effect. We maintain
that the servant has the power to produce
act (kariima), breaking of habit (kharq
it, such that, were he to desire to make it
al-'iida), the exercise of governing con- manifest, he could do so. However, cour-
trol (ta~akkum), free disposal (ta~arruj), tesy prevents him, since he wants to real-
bringing things into engendered exis- ize his servanthood ('ubudiyya) and keep
tence (takw!n), and acting through Re- himself hidden through his worship, so
solve (al-fi'l bi'l-himma), that is, produc- that he will do nothing disapproved.
ing effects (athar) in the outside world When someone sees such a servant in
through concentration. The first two the extremity of his weakness, he will re-
terms denote the fact that something member (dhikr) God upon seeing him.
extraordinary and inexplicable takes This, in our eyes, is the friend of God,
and he is a divine mercy within engen-
place. The others designate the inward
dered existence. This is indicated by the
spiritual and mental activity which brings words of the Prophet concerning the
the extraordinary events into existence. friends of God: They are the ones who
In this meaning, the "possessor of a "when they arc seen, God is remem-
state" (~ii~ib al-~iil) is he who is able to bered." 13 Manifest adversity from God is
exercise these extraordinary powers. theirs, but they do not lift their heads to-
ward any but God in their states. When
The possessors of states engender someone like this is seen, God is remem-
things through their Resolves and throw bered for having singled out such as these
the secondary causes far from them- for Himself.
selves. (II 573.32) Those who have no knowledge of what
we say think that the friend-the posses-
But Ibn al-'Arabi puts no stock in "mir- sor of the state because of whose seeing
God is remembered-is he who possesses
acles," since they prove nothing about a
engendering (takwln), acting through Re-
person's situation with God and they can solve, and the exercise in the cosmos of
even be worked by mag1nans and governing control, overpowering sway,
practitioners of certain occult sciences. and authority. All of these are God's at-
The true Sufi has the power to "break tributes, so when such people are seen,
the habits" of creation if he wants, but he God is remembered. But this is the view
would only do so in exceptional circum- of those who have no knowledge of the
stances and as the result of an explicit actual situation. What the Lawgiver meant
divine command. His concern is rather is what I said. (II 385.12)
to observe courtesy, to put each thing in
its proper place, to observe the rights of
Ibn al-'Arabi often contrasts "state" in
all the secondary causes, and to actualize
this second sense with "station," but here
to the extent possible his own servant-
the state is not an ephemeral gift of God,
hood before God. Hence, here also, a
but rather the power of activity which is
"state" may be a sign of immaturity, if
acquired once a traveler comes to possess
not of misguidance and error.
a station. Through establishing himself
in the stations, the wayfarer assumes the
People may apply the word "state" and
traits of the divine names. Through the
mean by it the servant's becoming mani-
fest in the attribute of God by engen- state he can manifest his station in the
dering (takwln) things and producing ef- outward world in the appropriate cir-
fects through his Resolve (himma). This is cumstances. Hence the possessor of the
the becoming similar (tashabbuh) to God station dwells in the inward world of
which is called "assuming the traits of knowledge, while the possessor of the
Soteriology

state is the same person who has "de- a result they are no longer answerable to
scended" to this outer and lower world the Law (while experiencing the state).
to put the knowledge into practice. Thereby they lose much good. That is
why none of the great ones (al-akiibir)
There is a disagreement among the ever seek states. They only seek stations.
Sufis concerning the station of gnosis (III 527.26)
(ma'rifo). Does the one who is qualified by When the lover of God possesses
it possess all the stations or not? The cor- knowledge, he is more complete in that
rect answer is that this knowledge does respect than in the fact that he is the pos-
not demand a governing control or that sessor of a state. In this world a state is an
its possessor own all the stations in re- imperfection (naq~). while in the next
spect of the states and the exercise of free world it is a perfection (tamiim). But
disposal in the cosmos which they be- knowledge is a perfection in this world,
stow. Its only condition is that the station while in the next world it is a perfection
be known. If the one who dwells in this and more perfect. (II 358.3)
station desires to exercise governing con-
trol, he descends to the state-since gov- Ibn al-'Arabi defines the term "in-
erning control belongs to the states-for rush" (warid) as "every praiseworthy
he knows that his descent will not affect incoming thought (khatir) which arrives
his station. But he will not descend to the at the heart without self-exertion; or,
state except by divine command.
every affair which enters in upon the
If a verified shaykh in this way says
that the possessor of this station owns all heart from any divine name" (II 132.
the stations, he means through knowl- 26). 14 Though the inrushes come from
edge, not through state. He may be given God, the disciple may not always be
the state, but that is not a condition. If prepared for them.
anyone says it is a condition, he is making
claims and has no knowledge of the path In this station, people stand in three
of God, nor of the states of the prophets levels: In the first case, the inrush is
and the great friends of God, and this greater thai'!. the strength of the soul, so it
statement must be rejected. As much rules over the soul. He is dominated by
as the perfect individual ascends in sta- the state and follows its ruling property,
tion, he decreases in state-I mean in this so the state turns him this way and that.
world, but not in the next world. Just as He has no ability to govern himself as
witnessing delivers one from the need to long as he remains in the state. If the state
see "others," so also the station takes continues to control him until the end of
away the states, since fixity confronts his life, this is called "madness" Uuniin) in
ephemerality. (II 319.4) this path, as in the case of Abii 'Iqal al-
Maghribi.
In whichever of the two technical In the second case, the person's rational
senses the term state is understood, the faculty is taken away, though the animal
states present dangers to the person who understanding remains. He eats, drinks,
experiences them. Though they are di- and goes this way and that without self-
vine bestowals, yet there is always the governing or diliberation. These are
risk of taking them too seriously, think- called the "rational madmen" ('uqalii' al-
majiinfn), 15 since they take care of their
ing that one has deserved the states, be-
natural livelihood, like other animals. But
coming proud, losing one's mental equi- someone like Abii 'lqal was mad and to-
librium, and so on. Hence Ibn al-'Arabi tally taken from himself, so he did not eat
seldom speaks of the states as positive, and drink, from the time he was taken
but rather as trials that the traveler has to until he died. This took place over a pe-
undergo. The sooner they are done with, riod of four years, in Mecca. 16 He was
the better. He mentions their disadvan- "mad" (majniin), that is totally "cur-
tages and perils in many contexts. tained" (mastiir), from the world of his
own sense perception.
When the travelers are overcome by In the third case, the inrush does not
266 states, they become like madmen, and as last, so the state disappears. Such a person
Weighing Self-Disclosure

returns to his fellows with his reason in- states." . . . The meaning is as follows:
tact. He governs his own affair, and he Without doubt the possessors of states ex-
understands what he says and what is said ercise a penetrating power (nufi:idh) and
to him. He turns this way and that on the governing control through which they are
basis of deliberation, like any human be- able to perform the miraculous breaking
ing. Such is the prophet and those friends of habit which is famous throughout the
who are the possessors of states. world. But once they come to understand
Sometimes the person's inrush and self- that the state which occurs in them and
disclosure are equal to his own capacity. manifests an act has no effect upon that
No one sees any effect of the ruling prop- which bestows unveiling, they do not re-
erty of the inrush over him, but one be- main satisfied with it and they enter into
comes aware upon seeing him, through a exile from it. They say, "Halting with the
hidden kind of awareness, that something state is a bane upon its possessor." They
has happened to him, since he has to lis- see that exile from the state is the utmost
ten to the inrush in order to take what it felicity and that the state is the greatest
has brought him from the Real. His state veil over man. It is the place of God's de-
is like that of the sitting companion who ception (makr), and through it man is led
is conversing with you, when another on step by step (istidriij). No intelligent
person comes with a command for him person remains in places where there is a
from the king. He stops talking to you possibility of deception. On the contrary,
and listens to what that person is saying. he should only halt in a place where he is
Once he receives the message, he returns "upon insight." (II 527.27, 528.33)
to the conversation. In such a case, even if
you do not see anything with your eyes, According to the Koran, God is the
you notice that something has distracted
"Best of deceivers" (3:54, 8:30), and the
him from you, as if someone were speak-
ing to him. Or he has suddenly begun to Sufis have always been extremely wary
think about something, so his senses turn of His deception (makr), which appears
toward it in his imagination, and his eyes in the wiles of Satan and the lower soul.
and his gaze become dull, even while you In Chapter 231 of the Futii~~it, "On
are talking to him. You look at him, but Deception," Ibn al-'Arabi provides a
your words do not register with him, so long description of the various forms
you become aware that his inward dimen- that God's deception may take. At the
sion is thinking about something else, dif- beginning of the chapter, he provides a
ferent from what you are busy with.
succinct definition, relevant perhaps even
Sometimes the person's capacity is
more in our days than in his.
greater than the inrush, so when it comes
to him-while he is conversing with
you-you do not become aware. He The Folk of Allah apply the term "de-
takes what the inrush casts to him, and he ception" to the continuation of favors in
takes from you what you say to him, or spite of [the servant's) opposition [to
he speaks to you. God's command), [His) making the state
There is no fourth kind of inrush from subsist in spite of [the servant's] discour-
the Real upon the hearts of the people of tesy, and the [servant's) manifestation of
this Path. (I 248.27) [miraculous] signs without a [divine]
command and without being punished.
The travelers seek to mcrease their In our own view, God's deceiving the
capacity to receive inrushes so that they servant is that He should provide him
knowledge which demands practice, and
will not be affected by them. They also
then deprive him of the practice; or that
avoid those states which become mam- He should provide him with practice, and
fest as extraordinary powers. then deprive him of sincerity (.ikhlii~) in
the practice. When you see this in your-
The Sufis apply the term "exile" self or recognize it in someone else, know
(ghurba) . . . to becoming an exile from that he who has such an attribute is the
states. They say concerning exile, "It is to object of deception.
become an exile from the influence of When I was in Baghdad in the year 608 267
Soteriology

[1211-12], I saw in an Incident that the of the bounds which are their scale. The
doors of heaven had been opened and the friends are commanded to conceal these,
storehouses of Divine Deception were de- just as the messengers are commanded to
scending like an omnipresent rain. I heard manifest them. When a friend is given the
an angel saying, "What deception has de- ability to show them and the "eye of gov-
scended tonight!" And I awoke terrified. I erning control" ('ayn al-ta~klm) in the cos-
considered the way to safety from that, mos is bestowed upon him, he may be
and I could not find it except in knowl- deceived because he lacks a share in what
edge of the Scale set up by the Law. So if others are given and because God desires
anyone desires that God give him good that from him. God places within such a
and preserve him from the calamities of person an urge to manifest these signs in
deception, let him never let the Scale of such a way that he is unaware that this is
the Law drop from his hand! (II 529.33) a divine deception which points to a lack
of share. Hence he is inspired in his soul
In the rest of the chapter, Ibn al-'Arabi to manifest the signs as a kindness to at-
tract creatures to God, to deliver drown-
discusses various manifestations of de-
ing men from the sea of destructive sins,
ception, especially as it affects the gener- and to take them away from their familiar
ality of the spiritual seekers (al-'umiim), ways. For this is one of the greatest signs
the elect (al-khu~ii~), and the elect of the by which people are called to God, which
elect (khu~ii~ al-khu~ii~)- These last can be is why it was a quality of the prophets
tempted by the desire to convince others and messengers. This person sees in him-
by manifesting "signs" (ayat), that is, the self that he is one of the inheritors, and
power that God gives to His friends to that these signs are one of the inheritances
"break the habits" of the visible world from states. This prevents him from con-
and sidestep the natural "laws" to which cealing these signs in the manner that God
has made mandatory for the friends, even
we have become habituated by constant
though they possess power over them. It
repetition. hides from him the fact that God has
made the manifestation of signs manda-
God's deception of the elect is hidden tory for the messengers because, from the
within His causing their state to subsist in first, they are commanded to call to God,
spite of their discourtesy. This discour- while the friend is not like that. The
tesy is to take pleasure (taladhdhudh) in the friend only calls to God by recounting
state and to halt within it. This gives rise (~ikaya) the call and tongue of the mes-
to presumptuousness in him in whom the senger. He does not call by virtue of a
state occurs, intrusion upon God, and tongue that speaks to him as it speaks to a
failure to seek transferal from the state. messenger. And all the while the Law has
God said to His Prophet, "Say: 'My Lord, been established by those who know it.
increase me in knowledge"' (20:114), and So the messenger is "upon insight" in
He let us hear that only to alert us so that calling to God through the rulings of the
we would say this and seek increase from Law which God has conveyed to him, but
God. Were this specific to the Prophet, the friend is "upon insight" in calling to
He would not have let us hear it or He God by virtue of following, not by virtue
would have mentioned that it was specific of Law-giving. Hence he has no need for
to him . . . . signs or clear proofs, for, were he to say
The state has a pleasure and sweetness something that contradicts the rulings of
in the soul, and as a result certain souls the messenger, no one would follow him,
find it difficult to seek transferal from that nor would he be upon insight. So there is
which gave rise to the state. On the con- no profit in manifesting signs. His situa-
trary, they only seek increase in the state tion contrasts with that of the messenger,
itself. They are ignorant of the fact that for the latter establishes Law-giving and
the states are bestowals. abrogates some of the Law established at
The divine deception (makr) which af- the hand of other messengers. Hence he
fects the elect of the elect lies in mani- must manifest signs and marks which will
festing signs and the breaking of habits be a proof that he speaks the truth when
268 without a command from God or outside he says he brings reports from God in or-
Weighing Self-Disclosure

der to take away rulings established by station showed to Ibn al-'Arabi the forms
God on the tongue of another messenger of the "levels, realities, mysteries, and
and announce the end of the period of the sc1ences encompassed by the waysta-
ruling in that question. But the friend, in tion."
spite of his particular qualities, may aban-
don something obligatory, and as a result
he will be imperfect in his level to the ex- The intellect took my hand, and as a re-
tent of that which would have been given sult the waystation became manifest to
to him if he had observed and acted in ac- me. It said, "This is the waystation of de-
cordance with that obligatory command. struction and the slaughter-ground of
There is nothing more harmful to the destruction."
servant than to interpret (ta'wll) things. I saw within it five rooms. In the first
May God place us upon insight in our af- room there were four treasure chests. The
fairs and not allow us to transgress that first chest had three locks, the second
which is demanded by our station! I ask three, the third six, and the fourth three. I
God that He provide us with the highest wanted to open them, but the intellect
station with Him possessed by the highest said to me, "Leave it until you see the
friend, for the door of messengerhood treasure chests in each room. After that
and prophecy is locked, and it is appro- you may open the locks and come to
priate that no one in the cosmos ask the know what is within the chests." Then it
impossible. After the divine report-giv- took my hand and we went into the sec-
ing, this door was locked, so it is not ap- ond room. I entered it and saw four
propriate that we ask for it. To ask for it chests. On the first there were six locks,
is to beat cold iron, so no man of faith on the second three, on the third four,
would ever ask such a thing. This is and on the fourth six ....
known. It is sufficient for the friend that Then we went out in order to go back
he ask God to place him upon insight in to the first room, open the locks, and sec
calling to God in respect of what is re- what was deposited in those chests. I en-
quired by the station of friendship and tered the first room and went to the first
following, just as He made the Messenger chest, and I saw that a key was hanging
call to God upon insight in respect of on each lock. Some locks had two or
what is required by the station of messen- three keys. I looked at the first lock and
gerhood and Law-giving. May He pre- saw three keys embracing 400 move-
serve us from His deception and not place ments. I stretched out my hand and
us among the people of imperfection (ahl opened the lock. Then I also saw on the
al-naq~)! May He provide us with increase third lock three keys comprising 400
(mazld) and advance (taraqql) in this movements. I opened the third and went
world and the next! (II 531. 9) back to the second. Upon it were two
keys. It was a layered lock consisting of
two locks in one and comprising four
Closely connected to the states and the
movements in two movements.
miraculous acts which the immature When I opened the locks and became
traveler may be tempted to display is apprised of what was in the chests, there
the question of various occult sciences appeared to me the forms of know ledges
through which similar effects can be to the number of the movements of the
produced in the outside world. This is a keys of each chest, no more and no less. I
topic which could take us into many saw destructive knowledges. No one
more digressions. Instead I will limit occupied himself with them without be-
myself to a few excerpts from Chapter ing destroyed-knowledges pertaining to
273 of the Futu~at, entitled, "Concerning the rational faculty and belonging exclu-
sively to the reflective thinkers, the phi-
the true-knowledge of the waystation of
losophers and the theologians. Among
the destruction (halak) pertaining to them I saw a knowledge which takes its
caprice and the ego." Most of the chapter possessor to perpetual destruction, and
is taken up by the long narrative of an another knowledge which takes him first
unusual imaginal vision in which the to destruction, then he is saved, though of
intellect in charge of this particular way- course there is none of the light of the 269
Soteriology

Law within it and its possessor is de- of the more complex issues in the practi-
prived of felicity. Among these knowl- cal dimension of Sufism and can only be
edges were many of the sciences of the touched upon in the present context. All
Brahmins, the sciences of sorcery, and Sufis agree that entering the path with-
others. I gained all the sciences contained out a shaykh is impossible. If someone
therein, so that I might avoid them.
These are mysteries which cannot be
thinks he has done so, in fact he has gone
made manifest. They are called the "sci- astray. The basic reason for the absolute
ences of the mystery" ('uliim al-sirr). necessity of the spiritual master is that
One of the Companions who was the path is unknown before it is tra-
singled out for these sciences was versed, and a person cannot possibly pre-
l;ludhayfa ibn al-Yaman; the Messenger pare himself for the dangers and pitfalls
of God singled him out for them. That is that lurk on the way. The unknowabi-
why among the Companions he was lity of the path goes back to the un-
called "The possessor of the knowledge of knowability of God. That which can be
the mystery." Through that knowledge known is that which He has taught us
he used to recognize the hypocrites. Even
'Umar ibn al-Khagab swore an oath be-
through revelation. Traveling the path is
fore him one day: "By God, is there any- only possible through His guidance.
thing of that in me?" He said, "No, and I Though the wide and easy path of the
shall not tell of this knowledge to anyone Shari'a is incumbent upon all, the narrow
after you." 'Umar would never call down and steep path of the Tariqa requires spe-
blessings upon a coffin until he saw that cial qualifications on the part of the
l;ludhayfa said that blessings should be seeker and the person who shows the
called down. If l;ludhayfa did so, so did way. A second important reason for the
'Umar; if not, neither did he. necessity of the master is the principle
He who comes to know these knowl- set down in the Koranic verse, "Enter
edges in order to avoid them will attain
felicity, but he who comes to know them
houses by their doors" (2:189). The door
believing in them and practicing them to knowledge of unseen things has been
will end up in wretchedness. When I set up by God and His Prophet, and only
gained them and encompassed them in the inheritors of the Prophet, designated
knowledge and kept my soul aloof from by the silsilas or "chains of transmission"
them through the divine solicitude by of the Sufi orders, are qualified to open
which God preserved me from putting those doors for others. Any attempt to
them into practice and becoming qualified enter this house by other than its door
by their effects, I thanked God. represents the utmost discourtesy toward
In these stations many of the wayfarers God and His Prophet.
of this path have been destroyed, since
they saw sciences which the souls love
Even in Ibn al-'Arabi's time there
and by which they become lords and were people who claimed to be Sufi mas-
shaykhs. Souls seek superiority and lead- ters without possessing the proper quali-
ership (riyasa) over their own kind. Hence fications. Often these were seekers who
these people display these sciences and began with good intentions, but were
seek to practice them in the corporeal then "led on step by step" through the
world. They are misguided and they mis- divine deception. In other words, God
guide others. "They misguide many, and continued to show them favors while
they have been misguided from the right they did not fulfill their part of the cove-
way" (Koran 5:77). (II 583.21) nant. Instead of acting in accordance
with the rules of courtesy in every situa-
tion and observing all the intricacies of
Spiritual Mastery the Law, they gradually were embold-
ened to the point of considering them-
selves beyond these affairs, which they
The relationship between the shaykh saw as fit only for the common people.
270 or spiritual guide and his disciple is one Thus they forgot that the Prophet and all
Weighing Self-Disclosure

his Companions, not to mention every The shaykhs are deputies of the Real in
friend of God, followed the Scale of the the cosmos, like the messengers in their
Law in all affairs. time. Rather, the shaykhs are the inheri-
Ibn al-'Arabi devotes Chapter 281 of tors, those who have inherited the knowl-
edge of the revealed Laws from the proph-
the Futu~at to "The true knowledge of
ets, though the shaykhs do not set down
the stage of reverence (i~tiram) for the the Law. It belongs to them to preserve
shaykhs." He clarifies the qualifications the Shari'a for everyone; it is not theirs to
of the shaykh who will be able to train make the Law. It belongs to them to help
disciples (murld) properly. He also points the elect preserve their hearts and observe
out that there are other "shaykhs" who the rules of courtesy.
are possessors of states and produce In relation to the knowers of God, the
miraculous phenomena, but that such shaykhs are like the physician in relation
shaykhs are not qualified to lead disciples to the knowers of the science of Nature.
on the path. The term "companionship" The physician only knows Nature inas-
(~u~ba) is a general designation for the
much as it governs the human body,
while the knower knows it without re-
disciple's relationship to the shaykh. As
striction, though he may not be a physi-
Ibn al-'Arabi points out at the end of the cian. It may also happen that the shaykh
passage, there is a companionship in the combines the two affairs.
specific sense of undergoing training at However that may be, the share of the
the hands of a master, and in the more shaykh in knowledge of God is as fol-
general sense of visiting the master and lows: He has knowledge of the sources
acquiring his blessing. and origins of people's activities. He pos-
sesses the science of incoming thoughts
To revere the shaykh is to show reverence (khawa(ir), both the praiseworthy and the
for none but God, so revere him out of blameworthy, and how a person can be
courtesy toward God in God. duped by them when the blameworthy
The shaykhs are the courteous, and thought becomes manifest in the form of
proximity aids them in guiding and the praiseworthy. He knows the breaths
strengthening in God. and the complexion and what they pos-
They are the inheritors of all the mes- sess and comprise of the good that is
sengers, so their words come only from pleasing to God and the evil that is dis-
God. pleasing to Him. He knows the illnesses
You see them like the prophets among and the medicines. He knows the times,
their enemies, never asking from God the lifetimes, the places, and the foods;
anything but God. that which will make the constitution
But if a state should appear in them which sound and that which will corrupt it; and
distracts them from the Shari'a, leave the difference between unveiling which is
them with God- "true" (~aqlql) and that which is "imagi-
Follow not after them and walk not in nal" (khayall). He knows the divine self-
their tracks, for they are God's freed- disclosure. He knows the method of
men in God. training (tarbiya) and the passage of the
Be not guided by him from whom the disciple from infancy, to youth, to old
Shari'a has gone, even if he brings news age. He knows when to stop exercising
from God! control over the Nature of the disciple
and begin controlling his rational fac-
When we saw that nowadays the dis- ulty, 17 and when to tell the disciple that
ciples are ignorant of the levels of their his incoming thoughts are true. He
shaykhs, we said concerning that: knows the properties that belong to the
soul, those that belong to Satan, and what
Ignored are the measures of the shaykhs, is under the power of Satan. He knows
the people of witnessings and firm the veils which preserve man from the sa-
rooting! tans' casting into his heart and what the
People consider their words low out of disciple's self conceals from him without
ignorance, though they stand in a lofty his being aware. When the disciple expe-
degree! riences opening in his inward dimension,
Soteriology

the shaykh differentiates for him between The shaykhs have two states:
spiritual opening and divine opening. There are shaykhs who know the Book
Through smelling (shamm) he discerns be- and the Sunna, uphold them in their
tween those people of the path who will outward activities, realize them in their
be wholesome for the disciple and those inmost consciousness, observe God's
who will not be wholesome. He knows bounds, fulfill God's covenant, uphold
the adornment through which the souls the precepts of the Shari'a, never interpret
of the disciples-those who are God's (ta'awwul) in their pious fear, take with
brides-will be adorned. The shaykhs are caution, avoid the people who mix levels,
like the hairdresser who beautifies the sympathize with the community at large,
bride. The shaykhs are the Courteous never hate a single one of the disobe-
with God, the knowers of the rules of dient, love God, and hate what God hates
courtesy (adiib) of the Presence and the through God's hate. No blame of any
reverence which is due to It. blamer ever affects them concerning God.
The description which brings together They "command the approved, forbid the
everything in the station of the shaykh is disapproved" in which there is consensus
this: He combines in himself everything "and vie with each other in good works"
of which the wayfaring disciple has need (Koran 3:114). They pardon the people,
in the state of his training, his wayfaring venerate the old, show mercy to the
(su/Uk), and his unveiling until he be- young, and remove harm from the path
comes worthy of becoming a shaykh. He of God and the path of the people. 20
possesses everything the disciple needs They invite to the good-first the most
when his mind or his heart becomes ill incumbent, then the next most incum-
through some obfuscation into which he bent. They deliver dues (~uquq) to their
falls and whose soundness or disorder he owners and behave gently toward their
cannot discern. Such a thing happened to brothers, or rather, to all people. They
Sahl ibn 'Abdallah over the "prostration do not limit their munificence to those
of the heart. " 18 It also happened to our whom they know, for their munificence
own shaykh when it was said to him, is nondelimited. The old person is their
"You are Jesus son of Mary." 19 The father, their fellow is their brother and
shaykh treats him with the appropriate equal, the young person is their child. All
medicine .... So the shaykhs are the phy- the creatures are members of their house-
sicians of God's religion. hold after whose needs they ask.
Whenever a person lacks anything If they obey [the Law], they see that the
which a shaykh needs for the training of Real has given them success to obey Him.
disciples, it is not lawful for him to sit If they disobey Him, they hurry to repen-
upon the couch of the shaykh, since he tance and shame before God, blaming
will corrupt and throw into affliction themselves for that which emerged from
much more than he will set right, like the them. They never flee in their acts of dis-
quack who makes the healthy person ill obedience to "decree and destiny" (al-
and kills the patient. But when the indi- qaqa' wa' 1-qadar), for that is discourtesy
vidual reaches the point [which we have toward God. They are the easy, the pli-
described], then he is a shaykh in the path ant, the possessors of tender love, "merci-
of God, and every disciple must show ful to one another. You see them bowing,
reverence to him, serve him, observe his prostrating" (Koran 48:21). In their face is
prescripts, and not conceal from him any- mercy toward God's servants, as if they
thing which he knows that God knows were weeping. Worry dominates over
about him. them more than joy, because of what is
The disciple should serve the shaykh as given by the place of the Law's prescrip-
long as he has reverence for him. But if tion (taklif).
reverence for him should fall from his Such as these are the ones by whom
heart, he should not sit with him for a one should be guided and whose rever-
single hour, for he will not gain any ence is incumbent. It is they who, "when
profit from him and will suffer loss, since they are seen, God is remembered."
companionship (~u~ba) only yields profit The second group of shaykhs are the
when there is reverence. Whenever the possessors of states. They have a certain
reverence returns to him, then he should dispersion (tabdld) and do not preserve the
serve him and profit from him. outward (al-?ahir) in the way that the first
Weighing Self-Disclosure

group does. Their states are acknowl- The root here is that, just as there can-
edged, but one should not become their not be a cosmos between two gods, or a
companion. If the miraculous breaking of person addressed by the Law between
habit that may become manifest from two messengers who have brought differ-
them should become manifest, it is not to ent Shari'as, or a woman between two
be relied upon, because of the discourtesy husbands, so also there cannot be a disci-
toward the Law. For we have no way to ple between two shaykhs, that is, if he is a
God except that which He has laid down disciple who is being trained. If it is a
for us as the Law. He who says there is question of companionship and not of
another way to God, different from what training, then there is no worry for a
He has laid down in the Law, has spoken person to be the companion of all the
falsehood (zur). So a shaykh who has no shaykhs, since he is not under their rule.
courtesy is not to be taken as a guide, This kind of companionship is known as
even if he is truthful in his state. How- the companionship of "blessing" (baraka).
ever, reverence should be shown to him. However, it will not produce a Man in
Know that reverence to the Real lies in the path of God.
reverence to the shaykh. To break the In short, reverence is the root of salva-
compact of obedience ('uquq) to the one is tion. (II 364.28)
to do the same to the other. The shaykhs
are the doorkeepers of the Real, those
The relationship between the master
who preserve the states of the disciples'
hearts. If a person becomes the compan- and the disciple is not one-sided. The
ion of a shaykh who can be followed as a shaykh, like the Prophet, must always
guide and does not show reverence to pray, "My Lord, increase me in knowl-
him, his punishment is that his heart will edge," and it may be that in certain
lose the finding of the Real (wujud al- circumstances God will choose the dis-
~aqq), he will be heedless (ghajla) of God, ciple to impart new knowledge to the
and he will show discourtesy toward master. Ibn al-'Arabi alludes to these
Him. He will intrude upon Him in his points while discussing the relationship
speaking and annoy Him in His level. For between independence (ghinii) and need
the finding of the Real belongs only to the
or poverty (foqr).
Courteous. The door is closed to every-
one other than the Courteous. So the dis-
ciple has no greater deprivation than to be There is a kind of discourtesy in the
deprived of reverence for the shaykhs .... path of God through which God leads
Our companions have disagreed as to on the gnostics step by step. This is the
the duty of a disciple in respect to another shaykh's exalting himself ('izza) over the
shaykh, other than his own shaykh. Is his disciples who follow him because of their
state with him in relation to the Real the need for his training and his surpassing
same as his state with the first shaykh or excellence. For if the shaykh does not ful-
not? All of them maintain that it is in-· fill the right of his own station, the pov-
cumbent to show reverence to him, with- erty of the disciple toward him will veil
out doubt; here there is consensus. But in him from his poverty toward his Lord in
other domains, some of them have held his states. Through that he will witness
that his state with the second is exactly his independence through God, .and inde-
the same as his state with the first. Some pendence through God demands exalting
have separated the two and said, "The oneself.
form is not identical until the disciple The Verifier who possesses this station
knows that the second shaykh is one of has another state: When he sees that the
those who can be taken as a guide in the disciples have need of him because of
path. But if he does not know that, then what he has from God, he thanks God
the two are not the same." ... for that, since God has made the disci-
The disciple has no goal but the Real. ples poor (foqarii') toward him such that
When his goal becomes manifest, wher- through their poverty toward him they
ever it becomes manifest, he should up·- make firm his poverty toward God. For it
hold it and stick to it. For the Men come might happen that if they did not mani-
to be known through the Real; the Real is fest their attribute of poverty toward him,
not known through them. he would forget his poverty toward God. 273
Soteriology

This is the state of the verified shaykh. He he has saved his life. This shaykh sees that
looks upon these disciples who have need the disciple's right (~aqq) against him is
of him with the eye with which he would greater than his right against the disciple.
look upon the person who fixed him Hence the disciple through his state is
firmly on his path so that his foot would the shaykh's shaykh, while the shaykh
not slip. He is like the drowning man through his words and training is the dis-
who has found someone to take his hand. ciple's shaykh. (III 19.24)
How that drowning man loves him! For

16. NAMES AND S T A T I 0 N S

According to the well-known hadith, What is a human being? Anything at


"Allah created Adam upon His own all, since the possibilities latent within
form." Since Allah is the all-compre- the divine form are infinite, and each hu-
hensive name, God created man in the man being brings them into actuality ac-
form of all His names. What makes a hu- cording to a unique pattern possessed by
man being human is this single character- no other. What should a human being
istic which opens him up to all human be? This is a very different question,
possibilities. But each human being is a since here we have to judge him in rela-
unique reflection of God, since "Self- tionship to the Divine Reality which he
disclosure never repeats itself." No single manifests. But in order to compare the
human being ever manifests the divine divine form with God Himself, we have
form in exactly the same mode in two to know God, and in Himself He is un-
consecutive moments, since each instant knowable. Hence, we cannot judge on
is a new creation. And some loci of man- our own how a human being should
ifestation are more excellent than others, manifest God or how he should go about
since they bring the divine realities into achieving this manifestation. The Divine
greater actualization. Reality Itself has to tell people what they
A human being manifests all the di- should do in order to manifest the Divine
vine names, yet some of these names re- Form. In other words, man needs to fol-
main latent within him. All human be- low the guidance of the Law. The Law
ings display the basic attributes of life, tells him to "weigh with the scale," that
knowledge, desire, power, speech, hear- is, to bring all human attributes into
ing, and seeing, but not in the same ex- perfect eq~ilibrium on the basis of the
tent or under the same relationships. In norms set down in the Koran and actual-
each attribute people are ranked in de- ized by the most perfect of all human be-
gree, some possessing the attribute in ings, the prophet MuQ.ammad. "If you
greater perfection and intensity than oth- love God," the Prophet is commanded to
ers. The Koran states that "Above each say in the Koran, "follow me, and then
one who possesses knowledge is one God will love you" (3:31). To actualize
who knows [more]" (12:76), and so also the fullness of his potentiality, to reflect
is the situation with each divine attribute. the names of God in perfect balance and
But to have "more" of a divine attribute harmony, man must put the Law into
is not necessarily good. God is the Over- practice.
powering Tyrant (al-jabbiir), and a hu- A human being possesses every name
man being who manifests this name of God-every ontological possibility
without qualities that modify and balance -within himself. But in order to attain
274 it will be a monster. to felicity, he must bring these attributes
Names & Stations

into actuality according to the correct form of God. But few people are in fact
scale. God possesses all possibilities, as human. Most people are what Ibn al-
summarized by His names. He is God •Arabi calls "animal man" (al-insan al-
precisely in virtue of the relationships ~ayawan), that is, animals in human
which the names denote. He is Lord form, since they have not actualized the
(rabb) because of the vassal (marbiib), Cre- divine form which would make them
ator because of the creature, Powerful human. Our humanity remains but a po-
because of the object of power, Knower tentiality until we have embarked on the
because of the objects of knowledge, and straight path of "assuming the traits of
so on. Without the creation that actual- the divine names" (al-takhalluq bi'l-asma'
izes His names, God would not be a god, al-ilahiyya). Then the quality of being
even though, in His Essence, He is "In- human gradually moves from potential-
dependent of the worlds." In the same ity to actuality. Through this process-
way, man is not man until he brings the which Ibn al-'Arabi identifies with the
divine attributes latent within himself path of Sufism-man gradually assumes
into actuality. He will actualize many of the divine traits with greater and greater
the divine attributes-such as life, intensity and actuality. The "scale"
knowledge, desire, and power-to a cer- whereby the developing human person
tain degree through the course of his nat- can be weighed remains always the re-
ural development by the fact of being vealed Law, since nothing other than
human. But these will be actualized im- God's giving news of Himself can possi-
perfectly, and many other names and at- bly guide the finite toward the Infinite
tributes cannot be actualized in their full- and prevent him from falling into the in-
ness without recourse to the Law. God is numerable pitfalls which dot the way. In
Generous and Just, but how does a hu- each stage of the journey, man acquires
man being become generous and just in certain divine attributes which prepare
the divine mode-not in the mode him for acquiring more. Each name
which his rational faculty, itself created whose traits he assumes bestows upon
by God, tells him-without clear guide- him a new preparedness which allows
lines set down by Him who alone is truly him to move on to higher stages. These
Generous and Just? God is Compassion- stages are most often called the "stations"
ate, Forgiving, Grateful, Pardoning, and (maqamat).
so on. As long as these attributes are not
defined and delineated by Him who is
their ontological source, they remain
playthings of the mind, to be accepted or The Divine Form
rejected as human beings like, to be put
into practice according to our own ideas
of "charity" and "humanity," whereas in The divine form upon which man was
fact we do not know what charity is, created distinguishes him from all other
what humanity is, or what any of those creatures and bestows upon him his spe-
attributes truly are, since they all go back cific characteristics and excellence. The
to roots in the Incomparable God. With- "perfection" achieved by perfect men is
out guidance from the Law, man remains to bring this form from potentiality into
a toy of his own creations, wandering actuality. Any human being who does
this way and that in error: "Shall We tell not manifest the form in its fullness re-
you who will be the greatest losers in mains imperfect. Only through the di-
their works? Those whose striving goes vine form does man become worthy of
astray in the present life, while they the "Trust" (amana) which God offered
think that they are working good deeds" to the heavens, the earth, and the moun-
(Koran 18:104). tains, and all refused, but man accepted
To be human is to be made upon the (Koran 33:72). The Trust is precisely to 275
Soteriology

manifest the name Allah and act as His actenstiC of man as imagined by those
vicegerent (khalifa) in creation. who make his constituting differentia (al-
fa~l al-muqawwim) the fact that he is a "ra-
tional animal." Unveiling does not allow
It has been mentioned in the Sahlh that that man possess this definition exclu-
God created Adam upon His for~.· Adam sively. Man is defined specifically by the
is perfect man, the epitome (mukhta~ar) Divine Form. He who does not possess
who became manifest through the reali- this definition is not a man. Rather he is
ties of temporally originated existence and an animal whose form resembles the out-
eternal Being. (II 391.1) ward appearance of man. (III 154.18)
God created Adam upon His own
form. Hence He ascribed to him all His
Most Beautiful Names. Through the The expression "Divine Form" might
strength of the Form he was able to carry better be translated as the "form of the
the offered Trust. The reality of the Form name Allah," since it is this name of the
did not allow him to reject the Trust in Essence, the all-comprehensive name,
the way that the heavens and the earth re- which turned its attentiveness towards
fused to carry it. (II 170.6) the creation of man. In the following
The most perfect configuration which passage, Ibn al-' Arabi is explaining the
became manifest among the existent meamng of the hadith of the Divine
things is man, as everyone agrees. For Form.
perfect man came into existence upon the
Form, but not animal man. Perfection be-
longs to the Form, although this does not Whatever is given form by a form-
necessitate that he be the most excellent giver is identical with the form-giver, not
(afqal) in God's view. He is the most per- other than him, since it is not outside of
fect through bringing together all things him. Without doubt the cosmos was
(majmu'). (I 163.21) given form by God in accordance with
We are the locus wherein the divine the manifestation of its entity. Man, who
names are disclosed. Their Essence is wit- is Adam, consists of an individual in
nessed only within us, because of the di- whom the cosmos is brought together
vine form in which He created us. So our (majmu'), for he is the small man, the epit-
kingdom (mulk) is all the divine names. ome of the "great man" [i.e., the macro-
There is no divine name of which we do cosm]. Man cannot perceive the whole
not possess a portion (na{ib). (III 88.12) cosmos, because of its greatness and tre-
God says [in a ~adtth qudsl], "My earth mendous size. In contrast man is small in
and My heaven embrace Me not, but the size, and perception embraces him in re-
heart of My believing servant does em- spect of his form and anatomy and the
brace Me."' . . . It is as if He is saying, spiritual faculties that he carries. God ar-
"All My names become manifest only ranged within him everything outside of
within the human configuration." He him other than God. So the reality of the
said, "He taught Adam the names, all of divine name [Allah], which caused him to
them" (2:31), that is, the divine names appear and from which he became mani-
from which all things in engendered exis- fest, is connected to every part of him.
tence come into being. (I 216. 9) Hence all the divine names are related to
him; not a single name eludes him. So
Adam emerged upon the form of the
"Animal man" is the opposite of per- name Allah, since it is this name which
fect man. In perfect man the Divine comprises all the divine names. (II
Form is manifest, while in animal man it 123.35)
remains but a virtuality. To define man
as a "rational ( = speaking) animal" Those human beings who attain to
(~ayawan na(iq) is misleading, since the perfection do so on the basis of perfect
whole cosmos is animate and speaking. knowledge of God, which necessarily
combines the declaration of God's in-
Rational speech (nutq) pervades the comparability with that of H1s similarity.
276 whole cosmos. It is not the specific char- In contrast, imperfect men, should they
Names & Stations

have faith, choose one approach or the (2:75) their own oppos1t1on. This is the
other. In the second paragraph below Ibn belief of all the early Muslims (al-salcif),
al-'Arabi criticizes, rather allusively, the without any disagreement.
theologians and rational thinkers who in- Once what we have mentioned has
been established for you, that is, that the
terpret those Koranic verses which refer
Real has these two relationships set down
to similarity through forced meanings by the Law, while you are urged to turn
unknown to the original recipients of the the attentiveness of your heart and your
revelation. worship toward these two, then you
should not tum away from them, if you
When the servants of the Real witness arc perfect, nor toward one rather than
Him, they see Him as possessing two re- another, if you are below this level of per-
lationships, the relationship of incompara- fection, that is, toward what the propo-
bility, and that of descent to the imagina- nents of Kalam say concerning God in re-
tion through a kind of similarity. spect of their rational faculties, or toward
The relationship of incomparability is what those who are deficient in reason say
His self-disclosure in "Nothing is like concerning the similarity of God to His
Him" (42:11). The other relationship is creatures. These are ignorant and those
His self-disclosure in the Prophet's are ignorant, and the truth lies in combin-
words, "Worship God as if you see ing the two positions.
Him," and his words, "God is in the kibla It has been reported concerning the hu-
of him who performs the prayer." 2 It is man configuration that "God created
also mentioned in God's words, "With- Adam upon His own form." In the Koran
ersoever you turn, there is the Face of God says that He created him "with His
God" (2:115)- "there" being an adverb two hands," since He wanted to point out
of place, while the "Face" of God is His his eminence (sharaf). This is shown by
Essence and Reality. So also it is men- the context (qarlnat al-~al), since He tells
tioned in all the hadiths and verses which Iblis about it after Iblis claims eminence
have come with words, along with their over Adam through his own configura-
meanings, which apply to created things. tion. God says, "What prevented you
If the meanings understood in conven- from prostrating yourself to him whom I
tional language are not brought along created with My two hands?" (38:75).
with the words, then the person ad- "Hands" here cannot be taken to mean
dressed by the words will gain nothing. "power" (qudra), because of the dual. Nor
God does not explain what He means can it be taken to mean that the one hand
through words which are incompatible is blessing and the other hand is power,
with the language in which the divine since that is true of every existent thing,
knowledge-giving has descended. He so there would be no eminence for Adam
says, "We sent no messenger save with according to that interpretation (ta'wll),
the tongue of his people, that he might and this would contradict the fact that His
make clear to them" (14:4), that is, in words point out Adam's eminence.
their language, so that they may come to So it was these two relationships-the
know the actual situation. The Messenger relationship of incomparability and that of
who was sent with these words never ex- similarity-which turned their attentive-
plained the words with an explanation in- ness toward the creation of man. Hence
compatible with conventional usage. the children of Adam emerged in three
Therefore we ascribe the meanings under- levels: (1) perfect, that is, he who com-
stood from the revealed words to God bines the two relationships; (2) he who
just as He ascribed them to Himself. In stops with the proofs of his reason and
explaining them we do not force upon the consideration of his reflection; and (3)
them meanings which are not understood he who declares God's similarity accord-
by the people in whose language the ing to what the revealed words give to
words were revealed. Then we would be him. There is no fourth group among
among these who "distort words from those who have faith ....
their meanings" (4:46) and those who The perfect servant stands between
"distort God's word, and that after they these two relationships, standing opposite
had comprehended it, while they knew" each in his own essence. He is not divided 277
Soteriology

in his essence. When something is not di- transitory, while a "station" (maqiim) may
vided, it cannot be described <\S standing have the same attributes as a state except
opposite one relationship through one that it is a fixed quality of the soul. States
thing and opposite the other relationship are "bestowals" while stations are "earn-
through something else. There is nothing ings."
but his essence, like the atom between
two other atoms ....
In respect of his reality and subtle es- Every station in the path of God is earned
sence (la(ifa), man stands opposite God and fixed, while every state is a bestowal,
through the relationship of incomparabil- neither earned nor fixed. The state is like
ity. And through that very face he stands the flashing of lightning. When it flashes,
opposite God in respect of the Divine De- it either disappears because of its con-
scent to those attributes which suggest trary, or it is followed by similars. But if
similarity; this is the other relationship. it is followed by similars, its possessor
The God who is described by these two will suffer loss. (II 176.10)
relationships is One in Himself and in His
Unity (a~adiyya), so these two relation- Many Sufis before and after Ibn al-
ships do not impose plurality and division 'Arabi devoted books to the enumeration
upon His Essence. In the same way, the
perfect servant who stands opposite God and description of the stations, and any
through these two relationships does not general manual on Sufism includes a sec-
possess two different faces. tion discussing them. But no one else has
Perfect man stands opposite God in re- paid as much attention to explaining all
spect to all relationships in their many- their intricacies. The Shaykh deals with
ness, since, although they are many, they "stations" in one of the six major
go back to these two relationships. Nor sections of the Futul]iit (Chapters 462-
are these two anything but what is de- 558). He opens this section with a gen-
scribed by them. So all are One Entity. eral chapter entitled "On the true knowl-
And this "all" is not ontological. I only edge of the Muhammadan Poles and
employ it in respect of the relationships,
and these have no existent entities. The their waystations," thus making stations
Entity of God is one and the entity of the and waystations equivalent from the
servant is one. However, the entity of the outset. Throughout the rest of the sec-
servant is immutable. It never leaves its tion, in almost 100 chapters, he employs
root and never emerges from its quarry. the term "waystation" consistently in the
On the contrary, God drapes it with the titles. Each chapter describes a specific
robe of existence. So its entity is the non- type of friend of God with a special
manifest dimension of its existence, while connection to one Koranic verse, which
its existence is the Entity of Him who is, as it were, his divine root. The
brought it into existence. Hence nothing chapters provide detailed commentary
becomes manifest but God, no one else.
The entity of the servant remains in its upon the verses and an explanation of the
root. However, it acquires what it did not human possibilities to which they refer.
have: knowledge of its own essence, of The Shaykh also refers to many of the
Him who draped it with the robe of exis- "interactions" (mu'iimaliit; Chapters 74-
tence, and of recognizing those who are 189) as stations. He frequently declares
like itsel£ (II 3.28, 4.3,26) that various states (Chapters 190-269)
are also stations. And it is difficult to
draw a clear distinction between the sta-
tions and the "waystations" (maniizil;
The Stations of the Path Chapters 270-383) or the "mutual way-
stations" (muniizaliit; Chapters 384-461),
both of which are defined as types of
We saw in the previous chapter that stations. In the following Ibn al-'Arabi
the "state" (l]iil) or present spiritual sit- differentiates the last two terms in a
27s uation of the individual is by definition manner which helps to illustrate the
Names & Stations

extent to which he refines the definitions very answer proved that they had ac-
of the various stations and states. quired that station through tasting and
state. How many there are who know its
The difference between a waystation essential definition but have no whiff of it
and a mutual waystation is as follows: A in themselves! Such a person stands far
"waystation" is a station in which God apart from it. Indeed, he may not even
descends (nuzul) to you, or within which have faith in the first place, but he knows
you alight (nuzul) upon Him. Notice the both its essential and its imperfect (rasml)
difference between nuzul "to" (ilii) and definition. So all have agreed that an-
nuzul "upon" ('alii). 3 A "mutual waysta- swering through results and state is more
tion" is that He desires to descend to you complete, since the stations have no profit
and places within your heart a seeking to if they do not produce effects within the
alight upon Him. Your Resolve (himma) individual. They are desired for that rea-
undergoes a subtle, spiritual movement in son, not for themselves. (II 143.6)
order to alight upon Him and you come
together (ijtimii') with Him between these There are many types of stations, and
two nuzuls: your alighting upon Him, be- Ibn al-' Arabi classifies them from various
fore you reach the waystation, and His points of view. He provides an overview
descent to you-that is, the attentiveness near the beginning of the Futiihiit. Notice
(tawajjuh) of a divine name-before He that even here, he does not clearly dif-
reaches the waystation. The occurrence of
ferentiate between stations and states.
this coming together outside of the two
waystations is called a "mutual waysta-
Thus in the first paragraph "states" are
tion." (II 577.32) said to be determined by their condi-
tions, while in the third paragraph this is
The Sufis normally applied the term said to be a characteristic of a certain type
"station" to the spiritual attitudes such as of station, and in both instances "grati-
awakening, repentance, recollection, sad- tude" is given as an example.
ness, hope, sincerity, constancy, pa-
tience, and so on, though many of these The "station" is every attribute which
same attitudes might also be described as becomes deeply rooted (rusukh) and can-
states. Ibn al-'Arabi devotes the section not be left behind, such as repentance.
of the Futiihiit on "Interactions" to some "state" is every attribute which you
of the terms well-known in the standard have at one time but not another, like in-
Sufi works. Within these chapters he toxication, obliteration, absence, and sat-
refers to these as stations, not interac- isfaction; or its existence depends upon a
condition, so it disappears when the con-
tions. 4 At the beginning of the section,
dition ceases to exist, like patience in ad-
while discussing the station of repentance versity or gratitude for blessings.
(tawba), he explains something about the These affairs are of two kinds. The per-
classic manner of discussing the stations fection of one kind is found in man's
in contrast to his own approach. outward and inward dimensions, such as
abstinence (wara') or repentance. The per-
Concerning this station, our shaykhs fection of the other kind is found in man's
have provided definitions, which I will inward dimension, and if the outward di-
mention as I can, explaining what they mension follows, that is all right; for ex-
meant by them in accordance with what ample, renunciation (zuhd) and trust
the path requires. I will do the same, God (tawakkul). There is no station in the path
willing, with each station when I find that of God which exists in the outward di-
they have said something. mension but not the inward.
However, when the shaykhs were Among the stations are those by which
asked what something was, they did not man is qualified both in this world and
answer by providing essential definitions the next world, such as witnessing, maj-
(~add dhiitl). On the contrary, they an- esty, beauty, intimacy, awe, and expan-
swered with the result (natija) of the sta- sion. Among them are those by which the
tion in him who is qualified by it. Their servant is qualified until the time of death, 279
Soteriology

until the Resurrection, or until the first Passing from station to station does not
step in the Garden, at which point they mean that you abandon a station. On the
disappear; these include fear, contraction, contrary, you acquire that which is higher
sadness, and hope. Among them are those than it without departing from the station
by which the servant is qualified until the within which you dwell. It is a passage to
moment of death, such as renunciation, the second station, but not .from the first;
repentance, abstinence, struggle, ascetic or rather, it is a passing with the latter.
discipline, withdrawal (takhal/1), and Such is the passage (intiqiil) of the Folk of
adornment (ta~al/1) in the way of gaining Allah. And such also is passage within
nearness. Among them are those which meanings. When someone passes from
disappear with the disappearance of their one knowledge to another knowledge,
conditions and return with the return of this does not imply that he becomes igno-
their conditions, such as patience, grati- rant of the first knowledge. On the con-
tude, and abstinence. (I 34.3) 5 trary, it never leaves him. (III 225.20)

The lack of a clear boundary between In his definition of "mutual waysta-


stations and states goes back to a number tion" quoted above, Ibn al-'Arab1 speaks
of factors. In discussing the station of of God's descent, and then clarifies his
satisfaction (riqa) Ibn al-'Arab1 points out meaning by saying that this is the "atten-
that satisfaction is a divine attribute and tiveness" (tawajjuh) of a divine name.
like all divine attributes which are also The word tawajjuh means essentially to
ascribed to the creatures can be viewed in turn the face (wajh) toward something,
different degrees or intensities. so the term calls to mind those Koranic
verses in which God's face is mentioned,
The Folk of Allah have disagreed con- such as "Whithersoever you turn, there is
cerning satisfaction. Is it a station or a the face of God" (2:115). As the Shaykh
state? Those who see it as a state add it to frequently reminds us, in Arabic the
the list of bestowals while those who see "face" of something signifies its essence
it as a station make it one of the earnings. or reality. Hence, to say that God turns
Satisfaction is a divine attribute. When His face or directs His attentiveness to-
any divine attribute is ascribed to God, it ward someone means that He manifests
accepts neither bestowal nor earning. His reality to that person through self-
Hence in this case its meaning is different disclosure. But self-disclosure is always
from when it is ascribed to the creatures,
delimited and defined by the prepared-
where it no longer has this description. So
when it is ascribed to the creatures, if it ness of the receptacle. In the case of
becomes fixed, it is a station, and if it dis- stations, this means that God discloses
appears, it is a state. In reality it accepts Himself to the seeker under the guise of
both descriptions, and this is correct. the name which provides the ontological
Hence in the case of some people it is a support or the divine root for the station
state and in the case of others it is a sta- into which the seeker is entering. To take
tion. Every divine attribute is of the same an extremely basic case, the wayfarer's
sort. (II 212.17) entrance into the station of patience (~abr)
corresponds to God's directing His
In the above passages, Ibn al-'Arabl attentiveness toward him in respect of
alludes to the fact that stations are per- the name the Patient (al-~abiir), though
manent acquisitions. Though the traveler again, this is a delimited and defined
passes on to higher stations, he never patience, not the absolute patience of the
leaves behind those he has already ac- Divine Reality Itself. In short, whatever
quired. In effect, a human potentiality the servant acquires is given by the Lord.
latent within him has become an actual- At the same time, we are dealing here
ity. Once a person gains the character with a Lord/vassal relationship, so the
trait of patience, for example, he never divine name itself benefits from the fact
280 lacks it in the appropriate circumstances. that the servant enters the station which
Names & Stations

it rules, since it gains a locus in which to Some of them have said, "It is impos-
display its properties. sible to remain for two instants in one
In the continuation of the discussion property." This is correct. However, this
of waystations and mutual waystations statement may also be read, "It is impos-
sible to remain for two instants in the
quoted above, the Shaykh clarifies the
property of one [name]," and this is not
nature of some rather more complex re- correct, since the divine names have many
lationships between the servant and the faces. Thus, the "All-concealing" (al-
divine names. ghaffor)6 shields him from such and such
and from so-and-so in accordance with
The possessor of this state has one of those demands which seek him in each in-
three situations: (1) At the meeting [be- stant and from which the name All-con-
tween him and the name in the mutual cealing may properly shield him. This
waystation] the benefit sought for the takes place continuously and repeatedly
name from the servant and for the servant without any interruption by the demands
from the name is actualized. Then the of another name. That is why this name is
name departs from him and returns to the in the intensive grammatical form: It con-
Named, while the servant returns to the ceals a great deal. So also is the case with
station from which he had emerged. the "Ever-creating" (al-khalliiq), the "All-
(2) The divine name ordains that the provider" (al-razziiq), and all other names
servant return whence he had come, which have properties within the engen-
while the name accompanies him until it dered universe, when what the name de-
takes him back to his place of emergence. mands happens repeatedly for man.
(3) The servant takes the divine Hence the divine names are waystations
name along with him and ascends to its from one point of view and dwellings and
Named .... abodes from another point of view. But
A "waystation" (manzil) is called such in the present chapter we have explained
only because one alights (nuzul) in it [for by way of allusion and without sufficient
a time], but if one should take up resi- opportunity something which will benefit
dence in it and does not pass on, then it is the possessor of tasting. What we deposit
called an "abode" (maw(in), because one in every chapter, in relation to what we
settles down there, or a "dwelling" (mas- have, is but a drop in the ocean. And that
kan), because one feels at home there and is in respect to what we have of it. So
does not pass on to another waystation. what is the case in respect to what it is in
Of course the servant cannot avoid pas- itself? It is the ocean which has no shore.
sage within the substations (daq!qa) of the (II 578.1)
waystation itself, without leaving it. He is
like someone who moves about in the The difference between station and
rooms of the house in which he dwells. state has to do with the different degrees
As long as the gnostic remains the com-
through which a divine reality manifests
panion of a single divine name, even
though he moves about in diverse modes
itself within the servant. This difference
within it, then on the whole it is his in degree or intensity also becomes ap-
abode. parent within the stations themselves. It
It is impossible for anyone to reside for is clear that though a disciple and his
two instants (nafas) in a single state, so shaykh may both have reached the sta-
passage must occur at each instant. That tion of gratitude, as a general rule the
is why one of the Folk of Allah declared realization of the shaykh will be more
that it is impossible for the name to be an perfect and complete. Like all other attri-
abode or a dwelling. He imagined that butes in existence, each station is ranked
every instant and every state has a divine
in degrees, from him who has just barely
name. But he did not know that the di-
vine name may have a single property or acquired it to its full realization in the
it may have many diverse properties. The greatest of the prophets. One of the
name remains an individual's abode as more common ways to distinguish
long as he moves about under the control among these degrees of realization is to
of its properties. divide them into three broad categories 28 r
Soteriology

on the basis of the famous hadith of (mu'min), or is virtuous (mu~sin). Its ef-
Gabriel, in which the Prophet defined fects will become manifest in the servant's
"submission" (islam), "faith" (!man), and world of the kingdom, his world of in-
"virtue" or "beneficence" (i~san). Ibn al- vincibility, or his world of dominion.
'Arabi bases the structure of his book Within it his practice will have the prop-
erty of nondelimitation, this being the
Mawaqi' al-nujiim on this tripartite divi-
practice of the Essence (al- 'amal al-dhiitl);
sion. In short, submission pertains to the or delimitation, this being the practice of
practices of Islam, faith to the domain of an attribute. If it is the practice of an at-
conceptualization and imagination, and tribute, it will have the property of in-
virtue to the direct vision of the realities comparability and negation or the attrib-
of the things. 7 In the following passage, ute of an act.
Ibn al-'Arabi refers to this way of look- This is the general rule of the stations
ing at the stations while setting down a and their states, whether or not the trav-
"general rule" (#bit) which can be ap- eler knows it. For no engendered thing is
plied to analyze each station. In the pro- empty of these properties, though not ev-
eryone knows that. _ _ _
cess he mentions the three basic worlds
The station of abstinence involves de-
of the macrocosm and microcosm: the limitation by an attribute of declaring in-
kingdom (al-mulk) or corporeal world, comparability, since its reality is avoid-
the invincibility (aljabariit) or imaginal ance and keeping to one side. It is divine.
world, and the dominion (al-malakiit) or Its possessor is unknown and not recog-
spiritual world. 8 Though Ibn al-'Arabi nized. His state is that he possesses a mark
propounds this general rule toward the in himself or in that in relation to which
beginning of his discussion of the sta- he exercises abstinence. The name Allah
tions and makes a few references to it as gazes upon him constantly.
he goes along, for the most part he does The name Allah gazes upon him in the
world of his kingdom in respect to the
not employ it systematically. As in so
fact that he has "submitted" and displays
many other cases, the rule provides an its effects in his acts. As long as it prevails
"allusion" for the people of tasting, but over his limbs, he avoids everything that
leaves the- rest of us somewhat bewil- would detract from this station.
dered. Nevertheless, Ibn al-'Arabi's ap- It gazes upon him in the world of his
plication of the rule to the station he is invincibility in respect of the fact that he
discussing, "abstinence" (wara'), provides has "faith" and displays its effects within
a relatively clear example of what he has him; hence he never has any false dreams.
in mind. He "avoids" in his imagination just as he
avoids in his outward dimension, since
imagination follows sense perception. __ _
Each station is either divine, lordly, or But abstinence avoids falsehood. _ . _
all-mercifuL There is nothing other than When the name Allah gazes upon him
these three presences, which include all in the world of his dominion and displays
presences. Around them all existence re- its effects within him, he avoids inter-
volves. By them the scriptures are sent preting (ta'wrl) the divine addresses and
down and to them the spiritual ascents divine self-disclosure which enter in upon
climb up. That which looks after them is him. ___ He does not try to explain what
three divine names: Allah, Lord, and he saw or to interpret that by which he
All-mercifuL was addressed, since all of it is divine, and
When the servant comes under the de- everything divine is unknown. In the
termining property of one of the divine same way, the abstainers are unknown,
names, then one of these three names will since abstinence is an avoidance and a re-
be described by that name. The property fraining, and a thing can only be distin-
of the name will accord with the station guished from the outside through activ-
of the servant within whom the determin- ity. If the abstainer speaks about what
ing property is exercised. It will display should properly be avoided and why he
its effects within him in respect of the fact avoids things, then he has violated the
282 that he has submitted (muslim), has faith station of abstinence. The station has to
Names &· Stations

be unknown, but he has made known tablished and deeply rooted part of his
that he is an abstainer, so the property of character (khuluq). When envisaging the
the station has disappeared from him. Or names rather than the stations, Ibn al-
rather, he was never in the station of ab- 'Arabi often speaks of "assuming the
stinence and his abstaining by avoidance traits" (al-takhalluq) of the names, a term
was defective. Hence the station cannot
which has been discussed already in some
be conceded to him.
As for the [attributes of] "lordly" and detail and mentioned in passing. In this
the "all-merciful" [when applied to absti- context he employs the terms "character
nence], they follow exactly the same pat- traits" (akhlaq) and "names" interchange-
tern. So take each of them and apply ably, since the divine names are precisely
them. You will see wonders! But you will the "character traits" of God. Thus he
be hard pressed to find this in any other states in one passage that the path to God
book, for most people-or rather, per- is based upon "assuming the traits of the
haps all of them-have not explained names of God" (II 42.3), while elsewhere
these stations and states in accordance he says, "Assuming the character traits of
with what is given by the differentiation
God-that is Sufism" (II 267.11).
of existence. Though they knew all this,
they spoke about it on the understanding
In a philosophical context the word
that when the traveler entered into the akhlaq, plural of khuluq, is normally
stations and was sincere in his attentive- translated as "ethics," and it may also be
ness, things would be explained to him as rendered as "morals" or "moral quali-
they are in themselves, and he himself ties." However, the word "moral qual-
would come to know their state. (II ity" may suggest an attribute too superfi-
176.12) cial to convey what Ibn al-'Arabi has in
mind, particularly since the word khuluq
is closely connected both in derivation
and meaning with the word khalq or
Assuming the Character Traits of God "creation." We will see shortly that Ibn
al-'Arabi views the character traits as in-
nate to human beings, just as the divine
The stations of the path represent ev- form is man's defining characteristilc.
ery positive human attribute that the In Sufi texts the term takhalluq is fre-
travelers strive to achieve. Through quently employed in the saying, often at-
achieving them the travelers come to em- tributed to the Prophet, "Assume the
body the divine realities or divine roots character traits of God" (takhallaqii bi
embraced by the name Allah, upon the akhlaq Allah)! Ibn al-'Arabi does not
form of which they were created. I em- attribute this saying to the Prophet,
ploy the term "reality" and "root" rather though he does quote the following had-
than "name," since, as was pointed out ith: "God has three hundred character
in Chapter 2, these terms embrace every- traits. He who assumes (takhalluq) one of
thing that can properly be attributed to them as his own character trait will enter
God, whereas the term "name" as nar- the Garden" (II 72. 9).
rowly defined refers only to the "Most Ibn al-'Arabi points out that when
Beautiful Names." Even if name is taken Sufis speak of takhalluq they mean the
in a wider sense, it is stretching the re- same as what the philosophers mean
sources of language to say that each Ko- when they speak of al-tashabbuh bi'l-ilah,
ranic verse represents a "divine name," or "gaining similarity to the God" (II
while it does not sound strange, for ex- 126.8). 10 In one passage he refers to
ample, to call a verse of God's Speech a "gaining similarity to the Root" and
"divine reality." identifies this process with attaining to
Though man is made in the form of human perfection {II 272.3).
all the names of God, he does not actual- The Shaykh sometimes gives a mean-
ize these names until they become an es- ing to the word takhalluq that goes out- 283
Soteriology

side the sphere of the spiritual journey In a chapter explaining the Shari'ite
altogether, though it does point to the rulings related to the imam who leads the
ontological root of character traits. In a ritual prayer and those who follow him,
passage already quoted he writes, "To Ibn al-'Arabi points out that this rela-
God belong the Most Beautiful Names, tionship between the imam and his fol-
and to the cosmos belongs manifestation lowers reflects the relationship between
through the names by assuming their God and man.
traits" (II 438.23). Here assuming the
traits of the names is synonymous with The prophetic reports show that we
manifesting their properties and effects. have been charged to assume the character
It is as if Ibn al-'Arabi has said in typical traits of God. The Prophet said, "God
fashion, "There is nothing in existence would not forbid you to take usury and
save God, His names, and His acts" (III then take it from you Himself. " 12 There
68.12). is no description by which God has de-
If physicians have knowledge of hu- scribed Himself by which He has not
man anatomy (tashrl~) through dissection charged us to become qualified (itti~iif).
of the body, the Sufis gain knowledge of This is the meaning of assuming the
traits, following, and taking as an exam-
the true human anatomy. They analyze ple. This is exactly the imamate in prayer.
the names comprising the divine form, For, in reality, the imam is God, while
which is man's defining characteristic. the followers are the creatures. (I
They gain this knowledge in relation to 450.22)
the manner in which man assumes the Sincerity in love makes the lover be-
divine character traits. come qualified by the attributes of the be-
loved. The same is true in the sincere ser-
vant's love of his Lord. He assumes the
This waystation includes the science of traits of His names. So he becomes quali-
anatomy known by the physicians among fied by "independence" from anything
the natural philosophers and the divine other than God, "exaltation" through
anatomy pertaining to the form which is God, "giving" through the hand of God,
specific to the human individual, since and "preservation" by the eye of God.
man was created in the form of the cos- The learned masters know about assum-
mos and the form of God. ing the traits of God's names and have
In respect of the cosmos, the science of written many books about it. 13 Since
man's anatomy is to know all the realities they loved God, they became qualified by
of the engendered things that are within His attributes to the degree appropriate
him: the high and the low, the pleasant for them. (II 596.14)
and the loathesome, the light and the All the learned masters maintain that
darkness, in differentiated detail. Among assumption of the traits of the names
others, Abii l;lamid [al-Ghazali] has dis- takes place. Thus man becomes qualified
cussed and explained this science. This is by them and is called alive, knowing, de-
the science of "anatomy" in our path. siring, hearing, seeing, speaking, power-
As for the second science of anatomy, ful. All the divine names, whether names
that is to know the divine names and of incomparability or names of acts, come
lordly relationships which are found in under the scope of these seven names.
the human form. This will be known by Not a single one escapes them. Hence we
the person who comes to know the as- do not mention them in detail. We have
sumption of the traits of the names and mentioned a full portion of them in our
the divine gnostic sciences which result book Inshii' al-jadiiwil wa'/-dawii'ir. 14 (III
from their assumption. This also has been 398.21)
discussed by the Men of Allah in ex-
plaining the names of God, such as Abii
I;Iamid al-Ghazali, Abu'l-l;lakam 'Abd al- In the long chapter on love in the Fu-
Salam ibn Barrajan of Seville, Abu Bakr tii~iit,
the Shaykh analyzes various di-
ibn 'Abdallah al-Maghafiri:, 11 and Abu'l- mensions of human and divine love. In
284 Qasim al-Qushayri:. (II 649.23) discussing God's love for man, he com-
Names & Stations

ments upon the several Koranic verses vine names are ranked so that they will
where this is mentioned. In his usual bring into existence the path of the crea-
fashion, he finds hidden meanings and tures, which itself has the same solidity.
allusions which would not occur to most When this path becomes manifest-not
people. Of particular relevance for the being anything other than the solid join-
ing together of the names-the creatures
present discussion is his explanation of
become qualified by the names . . . . The
61:4: "God loves those who fight in His
solidity of the names never ceases becom-
path in ranks, as though they were a ing manifest among the creatures; nothing
solid building." While explaining the else can be conceived of. Hence the cos-
verse, the Shaykh has in mind a hadith mos is alive, knowing, desiring, speak-
referring to the communal prayer: ing, powerful, determining, sustenance-
"Make your ranks solid, bring them giving, just, governing, differentiating,
close together, and make your necks and so on down the list of all the divine
parallel. By Him in whose hand is Mu- names. In the path this is called "assump-
Qammad's soul, I see the satans slipping tion of the traits of the names." The
names become manifest within the ser-
through the fissures in the ranks like
vant, just as they become manifest, be-
young goats. " 15 cause they arc solidly joined together, by
bringing the straight path (al-tarlq al-mus-
By "as though they were a solid build- taqlm) into existence.
ing," God means that no fissure should If a fissure should enter in upon the
enter the ranks, for fissures in the ranks names in engendered existence, then
are the roads of the satans, but the road is God's path disappears and the paths of the
one, and that is the path of God. If the satans appear, which causes fissures in the
line which becomes manifest from the ranks, as the hadith has reported. So turn
points should be broken, such that it is no your attention toward that to which I
longer solid, the line would no longer ex- have alerted you!
ist, and what is desired is the existence of When the servant stands with the
the line. This is the meaning of "being names of the Real in the station possessed
solid" -it is for the sake of the existence by the names in bringing creation into ex-
of the path of God. He who does not ex- istence, and when he fights with this at-
crt himself to bring the path of God into tribute against the enemies-who arc like
manifestation is not one of the Folk of the satans which have penetrated the
Allah. ranks-he will necessarily be helped by
In the same way, the ranks of those God, since he leaves no fissure whereby
who perform the prayers are not in the the enemy could enter. Hence God loves
"path of God" until the people are next to him who has this attribute. (II 344.15)
each other and solidly joined together.
Then the path of God itself becomes man- If God loves man because he manifests
ifest. But he who does not do this, rather
His names and attributes, so also man
bringing about a fissure, has attempted to
cut the path of God and eliminate it from loves God because he assumes His char-
existence.... acter traits. When a human being loves
On the side of God, this reality appears something in this world, he loves it
in the fact that His names are solidly through that in himself which corre-
joined together. Since they are joined to- sponds to it. Hence he only loves created
gether, the path of the creatures becomes things with part of himself. However, he
manifest. Next to the name Alive is All- can love another human being with his
knowing, and there is no space between whole self, since that person is also cre-
the two for another name. Next to All- ated upon God's form. Likewise he loves
knowing is Desiring, next to it Speaking,
God with his whole self, since all of him
next to it All-powerful, next to it Deter-
miner, next to it Sustenance-giver, next derives from God.
to it Just, next to it Governor, next to it
Diffcrentiator, next to it All-provider, Know that love cannot absorb (istigh-
next to it Life-giver. In this way the di- riiq) the whole of the lovers unless their 28 5
Soteriology

beloved is God or one of their own kind, It is obvious that God never praises any
a woman or a man. But no other love can one of the noble character traits unless He
absorb a human being totally. We say this Himself is more worthy [than His crea-
because in his essence a human being tures] to observe it toward His creatures,
stands exactly opposite nothing but him and He never blames any of the base
who is upon his own form. When he character traits unless the Divine Side is
loves that person, there is nothing in him- further away from them [than: are His
self which does not find its corresponding creatures]. (I 285. 8)
part in his beloved. There remains noth- God did not name Himself by any
ing left over within him which would al- name without appointing for man a share
low him to remain sober. His outward di- (~a??) in assuming the trait of that name.
mension is enraptured by his beloved's Through that share man manifests that
outward dimension, and his inward di- name in the cosmos according to the ap-
mension by his inward dimension. Do propriate measure. Hence some people
you not see that God is named both Man- have interpreted the Prophet's words,
ifest and Nonmanifest? Hence love of "God created Adam upon His own form,"
God and love of his similars absorbs man in this meaning. (I 124.14)
totally, but this is not the case with any- No existent thing is named by all the
thing in the cosmos not of his own kind. divine names except man, who has been
When he loves a form within the cosmos, charged (nadb) to assume the names as his
he turns toward it through the corre- own traits. That is why he was given the
sponding part in himself; the rest of his vicegerency (khiliifa) and the deputyship
essence remains sober in its own occu- (niyiiba), and the knowledge of all the
pation. names. He was the last configuration
Man becomes totally absorbed in the within the cosmos, bringing together all
love of God because he is upon His form, the realities of the cosmos. (II 603.4)
as reported in the hadith. Hence he turns
toward the Divine Presence with his Having been created in the divine
whole essence. That is why all the divine form, man embraces all the divine names
names become manifest within man. He
who does not possess the attribute of love
and contains within himself all God's
is able to assume all the traits of the names, character traits. The task of the spiritual
but when he possesses the attribute of traveler is to bring the names and char-
love, he is absorbed totally by love. (II acter traits from latency into actuality in
325.25) perfect balance and harmony. Since this
is the case, the use of the term takhalluq
or "assumption of traits" is problematic,
since the literal meaning of the term
takhalluq is "to exert oneself in acquiring
Noble and Base Character Traits character traits" (II 72.19), whereas,
strictly speaking, man already possesses
the character traits.
God is the root of all "noble character
traits" (makarim al-akhlaq). He is also the All character traits are divine attributes,
root of the "base character traits" (safsaf so all of them are noble. All of them are
al-akhlaq), though the relationship here found in man's innate disposition (jibilla).
is more subtle and will need some expla- That is why God addresses Himself to
nation. For the time being, it is sufficient them. One of those who has no knowl-
to note that all God's own relationships edge of the realities maintains that the
character traits in man are an "assumption
with His creatures manifest noble charac-
of traits," while in God they are actual
ter traits, while base character traits are traits. But this shows the speaker's ig-
attributes which the creatures assume in norance of the true situation, unless he
certain relationships with God or other means that as a metaphor (majiiz) or he
creatures. God Himself is always noble maintains it in respect to the priority of
286 and good. God's Being over the servant's existence.
Names {7 Stations

For God is the Necessary Being through traits. Man cannot put all of these traits
Himself, while man exists through his into effect, even though they are nonde-
Lord, so he acquires existence and char- limited in respect to him, just as God can-
acter traits from Him. If this speaker not put all of them into effect in all of His
has kept this principle in view and then creatures, even though He is nondelim-
speaks of "assumption of traits," then the ited while described by them.
meaning is correct. But if he means by as- It cannot be said that these attributes
!mming traits that the servant becomes are borrowed, unless metaphorically, as
qualified by something which belongs in we mentioned. For God possessed these
reality to God; that he does not possess it attributes while we did not exist. When
until he becomes qualified by it, which we came to be, we came to be possessing
explains why it is called the "assumption them. We did not acquire them or bor-
of a trait" rather than a "character trait"; row them from Him, since they are God's
and that the servant has no "character eternal attributes, that is, they are attrib-
traits" except in respect to his innate dis- utes by which He was qualified when
position at the root of his configuration; there was no cosmos. But an attribute
then the speaker has no knowledge of the must have an object to which it is attrib-
configuration of man nor of the knowl- uted, since it is in the reality of the attrib-
edge given by the Prophet when he said, ute not to subsist in itself. But once we
"God created man upon His own form." say that they are "borrowed," we have to
Moreover, this speaker would then have say that they subsist in themselves and
to say as follows: Those attributes which that God did not have them and that the
belong to the servant "in reality," but by temporally originated thing is the locus
which we see that God is also qualified, for the existence of the eternal. But no
are an assumption of traits on God's part; one who has knowledge of God would
thereby He gains attributes which belong say any of this.
rightfully to man. But no one who has Hence all character traits, both the no-
the slightest amount of knowledge would ble and the base, which become manifest
say anything like that. from man lie in his innate disposition.
The fact is that all of the divine charac- They belong to him in reality, not meta-
ter traits are found in man's innate dispo- phorically or as a borrowing. In the same
sition. Moreover, they become manifest way, God possesses every name by which
to him who recognizes them in every hu- He has named Himself. Or rather, He
man being to the same extent that they possesses every attribute of the acts by
become manifest on the Divine Side. For which He has described Himself, includ-
it cannot be that each and every one of ing creation, giving life and slaying, with-
these character traits will be put into ef- holding and bestowal, making, deception,
fect in interaction with all engendered guile, mockery, decision, decree, and ev-
things, whether on God's part or man's erything that has come in the revealed
part. scriptures and about which the messen-
God is generous (karfm) without de- gers have spoken, such as laughter, rejoic-
limitation, and so also man is generous ing, wonder, receiving joyfully, foot,
without delimitation. Nevertheless, even hand, two hands, hands, eyes, and fore-
though God is generous without delimita- arm. All of this is sound description, since
tion, among His names are Withholder it is His Speech about Himself and the
(al-miini'), Harmer (al-4iirr), and Abaser speech of His messengers about Him. He
(al-mudhill). "He forgives . . . and He speaks the truth, and they speak the truth,
chastises whomsoever He will" (2:284). as has been shown by rational proofs.
He gives the kingdom, He takes away the However, all this pertains to Him as He
kingdom, 16 He avenges, and He shows knows it and to the extent that it is ac-
munificence. In spite of all this delimita- cepted by His Essence and what is proper
tion in respect to some people rather than to His majesty, nothing more. We neither
others, He is nondelimited in attributes. declare that impossible nor try to explain
And so also are the attributes in the case how it takes place (takyif). Nor do we
of man. maintain that all of this is attributed to
Hence the character traits are original Him in the same way that we attribute it
(a~lf) with man, not an assumption of to ourselves-we seek refuge in God! For 287
Soteriology

we attribute it to ourselves to the extent were, and the man said, "Praise belongs
of our knowledge of ourselves, so we to God who made my innate disposition
know how (kayf) we attribute it. But these two."'"
God is far too exalted for His Essence to The second kind of character traits are
be known, so He is far too exalted for it earned (muktasab). It is this kind in respect
to be known how we should attribute to to which one speaks of the "assumption
Him what He attributes to Himself But of traits," which is to become similar
he who rejects something which God has (tashabbuh) to him who possesses these
affirmed for Himself in His Book or upon noble traits innately, at the root of his
the tongue of His Messenger has disbe- creation.
lieved in him who has brought it and in Without doubt, putting noble character
God. He who has faith in parts of it and traits into practice is difficult, since doing
rejects parts of it has truly disbelieved. so among the engendered things involves
And he who has faith in all of it while the meeting of opposites. Thus, when
declaring Him Similar by attributing it to two personal motives or individual de-
Him as it is attributed to us, or he who sires in two different people contradict
supposes this, or it occurs to his mind, or and each one of them seeks from you that
he conceives of it, or he considers it possi- you act with him with a noble character
ble, is ignorant, though he has not disbe- by taking care of his desire, you cannot
lieved .... bring the two together. If you satisfy the
Thus have I explained to you the sta- one, you will not satisfy the other. Since
tion of character traits. As for the allu- it is impossible to bring the two together,
sions of the Sufis to the "assumption of it is impossible to make everyone satisfied
traits," they have patched together var- and to employ a noble character with
ious sayings. So also is their maintain- both of them. Hence it is incumbent upon
ing the "assumption of the traits of the man to come outside of himself in that
names." We also have applied these terms and to turn the judgment over to the
in the way they apply them, but we have Law. He takes the Law as a scale and a
done so on the basis of verified knowl- leader in this matter ....
edge and a nondelimited application while "Noble character traits" are only those
preserving divine courtesy through real- connected to interaction with others.
ization (ta~aqquq). But in reality these are Other traits are not known as "noble."
character traits, not the assumption of Rather, they are attributes which are
traits, as we have explained to you. . . . assumed as traits in order to rectify the
As for the character traits about which [divine] form or the [divine] relation-
the people of wayfaring need to know- ship ....
and all of us are wayfarers, since there can The details of how to employ character
be no end (nihaya)-these are as follows: traits with the creatures are many. Were
Common usage (a/- 'urj) and the Law have we to explain the traits and their qualities,
established the noble and base character no book could contain the explanation.
traits. They have commanded us to bring Now that I have given you a principle
the noble and avoid the base. Then the (a~/) concerning them, rely upon it and
Law has alerted us to the fact that they are put it into practice: In your every motion
of two kinds: Some are character traits in respect to every existent thing, look at
within man's innate disposition. Thus, the ruling of the Law. Deal with that
the Messenger of God said to Ashajj 'Abd thing as the Lawgiver has told you. Deal
ai-Qays: "In you are two qualities (kha~la) with it according to what is obligatory
which God and His Messenger love: de- (wujub) or what is recommended (nadb),
liberation and forbearance. " 17 In another and do not go beyond that. Then in all of
version, not found in [the $a~l~ of] Mus- that you will have a praiseworthy disposi-
lim, the man said, "0 Messenger of God, tion, you will be secure and honored
are there things to which I am innately with God, and you will possess a divine
disposed?" The Prophet replied that there light. (II 241.28, 243. 9, 30)

288
Pitfalls of the Path

1 7. P I T FA L L S 0 F THE P A T H

The friend of God who has assumed to quote an isolated sentence from the
the divine names as his own character Futu~iit and say that the whole of the
traits embodies God's self-disclosure and work is the same, and few people knew
appears in every mode of existence. But any better.
God creates the good and the evil, the Many of the issues on which Ibn al-
ugly and the beautiful, the straight and 'Arabi was criticized have to do with
the crooked, the moral and the immoral. good and evil, the Law, and morality.
Does the gnostic become manifest in Briefly stated, his position was read as
these attributes? The answer, of course, follows: Since there is only One Being
is "Yes and no." Between the yes and the which permeates all things, God is pres-
no lie the manifold dangers that face the ent in everything, the good and the evil
traveler and would-be traveler on the alike. Therefore there is no difference be-
path to God. In the same ambiguous re- tween good and evil and it is unnecessary
gion arise the oft-repeated criticisms of to follow the Law or observe moral stric-
an alleged antinomianism and hedonism tures. Since all is God, all is good and
among the Sufis. all is permitted. This criticism of Ibn al-
Sufism in general and Ibn al-'Arabi in 'Arabi is presented in the language of
particular have been accused of innumer- contemporary scholarship by one of the
able misdeeds against Islam, religion, and foremost Muslim thinkers residing in the
morality. In the case of Ibn al-'Arabi, West:
this is not surprising, since it is ex-
tremely easy to read his works out of The position of the Shari'a . . . was
context. Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328) estab- gravely endangered. A thoroughly mo-
lished a solid precedent for this and has nistic system, no matter how pious and
been followed by a host of critics over conscientious it may claim to be, can not,
the centuries, including a good number by its very nature, take seriously the ob-
of orientalists. Nowadays even many of jective validity of moral standards. 1
those who believe that Ibn al-'Arabi has
a message to offer to our own century There is no point trying to answer this
have understood him largely as Ibn Tay- view directly, since on the one hand,
miyya did, though they consider this his what has already been said concerning
virtue. Ibn Taymiyya must be saying Ibn al-'Arabi's view of the Law should
from his grave, "I told you so." be more than sufficient, and on the
As long as the Sufis expressed them- other, those who have made up their
selves through poetical and mysterious minds will hardly be swayed by argu-
"allusions" (ishiiriit), no one outside their ment. Nevertheless, it will be useful to
own circles took them too seriously and turn to a few of Ibn al-'Arabi's own for-
they were able to communicate with mulations dealing with the nature of this
those who had the "taste" to recognize sensitive domain between the affirmation
their message. But Ibn al-'Arabi brought of God's omnipresent Reality and the
Sufism into the mainstream of serious in- declarations of the revealed Laws con-
tellectual speculation. In doing so, he cerning good and evil. We should be able
was forced by the nature of things to em- to discern how God and perfect man per-
ploy all the tools of the theologians, phi- meate the cosmic maze without becom-
losophers, grammarians, and other spe- ing defiled by the evil that is found
cialists. As a result, his works could be therein. More importantly, we will see
read only by a tiny fraction of even the why evil is real on its own level, a fact
learned. Hence it was easy to misrepre- which necessitates the setting up of the
sent him, since it was merely necessary Scale of the Law. Man faces a predica- 289
Soteriology

ment as real as himself, and he is forced Real. That is why the Prophet said in his
by his own nature to choose between the supplication, addressing his Lord, "The
straight path which leads to balance, good, all of it, is in Thy hands, while evil
harmony, and felicity and the crooked does not go back to Thee. " 2
paths which lead to imbalance, disequi- Evil is the opposite of good, and noth-
ing emerges from good but good; evil is
librium, and wretchedness. only the nonexistence of good. Hence, all
In spite of the reality of the straight good is existence, while evil is nonexist-
and crooked paths and their vital impor- ence, since it is the manifestation of that
tance for determining human destiny, in which has no entity in reality. (III
certain contexts the gnostic is justified in 373.26)
taking "God's point of view" and saying "Ignorance" ( jahl) consists of the lack
that all paths are straight, since there is of knowledge, nothing else. Hence it is
no evil in creation. But that is the point not an ontological quality (amr wujudf).
of view of God as Being, who compre- Nonexistence is evil, and in itself nonex-
hends all names and all ontological istence is ugly, wherever it might be sup-
posed. That is why the sound report has
possibilities. It is not the point of view of reached us that the Prophet said in suppli-
God as Guide (al-had"i), who desires the cating his Lord, "The good, all of it, is in
perfection and felicity of mankind. Thy hands, while evil does not go back to
Thee." Hence he did not ascribe evil to
Him. Were evil an ontological quality, its
coming into existence would go back to
Good and Evil God, since there is no agent but God.
Hence all of existence is good, since it is
identical with the Sheer Good (al-khayr al-
To clarify the status of good and evil, maM), who is God. (III 528.6)
One of the emissaries of the Real said
Ibn al-'Arabi first takes the concepts back to me during a long speech in a mutual
to their divine roots. If the "good" waystation on the subject of darkness and
(khayr) is that which is positive, useful, light: "Good lies in existence, and evil lies
profitable, beautiful, and so on, then in nonexistence." I came to know that the
"There is no good but God." This is one Real possesses Nondelimited Being with-
of the meanings of the Koranic state- out any delimitation. He is sheer good
ment, "To Him belong the most beauti- without any evil. He stands opposite non-
ful (~usna) names," since the word ~asan, delimited nothingness, which is sheer evil
from which husna is derived, means both without any good. (I 47.2)
good and be~utiful. In the final analysis
Good is Being, to which all positive and At root the creatures are immutable
beautiful attributes belong. Evil (sharr) is entities dwelling in nonexistence, which
the lack of good, so it is nonexistence. is evil. God in respect of His all-embrac-
This is Ibn al-'Arabi's first definition of ing mercy gives them existence in order
good and evil, but not his last, since this to bring them from evil to good. Man
definition ignores the human predica- hangs between good and evil for the
ment along with questions of Law and same reason that he stands in the station
morality. As soon as the particular inter- of He/not He.
ests of human beings are taken into ac-
count, various derivative goods and evils
Since God was kind toward us through
must also be considered. the name "All-merciful," He brought us
out from evil, which is nonexistence, to
There is nothing in supra-sensory good, which is existence. That is why
(ma'nawf), sensory, and imaginal exis- God reminds us of His kindness through
tence but the Real, for everything comes the blessing of existence, for He says,
into existence from the Real, and the Real "Will not man remember that We created
290 brings nothing into existence but the him aforetime, when he was nothing?"
Pitfalls of the Path

(19:67). Hence, from the beginning, we Its own Essence, and hence evil occurs to
took only mercy from Him. That is why it as an accident.
the Prophet said, "God's mercy precedes "Evil" is failure to reach one's individ-
His wrath." (II 157.15) ual desire (ghara4) and what is agreeable
God made the possible things come to (mulii'im) to one's nature. It stems from
exist as entities only to bring them out the fact that the thing's possibility does
from the evil of nonexistence, for He not prevent it from becoming connected
knows that existence is Sheer Good to nonexistence. To this extent evil be-
within which is no evil, except acciden- comes manifest within the cosmos. Hence
tally ('arat!). Nonexistence gazes upon the it only becomes manifest from the di-
possible thing in respect of its being a rection of the possible thing, not from
possible thing; but at that moment it the direction of God. That is why the
dwells in Sheer Good. Whatever reaches Prophet said in his supplication, "The
it from nonexistence's gazing upon it be- good, all of it, is in Thy hands, while evil
cause it is a possible thing-to that extent does not go back to Thee," but rather to
is the evil which the cosmos finds where creation in respect of its possibility. (III
it finds it. Hence, when the possible thing 389.21)
looks toward its existence and its endless-
ness, it becomes happy through the fact Though there is no evil in Being, the
that it is existence's companion, but when existent things suffer evil to the extent
it looks upon the state by which it is qual- they fail to share in Being. Hence the
ified and which has no existence, it suffers
way to avoid evil is to seek refuge from
pain through witnessing it. (III 207.33)
There is no evil in the Root. By whom it in Being. Again we are brought back
then are evils supported? For the cosmos to the fundamental human imperative:
is in the grasp of Sheer Good, which is Man is bound by the reality of his own
complete Being. But nonexistence gazes essence to strive after God, who is Good,
upon the possible thing, so in that mea- Light, Knowledge, Being-everything
sure is attributed to it the evil which is at- to which he must conform in order to
tributed to it. In its essence the possible reach his own happiness and felicity. But
thing does not possess the property of the God is unknown and unknowable, so the
Being which is Necessary though Its own only way to reach Him is to follow the
Essence, and this is why evil presents it-
self to the possible thing. But the possible
Law as He makes it known to us.
thing does not continue or become fixed
in evil, since it dwells in the grasp of
Sheer Good and Being. (III 315.6)
God brought the cosmos from nonex- The Two Commands
istence, which is evil, only for the good
which He desired for it, and that is noth-
ing but existence. Hence the cosmos ex-
ists fundamentally for felicity, and it will From the point of view of Sheer Be-
reach its property in the end. (III 377.14) ing, there is nothing but good. But as
God created the cosmos only for felic- soon as existence is taken into account,
ity in its essence. Wretchedness occurs good is by definition mixed with evil. In
for whom it occurs as an accidental prop- actual fact, human beings are faced with
erty. The reason for this is that nothing choices between good and evil. They do
emerges from Sheer Good-which is the not dwell with Sheer Being, so they can-
Being of God that gave existence to the not say that nothing exists but good.
cosmos-except that which accords with Since they have been placed within the
it, which is specifically good. Hence good cosmos in a context of other existing
belongs to the cosmos in its essence. But
the cosmos possesses the property of pos- things, they are forced to choose among
sibility, since it is alternately qualified by alternatives, and these-in respect of cer-
one of the two sides [existence and non- tain criteria found in the cosmos and
existence], so it does not stand in the level described by Ibn al-'Arabl-will offer
of the Being which is Necessary through choices among the good, the better, the 291
Soteriology

bad, and the worse. Though goods and and the nonexistence of reaching one's
evils all manifest God as Sheer Good, in individual desire, which are all relation-
relationship to the criteria set up by the ships. At the same time the agent of every
nature of things and willed by God they good that becomes manifest is Nondelim-
cannot be considered equivalent in re- ited Being. (II 576.2)
spect to human beings. Hence we cannot
escape the reality of good and evil in our As delimited creatures faced with per-
actual situation. fection and imperfection, likes and dis-
likes, ambitions and desires, and the de-
In reality that which is named "evil" mands of the Law, human beings are
and that which is named "good" go back forced to discern between good and evil
to one of four things: (1) The convention at every stage of their existence in this
(wa4') according to which have come the world. If they could say that God is In-
tongues of the revealed Laws (sharai'). (2) comparable and they, like Him, are in-
Agreeableness with the constitution, so finitely beyond this world, they could
that the thing will be good in respect to ignore the secondary causes. But that
someone; or disagreeableness with his
constitution, so that it will be evil in re-
would be absurd. In fact they must also
spect to him. (3) A perfection which is es- acknowledge that God is Similar and that
tablished by proofs, so the thing will be He manifests Himself to them wherever
good; or it will not attain to this degree of they turn in accordance with an indefi-
perfection and be evil. (4) Attaining to nite variety of faces. Hence the secondary
one's individual desire (ghara4), which causes assume the properties of His
will appear good to the person; or not at- names, and the cosmos is full of life-
taining to it, which will appear evil. giving and slaying, forgiveness and ven-
When the observer ceases looking at all geance, exalting and abasing, guidance
these things, there remains nothing but and misguidance on all sorts of levels. In
the entities of existent things, qualified by
each case where human interests are in-
neither good nor evil. When one is fair
and verifies the situation, it comes down volved, man has to see the secondary
to this. causes as good or evil. Even if he could,
However, what God has done is only by some miracle, be totally indifferent to
that which has become actualized in exis- life and death, pleasure and pain, love
tence, and this comprises all the perfec- and hate, still, he would be commanded
tion and imperfection, agreeableness and by the Law to put each thing in its
disagreeableness, revealed Laws with their proper place. And to ignore the Law is to
conventions through which things are ignore felicity and embrace wretched-
considered beautiful or ugly, and individ- ness. Hence human beings must always
ual desires which souls sometimes attain
separate "God's point of view" -which
and sometimes do not. Existence is not
empty of these levels, and the speech of is a corollary of His incomparabil-
the Speaker [through the Laws) concerns ity-from their own point of view,
only that which is actualized in existence, which is a corollary of His similarity and
not the other point of view which is at- the fact that all things assume the divine
tributed to God's side. names as their traits.
The root of all this lies both on the side Ibn al-'Arabi sometimes distinguishes
of the existence of the Necessary Being these two points of view by speaking of
through Himself, who is Sheer Good in two divine commands. In respect of the
whom there is no evil, and on the side of first command, God says "Be!" and the
nondelimited nothingness, which stands
whole cosmos comes into existence. In
opposite Nondelimited Being and which
is sheer evil in which there is no good. respect of the second, He says to human
Every evil that becomes manifest in the beings, "Do this and avoid that, or you
cosmos derives from this root rsheer evil], will fall into wretchedness." The first
since the evil is the nonexistence of per- command is known as the "engendering
292 fection, the nonexistence of agreeableness, command" (al-amr al-takwlni) or the
Pitfalls of the Path

command without "intermediary" (wii- this imperative mood, the engendering


si(a), that is, without the intermediary of command will be carried out, not the
a prophet, while the second is known as prescriptive command. The engender-
the "prescriptive command" (al-amr al- ing command always coincides with the
taklifl) or the command "by intermedi- divine desire. Whenever God desires a
ary." All created things obey the engen- thing and says "Be," the object of the
dering command, so in this respect there command comes into existence.
is no evil in existence. But when the pre-
scriptive command-the revealed Law The Divine Command never contra-
-is taken into account, then some obey dicts the Divine Desire, since the Desire
and some disobey. People bring both enters into the Command's definition and
good and evil down upon themselves in reality. What happens is that confusion
respect of the prescriptive command. occurs because people confer the name
"command" upon the imperative mood,
The prescriptive command or the
though without doubt it is not a com-
Scale of the Law is referred to in the mand, nor is the mood a desire. When
many Koranic verses which tell human God's "commands" come on the tongue
beings that they must have faith in God, of those who deliver His messages, these
perform the prayer, fast, pay the alms- are imperative moods, not commands.
tax, and so on. The engendering com- Hence they can be disobeyed. Moreover,
mand is God's "desire" (iriida) for crea- the Commander may command some-
tion; "His command, when He desires a thing [through the imperative mood] that
thing, is to say to it 'Be!', and it is" He does not desire to be obeyed. Hence
(36:82). Nothing can disobey God's no one whatsoever disobeys God's com-
mand. (IV 430.28)
desire, but man and jinn are free to dis-
obey the command whereby He pre-
Since man follows the engendering
scribes the Law for them.
command in any case, it is the prescrip-
tive command which brings into exis-
All acts performed by the servant are tence the possibility of opposing God.
divided into two kinds: an act in which Were there no revelation, there would be
lies the servant's felicity, that is, the act to
which he is called by God; and an act not
no opposition (mukhiilafa), only con-
connected to his felicity. The second kind formity (muwiifaqa).
does not derive from His call (nida), but
it does derive from His desire (irada) and All acts in respect of being acts belong
His creation-but not from His call or to God, while they become acts of dis-
the command of His Law. (II 593.10) obedience only in respect of God's decree
making them so. But in respect of being
acts, all God's acts are beautiful. (II
In general Ibn al-'Arabi would rather 342.11)
apply the term "command" to the engen- Nothing determines opposition except
dering command, which cannot be dis- the prescription of the Law. When the
obeyed, than to the prescriptive com- prescription is lifted, wherever it may be
mand, which can be disobeyed. If the lifted, so also is lifted the property of
Creator really commands something, opposition. Then nothing remains but
how can the created thing disobey the constant conformity and the continual
obedience of the possible thing to the
command? To bring this home he some- Necessary Being. In actual fact, at the
times points out that the prescriptive time of opposition, this is the situation,
command is not really a command at all. since the disobeyer is obedient to the Di-
To call it a command is to speak in vine Will (mashl'a). He opposes only the
grammatical terms, that is, to indicate command by intermediary. (III 510.21)
that it takes the "imperative mood" (~1-
ghat al-amr). But when God's desire- The "lifting of prescription" takes
His engendering command-differs from place in the next world, when works are 293
Soteriology

no longer relevant to human becoming, demands the imperfection of Being Itself,


since disobedience is impossible. which by definition is nondelimited per-
fection (al-kamal al-mutlaq). Being's per-
Every created thing other than man- fection requires the manifestation of Its
kind and jinn magnify and glorify God properties. The effects of the names and
innately, and so also do all the bodily attributes must be displayed for God to
parts of mankind and jinn. However, this be God.
does not take place to bring about near-
In short, the nondelimited perfection
ness to God or out of desire for the great-
est station. On the contrary, for them
of the Divine Reality is made possible
glorification is like the breaths of a only by the existence of imperfection,
breather, because it derives from the de- which is to say that this "imperfection"
mand of their own essences. So also will is demanded by existence itself. To be
be the glorification of jinn and mankind "other than God" is to be imperfect. It is
in the Garden and the Fire-it will not be to lack the divine attributes, beginning
for the sake of nearness, nor will it bring with Being. But it is precisely the "oth-
about nearness for them. On the con- erness" (ghayriyya) which allows the cos-
trary, each of them will be in a "known mos and all the creatures within it to ex-
station."' Hence worship will become ist. If the things were perfect in every
natural, required by their realities. Pre-
scription will have been lifted, and no op-
respect, they would be identical with
position to the command of God that God Himself, and there would be noth-
reaches them is conceivable, nor will ing "other than God." But then we could
there be any prohibitions, that is, after not even speak about the cosmos, since
His words to the People of the Fire, there would be no cosmos and no speak-
"Slink you into it, and do not speak to ers. Hence it is imperfection which sepa-
Me!" (Koran 23:108). For we are talking rates the creatures from their Creator and
about the situation after people have taken makes possible the existence of the cos-
up their stations in each abode and the mos. Imperfection is itself a kind of per-
doors have been locked. (II 688.27) fection.

God said, "He gave everything its cre-


ation" (20:50) and this is identical with the
The Perfection of Imperfection perfection of that thing, so it lacks (naq~)
nothing. The reason for this is that we are
created on the model of Him who pos-
If the engendering command alone is sesses nondelimited perfection.... Noth-
considered, there is no imperfection in ing issues from the Perfect without being
the cosmos, since all creatures follow in accordance with the appropriate perfec-
what God desires for them. In this re- tion. So there is no imperfect thing in the
cosmos whatsoever. Were it not for the
spect, what is normally called "imperfec-
accidents which give birth to maladies,
tion" is in fact perfection, since it allows man would enjoy himself within the form
for the actualization of the various levels of the cosmos, just as the cosmos enjoys
of existence and knowledge. In other itself, and he would delight in it, for it is
words, were there no imperfections-in the garden of the Real (bustiin al-~aqq) . ...
the sense of diminishment, decrease, and So perfection is an intrinsic attribute of
lack-there would no creation. Were the things, while imperfection is an acci-
there no creation, the Hidden Treasure dental affair whose essence is perfec-
would remain hidden. Hence Being tion. (I 679.31)
would be unseen in every respect. There
would be no self-disclosure of the Divine Without imperfection, existence's per-
Reality, Light would not shine, God fection could not be actualized. All
would be the Nonmanifest but not the things are "imperfect" and thereby per-
294 Manifest. But all this is absurd, since it fectly adapted to the roles they play in
Pitfalls of the Path

creation. In their roles as human beings, two weighty ones. Though the two
those who have not attained to the sta- weighty ones are also created in their sta-
tion of human perfection are no less per- tions, these stations are designated and or-
fect than other creatures. However, be- dained within God's knowledge and un-
seen by them. Each individual among
cause of the peculiar human situation,
them reaches his station at the end of his
people arc born with the possibility of breaths. So his last breath is his "known
actualizing a second kind of perfection. station" upon which he dies. That is why
Unlike other creatures, they are not fixed they have been called to travel (su/Uk).
in a specific ontological situation, but can Hence they travel, either upwardly by an-
change their situation through the gifts swering the summons of the Shari'a, or
they have been given-such as knowl- downwardly by answering the command
edge, desire, and speech-by following of the Desire from whence they know
the prescriptive command, the Scale of not, until after the object of the Desire has
the Law. The moment an animal is born, been attained.
Hence each individual among the two
it is clearly this or that-a horse, an ele-
weighty ones reaches in his traveling the
phant, a mole, a mouse-and will never known station for which he was created.
be anything else. But when a human "Among them are wretched and felici-
being is born, only God knows what that tous" (Koran 11:105). Every existent
person will be. He has the potentiality to thing other than they-whether angel,
become any one of a tremendous variety animal, plant, or mineral-is created in
of human types, summarized by Ibn al- its station, so it does not descend from its
'Arabi as unbeliever, believer, friend of station, nor is it commanded to travel to-
God, prophet, and messenger (though ward it, since it dwells within it. Hence
the last two types are not possibilities in it is felicitous with God. There is no
wretchedness for it to reach. (I 258.35)
the present age). Whatever man becomes
is a "perfection" in one sense at least. But
he will not be perfect in both senses According to a hadith, "Sa'd is jeal-
unless he becomes a "perfect man" (insan ous, I am more jealous than Sa'd, and
kamil). God is more jealous than I. " 5 As a divine
Both mankind and jinn-called, in attribute "jealousy" (ghayra) is closely
Koranic terms, the two "weighty ones" connected to the existence of the "other"
(al-thaqalan) 4 -are born into an ambig- (ghayr), through which the perfection of
uous situation which, from their own existence is made possible. In discussing
point of view, remains ambiguous until this attribute and the fact that it demands
death, though God knows their destiny the existence of the cosmos, Ibn al-'Arabi
for all eternity. Their freedom allows alludes to the fact that all the divine
them to make choices which effect their names and realities mentioned in the Ko-
becoming. Whatever they do, they fol- ran and the Hadith demand loci of man-
low the engendering command (called ifestation in the cosmos. Some of these
below the "command of the Desire," al- names are in fact "names of imperfec-
amr al-iradl), but the extent to which they tion," in that they demand what we nor-
follow the prescriptive command deter- mally look upon as lacks and deficien-
mines whether they will join the felici- cies. But since God is named by
tous in the Garden or the wretched in the them-in the manner that is appropriate
Fire. In contrast, says Ibn al-'Arabi, all to His majesty and grandeur-man to be
other creatures are like the angels in that perfect must also be named by them.
they are born into a "known station" Otherwise he would not possess the Di-
which does not change. vine Form.

The angels say, "None of us there is, Jealousy is a divine attribute that de-
but has a known station" (Koran 37:164). mands the "other," which is why it is
So also is every existent thing except the called ghayra. Were the other not taken 295
Soteriology

into account, jealousy would not have he receives. When someone lacks (naq~)
been so named, nor would it have come this perfection, it is because of the imper-
into existence. The God (al-iliih) who is fection which is in the cosmos, since man
the Powerful (al-qiidir) demands the divine is a part of the cosmos, and not every hu-
thrall (ma'luh) which is the object of man being receives perfection. But every-
power (maqdur), and this is the "other." thing other than man is perfect in its
The other must exist since the God de- level, not lacking in anything, according
mands it. Hence, He brought the cosmos to the Koranic verse [just quoted].
into existence according to the most per- Concerning human beings the Prophet
fect mode that existence could take. The said, "Many have become perfect among
cosmos has to be perfect because of the men, but among women only Mary and
impossibility of attributing imperfection Asiya; and the excellence of 'A'isha over
to Him who is Perfect in power. That is women is like the excellence of tharld over
why God said, "He gave everything its other foods. " 7 No imperfection has be-
creation" (20:50), which is perfection. come manifest within the cosmos except
Had He not brought imperfection into in man. That is because he brings to-
existence in the cosmos, the cosmos gether all the realities of the cosmos. He is
would not be perfect. Hence part of the the concise epitome (al-mukhta~ar al-
cosmos's perfection is the existence of rel- wajiz), while the cosmos is the exhaustive
ative imperfection within it. That is why elaboration....
we said that it came into existence in the All existent things [other than God and
most perfect form, since nothing remains man] receive their perfection. God is per-
in possibility (imkiin) more perfect than it, fect, and man is divided into two kinds:
since it is upon the Divine Form. • One kind does not receive perfection. He
According to the hadith, "God created is part of the cosmos, except that he
Adam upon His form." Because of the brings together the cosmos in the way
Form, man possessed the potentiality to that an epitome brings together every-
forget his servanthood. That is why God thing in something large.
described man by forgetfulness (nisyiin), A second kind of man receives perfec-
since He said concerning Adam, "He for- tion. Within him becomes manifest the
got" (Koran 20:115). Forgetfulness is a di- preparedness for the Divine Presence in
vine attribute, and Adam only forgot Its perfection and for all Its names. God
since he was upon the Form. Hence [by appointed this kind a vicegerent and
forgetting] we do not deviate from what clothed him in the robe of bewilderment
we are. God said, "They forgot God, so (~ayra) toward Him. 8 • • • So man's per-
He forgot them" (9:67) in the manner that fection is through the preparedness for
is appropriate to His majesty. (II 244.21) this specific self-disclosure. (II 307.11,
29,35)
Ibn al-'Arabi summarizes the role of
imperfection in existence and the type of Ibn al-'Arabi sometimes points to the
perfection that is open to human beings distinction between "completion" (ta-
as follows: mam) and "perfection" (kamal) in a man-
ner relevant to the present context.
Part of the perfection of existence is the Completion is the situation of something
existence of imperfection within it, since, whose creation lacks nothing, while per-
were there no imperfection, the perfection fection is the situation of something
of existence would be imperfect. God said which is not only complete, but also
concerning everything other than God, lives fully the "level" pertaining to its
"He gave everything its creation." So He creation by actualizing the total range of
made nothing of it imperfect, not even possibilities inherent within it. Thus ani-
imperfection, for to it also "He gave its
creation." So this is the perfection of the mal man is complete in creation, but
cosmos, which is everything other than imperfect in respect to the full possibili-
God, but not that of God or man. ties of the human situation. In one pas-
God possesses a perfection appropriate sage Ibn al-' Arabi offers other than his
296 to Him, and man has a perfection which usual interpretation of the verse, "He
Piifalls ofthe Path

gave everything its creation," by making for all eternity, and then He brings them
it refer to completion, while the remain- into existence as they arc in themselves.
der of the verse, "and then guided" refers He does not "make" (ja'l) them the way
to perfection. "Guidance," it should be they are, since they arc what they arc in
remembered, is the role of revelation; it themselves. God does not make a pear
can only be actualized through following tree into a pear tree; a pear tree is what it
the prophets. is. God merely brings it into existence,
and it yields pears. God docs not make
Perfection is what is sought, not com- a person into His friend or His enemy,
pletion, for completion lies in creation, since the person has been immutably
but perfection lies in that which the com- fixed as His friend or enemy for all eter-
plete acquires and the benefits it bestows. nity. God merely shows mercy to the in-
. . . "God gives to each thing its cre- dividual's entity through the Breath of
ation," and thereby it is complete, "then the All-merciful. Once in existence, the
He guides" to the acquisition of perfec- friend is a friend and the enemy an en-
tion. He who is guided reaches perfec- emy, without anyone having made them
tion, but he who stops with his comple- so. This, in Ibn al-'Arabi's view, is one
tion has been deprived. (III 405.3)
of the meanings of the Koranic verse,
"To God belongs the conclusive argu-
ment" (6:149).
God creates all things on the basis of
His knowledge of the things, and His
God's Conclusive Argument knowledge of the things is identical with
His knowledge of Himself. Hence the
things become manifest upon the form of
The fact that some people follow the God, though only the cosmos in its en-
divine guidance by obeying the prescrip- tirety and man-the macrocosm and the
tive command, while others refuse to microcosm-are forms of the name Al-
follow it, goes back to the engendering lah as such.
command, since everything is rooted in
God as designated by the name Allah. The cosmos is a divine transcnpt1on
On the one hand, the prescriptive com- (nuskha) upon a form of the Real. Hence
mand is itself created by the engendering we say: God's knowledge of the things is
command, and on the other, it is Allah His knowledge of Himself. (II 390.35)
who says "Be!" to the faith and practice The Real knows Himself, He knows
within us. No one can choose to enter the cosmos from Himself, and He
brought the cosmos into existence upon
into God's presence without having first
His own form. Hence it is a mirror
been chosen to do so. From the point of within which He sees His own form. (II
view of "Allah," all things are predeter- 326.26)
mined and measured out. God knows the things through His
But this docs not mean that God com- knowledge of Himself. Hence the cosmos
pels the servant to choose the wrong emerges upon His form and no property
path and then punishes him for it. As whatsoever eludes Him, for He is the
God's own form, man participates in Lord and Master of each thing. (II
God's freedom, so he makes his own 508.6)
choices and is held responsible for them. "Each day He is upon some task"
(55:29), and each task derives from a di-
God compels (jabr) no one, though one
vine attentiveness. The Real has given us
might say that each person compels him- the knowledge that He undergoes trans-
self, since his destiny stems from his own mutation in forms. At each task He cre-
nonexistent immutable entity, his own ates a divine form. Hence the cosmos be-
reality. God does not force anyone to do came manifest upon the form of the Real.
anything. He merely knows the entities That is why we say: The Real knows 297
Soteriology

Himself, and hence He knows the cos- edge. God says, "The Word is not
mos. (II 385.8) changed with Me" (50:29), since that
He created all things without any need would contradict the object of His knowl-
for them and without anything which edge; hence it is impossible for it to oc-
would make their creation necessary for cur. Though an affair appears to be a pos-
Him. However, He knew beforehand that sible thing in respect of itself, this is not
He would create what He created. For so in respect of the fact that God knows
"He is the First and the Last, the Manifest that one of the two possibilities will occur
and the Nonmanifest" (57:3). "He is pow- and in respect of the fact that His will is
erful over all things" (11:4). "He encom- one. When God's will is connected to a
passes everything in knowledge" (65:12). thing's coming to be, then it must come
"He has enumerated everything in num- to be and it cannot not occur. In respect
bers" (72:28). "He knows the secret and of this reality it is not qualified by "possi-
that which is more hidden" (20:7). "He bility." That is why certain people who
knows the treachery of the eyes and what considered this situation ceased calling it
the breasts conceal" (40:19). How should the "possible thing" and named it "the
He not know that which He creates? necessary existent through the Other." (II
"Shall He not know, He who created, 334.24)
while He is the All-subde, the All-
aware?" (67:14) When God creates something, He
He knew the things in themselves be- does so on the basis of His knowledge of
fore their existence. Then He brought that thing, and He knows it through
them into existence according to the mea- knowing Himself. His knowledge has no
sure of His knowledge. He never ceases effect upon what He knows. Rather, the
knowing the things, and no new knowl- object of knowledge determines the
edge accrues to Him when He newly
brings the things forth. On the basis of
knowledge. In Ibn al-'Arabi's way of
His knowledge He makes the things speaking, "Knowledge follows its ob-
properly and well. Through it He gives ject" (al-'ilm tabi' li'l-ma'lum). God does
control over them to whomsoever He not "make" the thing the way it is, He
will and He exercises control. He knows merely knows the way it is. This is one
the universals absolutely, and, according of the important themes of the Fu~u~ al-
to the consensus and agreement of the ~ikam.
people of sound consideration, He also
knows the particulars. For He is the Through this unveiling you will see
"knower of the unseen and the visible" that the Real Himself is the proof of Him-
(36:73). "God is high exalted above what self and of His Divinity, while the cosmos
they associate!" (7:189). (I 36.29) is nothing but His self-disclosure within
the forms of the immutable entities,
The "possible thing" is called by this which cannot possibly exist without that
name because it stands equidistant be- self-disclosure. The self-disclosure be-
tween existence and nonexistence and comes variegated and assumes diverse
needs a Preponderator to come into exis- forms in accordance with the realities and
tence. If God wills, it comes into exis- states of the entities. We gain this knowl-
edge after knowing that He is our God.
tence. But once the possible thing has
Then comes another unveiling through
come into existence, then we know that which our forms in Him will become
God's knowledge demanded its exis- manifest to you. Some of us become
tence. Hence, in fact, it is a necessary manifest to others in God; some of us
existent, but "through the Other," not know others; some of us are distinguished
through itself. from others. Among us there are those
who know that this knowledge of us
Look at the mystery of God's words, through us takes place in God. Among us
"He gave each thing its creation" (20:50). are those who are ignorant of the presence
Then you will know that things do not within which this knowledge of us oc-
transgress what is worthy of them and curs- I seek refuge in God lest I be one
298 that no level stands higher than know!- of the ignorant!
Pitfalls of the Path

Through the two unveilings together erty belongs to you. Even though the
[we come to know] that He does not de- Real determines the property, He only ef-
termine our properties except through us. fuses existence upon you, and you deter-
Or rather, we determine our own proper- mine your own property. Hence you
ties through ourselves, though within should praise none but yourself and blame
Him. Hence He says, "To God belongs none but yourself. For the Real only
the conclusive argument" (6:149), that is, praise remains for effusing existence,
against those who are veiled, those who since that belongs to Him, not to you.
[on the Day of Resurrection] will say to (Fu~u~ 81)
the Real, "Why didst Thou do to us such Recompense (jazii') is a self-disclosure
and such, which does not conform to our within the mirror of the Being of the
desires?" Then "The shank," which is that Real. Hence nothing comes back to the
which was unveiled to the gnostics here, possible things from the Real except that
"shall be uncovered" (68:42)! They will which is given by their own essences in
see that the Real did not do to them what their states, for they have a form in each
they claimed He did, since everything state, and their forms become diverse in
derived from themselves. He knew them accordance with the diversity of their
only in keeping with their actual situa- states. Then the self-disclosure becomes
tion. Hence their argument is nullified diverse according to the diversity of the
and the conclusive argument remains state. Hence the effect that occurs within
with God. the servant accords with what he himself
You may object: "What then is the is. None gives him good except himself,
profit in His words [in the rest of verse and none gives him the opposite of good
6:149], 'If He had willed, He would have except himself. Indeed, he gives bliss to
guided you all'." We reply: Grammati- his own essence and he chastises it. So let
cally, the word "if" (law) indicates the him blame none but himself and let him
impossibility of a thing which is impos- praise none but himself. "To God belongs
sible, 10 for He only wills in accordance the conclusive argument" (6:149) through
with the actual situation. However, ac- His knowledge of the creatures, for
cording to the proof of reason, the entity knowledge follows the object of knowl-
of the possible thing is receptive toward edge. (Fu~u~ 96)
the one existence as well as its contrary. When God sent Himself down to the
Whichever of the two intelligible proper- waystation of His servants, their proper-
ties occurs is what the possible thing pos- ties exercised their influence over Him.
sessed in the state of its immutability .... Hence He only determines their proper-
The Divine Will becomes connected ties through them. This is part of His
only to a single thing. Will is a relation- "conclusive argument" against them. It is
ship which follows knowledge, while indicated in His words, "a suitable recom-
knowledge is a relationship that follows pense" (78:26), a recompense for "what
the object of knowledge. The object of you were doing" (5:105), a recompense
knowledge is you and your states. for "what you were earning" (7:39). 11
Knowledge displays no effect within the Their own works chastise them and their
object of knowledge. On the contrary, own works give them bliss. Nothing de-
the object of knowledge displays its ef- termines their properties but themselves.
fects in knowledge. The object gives to Hence they do not blame any but them-
knowledge what it actually is in itself.... selves, just as God has related to us con-
"None of us there is but has a known cerning Satan's words:
station" (37:164). This "known station" "And Satan says, when the issue is de-
is what you are in your immutability. cided, 'God surely promised you a true
Through it you become manifest in your promise; and I promised you, then I failed
existence, that is, if it is affirmed that you you, for I had no authority over you',"
have existence. If it is affirmed that exis- that is, no strength, no argument, and no
tence belongs to the Real and not to you, demonstration, " 'but that I called you,
then without doubt you determine the and you answered me.'" But you are not
properties within the Being of the Real. required to answer everyone who calls
If it is affirmed that you are an existent you. That is why miracles give witness to
thing, then again without doubt the prop- the truthfulness of the calling of the mes- 299
Soteriology

sengers when they say that it is the call of knowledge, not to the command. "God
God. But Satan set up no demonstration is never unjust toward His servants"
for them when he called them, as is indi- (3:182), since He only knows what the
cated in his words, "I had no authority objects of knowledge give to Him, since
over you." How strange that people reject knowledge follows the object of knowl-
and disbelieve in the call of God, in spite edge. Nothing becomes manifest in exis-
of the demonstration which becomes tence except the actual situation of the
manifest, while they answer the call of object of knowledge. Hence "To God be-
Satan, which is free of any demonstra- longs the conclusive argument" (6:149).
tion. Then Satan says to them, "So do not He who does not recognize that the sit-
blame me, but blame yourselves" (14:22). uation is as we have described it has no
(III 112.13) news of the true situation.
But man is ignorant of what will come
Even the gnostics do not know if into existence from him before it comes
to be. When something happens from
God's engendering command will allow him, it only happens on the basis of God's
them to follow the Straight Path (al-~ira( knowledge of him. And God knows
al-mustaqlm) laid down by the prescrip- nothing except what the object of knowl-
tive command, or if they will swerve edge is in itself. Hence His words, "He
from this path because their own realities approves not misbelief in His servants"
demand deviation. In the sura of Hud in (39:7), are true. "Approval" (riqii) is a de-
the Koran, God says to the Prophet, "Go sire (iriida). There is no contradiction be-
thou straight, as thou hast been com- tween the conimand and the desire. The
manded!" (11:112). The Prophet said, contradiction occurs between the com-
mand and that which is given by knowl-
"Hud and its sisters have whitened my
edge, which follows its object. God "ac-
hair. " 12 complishes what He desires" (85:16), but
He does not desire anything other than
The gnostics experience nothing more the actual situation as it is known. And
difficult than the command of God to go we possess nothing of the divine com-
straight, that is, His words, "Go thou mand but the imperative mood, which is
straight as thou hast been commanded, a created thing in the mouth of him who
and whoso repents with thee; and be thou calls to God. It is desired, known, and ex-
not insolent" (11 :112). In other words, do istent in the mouth of the caller to God.
not leave aside His command because you So pay attention and take heed! "And say,
find in yourselves that He has created you 'My Lord, increase me in knowledge!"'
upon the divine form. Do not say, "The (20:114). (IV 182.11)
likes of us are not the objects of this com-
mand." For the knowers of God do not The fact that the servants are ignorant
know if God's command will conform to of God's knowledge concerning them is
His will in them. Will they obey His of particular importance, for the feeling
command, or will they oppose it? Hence of freedom to which this gives rise al-
God's command is difficult for them and
lows them to assume responsibility for
they become distressed. This is indicated
by the Prophet's words, "Hiid has whit- their own choices. Moreover, they do in
ened my hair," since Hiid is the sura fact share in the reality of freedom, since
within which "Go thou straight as thou they are made upon God's form.
hast been commanded" was sent down;
"and its sisters," which have the same God does not prescribe through the
verse or something in the same mean- Law that which cannot be borne, since it
ing. (II 218.35) is impossible that One who is All-know-
The Messenger of God said, "Hiid and ing and All-wise prescribe in the Law
its sisters have whitened my hair," that is something which cannot be borne.
Hiid and all the verses which mention go- You might argue that He has pre-
ing straight. For he and the faithful are scribed faith for those-like Abii Jahl and
commanded by these verses. But the de- his likes-whom He knew beforehand
JOO termining property belongs to the divine would not have faith. We reply: ... I do
Pitfalls of the Path

not mean by "prescribing that which can- path] of those against whom Thou art
not be borne" anything other than what is wrathful, nor (3) of those who are
customarily ('ada) meant by such a state- astray" (1:5-7). One of these paths is
ment. In other words, the person for straight and two are crooked. Yet, from
whom it is prescribed cannot accomplish a certain point of view, all paths are
it. For example: "Climb up to heaven"
"straight," since each has been laid down
without any means, or "Bring together
two opposites," such as "Stand while you by the engendering command. All paths
are not standing." God only prescribed in come from God, and all lead back to
the Law that which custom declares can Him. All paths are "good," since there is
be borne, such as having belief through no evil in existence.
faith, or pronouncing the formula of
faith. Every human being finds in himself God gave news in His Book that His
the ability for this, whether through per- Prophet and Messenger said, "Surely
formance (kasb) or creation; say which- my Lord is on a straight path" (11:56).
ever you like. That is why God's argu- Thereby He described Himself as being
ment against the servant will be on a straight path. But He only said this
established on the Day of Resurrection. after saying in the same verse, "There is
Hence He says, "Say: 'To God belongs no crawling creature but He takes it by
the conclusive argument'" (6:149). the forelock." Hence in reality there is no
If He had prescribed for the servant one that is not "straight" upon the path of
something which he could not bear, these the Lord, since there is no one whom the
words would not be correct. On the con- Real has not taken by the forelock; none
trary, He would have to say, "It is God's can extract his forelock from his Master's
to do as He wills," just as He has said, hand ....
"He shall not be questioned as to what He The straightness demanded by the wis-
does" (21:23). The meaning of this is that dom of "Allah" permeates every engen-
no one will say to the Real, "Why didst dered thing. God said, in confirmation of
Thou prescribe for us, prohibit us, and Moses, "He gave each thing its creation"
command us when Thou knewest that (20:50). Hence each thing has an actual
Thou hadst ordained for us opposition to straightness. The straightness of a plant is
Thee?" This is the place of '~He shall not to move downwards, while the straight-
be questioned as to what He does." For ness of an animal is to move horizontally.
He will say to them, "Did I command Were this not so, no one would be able to
you to do that which you could not bear profit from them: If a plant did not move
or that which you considered unbear- downwards to drink water with its roots,
able?" They will have to speak in accor- it would give no benefit....
dance with what is customary: "We were All movements are straight. There is
able to bear it," since He prescribed that nothing but straightness and no way to
which they could in fact bear. Hence it is opposition. . . . The "straightness" of a
established that "To God belongs the con- bow is its crookedness, because of what is
clusive argument," since they were igno- desired from it. Hence there is nothing in
rant of God's knowledge of them when engendered existence but straightness,
the Law was prescribed for them. (II since He who brought it into existence,
336.12) God, is upon a straight path in respect of
being a Lord. Though some of the paths
enter into others and some become con-
fused, they never cease being straight
The Straight Path -the straightness of confusion and the
straightness for which they came into ex-
istence. Hence the paths are in an absolute
straightness which exercises its ruling
In his daily prayers every Muslim re- property over every engendered thing.
cites the Fatiha, which mentions three This is indicated by God's words, "To
different path~ in the verses, "Guide us Him all affairs shall be returned," and He
on (1) the straight path, the path of those is upon a straight path; "so worship Him"
whom Thou hast blessed, not (2) [the (11:123), that is, make yourself lowly be- 301
Soteriology

fore Him in any path within which He through this name, which is all-compre-
places you and do not make yourself hensive, consider why He is whispering
lowly before any "other," since the other to you and consider the station which re-
is nonexistence, and he who aims for quires this whispering or this witnessing.
nonexistence will attain to nothing. . .. Consider which divine name gazes upon
Hence straightness pervades all entities, this station. It is that name which is ad-
whether substances, accidents, states, or dressing you or which you are witness-
words. (II 217.1,26) ing. This is what is called "self-transmu-
It may be that in reality crookedness is tation in forms." Take the drowning
straightness, like the crookedness of a man, for example. When he says, "0 Al-
bow: The straightness which is desired lah," he means, "0 Helper" or "0 Deliv-
from it is its crookedness. So there is erer" or "0 Rescuer." When the person
nothing in the cosmos except the straight, suffering pain says, "0 Allah," he means,
since He who "takes it by the forelock" "0 Healer" or "0 Health-giver" or
walks with it, and He is "upon a straight something of this sort. (Riizi" 5)
path." Hence, every movement and rest
in existence is divine, since it is in the Since the straight path takes to Allah,
hand of the Real and emerges from a Real and Allah as such is absolutely nonde-
who is described as being on a straight limited, we have to inquire about the
path. (II 563.23)
mode in which the straight path takes to
Allah. In other words, does the path end
The straight paths which all things
up with the All-merciful and the All-
follow take them to Allah. But Allah is compassionate? Or does it end up with
the all-comprehensive name (al-ism al-
the Vengeful and the Terrible in Punish-
jiimi'), that is, "the name which brings
ment? As we have seen on more than one
together the properties of all the names" occasion, these names cannot be consid-
(II 236.5). The things of the cosmos
ered equivalent in respect of the proper-
manifest the traces and properties of the
ties which they exercise upon the crea-
diverse divine names, but no matter
tures. Hence, concludes Ibn al-'Arabi,
which name they manifest, they also
the "straight path of Allah" is a fact of
manifest the name Allah. "There is no
existence, but it cannot guarantee our
thing," says God, "whose treasuries are
felicity.
not with Us" (15:21). In explaining the
nature of this divine "withness" ('in-
There is no path which is not straight,
diyya), Ibn al-'Arabi reminds us of some since there is no path which does not take
of the specific properties of the name to Allah. But God said to His Prophet,
Allah. "Go straight as thou hast been commanded"
(11 :112). He did not address him in terms
The "withness" of Allah is unknown, of unqualified straightness. It has been
since, inasmuch as Allah is Allah, none of established that "Unto Allah all things
the divine names become designated to come home" (42:53) and that He is the
the exclusion of any other, since He is end of every path. However, the impor-
precisely that which brings together all tant thing is which divine name you will
the names. That which makes Him spe- reach and to which you will come home.
cific is only the states of the creatures. For that name's effect-whether felicity
When someone says, "0 Allah," his state and bliss or wretchedness and chastise-
specifies which of the names he desires ment-will exercise its influence upon
from among those comprised in this the one who reaches it. (II 218.13)
name Allah. . . . For Allah is the name The "path of Allah" is the all-inclusive
that receives all names, just as universal path upon which all things walk, and it
hyle receives all forms. (III 195.23) takes them to Allah. It embraces every di-
The name Allah comprehends all the vine Law and construction of the rational
names. So be mindful when you witness faculty, and then it takes to Allah, since it
it, since you will never witness it non- includes both wretched and felicitous ....
302 delimited. When He whispers to you This path is that concerning which the
Pitfalls of the Path

Folk of Allah have said, "The paths to has come concerning the fact that the reli-
God are as numerous as the breaths of the gion of the prophets is one." He brought
creatures, " 13 since the breath emerges the article which makes the word "reli-
from the heart in accordance with the be- gion" defmite because all religion comes
lief of the heart concerning Allah. The from God, even if some of the rulings are
general belief is His existence. He who diverse. Everyone is commanded to per-
makes Him Time (al-dahr) will reach Al- form the religion and to come together
lah in respect of His name Time, since Al- in it, that is, in the way upon which all
lah brings together all the contrary and agree. As for the rulings which are di-
non-contrary names. And we have al- verse, that is because of the Law which
ready explained that He has named Him- God assigned to each one of the messen-
self by every name toward which there gers. He said, "To every one [of the
is poverty and need, for He said in His prophets] We have appointed a Law and a
Book, "0 people, you are the poor to- way; and if God had willed, He would
ward Allah, and Allah-He is the In- have made you one nation" (5:48). If He
dependent, the Praiseworthy" (35:15). had done that, your revealed Laws would
Though this may be denied, it is not de- not be diverse, just as they are not diverse
nied by Allah, nor by the actual situation. in the fact that you have been com-
When someone believes that Allah is manded to come together and to perform
Nature, Allah will disclose Himself to them ....
him as Nature. When someone believes The specific path which pertains to the
that Allah is such and such-whatever Prophet is that for which he was singled
that might be- He will disclose Him- out to the exclusion of everyone else. It is
self to him in the form of his belief. (III the Koran, God's firm cord and all-com-
410.24, 411.22) prehensive Law. This is indicated in His
words, "This is My straight path, so fol-
low it, and follow not diverse paths, lest
The Koran alludes to several paths to
they scatter you from its road" (6:153).
Allah, but each one of them yields dif- (III 413.12, 24)
ferent results for those who follow them.
In one chapter Ibn al-' Arabi discusses Hence the straight path which Mus-
five of these paths, including the path of lims pray to be guided upon is the path
Allah, the path of the Inaccessible (al- of Mul}.ammad and the Koran, which
'azlz), the path of the Lord (al-rabb), the alone leads them to felicity. When the
path of Mul}.ammad, and the path of the faithful say, "Guide us on the straight
Blessing-giver (al-mun'im). In the present path," they do not mean the nondelim-
context, the last two of these paths are ited "path of Allah" but the delimited
particularly relevant. path of the Prophet.

The path of the Blessing-giver is "the Hence the meaning of "straightness" is


path of those whom" God "has blessed" motion and rest upon the path laid down
(1:6). It is mentioned in His words, "He by the Law. The "straight path" is the di-
has laid down for you as Law what He vine Law. Faith in God is the beginning
charged Noah with, and what We have of this path, and the "branches of faith"
revealed to thee [0 MuQ.ammad], and are its waystations. (II 218.16)
what We charged Abraham with, and God says, "This is My straight path, so
Moses, and Jesus" (42:13). He mentions follow it, and follow not diverse roads,
the prophets and the messengers, then lest they scatter you from its road" (6:
says, "Those are they whom God has 153), that is, the road wherein lies your
guided, so follow their guidance" (6:90). felicity. Certainly, all roads lead to Allah,
This is the path that brings together every since He is the end of every road: "To
prophet and messenger. It is the perfor- Him all affairs shall be returned" (11:123).
mance of religion, scattering not concern- But not everyone who returns to Him
ing it, and coming together in it. 14 It is gains felicity. The road of felicity is that
that concerning which Bukhari wrote a set down by the Law (al-mashrii'a), noth-
chapter entitled, "The chapter on what ing else. (II 148.10) 303
Soteriology

Nobility of Character footprints. The man of perspicacity says,


for example, "The owner of this footprint
was white and blind in one eye." Then he
Just as there is nothing but good in describes his character as if he sees him,
existence and all paths lead to Allah, so including various accidental matters con-
nected to his character. He sees all this
also all character traits are noble and
without seeing the person himself. He
none is base. But all character traits are judges concerning his lineage. He joins a
noble only in relationship to their onto- child to its father when a disagreement
logical roots. As soon as the four levels arises because of the lack of the outward
of good and evil are taken into account, similarity which is usual between fathers
some are noble and some base. In order and sons.
to tell the difference between noble and This is why the light of perspicacity is
base in what concerns ultimate felicity, attributed to Allah. If it were attributed to
human beings have need of the Law, or, the name Praiseworthy, for example, the
what comes down to the same thing, the possessor of this light would see only the
praiseworthy and felicitous. In the same
light of faith. In a chapter on perspicacity
way, if it were attributed to any divine
(firiisa), Ibn al-'Arabi recalls the saying of name, the perspicacity would accord with
the Prophet, "Be wary of the perspicac- what is given by the reality of that name.
ity of the man of faith, for he sees with But since the light is attributed to Allah,
the light of Allah. " 15 Then he explains its possessor perceives the good things
the nature of this "perspicacity through and the evil which occur in matters of this
faith" (al-firiisat al-rmiiniyya): 16 world and the next, the blameworthy
qualities and the praiseworthy, the noble
Perspicacity through faith is a divine character traits and the base, and what is
light which God gives to the person of given by Nature and by the spiritual do-
faith in the eye of his insight, just like the roam. (II 235.35)
light which belongs to the eye of sight.
When a person has this perspicacity, its Man gains the light of perspicacity
mark is like the light of the sun through
which sensory objects appear to sight.
through assuming the noble character
When the light of the sun is unveiled, traits in perfect harmony, balance, and
sight differentiates among the sensory ob- "equilibrium" (i'tidiil). Just as physical
jects. It discerns the large from the small, illness is caused by a "disequilibrium"
the beautiful from the ugly, the white (in~irii.f) of the constitution, so also
from the black, red, and yellow, the moral illness is caused by a disequilib-
moving from the still, the far from the rium of the character traits. In order to
near, and the high from the low. In the bring the traits into balance, man has
same way, the light of perspicacity need of the divine physician (al-tahlb al-
through faith discerns the praiseworthy iliihl). It is his task to show the seeker
from the blameworthy.
The reason that the light of perspicacity
how to employ his innate character
is attributed to the name Allah, which is traits, since nothing can be added to
the name which brings together the prop- man's creation. The "assumption of
erties of all the names, is that this light traits" which a person should undergo,
unveils both the praiseworthy and the as we saw in the last chapter, can not
blameworthy, both the movements of fe- mean that he comes to possess traits
licity pertaining to the next abode and the which did not already belong to him.
movements of wretchedness. On the contrary, the traits which he
Some of the possessors of perspicacity possesses innately are redirected such
have reached a point where, upon seeing a that they will always be pleasing to
person's footprint in the ground-though
the person himself is not present-they
God.
are able to say that he is a felicitous per-
son or a wretched person. This is similar The divine physician treats the charac-
304 to what is done by a tracker who follows ter traits and disciplines the individual de-
Pitfalls of the Path

sires of the soul through reminder, admo- thy, he guides him to the extent he can
nition, and calling attention to the highest until he submits his soul to him so that he
affairs and that which will come to belong may dominate over it.
to him who listens-the felicity as well If the person is in disequilibrium, his
as the praise of God, the people, and the wayfaring will consist of struggle (mujii-
high spirits.... hada) and ascetic discipline (riyiiqa). If he
When the divine physician comes-and is in equilibrium, he will be cheerful and
he is the prophet, or the inheritor of the joyous in his wayfaring, full of gaiety and
prophet, or the sage- he examines what happy. Affairs which are difficult for oth-
is required by the soul's configuration ers will be easy for him, and he will not
(nash'a). The soul submits itself to him have to force himself in any of the noble
and places its reins in his hands so that he character traits.
will train it and take steps to achieve its When the soul becomes limpid and
felicity. If the soul is in disequilibrium, wholesome, joins up with the world of
the physician returns it to the opposite of purity, looks with the divine eye, hears
what its configuration requires by ex- through Him, and acts through His
plaining to it how to put that disequi- strength, then it knows the origins of
librium to use in a manner which will be things and their destinations, where they
praised by God and within which the soul rise up and whence they return. This is
will find its felicity. For the physician called "perspicacity through faith." It is a
cannot configure the soul in a new config- gift from God which is attained by those
uration, since "Thy Lord has finished who are sound in nature and those who
with creation and character". 17 There re- are not.
mains nothing in our hands but clarifying Equilibrium and disequilibrium in the
the soul's proper occupations (ma~raf). cosmos and that which causes the domi-
When the configuration of a person's nation of some of the roots which deter-
soul is in equilibrium and he is ignorant mine the properties of compound things
of those affairs which lead to felicity with over others go back to the effects of the
God and which require someone-that is, divine knowledge. On the basis of His
the Messenger of God-to acquaint him knowledge God has mercy upon whom
with them, he asks the learned masters He will, He forgives and chastises, He
about those affairs which will bring about dislikes, He approves, and He becomes
felicity with God. But he has no need for wrathful. What docs wrath have in com-
anyone to acquaint him with the noble mon with satisfaction? What does pardon
character traits, since his configuration's have in common with vengeance? What
constitution and equilibrium will give does approval have in common with dis-
him only noble character traits. Or rather, approval? God has given reports of all
for some affairs he will need the person to these attributes in the revealed scriptures,
acquaint him with the proper usage of while the people of unveiling know them
disequilibrium. This is prescribed for him through the witnessing of the eye. (II
by the Law, since in that disequilibrium 236.31, 237.6)
lie his best interests, whether in this
world, the next, or both.
The person in disequilibrium will dis- The function of the prophets and the
play blameworthy and base character friends of God is to help bring out the
traits. He will seek his own individual de- noble character traits which are intrinsic
sires and will not care what outcome he to human nature. They must also pro-
may reach by attaining them. The disci- vide proper guidance for the base charac-
plining physician leads him on step by ter traits, since all character traits, noble
step, state after state, by explaining to and base, go back to man's essence. In
him the proper occupations, as men-
the last analysis, a character trait is called
tioned. He comes to him with the perspi-
cacity of faith and has knowledge of the base not because of its ontological root,
best interest of this person. When he sees but because of the way in which it is put
him perform an action which leads to to use. Everything that comes from God
something blameworthy, or that action is good and follows the engendering
itself brings about something blamcwor- command. Good and evil, as we saw 305
Soteriology

above, need to be defined in terms of meaning is as follows: Character traits


various relative factors: the Law, agree- have been divided into noble and base.
ableness to the constitution, perfection, The noble character traits have become
and individual desire. The defining factor manifest through the revealed religions to
in questions of morality and character go the prophets and messengers, all of whom
distinguished the base traits from the no-
back primarily to the Law, though the ble.
other factors may also be taken into However, rational proofs, unveiling,
account in certain cases and in various and gnosis all show us that there is noth-
respects. The Law directs all character ing in the cosmos except the character
traits into proper channels so that people traits of God. Hence there are no base
will employ their own innate attributes character traits.
in the mode which corresponds to God's The Messenger of God was sent with
approval and satisfaction. Then these the all-comprehensive Word to all man-
attributes are called "noble character kind. He was given "the all-comprehen-
sive words, " 19 while every prophet who
traits." If employed wrongly, these same
preceded him possessed a specific Law.
attributes become "base character traits." Hence he reported that he had been sent
Right and wrong to back to the four to complete the noble character traits,
factors just mentioned. since they are the character traits of God.
The Prophet said, "I was sent to com- He joined what had been called base char-
plete (itmam) the noble character acter traits to the noble character traits,
traits. " 18 According to Ibn al-'Arabi's and all became noble. He who under-
interpretation, the noble character traits stands what is meant by the revealed law
were incomplete because the earlier sees that the Prophet did not leave a single
prophets did not deal with all of them. base character trait in the cosmos.
Mul}.ammad "completed" them by add- The Prophet explained for us how to
apply what are called "base character
ing to the noble character traits all the traits," such as eager desire (~ir~). envy
base character traits, since his revealed (~asad), covetousness (sharah), miserliness
law transforms the blameworthy traits (bukhl), timidity (jaza'), and every blame-
into praiseworthy ones. The means of worthy attribute. He explained for us
this transformation is to change the man- proper occupations for these attributes
ner in which the so-called base character such that, if we employ them in these oc-
traits are applied or employed (ma~raj). cupations, they will turn into noble char-
acter traits, the name of blame will dis-
appear from them, and they will become
"Completing the noble character traits" praiseworthy. In this manner God com-
is to strip them of the baseness which has pleted the noble character traits through
been attributed to them. Base character him. The noble character traits have no
traits are an accidental thing, while noble opposite, just as God has no opposite. All
character traits are an essential thing. The things in the cosmos are His character
reason for this is that baseness has no di- traits, so all are noble, though this is not
vine support. It is an accidental relation- recognized.
ship founded upon the individual desires God commanded us to avoid what we
of the soul. But noble character traits are commanded to avoid only because of
have a divine support, that is, the divine our belief that they are base character
character traits. Hence the Prophet's com- traits. He revealed to His Prophet that he
pletion of the noble character traits be- should explain to us how they can be
came manifest in his pointing out how properly employed, so that people would
they should be applied. He specified take notice. Among us there are those
proper applications for them through who know and others who do not. This
which they become noble character traits then is the meaning of his words, "I was
and are stripped of the clothing of base sent to complete the noble character
character traits. (II 562.1 0) traits." Through this he became the seal
The Prophet said, "I was sent to com- of the prophets. (II 363.23)
J06 plete the noble character traits." The The attributes found in man's innate
Pitfalls of the Path

disposition do not change, since they are not hardship" (2:185) for them. He desires
essential to this world's configuration and good for them, and evil does not return
man's specific constitution. These include to Him, just as has been mentioned in the
cowardice (jubn), avarice (shu~~), envy sound hadith: "The good, all of it, is in
(~asad), eager desire (~ir~), talebearing Thy hands, and evil does not go back to
(namlma), arrogance (takabbur), harshness Thee," even if everything comes from
(ghil;;;a), seeking subjugation (talab al- God in respect to the root. Since it is
qahr), and the like. impossible for man to cease desiring, the
Since no one can set out to change first thing this detracts from is his acts of
them, God explained various proper ap- obedience (!a'a) in that he performs them
plications for them toward which they without an intention (niyya) set down in
can be directed by the rulings of the Law. the Law, and hence they are not acts of
If the soul directs the properties of these obedience. That is why Abu Y azid sought
attributes toward these applications, it deliverance from those individual desires
will attain to felicity and high degrees. of the soul which do not conform with
These proper applications are as fol- the approval of God. (II 687.12)
lows: The soul should be cowardly to-
ward committing forbidden things be-
cause of the loss it can expect. It should Chapter 117 of the Futu~iit is entitled,
have avarice in respect to its religion. It "On the station of covetousness (sharah)
should envy him who spends his posses- and eager desire (~ir~)." These practically
sions [in the way of religion] and him synonymous qualities are normally con-
who seeks knowledge. It should be ea- sidered blameworthy, and ~ir~ is com-
gerly desirous toward good and try to monly translated as "greed." But Ibn al-
spread it among the people. It should tell 'Arabi demonstrates that ~ir~ is in fact a
the tale of good, just as the garden tells permanent attribute of every human be-
the tale of the sweet smelling flowers ing, and by following the Law man is
within it. It should be arrogant in God to-
ward him who is arrogant toward God's
able to apply it correctly. He refers to a
command. It should be harsh in its words hadith according to which someone ar-
and acts in the places where it knows that rived late for the communal prayer, and
God approves of that. It should seek the as he entered the mosque, people were
subjugation of him who is hostile toward just bowing, so he also bowed before
God and resists Him. joining up with the ranks of the wor-
Such a soul does not leave its own at- shipers. When told about this, the
tributes, but it directs them toward appli- Prophet said to him, "May God increase
cations for which its Lord, His angels, you in eager desire [to obey Him], but
and His messengers have praised it.
do not repeat [your bowing outside of
Hence the Law has brought only that
the ranks]. " 20
which aids nature (tab'). I do not know
how it is that people suffer hardship, since
they are not forbidden those attributes These two attributes belong to the in-
which their natures require. On the con- nate disposition of human beings as hu-
trary, the Law explains their proper appli- man beings. This attribute is possessed as
cations. Hence, people perish only when the innate disposition of every human.
they are controlled by individual desires. Hence it is impossible for it to disappear.
It is that which allows them to suffer pain Hence this is a station, not a state, since it
and to dislike things. is fixed.
If man would direct his desire toward If this station is blamed, that is because
that which his Creator wants for him, the object is blameworthy according to
he would be at rest. It was said to Abu reason and the Law. God says, "You will
Yazid, "What do you desire?" He replied, find them the people most eagerly desir-
"I desire not to desire." In other words, ous of life" (2:96). The Prophet said,
"Make me desire everything that Thou "May God increase you in eager desire,
desirest," so that there may be nothing but do not repeat."
but what God desires. God "desires" for The Koranic verse could be interpreted
His servants only "ease, and He desires either in terms of praise or blame, if it 307
Soteriology

were not for the pronoun "them," which elemental ('un~url) and the other kind is
goes back to blameworthy people. The not elemental. Character traits are em-
context shows that eager desire is meant ployed in relation to the elemental on the
in a blameworthy sense, in order to show sensory level (~issf), while they are em-
that those people are liars in their claim- ployed with the non-elemental on the su-
ing that "the last Abode is theirs exclu- pra-sensory level (ma'nawf).
sively, and not for other people" (2:94). The works which are called character
But he who sees that here the eager desire traits are of two kinds, righteous (~ali~),
is proof of their lying will see it as praise- which are the noble, and non-righteous,
worthy in them, since it is a divine proof which are the base. Concerning the one
of their lying. From God's side it is His kind God says, "Whoso works righteous-
argument against them, and "To God ness . . . " (2:62, etc.), while concerning
belongs the conclusive argument" (6:149). the other kind He says, "[And Noah
The blameworthy is completely blame- called upon his Lord, and said, '0 my
worthy in respect to the fact that these Lord, my son is of my family . . . Said
people are in it, but not in respect to He, 'Noah, he is not of thy family;] it is a
the fact that it is God's proof against work not righteous. 21 Do not ask Me
them .... that whereof thou hast no knowledge. I
As for the hadith which we mentioned, admonish thee, lest thou shouldst be
there eager desire is praiseworthy, since it among the ignorant" (11:46). Thereby
is an eager desire to perform the obliga- God taught Noah courtesy and the fact
tory worship. that one part of courtesy is to ask the un-
With all this, these two attributes are known on the basis of knowledge. If he
two of the attributes of the perfected knows, and if he is one whose interces-
knower who is inheritor of the prophets, sion and asking is accepted, then he
the guide of his community. For he looks should ask; but if he does not know, then
at that wherein lies their best interest. he should not ask. However, a father's
Thus, God said concerning His Prophet, mercy and natural, elemental sympathy
"[Grievous to him is your suffering,] ea- overcame him, so he employed them in
gerly desirous is he over you" (9:128). other than their proper place. Hence God
Hence God praised him for his eager de- let him know that this was an attribute of
sire to help his community. (II 198.28) the ignorant. There cannot be any good
with ignorance, just as there cannot be
Ibn al-'Arabi summarizes the re- any evil with knowledge.
When the Prophet said, "I was sent to
lationship between noble and base char- complete the noble character traits," he
acter traits in the following passage: meant that he knew what they were, how
they should be employed, and where they
The Prophet said, "I was sent to com- should be employed.
plete the noble character traits." "Noble Now, as I said, those addressed by the
character traits" in works and states are noble character traits are of two kinds,
relative (iqiifl). The reason for this is that free and servant. The free man drinks of
people, who are the locus of noble charac- these traits as does the servant.
ter traits, have two states: free (~urr) and When you ascribe the character trait to
servant ('abd). God, everything other than God is God's
Character traits are either praiseworthy, servant. God says, "None is there in the
and these are named noble character heavens and the earth that comes not to
traits, or blameworthy, and these are the All-merciful as a servant" (19:93).
named base character traits. Those in rela- As for the share of the servant in the
tion to whom noble and base character character traits, it is as follows: The abso-
traits are employed are two and one. The lute Master has declared (1) obligatory
one is God, and the two are your soul and (2) unlawful, so He has commanded
-when you place it in the station of a and prohibited; He has also (3) declared
stranger-and the other, which is every- indifferent, so He has bestowed free
thing other than God. choice. He has preferred, so He has (4)
Everything other than God is of two recommended and (5) declared reprehen-
308 kinds, and you are included. One kind is sible. There is no sixth kind."
Safety in Servanthood

A work may be obligatory because of in refraining from the indifferent follows


the command of the Master, who is God, exactly the same lines.
or recommended. If it is obligatory, its All the kinds pertain to the servant.
performance derives from the noble char- The indifferent kind pertains to the free
acter traits in relation to God and your- man. The reprehensible and recom-
self. If it is recommended, it derives from mended pertain to the free, though there
the noble character traits in relation to is a breath of servanthood within them,
yourself. If the work includes a benefit for but not its reality ....
the other, it derives from the noble char- If a person should be one of those
acter traits in relation to the other. To re- whom no prophet has called, then in his
frain from a work having this property case the noble character traits are those
derives from the base character traits. which are established by reason in respect
When an act has been declared unlawful to the existence of individual desire, per-
or reprehensible, the division concerning fection, and agreeableness to the constitu-
it is like that in the obligatory and the rec- tion. For example, thanking one's bene-
ommended. Hence to refrain from that factor is one of the noble character traits
which is qualified by unlawfulness or rep- according to both reason and the Law,
rehensibility derives from noble character and showing ingratitude is one of the base
traits, whereas to perform it derives from character traits according to both. "God
base character traits. To refrain from an charges a soul only to its capacity" (2:
act is a spiritual (ru~iinl) work, not a cor- 286), whether or not a prophet's call has
poreal (jismiinl) work, since "refraining" reached the soul. For in the actual situa-
has no existence among the entities. tion, the Law judges the soul's works and
As for the work in which there is free it pardons him for his base character traits
choice-that is, the indifferent-to per- when no call from a prophet has reached
form it derives from the noble character him. Pardoning him is one of the noble
traits in relation to yourself in this world, character traits of God, and God is more
but not the next 'Yorld. However, if you worthy of noble attributes than the ser-
do it because it is indifferent according to vant. Or rather, they belong to Him in
the Law, it derives from the noble charac- reality and to the servant only by His so-
ter traits in relation to God and yourself licitude in bestowing them. (II 616.34)
in this world and the next. The wisdom

1 8. S A FE T Y IN S E R VA N T H 0 0 D

Through following the Law the ser- remams forever nonexistent. Nothing
vant employs his innate character traits in belongs to him except those attributes
the positive and praiseworthy manner which manifest nonexistence, evil, and
that conforms to God's approval. As he ignorance. Everything that manifests Be-
continues in this path, more and more of ing belongs to God. The servant must
the noble character traits will be attrib- flee from every ontological attribute,
uted to him. But if he sees these traits as since these arc the properties of God's
belonging to himself, he faces the grave Lordship. He must dwell in his own
danger of setting himself up as a rival to non-ontological attributes, proper to
God, in practice if not in theory. Satan is servanthood.
always lying in wait, ready to ambush The more perfect the actualization of
the man of piety by stirring up self-sat- servanthood, the more perfect is man.
isfaction and pride. The servant's only Paradoxically, the more perfect man's
protection is to cling to his own nothing- nothingness, the more perfectly he mani-
ness, the fact that in the last analysis, he fests God's attributes. The greatest "ser- 309
Soteriology

vant" of God is also His greatest locus of applied to everything other than God and
disclosure. Hence the first sobriquet of more specifically to human beings. In
the Prophet Mu}:lammad is "His servant" many contexts Ibn al-'Arabi uses the
('abduhu)-only then is he "His messen- term interchangeably with "creature"
ger" (rasuluhu). Thus, in the general Is- (khalq). Thus he can say, "I mean by 'ser-
lamic view, a human being can aspire to vant' the whole cosmos and man" (II
nothing higher than being a servant. 243.5). The Koran provides precedents
Prophecy has come to an end, so no one for this usage in such verses as, "None
can imitate Mu}:lammad in his role as is there in the heavens and earth that
messenger. Adhering to the Prophet's comes not to the All-merciful as a ser-
Sunna is to imitate him as servant. vant" (19:93). In this sense the term 'abd
corresponds to the philosophical expres-
sion "possible thing" (mumkin) and
points to the poverty, need, and abase-
The Servant's Worship of his Lord ment of all creation before the Necessary
Being. Hence, to be a servant is funda-
mentally an ontological situation. It indi-
The divine name Lord (rabb) denotes cates that the existence and attributes of
the relationship between the Divine Es- the creature have been loaned to it by
sence and all creatures. Though the Es- God. Man must come to a full under-
sence is Independent of the worlds, the standing and realization of the radical
creatures have need of It for everything poverty of all things, especially himself
they are. The name Lord alludes to the Human beings are servants of God in
divine root of the existent things, since two manners. In one sense, God brings
God is the "Lord" of all, and all things man into existence by the engendering
are His "vassals" (marbub). The Koran command, and he follows it in all his
employs this name about 900 times, but states, whether he wants to or not. In an-
as Ibn al-'Arabi often points out, it never other sense, man is addressed by the pre-
employs it without ascribing it to some- scriptive command, and he may or may
thing or someone. Thus God is "your not follow it. In the first sense, man's
Lord," "the Lord of your fathers," "the acts are the acts of God, so they are as-
Lord of the heavens and the earth," "the cribed directly to God. In the second case
Lord of the east and the west" and so on, man is a locus of God's self-manifesta-
but never just "the Lord." This is be- tion and possesses a certain degree of free
cause the very meaning of the term Lord choice. In the first case we speak of
demands a vassal to which the Lord is as- God's acts, in the second man's acts. In
cribed. "The name 'Lord' is never em- both cases man is a servant. To distin-
ployed without ascription, since it de- guish the two kinds of servanthood, Ibn
mands the vassal by its very existence" al-'Arabi calls the first 'ubuda and the sec-
(II 437.8).' ond 'ubudiyya, which can be translated as
The Lord of any vassal is the face of "servitude" and "servanthood," though
God turned toward it. In other words, it should be kept in mind that in the
the thing's Lord is God as He discloses Shaykh's actual usage of the two terms,
Himself to it, and this is determined by there is often no apparent difference be-
the preparedness of its own immutable tween them. 2 The term "servitude" may
entity. "Things are ascribed to this name suggest that free will is not envisaged,
[Lord] because the cosmos has need of whereas "servanthood" is voluntary.
it more than any other name, since it
names everything which governs the "Servitude" is the servant's ascription
cosmos's interests (ma~ali~)" (II 442.20). to his Lord. Then, after that, there is "ser-
The opposite of Lord is "servant," or vanthood," which is his ascription to the
3 IO more literally, "slave" ('abd). This term is divine locus of manifestation. Through
Safety in Servanthood

servitude he follows the command with- hood can be divided into essential and
out any opposition. When He says to accidental kinds. Every creature is the
him, "Be!", he comes into existence with- servant of its Creator by its very essence:
out hesitation, for there is nothing there "None is there in the heavens and earth
but the immutable entity receptive by its that comes not to the All-merciful as a
very essence to being engendered. Then, servant" (19:93). So also everything wor-
when the locus of manifestation is actual-
ized, God says to it, "Do this and avoid ships Him, since "Everything in the
that!" If he opposes the command, that is heavens and the earth glorifies God"
in respect of his being a locus of manifes- (57:1 etc.). On the level of the secondary
tation, but if he obeys it without delay, and accidental qualities of the existent
that is in respect of his entity. "Our only things, some of the jinn and men refuse
speech to a thing, when we desire it, is to to be God's servants or to worship Him,
say to it 'Be!', and it is" (16:40) .... while others freely accept to do so. The
In the house of this world the gnostics distinction between essential and acci-
through God worship their Lord in re- dental worship parallels that between the
spect to servitude, since they have no re-
engendering and prescriptive commands.
lationship except to Him. But everyone
else is ascribed to servanthood, and it is
said concerning them, "They have stood Worship is a real name of the servant,
before Him in the station of servant- since it is his essence, his abode, his state,
hood." (II 88.26) his entity, his self, his reality, and his
face. (II 153.33)
The word servant is closely connected Know that in everything other than
to the term "worship" ('ibada), which God worship is of two kinds: (1) inherent
translators often render as "service," i.e., (dhiitr) worship, which is the worship
of God. In the Koranic verse, "I created which belongs by right to the Essence of
the Real. This is a worship that derives
jinn and men only to worship Me" (51:
from a divine self-disclosure. And (2)
56), "to worship Me" might also be conventional (waq'l), commanded (amrl)
translated "to serve Me" or "to be My worship, which derives from proph-
servants." One way of distinguishing be- ecy. (II 256.3)
tween servanthood and worship is to say When man becomes aware of the true
that man is God's servant by the very knowledge of himself and occupies him-
fact of his existence, while he worships self with the knowledge of his own reali-
Him only inasmuch as he performs spe- ties in respect of the fact that he is human,
cifically devotional acts. Though this he sees a difference between himself and
distinction may play a certain role in Ibn the cosmos. He sees that the cosmos-
that is, everything other than the jinn and
al-'Arabi's writings, his analysis of the
mankind- has prostrated itself before
two terms has many more nuances than God. It is obedient and has occupied itself
can be brought out by such a simple with that worship of its Creator and Con-
statement. Moreover, the Shaykh's pri- figurer which has been specified for it.
mary interest is to bring out the ontolog- Hence man seeks the reality which will
ical significance of the two terms, which bring him together with the cosmos, and
is nearly identical. Hence, for example, he finds nothing but his possibility, pov-
he writes, erty, lowliness, subjection, need, and
misery. Then he considers the Real's de-
Know that existence is divided between scription of the whole cosmos. He sees
worshiper ('iibid) and worshiped (ma'bud). that He has described it as prostrating it-
The worshiper is everything other than self to Him, even its shadow. He sees that
God, that is, the cosmos, which is called He has not described all of mankind-in
and named "servant." The worshiped is contrast to the other kinds of the cos-
that which is named God. (III 78. 9) mos-as prostrating, only many
(22:18).' He fears that he may be one of
Analyzed in terms of the existence of the "many" who merit chastisement.
the creature, both worship and servant- Then he sees that the cosmos has been 3I I
Soteriology

given the innate character of worshiping -the worship of the whole cosmos. If he
God in its own essence. Hence this man does not do this, he has not known him-
finds in himself poverty and need toward self in respect of his realities, for this is an
someone who can guide him aright and inherent worship.
show him the path which will take him to The form of his knowledge of this is
his felicity with God. When he hears God as follows: He witnesses through unveil-
saying, "I created jinn and mankind only ing all the realities without exception in
to worship Me" (51:56), he worships Him their worship as they are in themselves,
through poverty and need, just as the rest whether or not that has been unveiled for
of the cosmos worships Him. But then he them. This is what I mean by knowledge
sees that God has set down bounds and of the realities, that is, through unveiling.
designated various commands, while pro- When man witnesses the realities, he
hibiting him to step beyond them, and He cannot oppose the commands of his Mas-
has commanded things which he is able to ter to worship, that is, the commands
perform. Hence knowledge of what God whose bounds and prescripts he observes
has set down for him in the Law becomes both within and outside of himself When
incumbent upon him, in order that he he says, "Glory be to God" with his
may perform the secondary (far'!) wor- whole self as we have designated, then, in
ship, just as he has performed the primary respect to that act of glorification, every-
(a~ll) worship. thing said by the whole cosmos is im-
"Primary worship" is that which is de- printed within the substance of his soul.
manded by the essences of the possible . . . He is rewarded with the reward of
things inasmuch as they are possible. the whole cosmos. (II 308.22)
"Secondary worships" arc all the acts for
which the servant has need of a divine re-
port in respect to what belongs to his
Master by right and what is required by
his servanthood. The Perils of Lordship
When the servant knows that his Lord
has commanded him and prohibited him,
then he fulfills the right of his Master and As a general principle, Ibn al-'Arabi
the right of his servitude, for he has maintains that things never overstep the
known himself. And everyone "who bounds of their own realities. Hence the
knows himself, knows his Lord." He servant and the Lord do not mix.
who knows his Lord worships Him by
His command.
No one combines the two forms of It is impossible for realities to change, so
worship-the worship by command and the servant is servant and the Lord Lord;
the worship by prohibition-except man- the Real is the Real and the creature crea-
kind and the jinn. The angelic spirits have ture. (II 371. 5)
no prohibitions, which is why God said
concerning them, "They disobey not God From this point of view, the servant
in what He commands them" (66:6), but cannot assume the character traits of
He mentioned no prohibition for them. God, since that would mean that he had
Concerning their inherent worship God come out of his own attributes. It would
said, "They glorify Him by night and involve a sharing (ishtirtik) of attributes
day, and grow not weary" (41:38); "They and a partnership (musharaka) between
glorify Him by night and day, and never Lord and servant. This would be an "as-
fail" (21:20). The reality of their configu-
sociation" (shirk) of other gods with
ration bestows this, for this is the inherent
worship, and it is a worship that perme- God, which conflicts with Islam's funda-
ates everything other than God. mental axiom, tawl{id, the declaration of
Since, as we said, man brings together God's Unity.
in himself all the realities of the cosmos,
when he knows himself in respect of these God requires from those who declare
realities, it becomes incumbent upon him His Unity that they not compete (muza-
312 to perform alone-in respect of himself ~ama) with Him, so that the Lord may re-
Safety in Servanthood

main Lord and the servant servant. The miraculously. Manifesting this power is a
Lord does not compete with the servant mark of spiritual immaturity, but the ex-
in his servanthood, and the servant does istence of the power is allowed by the
not compete with the Lord in His Lord- "states" connected to the achievement of
ship, even while both servant and Lord the spiritual stations. Ibn al-'Arabi al-
exist. Hence he who declares God's Unity
ludes to these "lordly attributes" (al-~ifiit
does not assume the traits of the divine
names. al-rabbaniyya) while contrasting a certain
You may object: "It therefore becomes mode of self-disclosure connected to the
necessary that we do not accept what has Essence with another that takes place
been revealed by God concerning His be- through the veil (~ijab).
coming qualified by the attributes of the
temporally originated things, such as [The first] is the form of the knowledge
withness, descent, sitting, and laughter, of declaring God's incomparability . . . ,
since these are all attributes of the ser- while [the second] is the form of the
vants. You just said that there is no com- knowledge of declaring His similarity,
petition, yet here we have Lordship com- that is, it is the servant's assumption of
peting with servanthood." the traits of the divine names and his be-
We answer: The situation is not as you coming manifest in His kingdom through
suppose. The attributes you mentioned the lordly attributes. In this station the
do not belong to servanthood. They are created thing is a creator (khiiliq) and
the attributes of Lordship in respect of Its manifests the properties of all the divine
manifestation within the loci of manifes- names. This is the level of the vicegerency
tation, not in respect of Its He-ness. (khiliifa) and the deputyship (niyiiba) of the
Hence the servant is a servant according Real in the kingdom. Through it the ser-
to its root, the Lordship is a Lordship ac- vant can exercise governing control (ta-
cording to Its root, and the He-ness is a ~akkum) among the existent things by act-
He-ness according to Its root. ing through his Resolve, by touching
You may say: "But Lordship is not (mubiishara), or by speech (qawl).
identical with the He-ness." As for Resolve, the servant desires
We reply: "Lordship" is the relationship something and that which he desires be-
of the He-ness to an entity, while the He- comes imaginalized before him as he de-
ness in itself does not require relation- sires without increase or decrease. As for
ships. That which demands relationships speech, he says to what he desires, "Be!",
from the He-ness is only the immutability and it comes to be. Or he himself touches
of the entities. This is what is called it, if it is a work, just as Jesus touched the
"Lordship." (II 94.10) clay in creating the bird and giving it
form as a bird. 4 [The divine root of this
Though Ibn al-'Arabi claims in this touching is found in] God's words, "Him
passage that there is no assumption of whom I created with My own two
traits, in many other passages, as we hands" (38:75). He who understands will
recognize that man has a share in every
have already seen, he speaks of the reality
divine presence. (II 667.22)
of that assumption. Here he is looking at Man was not given governing control
the actual ontological implications of the in the cosmos inasmuch as he is a man.
term, as he did in the last passage quoted On the contrary, he was given that
in Chapter 16. From that point of view, through a divine, lordly power, since
all character traits are inherent in human only an attribute of the Real can exercise
nature, so none can be assumed. But in a governing control in the cosmos. In man
looser sense, he frequently employs the this attribute is a trial (ibtilii'), not a be-
term assumption of traits. stowal of honor (tashtif). (II 308.16)
Through the assumption of traits,
man gains the attributes normally asso- The negative side to assuming the
ciated with Lordship, including, for traits of the divine names can be seen in
example, domination over the created the case of such names as Overbear-
things and the ability to "break habits" ing, Magnificent, Inaccessible, Majestic, 313
Soteriology

Slayer, Avenger, and Terrible in Pun- son becomes manifest through prophecy,
ishment. Though these are among God's and then the Tribe act in accordance with
"Most Beautiful Names," a human being it through faith, unveiling gives to them
who manifests them as his own character what reason considers impossible m re-
traits will face great danger. To the ex- spect to its reflection. (II 128.20)
tent that he does assume them-and he
cannot avoid this in some manner, since In the preceding passage Ibn al-'Arabi
they are part of his innate dispo- alludes to the fact that in the last analysis,
sition-he must take care to display servitude, to the extent that it can be
them in the manner set down in the Law, considered an attribute of an existent
or he runs the risk of turning into a Pha- thing, is itself taken from God, since
raoh. Ibn al-'Arabi frequently points to existence belongs only to Him. This is
the dangers of such names. In the passage what he means in a passage quoted ear-
below, taken from the longer version of lier: "Even the name 'servant' does not
his I~(ila~at, he cites a Koranic verse in belong to him; rather, he has assumed it
which two of God's names are attributed as a trait, like all the Most Beautiful
to the servant, but in a context which Names" (II 350.28).
shows that the attributes are negative Ibn al-'Arabi discusses the dangers of
character traits. He is defining "adorn- assuming the traits of certain divine
ment" (al-ta~alll): names while describing the station of the
People of Blame (al-malamiyya), who are
"Adornment" is to become qualified by the perfect gnostics.
the divine character traits. In the path it is
called "assumption of the traits of the The divine root by which the People of
names." In our view adornment is the Blame arc supported is what we have
manifestation of the attributes of servi- mentioned: the fact that the majesty of the
tude continually, in spite of the existence Real demands the acknowledgement of
of the assumption of the traits of the the tremendousness and magnificence due
names. If the servant should cease being to the Divinity. At the same time, look at
adorned in this manner, then the assump- what is required by the abode of this
tion of the names will go against him. world in respect to the Real: The servants
God says, "In such a manner does God set make claims to lordship and they contend
a seal on every heart which is 'magnifi- with the Real in His magnificence and tre-
cent, overbearing"' (40:35). mendousness. Pharaoh said, "I am your
When the servant becomes adorned by lord the most high" (79:24), so he claimed
the attributes of servitude, this itself de- magnificence and displayed overbearing-
rives from the assumption of the divine ness.
character traits, but most people cannot The reason for all this is that this abode
understand this with their rational facul- requires that the creatures be veiled from
ties. Were they to know the meaning of God. Were He to let them witness Him-
those attributes by which the Real has de- self in this world, then the property of de-
scribed Himself in the Koran and the cree (qaqii') and destiny (qadar)-that is,
Sunna and which reason only accepts by God's knowledge of what will take place
interpreting in the sense of incomparabil- from and in His creatures-would be
ity, they would not flee from such attri- nullified. 5 Hence His veil is a mercy to-
butes when they hear them from people ward them and it assures their subsis-
like myself. tence, since by its essence His self-dis-
If servitude is conceived as an ontologi- closure bestows overwhelming power
cal quality, then it is identical with Him, (qahr) and allows no claims to remain
since existence belongs only to Him. But along with it. 6
since the entities of the possible things are The Divinity yields to the property of
the loci of manifestation for the Real, ra- the abodes (maw(in), and this divine root
tional faculties find it distressing to as- is witnessed by the People of Blame, since
cribe to God what He ascribes to Himself. they are sages and knowers. They say,
3I 4 When this station beyond the stage of rca- "Wc are the branches of this root," since
Safety in Servanthood

everything in the cosmos has a divine vants who are magnificent, overbearing,
root. inaccessible, and tremendous belonged to
But if the servant should become quali- them in reality, He would not have
fied by a divine root, that is not necessar- blamed them. Nor would He have
ily praiseworthy. For example, without "seized them with a tightening grip"
doubt magnificence (kibriya) is a divine (69:10), any more than He seizes them for
root. But if the servant becomes qualified being lowly, submissive, mean, and
by it, makes himself a branch of this root, abased-since meanness, lowliness, and
and employs it internally, then everyone smallness are their attributes. When
agrees that this is blameworthy in every someone manifests his own attributes,
respect. However, if he should use it out- God does not take him to task for that-
wardly in a specific situation which oc- how could He take him to task for mani-
curs for him and in which it is permissible festing what is his by right? But, when
for him to employ it as an outward form they do not possess such attributes as
without its spirit, then it is praiseworthy overbearingness, yet they manifest them,
for the sake of the form. That is why the God destroys them.
Tribe has held that it is obligatory for the Hence the gnostics have verified the
friends to conceal miraculous breaking fact that these are the attributes of the
of habits, just as it is mandatory for the Real. These attributes become manifest
prophets to manifest it, since they are in those whom God desires to make
Lawgivers. (III 36.19) wretched. Hence within the cosmos the
gnostics humble themselves before the
In discussing the nature of a group of overbearing tyrants and those who are
proudly magnificent, because of the at-
the friends of God known as "those who
tribute, not because of their entities, for
bow" (al-raki'iin), the Shaykh writes as the gnostics witness the Real in all things.
follows: This is even the case with bowing the
head while extending their greetings
Among the friends of God are "those when they meet someone. It may happen
who bow," whether men or women. God that the gnostics will bow their heads to
described them in His Book by this at- one of their brothers when they greet
tribute (cf. 9:112). Bowing carries the him. Then this person becomes happy,
sense of subjection and humility before but he is happy only because he is igno-
God in respect of His He-ness and be- rant of himself, since he imagines that the
cause of His inaccessibility and magnifi- person who bowed his head and bent
cence which become manifest in the cos- himself over in front of him did so be-
mos. cause of a high standing which belongs to
The gnostic does not consider the cos- him. When the rabble bow to each other,
mos in respect of its entity, but only in ignorance stands before ignorance out of
respect of the fact that it is a locus of custom and common usage, but they are
manifestation for the attributes of the not aware. But when the gnostics bow,
Real. God says, "In such a manner does they do so witnessing the overbearing
God set a seal on every heart which is power of God which demands that they
'magnificent, overbearing'" (40:35). He bow themselves before it, for they see
says, "[Take him, and thrust him into the nothing but God. As Labid said, "Is not
midst of Hell ... ] 'Taste! Surely thou art everything other than God unreal?"" The
the "inaccessible, the generous"!'" (44: unreal is nonexistence, without doubt,
49). He says, "Magnificence is My cloak but existence is all the Real. Hence he
and tremendousness My shawl; if anyone who bows bows only before the ontolog-
contends with Me in either one, I will ical Real. (II 33. 20)
smash him. " 7 Hence the entity is de- God says to His Prophet, "Be thyself
stroyed, while the attribute subsists. patient with those who call upon their
Those who bow do so before the attri- Lord at morning and evening, desiring
bute, not the entity .... His face, and let not thine eye turn away
If the attributes of magnificence, over- from them, desiring the ornaments of the
bearingness, inaccessibility, and tremen- present life; and obey not him whose
dousness which are claimed by those ser- heart We have made neglectful of Our re- 315
Soteriology

membrance, so that he follows his own no need for them and renounce what the
caprice and his affair has become all ex- people possess. You see kings, in spite of
cess. Say: 'The Truth is from your Lord; their exaltation and authority, like slaves
so let whosoever will have faith, and let before the pious renouncers (zuhhiid), be-
whosoever will disbelieve'" (18:28-29), cause the latter are independent through
that is, let no one's blaming you concern- God and have no need of the exaltation of
ing God have any effect upon you. the kings or the impermanent goods of
The secondary cause of this verse was this world which they possess ....
that the leaders of the disbelievers and the Wherever the attribute of the Real be-
idolaters, such as al-Aqra' ibn l;:labis, said, comes manifest, it is loved and sought by
"Nothing prevents us from sitting with the people, those who do not differentiate
Mugammad except the fact that these between its manifestation in him who de-
slaves sit with him," meaning by that serves it and in him who does not deserve
Bilal, Khubbab ibn al-Aratt, and others. it. If these ignorant people only knew that
They were too proud to sit together with the person most in need of possessions is
slaves at the same gathering. The Messen- he who has the most possessions! This is
ger of God was eagerly desirous that such because the person who lives in abject
as these would have faith. Hence he com- poverty necessarily needs that which will
manded the slaves that, when they saw remedy his lack, since this is intrinsic
him with these leaders, they should not poverty. But the rich man-he who has
approach until he finished with their busi- so many possessions that, were they to be
ness. Or, if the leaders approached while divided up for his lifetime and that of his
the slaves were with him, they should children and grandchildren, it would be
leave the gathering. Then God sent down sufficient for all of them -leaves his wife
this verse, out of jealousy toward the sta- and children and travels with his posses-
tion of servanthood and poverty, lest the sions. He risks the dangers of oceans and
station be wronged by the attribute of ex- enemies, he crosses deserts to far cities in
altation and deiformity (ta' alluh) which east and west, all in search of another
became manifest outside of its proper dirham in addition to what he has. This
place. he does because of the intensity of his
After this, whenever these slaves or poverty and need for it, even though he
their likes sat with the Messenger of God, may well be destroyed in his search for
he would not stand up from his place un- additional wealth, or his possessions may
til they stood up and left, even if the ses- suffer shipwreck or be confiscated. He
sion became prolonged. He used to say, may be taken prisoner in his travels or be
"God has commanded me to restrain my slain. But in spite of all these difficulties,
soul with them." Hence, when the session he does not refrain from traveling in
became prolonged, some of the Compan- search of additional wealth. Were it not
ions, like Abu Bakr, would signal to for his ignorance and the intensity of his
them to stand up, so that the Messenger poverty and need, he would not risk the
of God would be free to take care of vari- more precious for the more vile.
ous tasks. This derives from God's jeal- The poor man who renounces sees that
ousy toward His poor and broken ser- this man of wealth is far poorer than he,
vant. It is one of the greatest proofs of the and he is blameworthy in his poverty.
emmence of servitude and of dwelling Were this renouncer not rich through his
within it. Lord and free of these impermanent
This is the station to which we invite goods, he would be more intense in his
the people. For all souls see possessors of eager desire in seeking them than the
position and wealth as great, since exalta- merchants and the kings. . . .
tion and independence belong to God. The people of our path have remained
Wherever this attribute discloses itself, heedless of this route. They have held that
people humble themselves and display independence through God is one of the
their need for it. They do not differentiate greatest of levels, and this has veiled them
between an intrinsic exaltation and inde- from realizing the station of calling atten-
pendence and that which is accidental. tion to poverty toward God, which is
They only witness this attribute. This is their real attribute. They have placed their
316 why people venerate those who display real attribute in independence through
Safety in Servanthood

God by being included in His property, and the bestowal which become manifest
because of their love for independence, from him: "Purify your soul from these
which is to come out of their own attri- attributes by considering the weakness
bute. and greed in accordance with which you
But he alone is the Man who knows his are innately disposed." God says, "Whoso
own measure, achieves the realization of is guarded against the avarice of his own
his own attribute, and does not emerge soul [-those, they are the prosperers ]"
from his own abode. He keeps upon him- (59:9), and He says, "[Surely man was
self the robe, title, and name by which his created fretful . . . ], when good visits
Lord has titled and named him, for He him, grudging" (70:21). When man looks
said, "You are the poor toward God, and at this root, his soul becomes wholesome
God-He is the Independent, the Praise- and he is purified of making claims. (I
worthy" (35:15). (III 18.20) 373.33)

In commenting on the inward signif-


icance of the Islamic rites of purity, Ibn
al-'Arabi points out that dust may be
The Exaltation of Lowliness
used in place of water in times of neces-
sity because it reminds man of the low-
liness of his origin and encourages him to Man can only stay safe from making
claim nothing but what belongs to him claims by clinging to his own root,
by right. which is lowliness and servanthood. In
effect, the divine names whose traits he
Dust and the earth are the root of man's assumes become a heavy burden upon
configuration, and this verifies his ser-
him. Ibn al-'Arabi points this out while
vanthood and lowliness. Then he was
overcome by the accident of making explaining one of the senses of the Ko-
claims, since the Messenger said concern- ranic verse, "God commands you to de-
ing him that he was created upon the liver trusts back to their owners" (4:58).
Form. In our view, this is because of the
preparedness according to which God cre- Do you not see that when someone de-
ated him, that is, the fact that he is a re- posits a possession with a person, he finds
ceptacle for the assumption of the traits of that it weighs him down? Guarding and
the divine names in accordance with what preserving it are a burden for him. But if
his reality gives him. . . . Because of this its owner says to him, "I give this to you
relationship, man felt exalted and high and it no longer belongs to me," the car-
and claimed magnificence. Hence he was rying of that possession becomes easy for
commanded to purify himself from this him, and he becomes tremendously
prideful magnificence through the earth happy, honoring the person who gave it
and dust, which is the reality of his ser- to him. In the same way the attributes of
vanthood. He becomes purified by con- the Real arc a trust with the servant.
sidering the root of his own creation, that Because the divine attributes are a trust
from which he was created. That is why with the gnostic, he never ceases being
God says to someone who has this attri- weighed down by examining them. How
bute in order to provide medicine against should he employ them? Where should he
the thought which gives rise to prideful put them to use? He fears to employ them
magnificence, "Let man," that is, the chil- in the way that their Owner might ern-
dren of Adam, "consider of what he was ploy them. When he is weighed down in
created; he was created of gushing water" this way, he returns them to their Owner
(86:5), which is "mean water" (32:8 etc.). and remains happy and burden-free in
For one of the things he claims is power servanthood, which is his own posses-
and bestowal, but his innate disposition is sion, or rather, his reality, since anything
incapacity and greed. . . . in addition to that may disappear from
Hence it is said to him when he makes him. God praises him for delivering the
this claim and sees himself having the trust back safely. So he who does not
power, the munificence, the generosity, transgress his own measure will prosper, 3I 7
Soteriology

just as is said in the proverb: "No one vanthood, and the actual situation will be
who knows his own worth will come to reversed in his eyes. This is a difficult lo-
rum. (II 631.4) cus of witnessing, for God descends from
The highest of waystations with God is His station of independence from the
for God to preserve His servant in the worlds to that of seeking a loan from His
constant witnessing of his own servant- servant.'' It was in respect to this that it
hood, whether or not He has bestowed was said, "God is the poor," while in fact
upon him any of the lordly robes. This is He is the Independent, "and we are the
the most eminent of waystations given to independent" (3:181), while in fact they
a servant. It is indicated in His words to are the poor. Thus the situation was re-
Moses, "I have made thee well for My- versed for them. This derives from the di-
self" (20:41), and His words [concerning vine deception, of which man is not
the mi'riij of Mui}.ammad], "Glory be to aware. He who desires the path to protec-
Him who carried His servant by night" tion from the divine deception must ding
(17:1). Note how He links "His servant" to his servanthood and its concomitants in
with the declaration of incomparability every state. That is the mark of his being
[through the term "glorification"]. 9 (III protected from the deception of God.
32.9) Nevertheless, he will not remain secure in
No one is a servant but he who is uni- respect to the future, since he has no se-
form in his servitude. If the servant de- curity that he will keep this state. (III
viates from this attribute through the 147.5)
slightest lordly description-even if that Were it not for the perfection of the
description is praiseworthy, like an attri- Form in man, no one would have claimed
bute of mercy-he has left the level for lordship. Happy is he who is upon a form
which he was created and is deprived of which requires such an elevated station
perfection and knowledge of God to the and which has no effect upon him and
extent that he is qualified by the attributes does not bring him out of his servant-
of the Real. (II 616. 7) hood! That is the preservation of which
God has bestowed upon us an ample
share at this time. May God assure our
The travelers on the spiritual path are
subsistence within it during the rest of
constantly faced with the danger of our life until we are taken to Him- I and
leaving servanthood and ascribing God's all our brothers and devotees, by His
attributes to themselves. No one can kindness! There is no Lord but He. (II
consider himself immune from the divine 642.26)
deception. If a person did so, that in itself
would prove that he had been deceived. All these warnings against the dangers
In one passage Ibn al-'Arabi describes the of assuming God's attributes serve to re-
various difficult ascents ('aqaba) which mind us of our constant human situation.
the spiritual traveler must pass in order Every human being possesses himself
to achieve the station of true servant- and all his positive attributes as God's
hood. trust, so everyone must strive to handle
the trust properly. The perfect servant
This is the station which Niffarl in his combines servanthood with the assump-
Mawiiqif called "equality" (sawa'), 10 since tion of the divine traits, just as he com-
the servant becomes manifest in the form bines the declaration of God's incom-
of the Real. If God does not favor this parability (which demands that he be
servant through preservation ('i~ma) and nothing) with the declaration of God's
guarding and does not fix his feet in this
similarity (which means that he is God's
difficult ascent by keeping his vision fixed
upon his servanthood while he manifests self-disclosure).
the Form, then his feet will slip and the
Form of the Real which he possesses in Man can gain nothing better in his life
himself will come between him and his than knowledge of God, the assumption
vision of his servanthood. Then he will of the traits of His names, halting with
3I 8 see the Real in the form of his own ser- that which is demanded by his servant-
Safety in Servanthood

hood, and fulfilling the obedience to his which demand distance arise in someone,
Master's commands appropriate for His they determine his situation, and they de-
level. (II 640.32) mand distance.
At another time Abu Y azid said to his
Perfect man manifests the divine form Lord, "Through what shall I gain near-
ness to Thee?" The Real said to him,
while being firmly fixed in servanthood.
"Leave aside your self and come!" Once
Through the affirmation of his radical he abandons himself, he will have aban-
ontological deprivation, his absolute doned the property of servanthood, since
nothingness in face of the Necessary servanthood is identical with distance
Being, he remains fixed in the distance from Masterhood and the servant is far
(bu'd) from his Lord that his possibility from the Master.
and contingency demand. Yet, paradox- Hence in lowliness and poverty Abu
ically, through his knowledge of his true Y azid sought nearness through servant-
situation, he is brought into God's near- hood, while in abandoning self he sought
ness (qurb). Ibn al-'Arabi points to the nearness through assuming the character
happy combination of distance and near- traits of God. It is through this that there
is a coming together. (II 561.11)
ness, servanthood and manifesting the
names of God, by quoting two appar-
ently contradictory sayings of Abu In order to understand the reality of
Yazid. his own servanthood, man needs to
weigh it in the proper scale.
When two things are conceived which
never come together and which are differ- Man's scale from the Divine Presence is
ent in each and every respect, that is the found in the Prophet's words, "God cre-
ultimate limit of "distance." Hence, noth- ated Adam upon His own Form." The di-
ing is farther from God than the cosmos, vine generosity has placed man in this
since nothing can bring the two together scale. Through his form he is weighed
in respect of its own essence. This is against the presence of Him who brought
found· in God's words, "God is Indepen- him into existence, in essence, attribute,
dent of the worlds" (3:97) and in the ha- and act. The fact of weighing does not
dith, "God is, and nothing is with Him." necessitate a sharing (ishtiriik) of reality
Then we descend to the next degree in between the two things being weighed.
distance and we say that the servant will That against which gold coin is weighed
not be the master (sayyid) of him in re- is the iron weight, which does not resem-
spect of whom he is a servant, so nothing ble the gold in its essence, attribute, or
is farther from the servant than his mas- quantity. Hence it is known that what is
ter. Hence servanthood is not a state of being weighed through the human form
nearness. That which brings the servant is everything that the form demands
near to his Master is his knowledge that through the divine names which turned
he is His servant, and this knowledge is their attentiveness toward bringing it into
not identical with the servanthood. Ser- existence and which manifest their effects
vanthood demands distance from the within it. So, just as the iron weight is
Master, but the servant's knowledge of not weighed against the gold in definition
servanthood requires nearness to Him. (~add), reality, or the form of its entity, in
When Abu Y azid became bewildered the same way the servant does not come
about nearness and did not know how he together with God in definition or real-
should gain nearness to his Lord, the Real ity-even though He created him upon
said to him in his inmost conscious- His own form-since His Essence has no
ness, "0 Abu Yazid! Come near to Me definition, while man is defined by a defi-
through that which I do not possess: low- nition pertaining to his essence (dhiitl), not
liness and poverty." Hence He negated merely designative (rasml) or verbal
from Himself these two attributes, lowli- (laf?l), and every created thing is the
ness and poverty. That which He negates same. But man is the most perfect and
from Himself is an attribute of distance most comprehensive of created things in
from Him. Hence, when those attributes respect of his configuration and his level. 319
Soteriology

When you become aware of the reality fluence of a state, which explains why
of this Scale, you will cease imagining they sometimes utter such well-known
what you used to imagine about the sayings as the "I am the Real" of al-I:Ial-
"form" -that is, that He is an Essence laj or the two similar formulas of Abii
and you are an essence and that you are Yazid cited below.
qualified by the Alive, the Knowing, and
the rest of the attributes, just as He is.
Do you not see that when the spmt 1s
Through this Scale you will come to heedless of itself, it intrudes upon and is
know that this is not what is meant by the audacious toward the Divine Station?
"form." That is why God brought to- Then it claims lordship, like Pharaoh.
gether in a single sura "He created man" When this state overcomes it, it says, "I
(55:3) and "He set up the Scale" (55:7). am Allah" or "Glory be to me!", as one of
Then He commanded you to employ the the gnostics has said. This is because he
Scale without exceeding or falling short was overcome by a state. That is why
(55:8-9). There is no way to employ it words like this have never issued from a
except as I have mentioned to you, since messenger, or a prophet, or a friend who
He is God, the Creator, and you are the is perfect in his knowledge, his presence
servant, the created thing. How can the (~u4ur), his clinging to the door of the sta-
artifact know its artisan? What the artifact tion which belongs to him, his courtesy,
demands from the artisan is only the form and his observance of the material (madda)
of the artisan's knowledge of it, not the within which he dwells and through
form of his essence. You are the artifact which he becomes manifest. 12 (I 276.2)
of your Creator. So your form corre-
sponds to the form of His knowledge of
When the great gnostics recognize the
you; and such is the case with every cre-
ated thing. attributes of Lordship within themselves,
Were this not the case, were the sit- it may be that they will preserve courtesy
uation such that the two of you were by seeing these as the attributes of the
brought together by a single definition angelic hierarchy, not as God's attri-
and reality, as Zayd and 'Amr are butes.
brought together [by their humanity],
then you would be a god, or he would be Among the friends of God arc those
a divine thrall (ma'/Uh), and then a single known as the "noble" (al-kurama'), both
definition would bring you together. But men and women. God has befriended
the situation is contrary to that! them through nobility of souL He says
So know by which scale you should concerning them, "When they pass by
weigh yourself against your Lord, and be idle talk, they pass by with nobility"
not pleased with yourself! Know that you (25:72). In other words, they do not look
are the iron weight through which is at that which God has condemned look-
weighed a unique ruby which has no sis- ing upon. Hence they are not defiled by
ter. If you come together with it in quan- any of it, since they pass by with nobility,
tity, you do not come together with it in paying no attention to it, and it has no ef-
measure, nor in essence, nor in specific fect upon them. For idle talk is a station
character-God be high exalted! So cling which souls find sweet, because of the op-
to your servanthood and know your own position which God has kneaded into
measure. . . . Do not bring Him into their innate disposition. But these arc
your scale. For you are you, and He is souls which refuse all vile qualities, since
He. "There is no god but He, the Inac- they are the souls of the noble among
cessible, the Wise!" (3:6). "Nothing is like God's servants.
Him, and He is Hearing, Seeing" (42: In this attribute they join up with the
11). (III 8.23) Higher Plenum. Concerning the latter,
God said that His scriptures have come
"by the hands of noble and pious emissar-
The outstanding gnostics always pre- ies" (80:15), thereby describing them as
serve courtesy toward God and are never noble. Every description which joins you
overcome by heedlessness (ghajla). Lesser to the Higher Plenum gives eminence to
320 gnostics may at times succumb to the in- you.
Safety in Servanthood

When the gnostics among God's ser- Ibn al-'Arabi refers to these points
vants assume the traits of God's names, while explaining the nature of the "sub-
they place between themselves and the at- sistence" (baqa-") of the servant after his
tributes of the Real the quality by which "annihilation" (fanii') in God, two terms
God has described the Higher Plenum. frequently discussed in Sufi texts.
Hence they take the attribute in respect of
its belonging to one of God's pure ser-
vants, not in respect of its being an attri- Subsistence is a relationship that does
bute of the Real. For their eminence lies not disappear or change. Its property is
in that they never leave the station of ser- immutably fixed in both the Real and the
vanthood. But among the gnostics, this creature. It is a divine attribute. But anni-
tasting is rare, since most of the gnostics hilation is a relationship that disappears. It
assume the traits of the Most Beautiful is an attribute of engendered existence and
Names in respect of the fact that they are does not touch upon the Presence of the
names of God, not in respect of what we Real. Every attribute which is ascribed to
just mentioned-that the Higher Plenum both sides is more complete and higher
has been qualified by them as is proper. than the attribute which is specific to the
Hence the gnostic assumes their traits engendered side, except servitude. For its
only after they have acquired the fra- ascription to engendered existence is more
grances of servitude from the Higher Ple- complete and higher than the ascription of
num. Gnostics such as these, in assuming lordship and masterhood to it.
the traits of the names, do not find any You may say: "Well then, 'annihilation'
flavor of the Lordship appropriate to goes back to servitude and clings to it."
these names. He who knows what we We reply: Annihilation cannot be like
have mentioned and puts it into practice servitude, since servitude is an immutably
will taste a knowledge of self-disclosure fixed attribute which is never lifted from
never tasted by anyone who finds the fla- engendered existence. But "annihilation"
vor of Lordship in his assumption of may annihilate the servant from his servi-
traits. (II 38. 33) tude and himself. Hence its property dif-
fers from the property of servitude.
If any affair causes a thing to leave its
root and veils it from its own reality, that
is not an eminence in the view of the
The Perfect Servant Tribe, since it gives you the situation in
contradiction to the way it is, thereby
making you one of the ignorant. But sub-
By definition, human beings are ser- sistence is the immutable state of the ser-
vants of God in two respects. On the one vant which never disappears, since it is
hand they are servants by their very es- impossible for his immutable entity to
cease to exist, just as it is impossible for
sences, unable even to consider dis-
his entity to be described as being identi-
obeying their Lord. On the other hand cal with existence, since existence is its
they can disobey God's prescriptive com- description after it was not. . . . The ser-
mand. The "faithful" are those who, to a vant's entity subsists in immutability,
large degree, succeed in obeying the pre- while his existence is immutable in its
scriptive command, though imperfec- servitude, his property everlasting in that.
tions remain in their worship. But the "None is there in the heavens and earth
worship and servanthood of a perfect that comes not to the All-merciful as a
man are without fault. His servanthood servant" (19:93). (II 515.33)
is so perfect that no distinction whatso-
ever can be drawn between the engen- In the last analysis, the gnostic is a
dering and prescriptive commands. In servant and not a lord because only God
other words, to perfect man God only truly exists. The attribute of the Lord is
says "Be!" But to animal men, He says, Being, while the attribute of the servant
"Be! And now that you are, do this, and is nonexistence. The gnostic returns to
avoid doing that!" the original state of his immutable entity. 321
Soteriology

In himself he is but a set of nonexistent waystation, within which alight those in


properties, while the manifest is Being. the midst of the path (al-mutawassi(un) and
the disciples (al~mur'idun). As for the great
ones (al-akiibir), they never see anything
The servant teturns to his own specific exiled from its homeland. On the con-
characteristic, which is the servitude trary, the Necessary Being is Necessary,
which does not compete virith Lordship. the possible thing is possible, and the im-
He becomes adorned (ta~allf) by it and sits possible thing is impossible, so the home-
in the house of the thingness of his immu- land of each thing which has a homeland
tability, not the thingness of his existence, is determined. Were exile to occur within
and he looks upon the way in which God them, the realities would be overturned
turns him this way and that. In all of this and the Necessary would become possi-
he secludes himself from governing his ble, the possible Necessary, and the
own affair. (II 153.26) impossible possible. But such is not the
The exile (ghurba) 6f the gnostics from situation. (II 528.17, 529.19)
their homelands is their departure from
their possibility. The homeland (wa(an) of
God's servant par excellence, the
the possible thing is possibility. Then it is
unveiled for it that it is the Real. But the Prophet, said, "I will be master of man-
homeland of the Real is not possibility. kind on the Day of Resurrection, with-
So the possible thing departs from its out boasting." Yet, as Ibn al-'Arabi ex-
homeland because of this witnessing. plains, this. is true not because he is a lord
When the possible thing was in its home- but because he is the perfect servant who
land, that is, nonexistence-though its has actualized his own nothingness. He
entity was immutably fixed-it heard the has realized his own immutable entity, so
speech of the Real to it, "Be!", so it hur- he dwells in the domain of nonexistence.
ried into existence. It came to be in order
to see Him who brought 'it into ·existence.
Hence it went into exile 'from its home- The Prophet means: I do not mean to
land out of desire to see Him who said to boast over ·everyone else in 'the cosmos.
it "Be!" When it opened its eye, the Real Though I am the highest of the human
made it witness 'its own likenesses among loci of manifestation, I am also the most
the temporally originated things. It did intense of all creatures in the realization of
not witness the Real, for whose sake it my own entity. The Man is riot he who
had hurried into existence. 0 0 0
realizes his Lord. The Man is he who real-
But the perfected gnostics have no exile 'izes his own entity. (II 74.6)
whatsoever. They are entities immutably
fixed in their places; they never leave 'their Not that boasting is necessarily neg-
homeland. Since the Real is their mirror, ative, as Ibn al-'Arabi seems to be indi-
their forms ·become manifest within Him, cating when he writes,
exactly as forms become manifest within
a mirror. So these forms are not ·their en-
tities, since the fotms become manifest in On the night that I wrote this chapter I
accordance with the shape of the mirror. had a dream which filled me with joy. I
Nor are those forms identical with the awoke and composed a verse that I had
mirror, since in its own essence the mir- previously worked on in my mind. It is a
ror does not possess the differentiation of verse of boasting:
that which becomes manifest from them
or of them themselves. So they do not go Every age has one person through whom
into exile. They are the people of wit- it soars-
nessing (shuhud) in existence (wujud). I For the rest of this age, I am that one!
only ascribe existence to them because of
'the temporal origination of the properties, This is because, to my knowledge, there
which do not become manifest except is no one today who has re;tlized the sta-
within an existent thing (mawjud). Hence tion of servanthood more than I, though
the level of exile is not one of the there may be my equal. For I have
322 waystations of the Men. It is a lower reached the utmost limit of servanthood. I
Safety in Servanthood

am the pure and utter servant who knows But that still would have been through
nothing of the flavor of lordship. (III God's preserving him.
41.23) He who enters in as a servant has no
fear. When his wick becomes ignited
there, he knows who lit it and he sees His
The gnostic enters into God's presence kindness in that. Then he comes out as an
in his nothingness, but he returns illu- illuminated servant. Thus God said,
minated. "Glory be to Him who carried His ser-
vant by night" (17:1), that is, as a ser-
vant. 14 But when he came back out to his
There are those who undergo unveiling community, he came "calling unto God
and then flee back to the visible world be- by His leave, and as a light-giving lamp"
cause they see that which terrifies them in (33:46), just as he had entered in as a
their unveiling. One such was our com- lowly servant, knowing that into which
panion A~mad al-'A~~ad al-I:Iariri. 13 he was entering and to whom he was en-
When he was taken, he would quickly re- tering. (I 276.19)
turn to his senses shakiil.g and trembling.
I used to scold him and tell him not to do
that, but he would say, "I am frightened Through seeking refuge in his own
and terrified lest I lose myself through' servanthood, the perfect servant mani-
what I see." . . . fests God's attributes almost in spite of
He who enters God's presence while himself. He seeks refuge in his own
having something of lordship in himself nothingness, but others perceive the
fears losing it there, so he flees back to the attributes of God reflected within him.
existence within which his lordliness be-
comes manifest. Hence there is little
profit in his entering. But he who is At root the servant was created only to
firmly fixed enters as a receptive servant belong to God and to be a servant perpet-
with a resolve inflamed for his root, so ually. He was not created to be a lord. So
that God may give him those of His gen- when God clothes him in the robe of
tle favors which will habituate him. Then mastership and commands him to appear
he comes out as a light from whom illu- in it, he appears as a servant in himself
mination is sought. and a master in the view of the observer.
He who enters into that Exalted Side This is the ornament of his Lord, the robe
with his lordship is like him who enters in He has placed upon him.
with a burning lamp, while he who enters Someone objected to Abu Y azid that
in with his servanthood is like him who the people touched him with their hands
enters with a wick without flame, or with and sought blessing from him. He re-
a handful of smoldering twigs. When the plied, "They are not touching me, they
two of them enter like this, a breath from are only touching an adornment with
the All-merciful blows against them. The which my Lord has adorned me. Should I
lamp is extinguished by that wind, while forbid them from that, when it does not
the twigs flame up. The possessor of the belong to me?"
light comes out in darkness, while the Someone remarked to Abu Madyan
possessor of the twigs comes out with a that the people were touching him with
light from which illumination can be their hands with the intention of gaining
sought. So look at what his preparedness blessing and he let them do that. "Do you
has given to him! not find in yourself the effect of that?"
Thus everyone who flees from there He replied, "Does the Black Stone [of
fears that his lamp will be extinguished. the Ka'ba] find in itself an effect which
He is afraid that his lordship will disap- would remove it from being a stone,
pear, so he flees to the place where it is since it is kissed by the messengers, the
manifest. But he only comes out after his prophets, and the friends, and since it is
lamp has been extinguished. If he came the right hand of God?"
out and it was still lit, such that the blow- The person replied that it did not.
ing of the wind had no effect upon it, Abu Madyan said, "I am that Stone."
then he would be right to claim lordship. Concerning this station God says to His 323
Soteriology

Prophet, "Those who swear allegiance to to this servant, because of the effects of
thee swear allegiance in truth to God" it which they see becoming manifest
(48:10). Hence He negated after having from him. But this belongs to God, not
affirmed, just as He did with the throw- to him. And in himself he is different
ing- He both affirmed it and negated it: from that which he makes manifest to the
"You did not throw when you threw, but cosmos.
God threw" (8:17). (III 136.8) It is impossible for the effect of lordship
Man should know that nothing brings not to become manifest from him. When
servitude and Lordship together in any the disciple (tilmldh) knows that the
respect. Of all things, these two are the shaykh is of this sort, God opens up to
most intense in contrariety to each other. the disciple that in which is his felicity.
. . . Though black and white are contrar- For he becomes disengaged from every-
ies, they are brought together by color. thing for God's side just as the shaykh is
Though motion and rest are contraries, disengaged. He trusts in God, not in the
they are brought together by an engen- shaykh. Then he remains looking upon
dered thing. . . . Every set of two oppo- the shaykh to see what state God will
site or different things in the cosmos must cause to pass over him in respect of the
have something which brings the two to- disciple, such as speaking with a com-
gether, in spite of their contrariety, except mand or a prohibition or uttering knowl-
servant and Lord, since the two do not edge which will benefit him. Then the
come together in any affair whatsoever. disciple takes that from God on the
The servant is he who has no face in tongue of the shaykh. The disciple knows
Lordship, and the Lord is he who has no in himself about the shaykh what the
face in servanthood. Hence the Lord and shaykh knows about himself: that he is
the servant never come together. the locus for the flow of the properties of
The ultimate illusion is for a person to lordship.
bring together Lord and servant through Even if the shaykh should pass away,
wujud [Being/existence], for that does this disciple would not feel his loss as
not bring them together. For I do not such, since he knows the state of his
mean by "that which brings together" the shaykh. Such was Abu Bakr al-$iddiq
ascription of words. I only mean the attri- with the Messenger of God, when the
bution of a meaning to one of the two in Messenger died. There was no one who
exactly the same sense as it is attributed to was not terribly upset and did not say
the other. But this is not found in the things which should not have been heard.
wujud which is attributed to the Lord and Thereby each bore witness against himself
the wujud attributed to the servant. For for his own inadequacy and his lack of
the wujud of the Lord is His own Entity, knowledge of the Messenger whom he
while the wujud of the servant is a prop- followed. This was the case with every-
erty which the servant is judged to pos- one but Abu Bakr, since for him the situ-
sess. In respect of his entity, the servant ation had not changed. He knew what
may exist or may not exist, but the defi- there was and the actual situation. Hence
nition of his entity is the same in the two he climbed the pulpit and recited, "Mu-
cases. Q.ammad is naught but a messenger; mes-
Since the wujud of the servant is not his sengers have passed away before him.
own entity, and since the wujud of the Why, if he should die or is slain, will you
Lord is identical with Himself, the servant turn about on your heels?" (3:144). So he
should stand in a station within which no whose illusions had overcome him came
whiffs of lordship are smelt from him. back to his senses, and then the people
For to have lordship would be falsehood knew the excellence of Abu Bakr over ev-
and ignorance itself, so its possessor eryone else. Hence he was worthy of the
would not gain the station of servitude, imamate and being given precedence. No
though in fact he is a servant. To my one swore allegiance to him aimlessly.
words, "No whiff of lordship is smelt And no one failed to swear allegiance to
from him," I only add, "On his part, in him except those who were ignorant of
himself," since he is never heedless of the same thing in him of which they were
witnessing his servitude. ignorant in the Messenger of God. (III
324 However, others might ascribe lordship 371.27)
Safety in Servanthood

Worship Through Free Will Offirings through which he grasps, and his foot
through which he walks. " 15 From this
hadith are derived the technical terms
Islamic Law divides acts of worship "the nearness of supererogatory works"
into two basic kinds: far4 (obligatory) (qurb al-nawafil) and "the nearness of ob-
and na.fl (supererogatory). The literal ligatory works" (qurb al-fara'i4). (Often
significance of na.fl is booty, bounty, gift; "nearness" is replaced by the term "wor-
something in excess of what is expected. ship" or "love" [~ubb]). Ibn al-'Arabi and
Each category of obligatory worship- his followers place these two nearnesses
e.g., praying, fasting, making the pil- at the highest levels of human perfection.
grimage to Mecca-has its own super- The Shaykh describes the nearness of
erogatory acts. In his chapter on these supererogatory works, which is most
acts, Ibn al-'Arab:i discusses the divine often depicted as the lower of the two, in
roots of the various categories. The root many different contexts.
of all supererogation is the fact that the
servant is God's "supererogatory work"
That which brings together all the su-
(nafila), that is, -something in excess of pererogatory acts is the fact that the Real
what is obligatory on God. He created us loves the servant, since these acts result in
as His own free will offering to us. God's love for him. But this is not just
any love. It is a love through which the
The supererogatory acts are ranked ac- Real is your hearing through which you
cording to the excellence of the obligatory hear, your sight through which you see,
acts from which they derive, since they your hand through which you grasp, and
consist of each practice which has a root your leg through which you run. (II
in the obligatory acts and which is born 168.2)
from that root and becomes manifest in The Real is far too exalted to dwell (~u­
its form. In the same way, we become lul) within corporeal bodies. As for man,
manifest in the form of God. So we are he sees through the sight which subsists
His supererogatory work, and He is our through an organ, the eye in his head. He
root. That is why we say concerning Him hears through the hearing which subsists
that He is the Necessary Being through through an organ, his ear. He speaks
Himself, while we are necessary through through the speech which exists in the
Him, not through ourselves. (II 167.2) movement and stillness of his tongue, his
"Obligatory works" (farii'iq) are acts to lips, and the places of articulation, from
be performed or avoided which God has his chest to his lips. Then this same per-
made incumbent (wiijib) and unequivo- son practices acts of obedience to God in
cally necessary for His servants. He who excess of what is obligatory for him, that
does not perform them has sinned. (II is, the supererogatory good works (na-
168.13) wiifil al-khayriit). This practice results in
the negation of his hearing, his sight, his
The difference between these two speech, and all his meanings, such as seiz-
types of practices has been much dis- ing and running, the properties of which
cussed by the jurists and the Sufis. For had necessarily belonged to him. Because
many of the latter, the most significant of the properties of these meanings,
knowledge which we have about them is names such as hearing, seeing, and speak-
what God says in the famous ~adlth quds!: ing had been applied to him. Now he
"My servant draws near to Me through hears through God, after he had been
nothing I love more than that which I hearing through his own hearing. He sees
through God, after he had been seeing
have made obligatory for him. My ser-
through his own sight. Nevertheless, we
vant never ceases drawing near to Me know that God is far too exalted for the
through supererogatory works until I things to be His dwelling place (ma~all) or
love him. Then, when I love him, I am for Him to be their dwelling place. Hence
his hearing through which he hears, his the servant has heard through Him who
sight through which he sees, his hand does not subsist (qiyiim) within him. He 325
Soteriology

has seen through that which does not sub- duty of following comes to possess his
sist within him. And he has spoken property, just as God said, "Say: 'I call to
through that which does not subsist God upon insight, I and whoever follows
within him, since the Real is his hearing, after me'" (12:108).
his sight, and his hand. (II 614.4) But how can the eminence of him who
God said concerning him whom He walks upon air be compared with that of
loves through the love of supererogatory him for whom the Real is his hearing and
works, "I am his hearing, and his sight, sight? This belongs to him through per-
and his tongue through which he speaks." severance in the supererogatory good
God gave witness that MuQ.ammad pos- works which result in God's love for
sesses supererogatory works through His him-or, it is the perseverance which re-
words, "As for the night, keep vigil a part sults in this. This love results in the Real's
of it, as a supererogatory work for thee" being his hearing and his sight. (III
(17:79). Hence his hearing must be the 162.10)
Real, his sight the Real, and his speech the In reality, it is the Real who "governs"
Real. But He gave witness to this for no (mudabbir) the cosmos Uust as the spirit
other creature specifically. "governs" the body]. He Himself says,
The mark of those whose obligatory "He governs the affair, He differentiates
works do not completely absorb their su- the signs" (13:2). The "signs" are the
pererogatory works and who have an ex- proofs of the profession of His Unity:
cess of supererogatory works is that God Each created thing gives a proof specific
loves them through this specific love. He to itself of the Unity of Him who
made its mark that the Real is their hear- brought it into existence. . . . These are
ing, their sight, their hand, and all their the "signs" which He "differentiates,"
faculties. Hence the Messenger of God thereby dividing them among His crea-
used to pray that all of himself would be tures according to the innate character
light, 16 since "God is the light of the which God has given to them.
heavens and the earth" (24:35). So He is the spirit of the cosmos, its
This is why the philosophers allude to hearing, its sight, and its hand. Through
the fact that the servant's desired goal is Him the cosmos hears, through Him it
becoming similar (tashabbuh) to the God, sees, through Him it speaks, through
while the Sufis say concerning the same Him it grasps, through Him it runs, since
thing "assuming the traits of the names." "There is no power and no strength save
The expressions are different, but the in God, the All-high, the Tremen-
meaning is one. We beseech and implore dous."18
God that He not veil us from our servi- This is known only by those who draw
tude when we assume the traits of the di- near to God through supererogatory good
vine names! (II 126.3) works, just as has been mentioned in the
The Prophet said concerning Jesus, $a~f~ in the divine prophetic reports:
"Had his certainty increased, he would When the servant draws near to Him
have walked upon the air, " 17 thereby al- through supererogatory works, He loves
luding to his own mi'riij (isrtf). It is obvi- him, and when He loves him He says, "I
ous that Jesus's certainty is greater than am his hearing, his sight, and his hand."
ours, though not greater than the Proph- Another version has, "For him I am hear-
et's. But we walk upon the air-through ing, sight, hand, and confirmer."
the property of following him whose God's words "I am" show that this was
community we are, not because we are already the situation, but the servant was
greater in our certainty than Jesus. In the not aware. Hence the generous gift which
same way the community of Jesus may this nearness gives to him is the unveiling
walk upon water, just as Jesus walked and the knowledge that God is his hearing
upon water. At the same time we know and his sight. He had been imagining that
-even if in this situation we have this he hears through his own hearing, but he
only through following-that the whole was hearing through his Lord. In the
community does not walk upon air as same way, during his life, man supposes
MuQ.ammad walked upon air, since some that he hears through his spirit, because of
members ofhis community do not follow his ignorance, but in actual fact he hears
p6 him in everything they were commanded only through his Lord. (III 67.29)
to follow him in. But he who fulfills the God is identical with Being/ existence.
Saftty in Servanthood

He is described as possessing attributes God has explained to us that the He-


because the existent things have attri- ness of the Real is the hearing, the sight,
butes. Then He reported that in respect of and all the faculties of the servant. The
His own Entity, He is identical with the servant only exists through his faculties,
attributes and members of the servant, for so he only exists through the Real. His
He said, "I am his hearing." Thereby He outward dimension (?iihir) is a limited,
attributed hearing to the entity of the ex- creaturely form, while his inward dimen-
istent thing which hears, while He as- sion (biifin) is the He-ness of the Real, not
cribed it to Himself. But there is no Ex- limited by the form. In respect of his
istent Being save He. So it is He who form, the servant is one of those who
hears, and He is the hearing. So also is the "glorify Him in praise," but in respect
case with the other faculties and percep- of his inward dimension, he is as we
tions: They are nothing but He. (II have mentioned. So the Real glorifies
563.29) Himself.
The servant draws near to God through The combined totality (majmu') yields a
the acts which are attributed to him. Then subtle, abstruse meaning which neither of
he reaches the nearness concerning which the two sides yields singly. Various things
the Real reported that He is all his facul- are ascribed to the form, such as con-
ties and members through His He-ness. formity and opposition, obedience and
The servant cannot go nearer than this, disobedience. Because of the combined
since He establishes the entity of the ser- totality it is said that the Law makes pre-
vant by the fact that the pronoun in His scriptions. Because of it the ritual prayer
words, "his hearing, his sight, his tongue, can correctly be divided between the ser-
his hand, and his foot," goes back to him. vant and God. The servant says such and
He also establishes that he is not he, since such, and God says such and such."
he is only he through his faculties, be- There can be no servant without the
cause they belong to his essential defini- combined totality. So look at the attri-
tion. In the same way He said, "You did butes which the Real acquires by describ-
not throw when you threw, but God ing Himself as being the faculties of the
threw" (8:17). Both form and meaning servant. Without Him, he would not be a
belong to Him, so He owns the whole, servant, just as the Real would not be his
since He is identical with the whole. faculties without him, for the name "ser-
Hence there is nothing in engendered ex- vant" is only applied to the combined to-
istence but He, within the waystations of tality ....
His Most Beautiful Names. There is none God seeks from us [in the verse "They
in relation to whom He can be glorified are commanded only to worship God, de-
and declared Incomparable except Him- livering the religion over to Him" (98:5)]
self. (IV 272. 22) to deliver our worship over to Him, since
We have in our hands only revealed re- we are servants through worship, and we
ports concerning God's descent, withness, are only servants through His He-ness.
two hands, hand, eye, eyes, foot, laugh- Hence we deliver servanthood over to
ter, and so forth, all of which the Real at- Him, as follows: We say to Him, "Thou
tributes to Himself This is the "form of art He through Thy I-ness, and Thou art
Adam," and in all these reports, He gives He through my 1-ness. Hence there is
us its differentiated details. Then He nothing but Thou. Hence Thou art
brings it all together in the Prophet's named 'Lord' and 'servant'."
words, "God created Adam upon His If the situation is not like this, we have
own Form." Hence perfect man looks not delivered worship over to Him. For
with the eye of God. This is indicated by He only seeks us to deliver worship in
His words, "I am his sight through which respect to the combined totality. Wor-
he sees" and so on. In the same way, he ship can have no existence or relationship
receives joyfully with God's joyful receiv- without the combined totality, since
ing, he laughs with God's laughter, he on His own, He is "Independent of the
rejoices through God's rejoicing, he be- worlds," but through the combined total-
comes wrathful through God's wrath, ity He says, "Lend to God a good loan"
and he forgets through God's forgetting. (73:20), so He delimited the loan by good-
God says, "They forgot God, so He for- doing (al-i~siin). Then He explained to us 327
got them" (9:67). (II 124.17) the meaning of good-doing, and He only
Soteriology

did so in terms of the witnessing of the who has no will cannot give preponder-
delimited, set up in the kibla. 20 ance, just as he who has no supereroga-
So the knowledge of God in the tongue tory works cannot have the Real as his
of the Lawgiver who is God's spokesman sight. (IV 30.11)
is different from knowledge of Him Through being joined (itti~iil) to the
through rational consideration. Hence Real, man is annihilated (fonii') from him-
there are two ways to knowledge of God, self. Then the Real becomes manifest so
or if you like, you can say three. One that He is his hearing and his sight. This
way is our knowledge of Him in respect is what is called a knowledge of "tasting."
of our reflective consideration, a second The Real is nothing of these organs until
in respect of His addressing us through they are burned up by His Being, so that
the Law, and a third our knowledge of He is there, not they.
Him through the combined totality. And I have tasted that and felt the burning at
we know that we will not know Him as the sensory level during my invocation of
He knows Himself. (IV 140.25, 141.9) Allah through Allah. There He was, and I
Among human beings are those who was not. I felt my tongue burning up. I
seek Him through Him, but no angel suffered the pain of that burning with a
seeks Him in this manner. This is because sensory, animate suffering in the organ.
the perfect human being is upon the di- In that state I continued invoking Allah
vine form in which God created him, but through Allah for six hours or nearly so.
the angel does not have that. He who has Then God made my tongue grow back
this attribute is able to seek God through and I invoked Him through presence
Him. And he who seeks Him through (~uqur) with Him, but not through Him.
Him reaches Him, for no one else reaches The same is true of all the faculties: The
Him. The perfect human being has super- Real will be nothing of them until His
erogatory works in addition to his obliga- Being burns away that faculty, and He is
tory works. When the servant draws near there, whichever faculty it may be. This
to Him through them, He loves him. is indicated by His words, "I am his hear-
And when He loves him, He is his hear- ing, his sight, his tongue, and his hand."
ing and his sight. He who does not witness and feel the
When the Real is the sight of a servant burning in his faculties has no tasting; it is
in this manner, he sees Him and perceives only his illusion (tawahhum). This is the
Him through His sight, since his sight is meaning of God's words concerning the
the Real. Hence he only perceives Him divine veils, "Were they to be removed,
through Him, not through himself. But the glories of His Face would burn away
no angel draws near to God through su- (everything perceived by the sight of the
pererogatory works; on the contrary, creatures]." Whenever the Real desires to
they are all busy with obligatory works. burn away a faculty of His servant in or-
Their obligatory works have absorbed all der for him to acquire knowledge by way
their breaths, so they have no supereroga- of tasting through lifting the veil that
tory works. Hence they have no station stands between man and the Real in re-
which would result in the Real being their spect to that faculty, He burns it away
sight so that they could perceive Him through the light of His face and fills up
through Him. the fissure left by that faculty. If it is his
Hence the angels are servants by com- hearing, the Real is his hearing at this
pulsion (iqtiriir), while we are servants time; if it is his sight or his tongue, the
by compulsion through our obligatory same is the case. In this meaning I com-
works and by free choice (ikhtiyiir) posed the following poem:
through our supererogatory works. In
the same way, He is an essential Lord Truly the invocation of Allah through
through our existence and a Lord of will Allah burns-
through His property within us. The es- My judgment in this is a verified
sential Lordship is compulsory (qai'Uri), judgment.
since it cannot be removed, but the Lord- For I - by the Lord of inspirations-
ship of will is determined by the possibil- savored it,
ity of the possible things. He gives pre- so my judgment of its truth has been
328 ponderance to whatever He wills. He confirmed.
Safety in Servanthood

That is why the Real says in the sound topics already discussed, such as the fact
hadith, "I am his hearing and his sight." that servanthood has two levels, servant-
He identified His own attribute of being hood through free choice (ikhtiyiir) or su-
(kaynuna) with the hearing of the servant, pererogatory works, and servanthood
described by a specific description. This is through compulsion (i4tiriir) or obliga-
the greatest joining (itti~iil) that takes place
tory works. In the last analysis, the latter
between God and the servant, inasmuch
as He causes one of the servant's faculties is higher and corresponds to "servitude"
to disappear and stands through His own ('ubiida).
attribute of being within the servant in
the station of what disappeared, as is Through supererogatory works, God is
proper to His majesty, and without any the servant's hearing and his seeing.
declaration of similarity, explanation of Through obligatory works, the servant is
how (takyif), constriction, encompassing, the hearing and seeing of the Real, and by
indwelling (~ulul), or substitution. "We this the cosmos is established. For God
have only witnessed what we know; we looks at the cosmos only through the
were no guardians of the Unseen. En- sight of this servant, and the cosmos does
quire from the town," that is, the group, not disappear, since there is an affinity.
"wherein we were" (12:81), that is, the But if He were to look at the cosmos with
Folk of Allah, those of God's servants His own sight, the cosmos would be
who are ascribed to this path, those who burnt away by the glories of His Face.
performed the supererogatory good Hence the Real looks at the cosmos only
works, persisted within them, and turned through the sight of the perfect servant
toward God through them. (III 298.17) who is created upon the Form. That ser-
vant is precisely the veil between the cos-
mos and the burning glories. 21 (II
354.19)
When the servant performs his obliga-
Obligations and Supererogations tions completely, he has fulfilled the serv-
itude which is the rightful claim of Lord-
ship upon him. The obligatory works
In the nearness of supererogatory result in an affair higher than that the Real
works, God is the hearing and sight of should be his hearing. For when the Real
the ,servant. In the nearness of obligatory is the hearing of the servant, this is a state
works, the servant is God's hearing and of the servant, but the property of obliga-
sight. It is through this station that per- tory works comes between him and this
fect man is the "eye of God" and the state, for their property is that he be-
protector of the cosmos. Though Ibn al- comes the hearing of the Real. Then the
'Arabi declares that the nearness of su- Real hears through the servant. This is
pointed to by His words, "I was hungry,
pererogatory works is possessed by the
but you did not feed Me. " 22 The fact that
gnostics, the perfect men, and the the obligatory works come between the
Prophet himself, he states that the near- servant and the Real's being his hearing is
ness of obligatory works is higher. There a verified and established station, as it is
is no contradiction here, since perfect in the actual situation. In this station [in
man may possess both nearnesses at which the servant is God's hearing] the
once. In respect to one nearness he is servant knows that the Real is he/not he.
nearer to God than in respect to the But the possessor of the "state" [in which
other. God is his hearing] says "I." (II 168.20)
In the first passage below, Ibn al- The servant draws near through per-
forming obligatory works. When some-
'Arabi suggests that the nearness of su-
one acquires the fruit of this, he is the
pererogatory works is a state (as his own hearing and sight of the Real. Hence the
description of the burning of his tongue Real desires through his desire, though he
would indicate), while that of obligatory does not know that his object of desire is
works is a station. In other passages he what God desires should happen. If he
points out certain parallels which tie in knows that, he is not the possessor of this 329
Soteriology

station. This is the scale with which is "The words of God are not exhausted. " 26
weighed the performance of obligatory Hence he was given the knowledge of
works, and the servant draws near to God that which is infinite. He knows that
"through nothing that God loves more." which is finite through its being restricted
As for the nearness of supererogatory by existence, and he knows what has not
works, God also loves the servant entered into existence, which is infinite.
through it. God's love gives him the Real He encompasses in knowledge the reali-
as his hearing and his sight. This is the ties of the known things, and they are a
scale by which it is weighed. (II 559.25) divine attribute which belongs to no one
God chose obligatory works as the best but God. God's "Word" is words, just
of works, because they result in the ser- like the divine command, which is "but
vant being the attribute of the Real-His one" word, "like the twinkling of an eye"
hearing and His sight-while the love of (54:50). There is nothing more similar to
supererogatory works yields the Real as it in the sensory domain or more appro-
the hearing and sight of the servant. The priate as a simile than the twinkling of an
supererogatory stands in a lower degree eye.
than the obligatory, since the obligatory Since the Prophet knew the all-com-
possesses primacy. prehensive words, he was given "inimit-
The Real Himself does not descend to ability" (i'jaz) through the Koran, which
be "the hearing of the servant," as He is God's Word, and through it he acts as
said, because His majesty does not allow God's spokesman (mutarjim). Hence there
this. Hence, He must descend through is inimitability in his speaking on His be-
His attribute, which means that the ser- half. One cannot conceive of "inimitabil-
vant is the attribute of the Real, because ity" in meanings disengaged from sub-
of the form upon which he was created, strata, since inimitability is the connection
since it is "cut out" from the Divine of these meanings to the forms of the
Form, just as "The womb (ra~im) is a words which subsist through letters.
branch of the All-merciful (al-ra~man). " 23 So the Prophet is the tongue of the
[The root meaning of] "obligatory" is "to Real, His hearing, and His sight. This is
cut." the highest of divine levels. One degree
When the servant performs obligatory lower is the level of him whose hearing,
works, the fact that he is an attribute of sight, and tongue are the Real. Then He
the Real becomes manifest to him in acts as His servant's spokesman, just as
them, but when he performs supereroga- He acts as the spokesman through the
tory works, the attribute of the Real be- Koran for the states of those who came
longs to him. Thereby the obligatory is before us and for what they said. This
differentiated from the supererogatory, second degree does not have the same
and the higher degree belongs to the eminence, for here He acts as spokesman
obligatory. Were it not for the fact that for His Folk and for the words of those
the obligatory yields that, it would not be brought near to Him, like the angels. He
established that He has said, "I was hun- also acts as spokesman for Ib!Is, in spite of
gry, and you did not feed Me," and "I am his despair (iblas), satanity, and distance
more intense in my yearning to meet My from what He said. But none acts as
servant than he is in desiring Me. " 24 For spokesman for God save him who has re-
He is "nearer" to us "than the jugular ceived an election (ikhti~a~) beyond which
vein" (50:16), and He says, "I never wa- there is no election. (III 142.27, 143.6)
ver in what I am doing [the way I waver The Messenger of God said that God
• • • ]," 25 and so on. (II 173.8) says, "My servant draws near to Me
The Prophet's station in the sciences is through nothing that I love more than
to encompass the knowledge of every what I have made obligatory for him,"
knower of God, whether those who went since this is a servanthood of compulsion.
before or those who came after . . . . He "And My servant never ceases drawing
was singled out for six qualities never near to Me through supererogatory
given to any prophet before him .... The works," which is a servanthood of free
second of these qualities is that he was choice, "until I love him," since He made
given "the all-comprehensive words." them "supererogatory works," so they re-
330 "Words" is the plural of "word," and quire distance from God. Then, when the
Safety in Sen;anthood

servant fastens himself to the servanthood imagined from them, unless they be com-
of free choice in the way he is fastened to manded, such as the messengers. But this
the servanthood of compulsion, He loves belongs to God, "And they disobey not
him. This is the meaning of His words, God in what He commands them" (66:6),
"Until I love him." Then he says, "When since they are preserved (ma'~um) from the
I love him, I am his hearing through attribution of acts to themselves.. When
which he hears, his sight through which acts become manifest from them, they
he sees," and so on. say, "They belong to those names of His
When the Real is the sight of the ser- which arc manifest in His loci of manifes-
vant through this state, how should there tation. What do we have to do with mak-
be concealed from him what is not con- ing claims? We are nothing (Iii shay') in
cealed [from God]? Supererogatory works the state of being loci of manifestation for
and clinging fast to them give the servant Him and in every state."
the properties of the attributes of the This station is called "everlasting ease"
Real, while obligatory works give him (rii~at al-abad). The person who stands in
the fact of being nothing but light. Then it is called "at ease" (mustarl~). He is the
he looks through His Essence, not person who has fulfilled the right of
through His attributes, for His Essence is Lordship, since the property belongs to
identical to His hearing and His seeing. the level, not to the entity. Do you not
That is the Real's Being, not the servant's see that the sovereign's decrees are ob-
existence. (II 65.21) served in his kingdom? So he is not dis-
Most of the intelligent among the Folk obeyed; he is feared, and people have
of Allah are able to pave the way to the hopes in him. This is not because he is a
objects of their desire simply through human being, for his humanness is his en-
their Resolve. Some of them achieve that tity. This is only because he is a sover-
in this world, and for others it is stored eign. Hence the intelligent person sees
away until the Day of Resurrection. The that what rules in the sovereign's king-
great Men know that for which they were dom is his level, not his entity. The sov-
created, so if they were to halt at bringing ereign does not rule because he is a hu-
things to be (takwln), He would confront man being, since there is no difference
them with that. But they leave it to the between him and every other human be-
Real to turn His creatures this way and ing. Such is the case with all loci of man-
that, as He does in actual fact. They re- ifestation.
fuse to be a locus for the manifestation of The Men of Allah consider themselves
turning things this way and that. If some- in respect of their entities, not in respect
thing of that sort becomes manifest from of their being loci of manifestation. So the
them, this is not because of any intention level is the ruler, not themselves. This
of theirs. On the contrary, God has is the fruit of the Real which they pick
caused it to occur for them .and made it when they rule through Him and reach
manifest through them for the sake of a servitude and servanthood-the worship
wisdom that He knows, while they are of obligatory works and the worship of
far removed from that. But that they supererogatory works. (II 96.25)
should intend to do this-that cannot be

331
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7

Consummation
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1 9. T R A N S C E N D I N G THE G 0 D S
OF BELIEF

"Faith" (lman) was defined as belief, However, his belief is never fixed at any
verbal expression of the belief, and put- moment of existence, since he constantly
ting the belief into practice. But the be- undergoes transformations as the possi-
lief contained in faith is not just any be- bilities inherent in his own entity make
lief, since the object of belief is implicit themselves manifest. Preparedness con-
in the term. When the Koran commands stantly changes.
human beings to have faith, as it often Though preparedness goes back to the
does, it means faith in "God, the angels, immutable entities, human beings are not
the prophets, the scriptures, and the Last puppets in this show. They are actors,
Day," a formula occurring with slight which is to say that they possess the ca-
variation in three verses (2:177, 2:285, pacity, albeit limited, to direct the flow
4:136). More specifically, this means faith of their own unfolding. It is true that
in the Koran and the Prophet Mu~am­ God has precedent knowledge of their
mad, and the putting of their teachings choices, but they have no such knowl-
into practice. edge. Whatever choice they make has a
The term "belief' (i'tiqad, 'aqlda) does real effect upon their becoming. For ex-
not occur in the Koran, though other ample, if a person sincerely asks God for
terms from the same root are employed. "increase in knowledge," he opens him-
The basic meaning is to tie a knot, or to self up to greater knowledge, since God
tie firmly. Belief is a knot tied in the answers prayers. Knowledge is light, and
heart, a conviction that something is light is existence; greater knowledge
true. In Ibn al-'Arabl's way of looking at means a greater capacity to manifest
things, everyone has beliefs, since every- existence.
one is a delimited and defined existent The process of transformation, whether
thing with a delimited and defined con- by way of increase or decrease, continues
sciousness, a knotting of the heart. An ad infinitum. But where will a person's
individual's belief goes back to the pre- unfolding take him? From the human
paredness of his immutable entity, or its point of view, this depends upon the
capacity to act as a receptacle for Being. goal he sets for himself, which in turn is
Consummation

defined by his belief. The least one can the same. People are different because
say is that, in order for human develop- God's self-disclosure never repeats itself,
ment to end up in felicity in the next so each existent thing, as a self-disclosure
world, belief must be a part of "faith" as of God, differs from every other. The di-
defined. In other words, the objects of vine root of the diversity of God's self-
belief must be those set down in revela- disclosures is the diversity of the divine
tion, and the concomitants of belief must names, or the fact that God constantly
be verbal attestation to faith and the fol- undergoes "self-transmutation" (ta~aw­
lowing of the Law, the putting of belief wul), or the infinite diversity of the im-
into practice. As a matter of course every mutable entities.
belief, every delimitation of the heart, Ibn al-'Arabi sometimes refers to
will have certain effects upon activity. God's self-transmutation as the "divine
But that does not make belief equivalent self-disclosure in the forms of beliefs"
to faith, unless the contents of the belief (e.g., II 311.25). According to the hadith
and the accompanying practice are both already partly quoted in Chapter 6, God
set down by a revealed Law. discloses Himself to the people at the
Even in faith, however, every per- Day of Resurrection, but they deny
son's belief is not the same. Faith may Him. Then, while still unrecognized by
be enough for felicity, but felicity has them, He says, "Is there a sign (aya) by
as many degrees as there are felicitous which you will recognize God?" They
souls. Existence is by nature a "ranking reply that there is, and He shows it to
according to excellence" (tafo4ul), whether them, so they acknowledge Him as their
in this world or the next. Just as no two Lord. Ibn al-'Arabi commonly refers to
people have exactly the same knowledge this "sign" as the "mark" ('alama) that
and awareness in the present plane of ex- each group will recognize, and he identi-
istence, so also no two people will have fies it as "the form of their belief con-
exactly the same degree of proximity to cerning Him" (I 266.18).
God in the next world. The degree a per-
son achieves, within the context of his Every group have believed something
faith, goes back to his belief. about God. If He discloses Himself in
To the extent that a person ties his other than that something, they will deny
belief into a tighter knot, he will be Him. But when He discloses Himself in
further from the Divine Reality, which the mark which this group have estab-
is Nondelimited by definition. To the lished with God in themselves, then they
extent he loosens all knots, he will be will acknowledge Him. Thus, for ex-
nearer to God. But that "tightening" and ample, when He discloses Himself to an
Ash'arite in the form of the belief of his
"loosening" cannot be defined by our opponent, whose "knotting" ('aqd) con-
own ego-centric vision of things. It must cerning God is opposed to his, or He
be delineated by God Himself, and this manifests Himself to his opponent in the
He does through the Law in all its de- form of the belief of the Ash'arite, each of
grees. What appears as tightening, con- the two groups will deny Him. And so it
straint, limitation, and restriction of free- is with all groups. (I 266.15)
dom from the human point of view may God says, "He gave each thing its cre-
in fact, from the divine point of view, be ation" (20:50). Hence every existent thing
loosening, opening, nondelimitation, and has the stature (taqwlm) given to it by its
deliverance. creation. God says concerning man, "We
indeed created man in the most beautiful
stature" (95:4). In other words, the stature
in which He created man is more excel-
The Roots of Belief lent than any other stature. Man possesses
the attribute of being more excellent than
others only because God created him
No two people have exactly the same upon His own form.
336 belief, because no two people are exactly If you object that the changes which
Transcending the Gods of Belief

man undergoes belong to himself, and the If anyone wants entrance to God, let
form of the Real does not accept change, him abandon his reason and place before
we reply: God says in this station, "We himself God's Law, for God does not ac-
shall finish with you, 0 mankind and cept delimitation (taqyfd), and reason is a
jinn!" (55:31). The Prophet said, "Thy delimitation. To Him belongs disclosing
Lord has finished. " 1 He also said that Himself in each form, just as to Him be-
God will disclose Himself in the nearest longs "composing you in whatever form
form. Then, when they deny Him, He He desired" (82:8). So praise belongs to
will transmute Himself into the form in God, who has composed us within the
which they will recognize Him by means form which neither delimits nor confines
of the mark which they recognize. Hence Him within a determinate form! On the
God has attributed this station to Himself. contrary, I assign to Him what belongs to
He transcends the station of change and Him according to His own giving of
alteration in His Essence. However, this knowledge, and that is His self-trans-
station [of change] bestows its name upon mutation within forms. No one has "mea-
the self-disclosures in the divine loci of sured God with His true measure" (6:91)
manifestation in the measure of the beliefs except God. He who halts with God in
which are occasioned within the creatures that by which He has described Himself
instant by instant. Hence what we said is will not place Him under the property of
sound and this illusory objection is re- his own reason in respect of His Self-
moved. High indeed is God exalted! (II high indeed is God exalted above that! ...
683.19) The Real has two relationships to wu-
God is with every object of belief. His Jiid: His relationship to the Necessary Be-
existence in the conception (ta~awwur) of ing of Self: and His relationship to formal
him who conceives of Him does not dis- existence. He discloses Himself to His
appear when that person's conception creatures in the second, since it is impos-
changes into another conception. No, He sible for Him to disclose Himself in His
has an existence in this second concep- Necessary Being of Self, since we have no
tion. In the same way, on the Day of Res- eye by which to perceive that. Whether in
urrection He will transmute Himself in the state of our existence or our nonexist-
self-disclosure from form to form. But ence, we remain entities to whom the
that form from which He transmutes preponderance [of the one or the other]
Himself does not disappear from Him, has been given. The property of possibil-
since the one who believed that concern- ity (imkiin) never leaves us, so we never
ing Him will see it. Hence He does noth- see Him except through ourselves, that
ing but remove the veil from the eye of is, in respect of what our realities give.
the one who is perceiving the form, so Hence His self-disclosure must take place
that the person is then "upon insight." If within formal existence, which is that
they should blame Him, for their sake He which accepts self-transmutation and con-
transmutes Himself into the new form tinual change. (III 515.33, 516.14)
which possesses their mark. (IV 142.30)
In Himself God is One, while self-
disclosures take the form of the many.
God's wujiid is One in Him, but ap- This plurality of manifestation goes back
pears as the manifold existent things to the divine names, which are one and
through self-disclosure. In other words, many at the same time. Ibn al-'Arabi
"Being" is attributed to God in respect of refers to this while commenting on the
His incomparability and "existence" is sura of Unity (Koran 112). The first
attributed to Him in respect of His sim- verse, "He is God, One" refers to the
ilarity. In the first case, God's Essence is Unity of the One (a~adiyyat al-a~ad),
unknowable and inaccessible; it is the while the second verse, "God, the Ever-
Necessary Being through Itself. In the lasting Refuge" refers to the fact that all
second case God manifests Himself manyness returns to the names and finds
within "formal existence" (al-wujiid al- refuge in them .
.)iirl), that is, the Breath of the All-mer-
ciful, which assumes the form of all the In respect of His Self, God possesses
existent things of the cosmos. the Unity of the One, but in respect of 3 37
Consummation

His names He possesses the Unity of the the receptivity of the perceiving subjects.
Many. The divine self-disclosure is one, but
those who "receive" (qabiil) it, or act as
God is only one God. My proof? its "receptacles" (qabil), are many. Each
"Say: He is God, One." receptacle perceives the self-disclosure
When you wander in His names,
according to its own preparedness. To
this wandering derives from number.
But all return to Him. The reciter reads: say that a receptacle "perceives" the self-
"God, the Everlasting Refuge. disclosure means that it "finds" it through
"He gives not birth" in truth, "nor was its own existence. "Perception" and "ex-
He born, istence" are one. Subjectivity and objec-
nor is anyone equal" to God. tivity are two faces of the same reality.
Reason is bewildered in Him, while
imagination dominates it, helping. The Real never ceases disclosing Him-
Through us properties are given to Him- self constantly to hearts in this world.
when we disappear, He stands alone. Hence man's incoming thoughts undergo
variation because of the divine self-dis-
This is the cause which brings about closure in a manner of which no one is
His self-disclosure within the diverse aware except the Folk of Allah. In the
forms and His self-transmutation within same way, they know that the diversity
them: The diversity of beliefs in the cos- of forms manifest in this world and the
mos demands this manyness. The root of next in all existent things is nothing other
the diversity of beliefs in the cosmos is than His variation, since He is the Mani-
this manyness in the One Entity. It ex- fest, for He is identical to each thing.
plains why the people at the resurrection In the next world, the inward dimen-
deny Him when He manifests Himself sion (bii(in) of man will be fixed, since it is
and says to them, "I am your Lord." identical with his outward dimension
Were He to disclose Himself to them in (:?iihir) in this world, which undergoes
the form in which He made the Covenant continual change in a manner that is hid-
with them, no one would deny Him. Af- den, for this is its new creation at each
ter they deny Him, He transmutes Him- moment, about which "They are in con-
self into the form in which He had made fusion" (50:15). But in the next world
the Covenant with them, so they ac- man's outward dimension will be like his
knowledge Him .... inward dimension in this world: The di-
Since God is the root of every diversity vine self-disclosure will come to it con-
(khiliif) in beliefs within the cosmos, and stantly in actuality. Hence his outward di-
since He also has brought about the exis- mension will undergo variation in the
tence of everything in the cosmos in a next world, just as his inward undergoes
constitution not possessed by anything variation in this world within the forms
else, everyone will end up (ma'iil) with taken by the divine self-disclosure, such
mercy. For it is He who created them and that his inward dimension becomes col-
brought them into existence within the ored by those forms. 2
Cloud, which is the Breath of the All- This is the imaginal conformity with
merciful. So they are like the letters in the God (al-taqahi al-iliihi al-khayiili). How-
breath of the speaker at the places of artic- ever, in the next world this conformity
ulation, which are diverse. In the same will be manifest, while in this world it
way, the cosmos is diverse in its consti- is nonmanifest. Hence the property of
tution and its belief, even though it imagination accompanies man in the next
possesses unity through the fact that it world, and also the Real, in whose case it
is a temporally originated cosmos. (III is called a "task": "Each day He is upon
465.3,25) some task" (55:29). Hence He has always
been so and always will be so. This is
called "imagination," since we know that
The Breath of the All-merciful is it goes back to the observer (nii:?ir), not to
Nondelimited Imagination. One reason the thing in itsel£ The thing in itself is
it is called "imagination" is that the per- fixed in its reality. It does not change,
3 38 ception of forms within it depends upon since realities do not change. But it be-
Transcending the Gods of Belief

comes manifest to the observer within a the "locus" (ma~all) of self-disclosure to


variety of forms. This variation is also a consciousness. Like other similar pairs
reality; it never changes from its varia- of terms, "unseen" and "visible" are
tion, so it does not accept fixity in a single correlative and their meaning needs to be
form. On the contrary, its reality is to be seen in context. Most often they refer to
fixed in variation. (Ill 470. 16)
the spiritual and corporeal worlds. But
here by "unseen" is meant God Himself
Man can never escape the property of
-the Essence or He-ness-as contrasted
imagination, since "everything other
with "everything other than God" or the
than God" is governed by it. Though
cosmos, which is "visible" in relation to
from one point of view, the rational
God. The unseen self-disclosure is God's
faculty is able to pierce the veils of im-
own knowledge of the entities in their
agination and perceive the Unity of
state of immutable nonexistence, while
God, from another point of view, even
the visible self-disclosure is God's mak-
rational perception is governed by im-
ing Himself known and manifest to the
agination.
entities by bringing them into existence.
Everyone who perceives through one
of the internal or external faculties in man God has two self-disclosures: an
irp.agines .... All beliefs are governed by "unseen" self-disclosure and a "visible"
this property. The sound hadith says, self-disclosure. Through the unseen self-
"Worship God as if you see Him"-such disclosure He gives the heart its prepared-
are beliefs. The locus of beliefs is the ness. This is the self-disclosure of the Es-
imagination. Though a rational proof is smce, whose reality is the [Absolute] Un-
established that the object of belief is nei- seen. 3 It is the "He-ness" (huwiyya) which
ther inside nor outside, nor is it similar to is proper to Him and in accordance with
anything, yet man never stays safe from which He calls Himself "He" in the Ko-
imagination, if he apprehends anything, ran. This "He" belongs to Him perpetu-
since his configuration demands this .... ally and forever.
So look how hidden and strong imagina- When the heart gains this preparedness,
tion is when it permeates man! He can He discloses Himself to it in the self-
never be safe from imagination and fan- disclosure of witnessing in the visible
tasy. How can he be safe? The rational world. Hence it sees Him and becomes
faculty cannot escape his humanity. (IV manifest in the form of Him who dis-
420.28) closed Himself to it, as we have men-
tioned.
In the Fusiis Ibn al-'Arabi discusses a He gives the heart the preparedness, as
distinction b~t~een two levels of God's indicated in His words, "He gave each
self-disclosure: He discloses Himself to thing its creation" (20:50). Then He lifts
the veil between Himself and His servant.
Himself within His own knowledge as
The servant sees Him in the form of his
the entities and to the cosmos within the own belief, so He is identical to the object
cosmos as formal existence colored and of his belief. Hence neither the heart nor
defined by the entities. We met these two the eye ever witnesses anything but the
levels in Chapter 17 in the discussion of form of the servant's belief concerning the
God's creation of the cosmos according Real. It is this Real within belief whose
to His own knowledge of the cosmos. form is "embraced by" the heart [accord-
Having known all things at the level ing to the hadith]. It is He who discloses
where He discloses Himself to Himself in Himself to the servant, and he recognizes
Himself, He then bestows existence upon Him. Hence the eye sees only the Real of
belief.
the things by disclosing Himself to them.
The great variety of beliefs is hidden
One of these two self-disclosures pertains from no one. He who delimits Him
to the "unseen" world (ghayb) and the denies Him in other than his own de-
other to the "visible" world (shahiida), limitation, while acknowledging Him
while both are perceived by the heart, only when He discloses Himself in that 339
Consummation

whereby he has delimited Him. But He created things by which God becomes
who frees Him from every delimitation qualified, especially as indicated in His
never denies Him. On the contrary, he words, "The heart of My servant em-
acknowledges Him in every form within braces Me." Then His "being gripped" is
which He undergoes self-transmutation His self-disclosure in the form of the be-
and he gives to Him from himself the lief of everyone who has a belief concern-
proper measure of the form in which He ing Him. The Real becomes, as it were,
discloses Himself ad infinitum-since the constricted and contracted by the beliefs.
forms of self-disclosure have no end at These are the "mark" which stands be-
which they might stop. In the same way, tween Him and the common people
the gnostic has no end to knowledge of among His servants. Were He not like
God at which he might stop. At every in- this, He would not be a god; yet He is
stant the gnostic seeks increase of his the God of the cosmos, without doubt.
knowledge of Him: "My Lord, increase Hence He must be described as being em-
me in knowledge!" "My Lord, increase braced in this manner.
me in knowledge!" "My Lord, increase The cosmos is dissimilar in its pre-
me in knowledge!" Hence the situation paredness, and it must have a support.
has no end from either side, that is, when No part of the cosmos ever ceases wor-
you say that there is Real and creature. shiping God in respect of its own pre-
(Fu~ii~ 120) paredness, so the Real necessarily dis-
closes Himself to it in keeping with its
A belief is a knotting, a tying, and a preparedness to receive. For there is
binding. God in Himself is unknowable "nothing that does not glorify Him in
to any "others," since He is absolutely praise," for He has gripped it with both
of His hands in accordance with what it
nondelimited and undefined. No finite
believes, "but you do not understand
thing can perceive the Infinite. When their glorification" (17:44). If their glorifi-
God makes Himself known to others cation went back to a single affair, no one
through His self-disclosure, He limits would fail to understand the glorification
and restricts Himself, or else they could of anyone else. But God has said that the
not know Him. His making Himself glorification of the things is not under-
known to them corresponds to His be- stood, so this indicates that everyone
stowal of existence upon them. The self- glorifies his God in keeping with that of
disclosure through knowledge is the Him which he has in himself and others
same as the self-disclosure through ex- do not have.
Since reason maintains that God cannot
istence. Through His constricting Him-
be restricted, while the actual situation
self, He "ties Himself in a knot" and fits demands the existence of restriction, He
Himself into the beliefs of the creatures. describes Himself at the end of the verse
God's "self-transmutation" takes place as "Clement." Hence He will not take
within "beliefs," since beliefs are another to task-though He has power to do
name for the individual delimitations so- him who supposes that the Real is
which constitute the creatures. "Belief' exclusively such and such and does not
is the creature's cognitive perception of have some other description. At the end
the self-disclosure. Each person's belief of the verse, He describes Himself as
is unique, since it defines his unique "Concealing" (ghafor), since He curtains
their hearts from knowledge of Him-
selfhood. Ibn al-'Arabi makes many of
except those of His servants He wills ....
these points in explaining the divine root Every group other than the Folk of Allah
of the state known as "contraction" have declared Him incomparable with
(qab4), which means literally to grasp such and such. That is why He reports
with the hand, to grip, or to be gripped about these groups by saying, "There is
and compressed. nothing that does not glorify Him," that
is, declare Him incomparable, "in praise,"
The "being gripped" on God's part that is, through laudation of Him. And
from which emerges gripping within en- declaring incomparable is distance. God
340 gendered existence is the attributes of the does not report that He commanded them
Transcending the Gods of Belief

to glorify Him, He merely reports that the requirement of His Essence becomes
they glorify Him in praise. Hence, turn diversified between that which distin-
your attention in your recitation of the guishes Him from us and that through
Koran to that which your Lord says about which He makes Himself known to
Himself, not to that which the cosmos us. (III 409.14)
says about Him. Have discernment, and You will know nothing of God except
have need concerning Him only for what that which comes from Him and which
He says about Himself, not what He He brings into existence within you, ei-
narrates from the speech of the cosmos. ther as inspiration or the unveiling of a
Then you will be one of the Folk of the self-disclosure which has been occasioned.
Koran, those who are God's Folk and All of this is a temporally originated ob-
Elect. (II 509.31) ject of knowledge. Hence nothing knows
anything except a temporally originated
possible thing like itself The possible
things are infinite, since they do not enter
into existence all at once. On the con-
Worshiping God and Self trary, they are given existence instant by
instant. Hence "None knows God but
God," and the temporally originated en-
People imagine that they believe in gendered thing knows nothing but a tem-
God. In fact, they believe in God's self- porally originated thing like itself, which
disclosure to themselves, and this always the Real engenders within it. God says,
takes the shape of the receptacle. As "There comes not to them a remem-
Junayd said, "The water takes on the brance from their Lord temporally origi-
color of its cup." But what is God's self- nated, [but they listen to it yet playing,
disclosure to the individual if not the in- diverted their hearts]" (21 :2). This "Re-
dividual himself? In other words, no one membrance" is His Speech, which had a
temporal origination within them and be-
worships God as He is in Himself; every-
came an object of their knowledge. Hence
one worships God as he perceives Him in their knowledge only became attached to
himself. More briefly: No one worships a temporally originated thing, [not to
anyone but himself. God's eternal speech]. (II 552.22)
Junayd was asked about knowledge
When a person sees something of the (ma'rifa) and the knower ('iirif). He
Real, he never sees anything but him- replied, "The water takes on the color of
self (II 667.14) its cup." In other words, the container
The creatures are bound to worship displays its effects in what it contains.
only what they believe about the Real, Junayd said this to let you know that you
so they worship nothing but a created will never judge your object of knowl-
thing. (IV 386.17) edge except by yourself, since you will
Every man of reason who has a doc- never know anything but yourself What-
trine concerning the Essence of God wor- ever may be the color of the cup, water
ships that to which his reason has given becomes manifest in that color. The per-
birth. If he has faith, this discredits his son without knowledge judges that the
faith. If he does not have faith, no more water is like that, since sight gives that to
needs to be said-especially after Mul:_Iam- him. Water discloses itself in the forms of
mad has been sent to all mankind. (III all the cups in respect to their colors, but
311.2) it does not become delimited in its es-
Once we see that God "sent no messen- sence. You only see it that way. In the
ger save with the tongue of his people" same manner, the shapes of the containers
(14:4), we come to know that He never in which water appears display their ef-
makes Himself known to us-when He fects in it, but in all of them it is still
desires that we know Him-except in ac- water. If the container is square, the water
cordance with our situation, not in accor- becomes manifest as square. . . .
dance with what His Essence requires. He who sees the water only in the cup
Though His making Himself known to us judges it by the property of the cup. But
accords with what His Essence requires, he who sees it simple and noncompound 341
Consummation

knows that the shapes and colors in which preparedness. And his preparedness is of
it becomes manifest are the effect of the two kinds: an essential preparedness,
containers. Water remains in its own defi- through which there is an all-inclusive vi-
nition and reality, whether in the cup or sion; and an accidental preparedness,
outside it. Hence it never loses the name which is the knowledge of God which he
"water." (III 161.24) earns and by which his soul becomes
Having been asked about knowledge adorned in respect of his rational consid-
and the knower, Junayd said, "The water eration. Self-disclosure follows this spe-
takes on the color of its cup." So also are cific preparedness, and within it there oc-
the self-disclosures within the divine loci curs ranking in degrees. (IV 443.33)
of manifestation, wherever these might
be. The gnostic perceives them con-
stantly. Self-disclosure belongs to him By knowing self, the servant comes to
constantly, and he differentiates it con- know God inasmuch as He has disclosed
stantly: The gnostic knows who is dis- Himself to the soul. He knows God in
closing Himself and why He is disclos- His similarity, but can never know Him
ing Himself. But only the Real knows in His incomparability. It follows that by
how (kayf) He discloses Himself. No one
worshiping God, the servant is wor-
in the cosmos, no one other than God,
knows that, neither angel nor prophet.
shiping himself He worships God as He
For that is one of the specific characteris- discloses Himself to the soul, and that is
tics of the Real, since the Essence is un- determined and defined by the soul itself.
known at root. Hence the knowledge of It also follows that one cannot worship
how He discloses Himself in the loci of anything other than God, since whatever
manifestation cannot be acquired or per- one worships is God's self-disclosure to
ceived by any of God's creatures .... the soul. Ibn al-'Arabi sees one of the
Since there are as many cups as drinkers Koranic proofs of this last statement in
at the Pool which will be found in the the verse, "Thy Lord has decreed that
abode of the hereafter, and since the water
you worship none but Him" (17:23). He
in the cup takes the form of the cup in
both shape and color, we know for cer-
explains that this verse is usually read as
tain that knowledge of God takes on the a commandment, similar to the com-
measure of your view, your preparedness, mands "Perform the prayer" and "Pay
and what you are in yourself. No two the alms." But in fact, he says, it is a
people will ever come together in a single statement of the actual situation: Reality
knowledge of God in all respects, since a itself makes it impossible to worship
single constitution is never found in two anything but God.
different people, nor can there be such a
thing. When there are two, there must
be that through which the distinction is When the vision of the Real takes place,
made, since the entity of each is immuta- it only takes place in a mutual waystation
bly established. Were this not so, they (munazala) between an ascent and a de-
could not be two. Hence no one ever scent. The ascent belongs to us and the
knows anything of the Real except his descent to Him. To us belongs "drawing
own self. (II 597.4,35) close" (tadanf) and to Him belongs "com-
Lights (al-anwar) are visible (shahada), ing down" (tadallf), since "coming down"
and the Real is a light, so He is witnessed must stem from the high. • It is ours to
and seen. Mysteries (al-asriir) are unseen climb (taraqql) and His to receive (talaqql)
(ghayb), so they possess the He (al-huwa), those who come to Him. All of this gives
since the He never becomes manifest. In us knowledge of the form in which He
respect of the He, the Real is not wit- discloses Himself to His servants and
nessed, for the He is the Reality of the the fact that it possesses bounds and mea-
Real. In respect of His self-disclosure in sure, in order that He might enter along
forms, the Real is witnessed and seen, but with His servants under the property an-
He is seen only at the level of the viewer. nounced in His words, "We send it not
That is what is bestowed by the viewer's down but in a known measure" (15:21).
342
Transcending the Gods of Belief

"Surely We have created" or made "ev- He is "with the opinion" which His ser-
erything in measure" (54:49). vant has of Him. 6 However, the levels
Vision is a created thing, so it occurs in become ranked according to excellence,
measure. The variation of self-disclosure while God is wider, greater, and more
is the manifestation of a temporally orig- tremendous than that He should be con-
inated thing to the recipient of self-dis- fined by any attribute which would re-
closure, so it occurs in measure. Do you strain Him, such that He would be with
not see that, out of divine jealousy, He one of His servants and not be with
discloses Himself through His property in another. The "Divine Vastness" refuses
the entities which are taken as gods, since that. For God says, "He is with you
He has ordained and decreed that no one wherever you are" (57:4); "Whithersoever
else be worshiped? He has reported you turn, there is the face of God" (2:
this, for He says, "And thy Lord has 115), and the "face" of a thing is its reality
decreed-that you worship none but Him" and essence.
(17:23). Were He to be with one person and not
The exoteric scholars take the word with another, the one with whom He was
"decreed" to mean "commanded," but on not would be worshiping his own illusion
the basis of unveiling we take it to be an (wahm), not his Lord. But God has said,
ordainment, and this is correct. For those "And thy Lord has decreed," that is, or-
who associate others with God admit that dained, "that you worship none but Him"
they only worship these things "to bring" (17:23). Because of Him the gods are
them "nigh in nearness to God" (39:3). worshiped, but the intention of every
Hence they give them the status of depu- worshiper in his worship is only God.
ties manifest in the form of Him who has So nothing is worshiped in itself except
deputized them, and He has no form God. He who associates others with
other than Divinity, which they attribute God is only mistaken because he has set
to those things. (III 117.3) up for himself a special road of worship
No one is loved but God, but the name which was not established for him by
of the created thing acts as a veil. In the a revealed Law from the Real. That is
same way, he who worships a created why he becomes one of the wretched.
thing here worships none but God, (I 405.27)
though he does not know. He names his
object of worship Manat, al-'Uzza, oral-
Lat. 5 Then when he dies and the covering In the very last passage of the Fu.ru.r al-
is removed, he knows that he only wor- /Jikam, Ibn al-'Arabi summarizes his
shiped God, for God says, "And thy Lord views concerning the God created by the
has decreed," that is, ordained, "that you servant's belief while discussing the ritual
worship none but Him" (17:23). (IV prayer (.ralat). Man must pray to God,
260.28)
but God also prays over man, as indi-
In reality, he who associates others
with God worships none but God, since,
cated in the verse, "It is He who prays
if he did not believe that there was divin- over you" (33:43). In his usual fashion,
ity in the associate, he would not have Ibn al-'Arabi searches for hidden sig-
worshiped it. "And thy Lord has decreed nificance by examining the root meaning
that you worship none but Him" (17:23). of the word being discussed. In this case
For this reason the Real shows jealousy one of the meanings of ~alat's root is
for this description. He punishes them in "back" and "behind" (.rala), while the
this world if they do not show reverence word mu.ralll, which means "he who per-
to that which they suppose to be their forms the prayer," also signifies "the
god, and He provides for them and listens horse which comes in behind the win-
to their prayers when they ask from their
god. For He knows that they have had re-
ner in a race." When man performs the
course to this Level [of Divinity]. (I prayer, he "lags behind" and follows
328.14) God, and so also when God "performs
The Real is with the belief of everyone the prayer," He lags behind man by
who has a belief. . . . In the same way, following his belief.
343
Consummation

The prayer is performed (2) by us or (1) lieve concerning God. If he knew what
by Him. Junayd said-that the water takes on the
(1) When He performs the prayer, color of the cup-he would let every be-
He prays through His name the Last, liever have his own belief and he would
so He lags behind the existence of the ser- recognize God in the form of every object
vant. He is then identical with the Real of belief. But the believer has an "opin-
which the servant creates in his own heart ion," not knowledge. That is why God
through his reflective consideration or said, "I am with My servant's opinion of
through following authority. This is the Me," that is, "I do not become manifest
God of belief, who assumes great variety to him except in the form of his belief." If
in accordance with the preparedness of he likes, he declares Him nondelimited,
the locus. Thus, when Junayd was asked and if he likes, he delimits.
about knowledge of God and the knower, The God of beliefs assumes limitations.
he replied, "The water takes on the color He is the God who is "embraced" by the
of the cup." This reply is precisely cor- heart of His servant. But nothing em-
rect, giving news of the actual situation. braces the Nondelimited God, since He is
This is the God who prays over us. identical with the things and identical
(2) When we ourselves pray, we pos- with Himself. It cannot be said that a
sess the name "last." In this station we thing embraces itself, nor that it does not
have the aforementioned state of Him embrace it. So understand! "God speaks
who possesses this name. Hence we are the truth, and He guides on the way"
with Him in accordance with our own (Koran 33:4). (Fu~u~ 225)
state. He does not look upon us except in
the form in which we come to Him, for
the mu~alll is the horse which lags behind
the leader on the racetrack. God says, Knowing Self
"Each knows its own prayer," that is, its
own level in lagging behind through wor-
shiping its Lord, "and its own glo- According to a famous hadith which
rification" (24:41), that is, the glorifica- we have already encountered several
tion given to it by its own preparedness times, the Prophet said, "He who knows
through which it declares God's incompa- himself" -or "He who knows his own
rability. "There is nothing that does not soul"-"knows His Lord." Ibn al-'Arabi
glorify in praise" its Lord, the Clement, comments on this saying from various
the Concealing (17:44). But we do not
know the glorifications of the cosmos in
points of view. Often he cites it to en-
differentiated detail, one by one. courage the seeker to come to know
The verse can also be read with the himself so that he may come to know
pronoun referring to the servant who God. But in the present context, he gives
glorifies: "There is nothing that does not it a new shade of meaning: When the ser-
glorify itself in praise." This is as we have vant comes to know himself, thereby
said concerning the believer: He only knowing God, he does not know God
praises the God who is in his belief and to in Himself. Rather, he knows Him as
whom he has tied himself. His practice his own Lord. This is the God who dis-
all goes back to himself, so he praises closes Himself to the soul, and the self-
only himself. For without doubt, he who
disclosure is different from that experi-
praises the artifact praises its maker, since
its beauty or lack of beauty goes back to enced by any other soul. The God that I
its maker. The God of the believer is come to know through knowing myself
made by him who observes Him, so this is the God of my own belief, the water
God is his artifact. Hence his praise of which has assumed the color of my cup.
what he has made is his praise of himself.
That is why he blames the belief of oth- We are many, deriving from One
ers. If he were fair, he would not do so. Entity-inaccessible and exalted is He!
But, of course, the possessor of this spe- That Entity is related to us by bringing us
cific object of worship is ignorant of that, into existence, and we are related to Him
344 since he objects to others in what they be- through existence. So "He who knows
Transcending the Gods of Belief

himself" as a creature and an existent ways, forever and ever, in this world and
thing "knows" the Real as a Creator and the next. And it cannot be otherwise. So
the one who brings into existence. (II consider how many are the waystations of
500.16) praising God which remain for me by
"He who knows himself has known his witnessing creatures other than mysel£1
Lord," for that creature who is the most This station demands the Prophet's
knowing in respect of creation is the most words, "I count not Thy praises before
knowing in respect of God. (III 404.28) Thee- Thou art as Thou hast praised
The Lawgiver said, "He who knows Thysel£1" In the same way Abii Bakr said,
himself knows his Lord." This knowl- "Incapacity to attain comprehension is it-
edge of God acquired after knowledge of self comprehension. " 7
self may be a knowledge of one's incapac- After finishing with myself and the cre-
ity to attain to knowledge of God. One ated things, then I will begin praising
comes to know that there is Someone Him with His names of incomparability.
who cannot be known. The lack of a But finishing with myself is impossible,
mark is a mark, for He is distinguished so attaining to the witnessing of the en-
from His creatures though negation of at- gendered things and finishing with the
tributes (salb), not affirmation (ithbiit). engendered things is impossible. Hence
The knowledge of Him may be knowl- attaining to the names of incomparability
edge of the fact that He is a god, so the is impossible.
servants come to know what is worthy of Hence, whenever I see one of the com-
His Level. They make this an attribute of mon people or one of those who claim to
Him who stands in that Level and be- have knowledge of God praising God by
comes manifest within it. Hence their the names of incomparability by way of
knowledge of what the Level requires is witnessing, or by the names of the acts in
their knowledge of the Possessor of the respect of the fact that they are connected
Level, since He is described by everything to other than himself, I know that he has
by which it is proper to describe it. But in not known himself, nor has he witnessed
reality it is known that this is knowledge it, nor has he sensed the effects of the Real
of His Level, not of Him. (II 472.35) within it. And whosoever is blind toward
"He who knows himself," the fact that himself-which is nearest to him-is
his entity remains forever in its possibil- blind in relation to others and even fur-
ity, "knows His Lord," the fact that He is ther astray from the way. God says, "And
the Existent in Being. "He who knows" whosoever is blind in this world (dun-
that the changes manifest within existence yii)," naming it dunyii ["closer"] since it is
are the properties of the preparedness of nearer to us than the next world . . . ,
the possible things "knows his Lord" by "shall be blind in the world to come and
the fact that He alone makes them mani- even further astray from the way" (17:
fest. (III 101.18) 72). (II 641.6)
When the servant praises God, he does The root of the existence of knowledge
so either by names of incomparability or of God is knowledge of self. So knowl-
by names of acts. Our view in respect of edge of God has the property of knowl-
unveiling is that first we begin with the edge of self, which is the root. In the
names of incomparability. But in respect view of those who know the self, the self
of rational consideration, we begin with is an ocean without shore, so knowledge
the names of acts, since we cannot avoid of it has no end. Such is the property of
witnessing the objects of the acts (maf'ii- knowledge of the self. Hence, knowledge
liit). The first object of the acts that I wit- of God, which is a branch of this root,
ness is the nearest to me, and that is my- joins with it in property, so there is no
self. Hence I praise Him through the end to knowledge of God. That is why in
names of His acts through me and in me. every state the knower says, "My Lord,
As often as I wish to pass beyond myself increase me in knowledge!" (20:114).
to other than myself, I become aware Then God increases him in knowledge of
of another temporally originated thing himself that he may increase in knowl-
which I occasion within myself through edge of his Lord. This is given by divine
seeking, and that new thing demands that unveiling.
I praise God for it. I remain like this al- Some of the reflective thinkers maintain 345
Consummation

that knowledge of God is the root of ation. But He in His Unknowability is


knowledge of the self. But this can never far beyond them. We can only affirm
be correct in the creature's knowledge of that there is an Essence and that It cannot
God. This is true exclusively in the Real's not be. Our own existence is somehow
knowledge. This is a priority and a root the shadow of Its existence. All created
through the level, not through existence,
things are equal in their existence, so all
since through existence His knowledge of
Himself is identical with His knowledge things manifest the Essence inasmuch as
of the cosmos. Even if His knowledge is they exist. This is the root of the engen-
the root through the level, it is not so dering command, the divine word "Be!"
through existence. (III 121.25) In respect of this command, everything
is as it should be, and everything follows
To say that "He who knows himself a straight path. All beliefs are equal, since
knows his Lord" means that he who each of them exists, and existence is the
knows himself knows his own specific sole attribute of any significance in re-
Lord, who is God as He discloses Him- spect to the Essence. There is no evil,
self to his soul, not anyone else's Lord. since the Necessary Being through Him-
One of Ibn al-'Arabi's more succinct self is Sheer Good, and nothing arises
explanations of this point is found in the from the Good but good. Everyone's
Fu~ii~ al-~ikam: specific Lord is embraced by the name
Allah, which is the "Lord of Lords."
Know that what is named "God" is God in His similarity discloses Him-
One in Essence but All (a/-kull) through self in all the forms of the cosmos. The
the names. No existent thing has any- All-merciful Breath articulates itself
thing from God except its own specific through every existential word. In this
Lord. It cannot possibly have the All .... respect we say that inasmuch as God has
That which becomes designated for it disclosed Himself in the forms of the
from the All is only that which corres-
cosmos, the source of the self-disclosure
ponds to it, and that is its own Lord. No
one takes from Him in respect of His is "Creator" and the locus of the self-
Unity. That is why the Folk of Allah de- disclosure is "creature." He who is able
clare self-disclosure in Unity to be impos- to disclose Himself is "Powerful," and
sible. (Fu~u~ 90,91) that which manifests this self-disclosure
is the "object of power." Thus become
established all the relationships known as
"names" or "attributes." In respect of
Paths of Belief this divine similarity, each name has spe-
cific properties, and the properties are di-
verse. The Life-giver is not equivalent to
The tremendous variety of human be- the Slayer, nor is the Guide equivalent to
liefs can be classified in terms of whether the Misguider. Each creature has its own
people declare God's incomparability or specific Lord which is different from
recognize His similarity. Perfect knowl- every other Lord, its own immutable en-
edge, which puts every point of view tity which bestows upon it specific prop-
in its place, combines these two basic erties. The properties manifest in the cos-
beliefs. mos cannot be ignored, since they are the
The Essence in Its incomparability is "secondary causes" established by the
nondelimited by any attribute or quality. Creator for a good purpose and accord-
We can only negate properties from It. ing to wisdom. Each must be given its
There can be no question of saying that due (~aqq), which is to say that man must
God is Creator, Preserver, Merciful, observe "courtesy" in all affairs. We at-
Vengeful, Guide, or Misguider, since tain to knowledge of courtesy through
these are all affirmative attributes that the Scale of the revealed Law, the pre-
346 would declare His similarity with ere- scriptive command.
Transcending the Gods of Belief

The declaration of incomparability en- When a person considers the cosmos's


visages the Divine Essence named Allah, possibility (imkiin), he sees that possibility
the Lord of Lords, whose Path is fol- is a cause of disease (mara4). Disease is a
lowed by all things, whether existent or deviation (may/), and deviation is the op-
posite of straightness. The cosmos's pos-
nonexistent. There are as many paths of
sibility is one of its essential attributes, so
Allah as there are "breaths of the crea- the disappearance of possibility cannot be
tures," and each leads to Him. The decla- imagined, whether in the state of the cos-
ration of similarity allows us to perceive mos's nonexistence or in the state of its
that each of these many paths leads to a existence. Disease belongs to it essen-
different Lord, a different divine name, tially, so deviation belongs to it essen-
and that the properties of the names are tially. Hence there is no straightness. The
diverse. disease of the cosmos is chronic. There is
Each "belief' ties a knot in the heart no hope for its cure.
of the believer and fixes him upon a However, the engendered universe is a
locus for the existence of different sides
path, the object of his belief being the attempting to throw each other into
end of the path. All beliefs are equivalent error. This is required by [the divine]
in that God is their ultimate object. But wisdom and also by the sound rational
each belief is different in that it leads faculty, which knows what will bring en-
to a different name of God. Some of the gendered existence out of its corruption,
names yield felicity, while others are since the Law has set down prescriptions.
connected to wretchedness. "Faith" com- But it is impossible for the individuals
prises a belief along with a practice that of the cosmos to have a single constitu-
will lead to felicity, while "misbelief" tion. Since constitutions are diverse, there
(kufr) is a belief and practice that will lead is in the cosmos the knower and he who
knows more, the excellent and he who is
to wretchedness. The path of faith is more excellent. Among them is he who
wide, since it is that of the Blessing-giver knows God as nondelimited, without any
and has been given to all the prophets, delimitation. Among them is he who is
but the path of misbelief is even wider, not able to acquire any knowledge of God
since "my name is legion." without delimiting Him by attributes
Like everything else in existence, the which negate the suggestion of temporal
paths of belief are ranked in degrees. origination and require the perfection of
Some people see God only in negative Him who is described. And among them
terms through declaring His incompara- is he who is not able to acquire knowl-
edge of God without delimiting Him by
bility. Some see Him as possessing the
the attributes of temporal origination;
Most Beautiful Names in the direction of hence he brings Him under the property
incomparability, thus affirming that He of being modified by time, place, bounds,
possesses attributes but that these are to- and measure.
tally different from those possessed by Since at the root of the creation of the
the creatures. Still others see God only in cosmos, the situation of its knowledge of
terms of His similarity, not being able to God accorded with this natural constitu-
conceive of anything but what they can tion, God sent down the revealed Laws
picture concretely in their imaginations. according to these levels, so that the di-
The highest of the paths combines all vine bounty would include all creatures.
God sent down, "Nothing is like Him"
three ways and is followed by the gnos- (42:11) for the sake of the person who
tics, the Folk of Allah. Ibn al-'Arabi dis- knows God as nondelimited without any
cusses these four paths while pointing delimitation.
out that as soon as we consider the cos- He sent down His words, "He encom-
mos in its own state of possibility, then passes everything in knowledge" (65:12),
there is no "straightness" in the cosmos, "He is powerful over everything" (5:120),
since in itself the cosmos is He/not He; it "He performs whatsoever He desires"
is a mixture of light and darkness, good (11:107), "He is the Hearing, the Seeing"
and evil. (42:11), "Allah, there is no god but He,
347
Consummation

the Alive, the Self-subsistent" (2:156), know Him in this measure and examine
"Grant him protection till he hears the Him to this extent. Hence our examina-
Speech of God" (9:6), "He knows every- tion of the things is identical with our ex-
thing" (2:29). All of this is for the sake of amination of Him, since He manifests
him who delimits Him by attributes of Himself from everything. Among the
perfection. people some have said, "I have never seen
God also sent down as part of the anything without seeing God before it,"
revealed Laws His words, "The All- that is, without examining Him; another
merciful sat upon the Throne" (20:5), "He said, "after it," another said "with it,"
is with you wherever you are" (57:4), and another said, "in it. " 9 Such people
"He is God in the heavens and the earth" maintain that this kind of examination is
(6:3), "Running before Our eyes" (54:14), correct.
"Had We desired to take an amusement, The second kind is the examination of
We would have taken it to Us from Our- shame (~aya), based upon the words of
selves" (21:17). God, "Does he not know that God sees?"
In this way the revealed Laws include (96:14). The servant examines His seeing
everything demanded by the constitutions while He is seeing him. Hence he exam-
of the cosmos. The object of belief is one ines the Real's examination of himself.
of these kinds. But he who has a perfect This is called the "examination of exami-
constitution embraces all these beliefs. He nation," and is established by the Law.
knows where they come from and where The third examination is that the ser-
they go, and nothing of them is absent vant examines his heart and his inward
from him. (II 219.23) and outward self to see the signs of his
Lord within it. Then he acts in accordance
One of the many "stations" of the with the signs of his Lord which he
Sufi path is "examination" (muraqaba), sees. (II 208.34)
through which the servant carefully
guards over himself and observes God as If God can be examined, this is the
He becomes manifest in the cosmos and God who discloses Himself through the
in himself. Ibn al-'Arabi sees its divine creatures. But God in Himself is beyond
root in the name, "the Examiner" (al- all examination. According to a ~adith
raqib). He points out that the term is qudsi already quoted, "My heavens and
applied to three different kinds of ac- My earth embrace Me not, but the heart
tivity. of My believing servant does embrace
Me." This God embraced by the heart
There are three types of examination by cannot be the God of incomparability,
the servant, one of which cannot take but rather the God of self-disclosure and
place, while the other two can take place. similarity. The spiritual traveler reaches a
The examination which cannot take place point where he abandons all attempt
is the servant's examination of his Lord. to examine God in Himself, since he
He does not know His Essence, nor His knows that the Essence remains forever
relationship to the cosmos, so the exis- unknown. Hence the Shaykh dedicates
tence of this kind of examination cannot
the chapter following the one on exam-
be conceived, since it depends upon knowl-
edge of the essence of the one who is ex- ination to "abandoning examination"
amined. Another group says that this type (tark al-muraqaba).
of examination can take place, since the
Law has defined Him as is proper to His Examination is an imaginal descent
majesty. So "He is with us wherever we (tanazzul mithiill) which brings about
are;"• "He sat upon the Throne" (20:5); nearness. But the level of the knowers of
He is "God in the earth; He knows" our God demands that "Nothing is like Him"
"secrets and what" we "publish"; and He (42:11), so there are no likenesses and im-
is also "God in the heavens" (6:3) and de- ages. The actual situation of the Divinity
scends to us. He is the Manifest in the does not become delimited or restricted
entity of every locus of manifestation and remains unknown. It is clear that He
348 among the possible things. Hence we is not known when we believe that we
Transcending the Gods of Belief

know Him. No knowledge of Him pro- He who is more perfect than the perfect
vides us with any positive quality. On the is he who believes every belief concern-
contrary, there is a verified negation and ing Him. He recognizes Him in faith, in
an intelligible relationship allowing for proofs, and in heresy (ill}iid), since ill}iid is
the effects that exist within the entities. to deviate from one belief to another spe-
Hence there is no quality, location, time, cific belief
position, correlation, accident, substance, So if you want your eye to hit the
or quantity. There is nothing of the ten mark, witness Him with every eye, for
categories, except for a verified passivity He pervades all things through self-dis-.
(infi'iil) and a definite activity; or an act closure. In every form He has a face and
manifest from an unknown Agent whose in every knower a state. So examine if
effect is seen. His report is not recognized you will, or do not examine. (II 211.29)
and His Entity is not known, though He
is known to exist. So whom should we
examine? For there is no one upon whom
the eye falls or who is restricted by imagi-
nation, bounded by time, made plural by Belief and the Law
attributes and properties, qualified by
states, distinguished by positions, made
manifest by correlation. How can we ex-
amine Him who does not accept attri-
Although people worship God m
butes? Knowledge is supposed to remove whatever form they worship, they are
imagination. Hence He is the Examiner, commanded to worship Him as Allah,
not the examined. He is the Preserver, not inasmuch as He reveals Himself
not the preserved. through various other names. All things
That which man preserves in his heart worship their own Lords by their very
is only his belief. That is what He em- existence, being subjected to them and
braces of his Lord. So if you examine, following their commands, so "worship"
know whom it is that you examine. You is inherent to creation, that is, the wor-
will never leave yourself and you will ship brought about by the engendering
never know any but your own essence,
since the temporally originated thing
command. But the specific worship that
never becomes connected to anything but profits the servant and takes him to felic-
that which corresponds to it (al-muniisib), ity is not inherent in creation, since it is
and that is what you have of Him. What determined and defined by the revealed
you have is temporally originated, so you Law, the prescriptive command.
will never depart from your own kind.
In reality, you worship nothing but God says, "They were commanded to
what you have set up in yourself. That is worship but One God; there is no god
why the doctrines concerning God are di- but He; glory be to Him above what they
verse and the states change. One group associate!" (Koran 9:31). This is the tawl}ld
says, "He is like this." Another group of commanding to worship, and it is one
says, "He is not like that, He is like this." of the most marvelous of affairs. How
A third group says concerning knowl- can there be a command in that which
edge, "The water takes on the color of its is inherent (dhiitl) to him who is com-
cup." The third position holds that the manded? For worship is inherent to cre-
cup affects the proof, thus affecting Him ated things. So in what respect has wor-
in the view of the eye. ship been commanded?
So consider the bewilderment that per- As for the faithful, He commanded
vades every believer. The perfect human them to worship Him in respect of the
being is he whose bewilderment has in- Unity of the Entity (al}adiyyat al-'ayn),
tensified and his regret is continuous-he since He said concerning a group of them,
does not reach his goal because of that "Call upon Allah or call upon the All-
which is his Object of worship, for he merciful; whichever you call upon, to
strives to achieve that which cannot possi- Him belong the most beautiful names"
bly be achieved and he threads the path of (17:110). So this group which was com-
Him whose path is not known. manded was not worshiping One God. 349
Consummation

He says: Do not consider the divine achieving felicity in spite of them while
names in the respect that they denote di- discussing the different types of human
verse meanings. Otherwise, the names beings which God brings into existence.
would make them slaves of their mean- Each human being, in respect of the
ings and their worship would become de- preparedness of his or her immutable
fective. They would see that each reality
within themselves is connected to a divine
entity, is a "locus" (ma~all) in which the
reality, and that they are poor and needy Being of God discloses Itself. Each is a
toward that divine reality; but these di- cup that colors the invisible water.
vine realities are numerous, since the real-
ity of seeking provision worships the Incapacity, timidity, and miserliness of
All-provider and the reality of seeking character are inherent and necessary in
well-being worships the Healer. So God man's innate disposition. The root of his
says to them, "Worship only One God!" creation is, "Surely man was created fret-
For, although each divine name denotes a ful, when evil visits him, impatient, when
meaning that differs from the others, it good visits him, grudging" (70:19-20).
also denotes a Single Entity demanded by When man attacks and is valiant, he takes
all these diverse relationships. (II 409.4) help from rank, earning, and assuming
the character traits of God, since in his es-
The mistake of him who associates sence he has a spirit from Him. But the
others with God is that he devises for site displays effects, just as the site of
himself an original form of worship water displays effects in the water-that
which God did not set down for him is, the saltiness or bitterness or other
in a Law, so he worships something he tastes that are found therein. But in re-
spect of its own ipseity (huwiyya), water
has created. In order for the object of has a single attribute in pleasantness (!!b)
worship to have objective validity and and flavor. So look how the site displays
pull man out of his subjective limi- effects within it!
tations, it must be defined by the One In the same way, the spirits breathed
God Himself. into the bodies come from a pure and
holy Root. If the locus has a pleasant con-
When a person rationally considers stitution, it promotes the spirit in pleas-
God, he creates what he believes in him- antness, but if it is not pleasant, it makes
self through his consideration. Hence he it loathsome (khabi'th) and brings it under
worships only a god which he has created the property of its own constitution.
through his consideration. He has said to God's messengers, those who are His
it "Be!", and it has come into existence. vicegerents, are the purest of human be-
That is why God commanded us to wor- ings in locus. They are the sinless who in-
ship the God brought by the Messenger crease the pleasant only in pleasantness.
and spoken of in the Book. For if you There are also vicegerents who become
worship this God, you will be worship- joined to the messengers; these are their
ing that which you have not created. On inheritors in state, act, and word. There
the contrary, you will be worshiping are those who are deficient in certain re-
your Creator, and you will have fully spects; these are the disobedient. Others
given worship its due (~aqq). For knowl- are even more deficient; these are the hyp-
edge of God derives only from following ocrites. Others dispute and war; they are
authority. It cannot possibly derive from the misbelievers and those who associate
proofs. That is why we have been prohib- others with Him.
ited from reflecting upon the Essence of God sends messengers to them so that
God. But we have not been prohibited they will excuse Him on their part when
from ascribing the Level solely to He punishes them for their rebelling
Him-on the contrary, we have been against Him and attributing themselves to
commanded to do so-since there is no other than Him .... But they came to do
god but He. (IV 143.2) this because of a correct principle. They
saw the diversity of doctrines concerning
Ibn al-'Arabi summarizes the causes of God, though everyone came together
3 50 divergent beliefs and the means of concerning His Unity and that He is One,
Transcending the Gods of Belief

there being no god but He. Then people me m knowledge!"' (20:114). (IV
disagreed as to what this God is. Each 278.33)
possessor of consideration said something
to which he was led by his consideration.
After discussing the exalted station of
It became established for him that God is
he who has such a property. What he did
perfect man, who worships God through
not know is that this is identical with his direct witnessing, not as an unseen
own making (ja'l). Hence he worshiped reality, Ibn al-'Arabi turns to counselling
only a god which he created and believed his reader. He makes reference to the
within himself, calling it a belief. Here the human constitution (miziij), which re-
people diverged widely, even though the flects the preparedness of the immutable
Single Thing is not diverse in Itself. entity on the corporeal level. The more
Hence It has to accord with one of these balanced the body's constitution, the
doctrines or stand outside all of them. more it is able to act as a perfect mirror
Since this was the situation, it displayed
for the spirit which God breathes into
its effects upon them. They found it easy it. 10
to take stones, trees, stars, animals, and
other such created things as their gods,
each group in accordance with that which If you do not dwell in this waystation
dominated over it. They did exactly the and have no entrance into this highest of
same thing as those who possess doctrines all degrees, I will point to that through
concerning God. They received aid in this which you can attain to it:
from this principle, without being aware. You should know that God did not cre-
Hence you will see no one who wor- ate the creatures with a single constitu-
ships an unmade god, since man creates in tion. On the contrary, He made them dis-
himself that which he worships and parate in constitution. This is obvious and
judges. But God is the Judge; He is not self-evident to anyone who looks, because
restricted by reason, nor does it rule over of the disparity among people in rational
Him. On the contrary, to Him "belongs consideration and faith. God has told you
the command" in His creation, "before that man is his brother's mirror.'' Hence
and after" (30:4). There is no god but He, man sees in his brother something of
the God and Master of everything. himself that he would not see without
All this belongs to the name, "He who him. For man is veiled by and enamored
sends forth" (al-bii'ith). It is He who sends of his own caprice. But when he sees that
forth to their inward selves (biitin) mes- attribute in the other, while it is his own
sengers-the reflective thoughts in accor- attribute, he sees his own defect in the
dance with which they speak and believe other. Then he comes to know its ugli-
in God. In the same way He sends to their ness, if the attribute is ugly, or its beauty,
outward selves the messengers known as if it should be beautiful.
prophets, prophecy, and messengerhood. Know that mirrors are diverse in shape
The intelligent person is he who abandons and that they modify the object seen by
what he has in himself concerning God the observer according to their own
for what the messengers have brought shapes, whether they be tall, wide,
from God concerning God. If what God's curved, bent, round, small, large, numer-
messengers have brought conforms to ous, and so on-whatever may be given
what the messengers of reflective powers by the shape of the mirror. It is known
have brought to their inward selves, so be that the messengers are the most balanced
it-and they should thank God for the (a'dal) of all people in constitution, since
agreement. But if disagreement appears, they receive the messages of their Lord.
it is incumbent upon you to follow the Each of them receives the message to the
messenger of the outward dimension. Be- measure of the composition God has
ware of the calamity of the messengers of given him in his constitution. There is no
the inward dimension! Then you will at- prophet who was not sent specifically to a
tain to felicity, God willing. This is a designated people, since he possessed a
piece of advice from me to every recep- specific and curtailed constitution. But
tive person who possesses a sound ratio- God sent Mu}:!ammad with an all-inclu-
nal faculty. "And say: 'My Lord, increase sive message for all people without excep- 35 r
Consummation

tion. 12 He was able to receive such a nondelimitation. "God possesses the all-
message because he possessed an all- inclusiveness of wujiid, while they [i.e.,
inclusive constitution which comprises the gnostics who realize the divine form]
the constitution of every prophet and possess the all-inclusiveness of shuhiid"
messenger, since he has the most balanced (III 161.16). On the level of belief, this
and most perfect of constitutions and the
means that the gnostic accepts every be-
straightest of configurations.
Once you come to know this, and once lief as true on its own level, while not re-
you desire to see the Real in the most per- stricting himself to any single belief,
fect manner in which He can become rather embracing them all. "Belief' is a
manifest in this human plane, then you knotting, so through his belief the gnos-
need to know that this does not belong to tic ties all knots. But the heart accepts
you. You do not have a constitution like only one knot at a time.
that possessed by Mul:_lammad. Whenever
the Real discloses Himself to you within
There is nothing wider than the reality
the mirror of your heart, your mirror will
of man, and nothing narrower. As for its
make Him manifest to you in the measure
wideness, that is because it is not too nar-
of its constitution and in the form of its
row for anything at all, except one thing.
shape. You know how far you stand be-
As for its narrowness, that is because it
low Mul:_lammad's degree in knowledge
cannot embrace two incoming thoughts
of his Lord through his plane. So ding to
(kha(ir) at once, since it is one in essence,
faith and follow him! Place him before
so it does not accept manyness. (II
you as the mirror within which you gaze
515.9)
upon your own form and the form of
others. When you do this, you will come
to know that God must disclose Himself In order to tie a new knot in the heart,
to Muhammad within his mirror. I have the gnostic must untie the first. In order
already. told you that the mirror displays to tie his heart in every knot, he must
an effect in that which is seen from the untie all knots. Like God, he assumes all
point of view of the observer who sees. delimitations without becoming delim-
So the manifestation of the Real within
ited by them. He accepts the truth of
the mirror of Mul:_lammad is the most
perfect, most balanced, and most beauti- every belief by assuming it as his own,
ful manifestation, because of the mirror's yet he does not become constricted by it.
actuality. When you perceive Him in the
mirror of Mul:_lammad, you will have per- The creatures have knotted their beliefs
ceived from Him a perfection which you concerning God
could not perceive in respect of consider- and I bear witness to everything
ing your own mirror. (III 251.3) they believe.
When He appears to them in forms
through self-transmutation,
they state what they witness,
not disclaiming Him. . . .
The Belief of the Gnostic
The perfect gnostic recognizes Him in
every form in which He discloses Himself
God in Himself is absolutely nonde- and in every form in which He descends.
limited. As we have seen, this means that Other than the gnostic recognizes Him
He is not delimited by nondelimitation. only in the form of his own belief and
denies Him when He discloses Himself to
Though in Himself He is free of all con-
him in another form. He never ceases ty-
striction and confinement, by this very ing himself to his own belief and denying
fact He is able to assume, through His the belief of others.
self-disclosure, every constriction and This is one of the most confusing af-
confinement. God created the human be- fairs in the knowledge of God: To what
ing upon His own form. Those who does the diversity of forms go back? Does
3 52 truly realize this form follow God in His it go back to Him in Himself? This indeed
Transcending the Gods of Belief

is what the divine news-giving has re- tastes the flavor of tasting within them,
ported and what the proof of reason, pro- whatever kind of perception it may be.
vided by the reflective faculty, declares But as for the Author-"Nothing is like
impossible. If the situation is as it is re- Him" (42:11). Hence it is impossible for a
ported in the divine news-giving, then no technical term to tie Him down, since
one has seen anything but God. It is He that of Him which one individual wit-
Himself who is seen within the diverse nesses is not the same as what another in-
forms, and He is identical to each form. dividual witnesses in any respect. This is
If the diversity of the forms goes back the manner in which He is known by the
to the diversity of beliefs, and the forms gnostics. Hence no gnostic is able to con-
are like the objects of belief, not the de- vey to another gnostic what he witnesses
sired Object Itself, then no one has ever of his Lord, for each of the two gnostics
seen anything except his belief, whether witnesses Him who has no likeness, and
he recognizes Him in every form-since conveying knowledge can only take place
he believes concerning Him that He ac- through likenesses. If they shared! a form
cepts self-disclosure and manifestation to in common, they would establish a tech-
the object of self-disclosure in every nical term as they willed. If one of them
form-or he recognizes Him only in a accepted that, then everyone could accept
delimited form and in no other. (III it.
132.15,24) He does not disclose Himself in a single
form to two individual gnostics. How-
The gnostic believes in every belief, ever, God may raise some of His servants
yet he cannot express the fundamental through degrees which He docs not give
to other servants who are not worthy of
root of his own belief concerning God,
them. These are the common people
since it goes back to tasting, and tasting among the people of vision. He discloses
cannot be expressed through the techni- Himself to them in the forms of similars.
cal terminology (i~tila~) that becomes That is why the religious community (al-
established in the sciences. umma) can come together on a single
knotting ('aqd) concerning God. Each
The science of tastings is the science of member of the designated group believes
qualities (kayfiyyiit). Tastings cannot be concerning God what the others believe.
told about except by those who experi- Thus, for example, the Ash'arites, the
ence them when they come together on a Mu'tazilites, the l)anbali:s, and the an-
designated technical term. However, cients may all agree on a single matter.
when they have not come together on a All of them may agree on a single matter
term, the tasters cannot communicate and not disagree, so it is permissible for
their tastings. This concerns knowledge them to establish technical terminology in
of those things other than God which can that upon which they agree.
be perceived only through tasting, such as But the gnostics among the Folk of Al-
sensory objects and taking pleasure in lah know that "God never discloses Him-
them and the pleasure which is found self in a single form to two individuals,
through knowledge acquired from reflect- nor in a single form twice. " 13 Hence for
ive consideration. It is possible to estab- them the situation does not become tied
lish technical terminology in all of this in down, since each individual has a self-
an approximate manner. disclosure specific to himself, and man
As for the tasting which occurs during sees Him through himself. When He dis-
the witnessing of the Real, in that there closes Himself to someone in a form, then
can be no technical terminology. That is discloses Himself to him in another form
the tasting of the mysteries (al-asriir) and such that he comes to know about the
lies outside considerative and sensory Real from the second self-disclosure what
tasting. The reason for this is as follows: he did not know through the first self-
The things-! mean everything other disclosure-and this happens constantly
than God-have likes and similars. Hence -then he knows that the actual situation
it is possible to establish technical termi- is such in itself for himself and for others.
nology concerning them in order to make Hence he cannot designate a technical
oneself understood to everyone who term concerning this through which any 3 s3
Consummation

positive knowledge would accrue to those own beliefs not only at the Greater Res-
who discuss it. urrection, when He transmutes Himself
So the gnostics know, but what they in forms, but already at the lesser resur-
know cannot be communicated. It is not rection known as physical death, when
in the power of the possessors of this he enters into the barzakh, which is one
most delightful station, higher than which of the realms of discontiguous imagina-
there is no station among the possible
tion. Ibn al-'Arabi explains this in Chap-
things, to coin a word which would de-
note what they know. There is only what ter 176 of the Futu~tit, entitled "On the
He has sent down-His words, "Nothing true knowledge of the states of the Tribe
is like Him" (42:11). Hence He negated all at death."
likeness. Hence no form in which He dis-
closes Himself to someone resembles any
other form .... The Prophet said, "Man dies in accor-
Through our own delimitation we dance with the way he lived and he is
judge that He is nondelimited. But the ac- mustered in accordance with the way he
tual situation in itself is described neither died. " 14 God says [to the soul at death],
by delimitation nor nondelimitation. "We have now unveiled from you your
Rather, it is all-inclusive Being (wujud covering and your sight today is piercing"
'iimm). Hence He is identical with the (50:22). In other words, at death man sees
things, but the things are not identical the actual situation, that which had been
with Him. Nothing becomes manifest possessed solely by the Folk of Allah ....
without His He-ness being identical with When death is made present for the
that thing. How should He whose Being Tribe, they necessarily witness twelve
is such accept nondelimitation or delimi- forms. They may witness all of them or
tation? In such manner have the gnostics some of them, without any escape from
known Him. He who declares Him non- this. The forms the person witnesses in-
delimited has not known Him, and he clude the form of his practice, the form of
who declares Him delimited is ignorant of his knowledge, the form of his station,
Him. (III 384.18) the form of his state, the form ofhis mes-
senger, the form of the angel, the form of
one of the names of the acts, the form of
one of the names of the attributes, the
Beatific Vision form of one of the names of the descrip-
tions, the form of one of the names of in-
comparability, and the form of one of the
names of the Essence....
No created thing can display God as
All of these are waystations of mean-
He is in Himself, only as He discloses
ings (ma'iini), but when meanings are
Himself. His self-disclosures are infi- embodied and become manifest in shapes
nitely diverse in keeping with the infinite and measures, they assume forms, since
diversity of the entities. Among all the witnessing takes place through sight. The
created things, human beings possess the imaginal, barzakhi presence determines
particular characteristic of being able to this property. Death and sleep share in
participate actively in manifesting their that into which meanings pass. . . .
own realities. The choices they make Among the Tribe is the man who has a
have a real effect upon the divine self- belief without knowledge, but the knot-
disclosure. God in His mercy revealed ting of'his belief conforms to knowledge
of the actual situation. He believes con-
the Laws in order that people would be
cerning God what is believed by the
able to make the choices which lead di- learned master, but he believes it by fol-
rectly to their felicity in the next stage of lowing the authority of his teacher, one of
their existence. The touchstone of belief the knowers of God. What he believes
is death, since through death a person must necessarily become imaginalized,
comes to witness the object of his belief. since he does not have the power to dis-
Man will see God in accordance with his engage it from imagination. This takes
354
Transcending the Gods of Belief

place when death is made present, since Or rather, knowledge of the situation as it
this is a state which gazes upon the pres- actually is in itself will escape you. Be in
ence of sound imagination into which no yourself a hyle for the forms of all beliefs,
doubt enters. This is not the imagination for God is wider and more tremendous
which is a human faculty located in the than that He should be constricted by one
front of the brain. On the contrary, this is knotting rather than another. For He
imagination from the outside, like Gabriel says, "Whithersoever you turn, there is
in the form of Dil)ya. 15 It is an indepen- the Face of God" (2:115). He did not
dent and sound ontological presence mention one place rather than another;
which possesses embodied forms worn by and He said that the "face" of God is
meanings and spirits. This person will there, and the face of a thing is its reality.
have a degree here that accords with what Through that He alerted the hearts of the
he believed. (II 295.21, 296.15) gnostics, lest they busy themselves with
the accidental affairs of the life of this
Whenever Ibn al-'Arabi discusses world instead of keeping the like of this in
belief, he has in view the final outcome mind. For the servant does not know in
which breath he will be taken. He may be
of belief, at the Resurrection and beyond.
taken in the time of heedlessness, and he
Belief determines human becoming in would not be equal to him who is taken
the next world, so all our effort needs to in the time of presence. (Fu~u~ 113)
be directed toward putting it in correct The Men are those who concur with
order so that it will yield felicity. But the belief of every believer in respect of
more specifically, Ibn al-'Arabl wants to that which has conveyed it to him, taught
clarify the position of the great gnostics it, and established it. On the Day of Visi-
and the nature of their unique knowledge tation16 the Men will see their Lord with
of the Divine Reality, a knowledge which the eye of every belief.
conforms to God's actual situation. They He who counsels his own soul should
investigate, during his life in this world,
alone know God as He is, as combining
all doctrines (maqala) concerning God. He
incomparability and similarity, nonde- should learn from whence each possessor
limitation and delimitation. of a doctrine affirms the validity of his
doctrine. Once its validity has been af-
No individual can escape having a be- firmed for him in the specific mode in
lief concerning his Lord. Through it he which it is correct for him who holds it,
resorts to Him and seeks Him. When the then he should support it in the case of
Real discloses Himself to him in his be- him who believes in it. He should not
lief, he recognizes and acknowledges deny it or reject it, for he will gather its
Him. But if He discloses Himself to him fruit on the Day of Visitation, whatever
in other than his belief, he denies Him that belief might be. This is the all-em-
and seeks refuge from Him, thus dis- bracing knowledge of God.
playing discourtesy toward Him in the The root which shows the soundness of
actual situation, though he himself sup- what we have said is the fact that every
poses that he has shown courtesy. observer (na?ir) of God is under the con-
No believer believes in any God other trolling property of one of the names of
than what he has made in himself, for the God. That name discloses itself to him
God of beliefs is made. The believers see and gives to him a specific belief through
nothing but themselves and what they its self-disclosure, such that he is un-
have made within themselves. So con- aware. The divine names all possess a
sider: The levels of mankind in knowl- sound ascription to God. Hence his vision
edge of God correspond exactly to their of God in each belief with all the diversity
levels in vision of Him on the Day of is sound; there is nothing of error within
Resurrection. I have told you the cause it. This is given to him by the most com-
which brings this about. plete unveiling ....
Beware of becoming delimited by a So turn your attention to what we have
specific knotting and disbelieving in ev- mentioned and put it into practice! Then
erything else, lest great good escape you. you will give the Divinity its due and you
355
Consummation

will be one of those who are fair toward here you will come to know the all-
their Lord in knowledge of Him. For God inclusiveness of felicity for God's crea-
is exalted high above entering under de- tures, and the all-embracingness of the
limitation. He cannot be tied down by mercy which embraces everything. (II
one form rather than another. From 85.10,20)

2 0. S E E IN G WI T H T W 0 E Y E S

God is One, which is to say that ev- The Higher Plenum dispute only in re-
erything other than God is two or more. spect to the Natural locus of manifesta-
Absolute and nondelimited Oneness be- tion within which they become manifest,
longs to the Essence alone. But as soon as, for example, Gabriel, who became
as we speak of God in terms of His at- manifest in the form of DiQ.ya. Dispute
takes place when they become manifest
tributes, then we have in view God as within the luminous, material frames (al-
Divinity-as Creator, Provider, Sus- hayiikil al-nuriyyat al-miiddiyya), and these
tainer. We have to draw a real distinction are the lights which the senses perceive,
between the Essence and the Divinity, since the senses can only perceive the an-
between the Divinity and the cosmos, gels in elemental substrata of Nature.'
and among the many divine names. We However, when they become disengaged
are faced with plurality wherever we from these frames, there is no dispute and
look, though not necessarily an ontologi- no quarrel, since there is no composition.
cal plurality, since there is only One Be- Whenever you say "two," dispute takes
ing. Hence Ibn al-'Arabi, known as the place. "Were there gods in heaven and
earth other than Allah, the heaven and the
great expositor of "Unity," devotes most earth would surely be corrupted" (21:22).
of his attention to affirming the reality of Oneness in every respect is the perfection
multiplicity and explaining its relation- which accepts neither decrease or in-
ship to the Oneness of God. But this, in crease. You have to consider it in respect
fact, is the meaning of taw~ld. As long as of itself, not in respect of him who de-
anything other than the Essence is envis- clares it one (muwa~~id). If oneness is
aged, the term taw~ld requires an affir- identical to him who declares it one, then
mation of Oneness, and affirmation in it is itself. But if it is not identical to him
turn demands duality: one who affirms who declares it one, then it is compound.
and something affirmed. A compound oneness is not what we
mean, nor is it sought by the Men. (II
Duality goes back to the Essence and 93.14)
the "other" (al-ghayr). God in His Es-
sence is absolutely one from every point
of view. But as soon as this is said, In discussing Being, Ibn al-'Arabi af-
someone has said it, so in effect the real- firms the Unity of God while accepting
ity of the other has also been affirmed. that "others" possess a certain reality,
When we admit that there is a cosmos, though they remain forever nonexistent.
we have to speak in terms of God and But even here, Ibn al-'Arabi admits that
the cosmos, and here we dwell on the the things are not absolutely nonexistent,
level of multiplicity. "There is no god since they are known by God. More-
but God" means that the Essence alone is over, as soon as we speak of God's
one in every respect; if man is envisaged knowledge, we have entered into a mul-
in the relationship, duality is affirmed. tiplicity of relationships. Though these
As Ibn al-'Arabi remarks, relationships have no independent exis-
Seeing with Two Eyes

tence, they are real in some respect, so that can possibly exist for all eternity.
we can no longer speak of Absolute Hence God's very conception of nonexis-
Unity. tence affirms the reality of the Supreme
The "Oneness of Being" remains al- Barzakh, Nondelimited Imagination, In-
ways inaccessible to us, since it corre- finite Knowledge, the Breath of the All-
sponds to knowledge of the Essence It- merciful, the Divine Names.
self. The best we can do is approximate It might be said that the most funda-
it on various levels, and this process is mental of all dualities is that between the
known in the common language of Islam Essence and the Divinity, though these
as taw~ld. It should thus not appear par- two are a single Being. The Essence is
adoxical that a book devoted to Ibn al- Being as such, while the Divinity is that
'Arabi, famous as the great spokesman Level in respect to which it can be said
for the Oneness of Being, should end not that Being imagines or knows the cos-
with Oneness, but with duality, which mos. Hence the Divinity is the Supreme
can never be escaped in our relationship Barzakh, standing between the Essence
with the One. and the cosmos, which arises out of the
As Ibn al-'Arabi remarks with a tinge imaginalization of nonexistence.
of exasperation in a slightly different When we as rational and created be-
context, ings consider the actual situation of ev-
erything that exists and does not exist,
The actual situation is nothing but we see God in Himself, God as related to
knower and known, lord and vassal. Ex- the cosmos, the cosmos, and absolute
istence consists of this. So let the speaker nothingness. Strictly speaking, the last
speak about what is actually provided by does not exist on any level, not even
existence and witnessing. Let him aban- conceptualization, since we cannot con-
don the illusions of that which he calls ceive of it, except as an impossibility of
"rationally conceivable"! (IV 102.31) conception. Hence we· are left with the
Essence, the Divinity, and the cosmos;
From a certain point of view the most or Being, the Barzakh, and existence.
fundamental of all dualities is that be- The cosmos or existence may also be
tween Nondelimited Being and absolute called nonexistence, since it has no exis-
nothingness, though the latter cannot tence of its own. It is nonexistent inas-
possibly exist except in a tenuous fashion much as it remains nonmanifest in God's
through imagination, by "supposing the knowledge and existent inasmuch as it
impossible" ( far4 al-mu~iil ). To the becomes manifest when God discloses
extent imagination is able to conceive of Himself.
nothingness, its image becomes a barzakh When we consider God, we look at
between Being and nothingness. It is the the Essence Itself or at the Divinity. In
existent image of nothingness. the first case we declare that He is abso-
But there is a second kind of nothing- lutely incomparable and unknowable,
ness, which we have been calling "non- and in the second we say that He is
existence." Though it does not exist in somehow similar to the cosmos. For Ibn
itself, its existence can be imagined under al-'Arabi, this duality in our conceptual-
certain circumstances; it may possibly ization is merely the flip side of the du-
exist. When God conceives of nonexis- ality of the "combined totality" (al-
tence, that conception affirms the real- majmii'): The Real (~aqq) and creation
ity of the conceiving subject and the con- (khalq), that is, God in Himself and God
ceived object, the knower and the in His self-disclosure.
known, the lord and the vassal. This is The relationships which become es-
the level of the divine knowledge, and tablished because of the fundamental du-
the divine knowledge knows everything ality that grows up out of Unity are be-
357
Consummation

yond count. Each divine name indicates a considered-to remember that be-
point of view in respect of which the wilderment relates to the level of theory.
Essence can be considered in relation to When you ask about the ultimate reality
the cosmos. If the Shaykh often con- of things, you cannot possibly be given a
tradicts himself in explaining the reality straightforward answer which will be
of multiplicity, this has to do with the valid in all situations. On another level,
fact that he considers it from a wide Ibn al-'Arabi deals with the human situa-
variety of perspectives. When these shift, tion, the existential plight which arises in
so also do the conclusions he draws. But face of the supreme unknowability of
it would be a terrible distortion of his God. Where do we turn? What do we
teachings to try to eliminate the various do? Here the Shaykh rejects all ambi-
perspectives and summarize what he has guity, since in practical terms the human
to say through a single doctrine, thereby task is clear. We know that the universe
eliminating all inconsistencies: "Ibn al- is infused with mercy, and we also know
'Arabi's position on wujud is x or y." that mercy by its very nature seeks our
Yes, and no, we have to answer. Yes, felicity. It has clearly set down the roads
because he accepts all positions which which lead to felicity, and our only
have an ontological grounding. No, be- choice-if we have any aspiration to rise
cause the acceptance of one position does beyond the level of "animal man" -is to
not mean that he rejects other positions. follow the road which God has revealed
The men of reason-who are gen- to us.
erally known today as "critical thinkers" In the last analysis, if Ibn al-'Arabi
of whatever shade or school-insist continually affirms the utter incapacity
upon tying and binding. They want to ('ajz) of the independent human reason,
know exactly what the situation is, and this is because he wants to direct human
apply all the tools of their science to dis- beings toward guidance and mercy. He
cover it. Ibn al-'Arabi replies that the tells us to give up trying to understand
situation cannot be known, since, in the the nature of things with our rational
last analysis, God is the situation, and faculties alone, since this is impossible.
God's Essence is unknowable. What we Reason in any case is congenitally de-
can know depends upon our perspective. formed, since it ties and binds. Return to
There are more perspectives than there the heart, which unties all knots and
are human minds. Each perspective loosens all deadening constrictions. But
throws a certain light upon the situation, the heart can only be found in the direc-
but none of them can be final or defini- tion of God, and we can only go toward
tive. God through the path that He has set
In short, if we want to say that Ibn al- down before us.
'Arabi affirms x, that may be true, but
that is not all he has to say about the
issue. Other perspectives are admissible
and valid on their own levels. We cannot Duality and the Signs of Unity
pin the Shaykh down as to what his po-
sition is on important intellectual prob-
lems, such as the nature of existence, Though duality displays its properties
God, the things, the human soul, and so and effects throughout existence, each
on. The closest we can come to provid- property and each effect is a sign (aya) of
ing a succinct expression of his teachings God's Oneness.
is "Yes and no," "He/not He," "utter be-
wilderment." Nothing makes one thing two other
When all this has been said, it is still than itself, whether in the sensory or
vitally important-if the Shaykh's mes- intelligible realms. As for the sensory
3 58 sage to his fellow human beings is to be realm, Adam was made two by that
Seeing with Two Eyes

which was opened up out of his short left at the body and we see that its form sub-
rib, that is, the form of Eve. He was sists, but properties that we had been wit-
one in his entity, then he became a pair nessing-that is, the perception of sen-
through her, though she was none other sory things and meanings-disappear
than himself. When she was in him, it from the body and its form, then we
was said that he was one. know that beyond the manifest body
As for the intelligible realm, the Divin- there is another meaning which bestows
ity is nothing other than God's Essence, the properties of the perceptions within it.
but what is intelligible from "Divinity" is We name that meaning the "spirit" of this
different from what is intelligible from body.
the fact that He is an "Essence." So the In the same way, we know that there is
Essence of God made the Divinity two, something that moves us or keeps us still,
though each is identical with the other. exercising its ruling properties within us
In the sensory domain Adam was made as it wills, only when we look at our own
two by Eve, who derived from his es- souls. Then, when we know our souls,
sence. Then God "scattered abroad from we know our Lord, like two exactly simi-
the pair of them many men and women" lar things. That is why the Prophet re-
(Koran 4:1) in the form of the pair. In the ported in the revelation through his
same way God scattered abroad, from the words, "He who knows his soul knows
Essence of God and the fact that He is the his Lord," and why God sent down the
God of the cosmos, [many things] upon report, "We shall show them Our signs
the form of these two intelligible things upon the horizons and in themselves, un-
[the Essence and the Divinity]. Hence the til it is clear to them that He is the Real"
cosmos emerged upon the form of That (41:53), for the cosmos became manifest
which brings about effects and That in from God only in the form of the actual
which effects are displayed, for the sake situation. (III 314.22)
of propagation (tawiilud), that is, the
propagation of the parts of the cosmos.
The Divinity is a property of the Es- Cosmologically speaking, duality be-
sence. Through the Divinity the Essence
has the property of bringing the cosmos
gins with the First Intellect, the active
into existence. Since the Essence prefers pole of spiritual and intelligible existence,
the property of bringing the cosmos into which is paired with the Universal Soul,
existence, the cosmos becomes manifest the receptive pole. On a lower level, God
upon the form of that which brings it into sits upon the "Throne" and lets down
existence. Hence it is divided into that His two feet, which rest upon the "Foot-
which exercises effects and that within stool." Though this topic deserves a
which effects are displayed, as in fact hap- thorough and detailed explication in an-
pens within the sensory domain. God did other context, it is not inappropriate to
not create from Adam and Eve an earth, a recall here that these cosmic dualities all
heaven, a mountain, or anything other
than their own kind. He created from go back to the Essence and the Divinity,
them only their likes in form and prop- or to the declaration of incomparability
erty .... and the affirmation of similarity.
Since the root is One and nothing made
Him two except Himself, and since
manyness only became manifest from His Since the Footstool is the place of the
Entity, everything in the cosmos pos- two feet, it allows for only two abodes in
sesses a sign denoting the fact that He is the next world, the Fire and the Garden.
One. Through the two feet, God produces two
The whole of the cosmos is body and celestial spheres, the sphere of the constel-
spirit, and through the two of these, exis- lations (falak al-bumj) and the sphere of
tence is configured. The cosmos is to the the moon's mansions (falak al-maniizil),
Real as the body is to the spirit. Just as the the latter of which is the earth of the Gar-
spirit is not known except through the den. These two will remain in the next
body [so also the Real is not known ex- world, while the order of everything be-
cept through the cosmos]: When we look low the sphere of the mansions will be 3 59
Consummation

destroyed. Its form will be changed and dousness, magnificence, overbearing-


the light of the stars will disappear, just as ness, and so on. But inasmuch as He is
God has said, "Upon the day the earth similar to us, He makes us feel intimate
shall be changed into other than the earth, (uns) with Him through His beauty, gen-
and the heavens" (14:48). He also says, tleness, mercy, forgiveness, kindness, etc.
"When the stars shall be extinguished"
(77:8). But He means by "heavens" only
that which is well-known as the heavens: God- who is the All-merciful, none
the seven heavens specifically. As for other-made the Throne the locus for the
the concave interior surface of the sphere Unity of the Word (a~adiyyat al-kalima).
of the mansions, that is the roof of the He created the Footstool, and the Word
Fire. became divided into two commands, that
Through the act of these two feet He might create two of each kind. Then
within this celestial sphere, there became one of the two will be qualified by high-
manifest within the cosmos two of every ness and the other by lowness, one by ac-
kind, by the ordainment of the Inaccessi- tivity (fi'l) and the other by receptivity
ble. This goes back to the existence of (infi'an. Hence the concept of even num-
Nature's two active principles,' the two bers (shaj'iyya) became manifest from the
faculties of the Soul, the two faces of the Footstool in actuality, while it existed po-
Intellect, the two letters of the divine tentially within the One Word. Thereby
word "Be!" [kun, written k.n. in Arabic], it is known that the First Existent Being,
and the two divine attributes in "Nothing though It is One in Entity in respect to Its
is like Him"-which is one attribute- Essence, also possesses the property of re-
"and He is the Hearing, the Seeing" lationship with the cosmos that becomes
(42:11), which is the other attribute. manifest from It. Hence It is an Ontologi-
He who declares His incomparability cal Essence and a relationship. This is the
does so on the basis of "Nothing is like root of all evenness in the cosmos.
Him," while he who declares His similar- There must also be an interconnecting
ity does so on the basis of "He is the factor (rabi1) which is conceived of be-
Hearing, the Seeing." Here there is an tween the Essence and the relationship, so
Unseen (ghayb) and a visible (shahada). that the Essence can accept this relation-
The unseen is incomparability, and the ship. Hence oddness (jardiyya) becomes
visible is similarity. So understand, if you manifest through the concept of the inter-
can understand! connecting factor, since "three" is the first
From here you will know the reality of the odd numbers' . . . , and these go
which exercised its governing property on to infinity. And evenness, which is
over the dualists-who are the Manich- called "two," is the first of the pairs
aeans-until they associated others with (zawj) among the numbers, and these also
God. Though they went to great lengths go on to infinity.
and exerted themselves to the utmost in There is no even number which is not
their rational consideration, they were not made odd by "one," and thus is found the
able to come out of this duality to the oddness of that even number. And there
One Entity, which is nothing but God. is no odd number which is not made even
"And he who calls upon another god with by "one," and thus is found the evenness
God has no proof for that" (23:117), so he of that odd number. The factor which
will not be excused. (II 439.17) makes the odd even and the even odd is
the Independent, which determines prop-
God's two feet are the cosmic mani- erties, but which is not determined by
festation of the divine attributes of maj- any properties. It has no need or poverty,
esty (jaliil) and beauty (jamiil), which in and everything is poor toward It and in
need of It.
turn go back to incomparability and The two feet were placed in the Foot-
similarity. Inasmuch as God is totally stool, and each foot rested in a place dif-
other, He produces in us feelings of awe ferent from the place of the other. . . .
(hayba) through His majesty, transcen- The one place is named "Gehenna" and
dence, power, inaccessibility, tremen- the other is named "Garden." There is no
]60
Seeing with Two Eyes

place after these two where the feet come manifestation of the property of the two
to rest. These feet take replenishment sides and the middle, which is the bar-
only from the Root which they manifest, zakh, the thing between the two, like the
and that is the All-merciful. Hence they hot, the cold, and the lukewarm.
give nothing but mercy, for the property From oddness the odd numbers be-
of the final end goes back to the root .... come manifest and from "two" the even
[The Prophet said, "The Fire will con- numbers. Each number must be either
tinue to say, 'Are there any more') until even or odd, and so on ad infinitum.
the Overbearing places His foot within Through the power of the one the prop-
it. " 4 This is one of the two feet which are erties of the numbers become manifest,
in the Footstool. The other foot, whose and the property belongs to "God, the
resting place is the Garden, is mentioned One, the All-subjugating" (12:39, etc.).
in His words, "Give thou good tidings to Were He not named by contrary names,
the faithful, that they have a foot of firm- He would not have been named "All-sub-
ness with their Lord" (10:2). Hence the jugating" -since it is impossible for any
name "Lord" is with these, while the created thing to stand up to Him. Hence
"Overbearing" is with the others, since He is only "All-subjugating" in respect of
the Fire is an abode of inaccessibility, the fact that He is named by contrary
overbearingness, and awe, while the Gar- names. None stands up to Him but He,
den is an abode of beauty, intimacy, and for He is the Exalter and the !\baser, and
the gentle divine descent .... there occurs between the two names the
Through the two feet God gives wealth properties of subjugator and subjugated,
and poverty, through them "He makes to since only one of the two properties be-
die and makes to live" (53:44), through comes manifest in the locus. (III 462. 11,
them He fills with inhabitants or depopu- 463.12,27)
lates, through them "He creates the two
kinds, male and female" (53:45), through
them He abases and exalts, gives and
withholds, harms and benefits. Were it
not for these two, nothing would happen The Possessor of Two Eyes
in the cosmos.
Were it not for the two feet, no one in
the cosmos would associate others with Wherever the gnostic looks, he sees
God (shirk). For the two feet share prop- the One God, but, dwelling as he does in
erties in the cosmos. Each of them has manyness, he sees Him from two points
both an abode in which it exercises gov- of view. On the one hand, he witnesses
erning control and certain people over God as incomparable. Everything he sees
whom it exercises governing control as is but a sign saying, "God is not this."
God wills ....
On the other hand, he witnesses Him as
The two feet consist of the contrariety
of the divine names, such as the First and similar. Everything he sees says, "God is
the Last, the Manifest and the Nonman- like this; God is disclosing Himself in
ifest. Then the like of this becomes mani- this; God is not other than this; God is
fest from them in the cosmos: the world this."
of the unseen and the world of the visible, As the insight of the spiritual traveler
majesty and beauty, nearness and dis- is gradually illuminated by the light of
tance, awe and intimacy, gathering and faith and unveiling, he comes to see God
dispersion, curtaining and disclosure, ab- from various perspectives, all of which
sence and presence, contraction and ex- go back to incomparability or similarity.
pansion, this world and the next world,
the Garden and the Fire.
On every level, he sees God as one or the
In the same way, through "one," every other; rarely does he see Him as both.
object of knowledge possesses a unity Only the perfect gnostics transcend the
through which it is distinguished from limitations of vision and see God with
everything else. Likewise, oddness, which every eye and in every object of vision.
is the number "three," brings about the When the gnostic attains this highest sta-
Consummation

tion, he deserves to be called the "Posses- the immutable through the immutable,
sor of the Two Eyes" (dhu'l-'aynayn). and that is "unseen" in respect to you and
Every human being possesses two Him. You see the manifest through the
eyes to some degree, since everyone sees manifest, and that is the "witnessed, the
God as present and absent, whether he witnesser, and the witnessing" in respect
to you and Him.
knows it or not. And everyone is in-
Just as you perceive Him, you perceive
cluded in the "man" to which the pro- your own essence. However, in every
noun goes back in the Koranic verse, form you are known to be you, not other
"Have We not appointed for him two than you. Exactly in the same way, you
eyes . . . , and guided him on the two know that Zayd is Zayd and no one else,
highways?" (90:8-1 0). Ontologically even though he undergoes variation in his
speaking, one eye sees Being and the qualities, such as shame and fear, illness
other perceives nothingness. Through and health, satisfaction and wrath, and
the two eyes working together, man per- every state through which he fluctuates.
ceives that he himself and the cosmos are Hence we say that so-and-so has changed
from state to state and from form to
He/not He.
form. Were it not for the fact that this is
the situation, we would not know him
The Real is sheer Light, while the once his !>Qte changed and we would say
impossible (al-mu~iil) is sheer darkness that he no longer exists.
(~ulma). Darkness never turns into light, Hence we come to know that there are
nor does light tum into darkness. Cre- two eyes, as God said: "Have We not ap-
ation is the Barzakh between Light and pointed for him two eyes?" (90:8). One
darkness. In its essence it is qualified nei- eye is that through which he who under-
ther by darkness nor by light, since it is goes transmutation is perceived, while the
the Barzakh and the Middle (al-wasa!) other eye is that through which the trans-
which has a property from each of its two mutation itself is perceived. These are
sides. That is why He appointed for man two different paths which God has made
two eyes and guided him on the two clear to the Possessor of Two Eyes, as He
highways, since he exists between the said, "And guided him on the two high-
two paths. Through one eye and one path ways" (90:10), that is, made clear for him
he accepts light and looks upon it in the the two paths. . . .
measure of his preparedness. Through the Each eye has a path. So know whom
other eye and the other path he looks you see and what you see. For this reason
upon darkness and turns toward it. it is correct that, "You did not throw
In himself, man is neither light nor when you threw, but God threw" (8:17).
darkness, since he is neither existent nor The eye through which you perceive that
nonexistent. He is the firm impediment the throwing belongs to God is different
which prevents sheer light from dispelling from the eye through which you perceive
darkness, and he prevents sheer darkness that the throwing belongs to Mui}.am-
from taking away sheer light. He mad. So know that you have two eyes, if
receives the two sides through his own you possess knowledge. Then you will
essence, and he acquires, through this re- know for certain that the thrower is God
ception, that light whereby he is de- in the corporeal form of Mui}.ammad.
scribed as "existent" and that darkness Imaginalization and assuming imaginal
whereby he is described as "nonexistent." forms is nothing but this ....
So he shares in both sides and protects This is the station of "God created
both sides. (III 274.28) Adam upon His own form." When some-
Everything manifest in the cosmos is an one makes something upon his own
imaginal, engendered form that conforms form, that thing is identical to the form,
to a divine form. For He discloses Him- so it is it/not it. Hence it is correct to say,
self to the cosmos only in accordance "You did not throw when you threw, but
with that which corresponds (muniisaba) God threw," for the root of everything
to the cosmos-in the entity of an immu- which became manifest from that form
table substance, just as man is immutable derives from Him upon whose form it
362 in respect of his substance. Thus you see is. (III 470.26, 471.12)
Seeing with Two Eyes

The eye which looks in the direction a furqiin. It is he who witnesses the out-
of the nonmanifest declares God's in- ward sense, the inward sense, the limit,
comparability and places all emphasis and the place of ascent. For the Prophet
upon His Unity, since it does not per- said, "There is no verse of the Koran
which does not have an outward sense,
ceive the multiplicity of forms. The eye an inward sense, a limit, and a place to
which looks in the direction of the mani- which one may ascend." But the first per-
fest acknowledges the reality of many- son does not say this, since his tasting is
ness and declares His similarity, since it different.
sees all things as God's self-disclosures. When we tasted this latter situation, we
The Koran's fundamental teaching about saw the Koranic descent as a furqiin. Then
God is that He is both incomparable and we said: This is lawful (~alii/), that is un-
similar, so the very names of the Holy lawful (~ariim), and this is indifferent
Book allude to this fact. Thus, as we (mubii~). The drinking places have be-

have already seen, it is called both qur' an come variegated and the religions diverse.
The levels have been distinguished, the
or "that which brings together" and
divine names and the engendered effects
forqan or "that which differentiates." Ibn have become manifest, and the names and
al-' Arabi frequently alludes to the visions the gods have become many in the cos-
of the two eyes by these names. In the mos. People worship angels, stars, Na-
following, he mentions both, then de- ture, the elements, animals, plants, min-
scribes his own experience of the unveil- erals, human beings, and jinn. So much is
ing of real differentiation in the cosmos. this the case that when the One presented
He points to the danger of seeing in one them with His Oneness, they said,
way but not the other, since those who "What, has he made the gods One God?
see only forqan without qur'an associate This is indeed a marvelous thing" (38:5).
But in reality, one should not mar-
other gods with God. Though he does
vel at him who declares His Oneness,
not mention them here, those who see but at him who declares His manyness
qur' an without furqan deny the reality of without proof or demonstration. That is
multiplicity and the ranking of the cos- why God said, "And he who calls upon
mos in degrees of excellence (tafaqul). another god with God has no proof for
They are those deviated "esotcricists" (al- that" (23:117) . . . .
batiniyya) who declare that only the We have said that there is no effect in
inward reality is true, thereby negating the cosmos which is not supported by a
the necessity of the discernment between divine reality. So from whence do the
good and evil and the universal applica- gods become many? From the divine real-
ities. Hence you should know that this
bility of the revealed Law.
derives from the names. For God was ex-
At the beginning of the passage, Ibn pansive with the names: He said, "Wor-
al-'Arabi mentions the hadith, "There is ship Allah" (4:36), "Fear Allah, your
no verse of the Koran which does not Lord" (65:1), "Prostrate yourselves to the
have an outward sense (;;ahr), an inward All-merciful" (25:6). And He said, "Call
sense (batn), a limit (~add), and a place to upon Allah or call upon the All-merciful;
which one may ascend (muf[ala'). " 5 The whichever," that is Allah or the All-mer-
"place to which one may ascend" is the ciful, "you call upon, to Him belong the
face of God present in every existent most beautiful names" (17:110). This made
thing. "When a person ascends, his eye the situation more ambiguous for the peo-
ple, since He did not say, "Call upon Al-
does not fall upon the things, but only
lah or call upon the All-merciful; which-
upon the face of God" (II 177.4). ever you call upon, the Entity is One,
and these two names belong to h." That
He who stops with the Koran inasmuch would be the text which would remove
as it is a qur'iin has but a single eye which the difficulty. God only left this difficulty
unifies all things. Bl!t when a person as -a mercy for those who associate others
stops with it inasmuch as it is a totality of with Him, the people of rational consid-
things brought together, then for him it is eration-those who associate others with 363
Consummation

Him on the basis of obfuscation. (III God is with all things, but the things are
94.16) not with God. This is the difficulty to
which the traveler has addressed himself.

That about which it is said, "God is,


Being With God Wherever You Are and nothing is with Him," is the Divin-
ity, not the Essence. In speaking of
knowledge of God every property which
Man has no access to the domain of is affirmed as belonging to the Essence
Absolute Unity, that station in which belongs to the Divinity, which is relation-
God is One in every respect and no ships, attributions, and negations. Many-
"other" can be conceived or imagined. ness belongs to these relationships, not to
The Essence remains inaccessible and un- the Entity. (I 41.27)
knowable to every created thing always The cosmos is never with God, whether
and forever. God in His incomparability it is qualified by existence or nonexis-
is absolutely incomparable. But in any tence. But it is correctly said that God,
case, that is not the practical concern of the Necessary Being, is with the cosmos,
whether it is nonexistent or existent. (II
the traveler, since his goal is to annihilate 56.28)
all claims to independence and to become The word "is" (kan) [in the saying,
the perfect servant. The traveler strives "God is, and nothing is with Him"] de-
to "return" to his own root, which is rives from "existence" (kawn), which is
nonexistence, the station of "God is, and identical with wujiid. So the Prophet may
nothing is with Him." This "nothing" (Ia as well have said, "God is Existent, and
shay') as Ibn al-'Arabi often points out, is nothing is with Him in His Being." (II
precisely the immutable entity within the 692.25)
knowledge of God. Here the servant is No one is with the Real in the respect
that the Real belongs to Himself A per-
one with God, since there can be no
son is only with the Real in respect of that
claims to any ontological two-ness; there in which the Real has placed him. (II
is but One Being. Yet, from a certain 507.12)
point of view, the "reality" of the ser- God said, "He is with you wherever
vant-that is, his entity-must still be you are" (57:4). He did not say, "And
affirmed, so this is the station of the you are with Him," since the manner in
Unity of Manyness (a~adiyyat al-kathra), which He accompanies us is unknown.
not the Unity of the One (a~adiyyat al- He knows how He accompanies us, but
a~ad), which belongs only to the Es- we do not know how He accompanies us.
sence. So withness is affirmed for Him in rela-
tion to us, but it is negated from us in re-
Having retired to the house of his
lation to Him. (II 582. 10)
own nothingness, the servant is totally at God says, "No indeed, but on that day
the bidding of his Lord, since he has they will be veiled from their Lord!" (Ko-
nothing of his own. Here there is no ser- ran 83:15). The Prophet said, "God has
vant, only the self-disclosure of God col- seventy veils of light and darkness; were
ored and shaped by the properties of the He to remove them, the glories of His
servant's entity. We see a servant like Face would burn away everything per-
ourselves, but he has no self of his own ceived by the sight of His creatures."
and he witnesses nothing but God, in- Look how subtle these veils are, and how
wardly and outwardly. God is his hear- hidden, for God says, "We are nearer to
him than the jugular vein" (50:16), while
ing and sight, his foot and his hand, and
these veils exist, preventing us from see-
God alone appears to him in the guise of ing Him in this mighty nearness ....
the others. After examination, classification, and
In order to achieve the perfection of what has been given by the Eternal
servanthood, man must be "with" God, Speech, we see only that Thou art Thyself
364 just as God is with him. It is true that the veils. That is why the veils are also
Seeing with Two Eyes

veiled and we do not see them, though But the creatures are not with Him-
they are light and darkness. They are majestic indeed is His majesty! For no
what Thou hast named Thyself, the creature knows Him that it should be
"Manifest" and the "Nonmanifest." . . . with Him. Hence, he who calls upon God
So Thou art the veil. We are veiled from with the creatures is not like him who
Thee only through Thee, and Thou art calls upon the creatures with God. "So
veiled from us only through Thy mani- call not upon anyone with God" (72:18).
festation. However, we do not recognize In reality, there can be no prostration to
Thee, since we seek Thee from Thy name, other than God, except in respect to the
just as we look for a king by his name and fact that God is with the creatures wher-
his attribute, even if he should be with us, ever they are. Hence we neither know
but not manifest in that name and that Him nor find Him except along with the
attribute. creatures. In reality prostration is to God
God has a manifestation through His described by withness with the creatures.
Essence, so He talks to us and we talk to That is why the Law set down the kibla,
Him. He witnesses us and we witness as the Prophet said, "God is in the kibla
Him. He recognizes us, but we do not of him who performs the prayer." The
recognize Him. This is the strongest kibla is not God, but God is in it. He
proof that His attributes are negative, not commanded us to prostrate ourselves to it
positive. If they were positive, He would because God is in it and with it.
make them manifest when He became He who sees the creature with his sight
manifest in His Essence. But we do not has seen the Real with his insight, with-
recognize that He is He until He gives us out qualifications. But he should not
knowledge, so we follow His authority in prostrate himself when he sees that, un-
knowledge. Were His attributes positive, less he is commanded to do so. Then his
they would be identical with His Essence, prostration will be to God, though in the
and we would recognize Him through the sensory domain it can never take place ex-
very thing that we witness. But such is cept to other than God, since one cannot
not the case. (II 159.11,27) prostrate himself to God. For God "en-
God accompanies us in every state in compasses everything" (41:54), so the re-
which we are, but we do not accompany lationship of all the directions to the Real,
Him except through halting at His and of the Real to them, is the same. (III
bounds. So in reality, we accompany only 376.22)
His rulings (a~kam), not Him, since He is The Real is perpetually in a state of
with us, but we are not with Him. For "union" (wa~l) with engendered existence.
He knows us, but we do not know Him. Through this He is a god. This is indi-
(II 287. 7) cated by His words, "He is with you
I saw in an Incident a spring of fresh wherever you are" (57:4}, that is, in what-
milk. I had never seen milk so white and ever state you have in nonexistence, exis-
pleasant. I entered into it until it reached tence, and all qualities. Such is the actual
my breasts, while it was gushing forth, situation.
and I marveled at that. I heard a strange What takes place for the people of solic-
divine speech saying, "He who prostrates itude, the Folk of Allah, is that God gives
himself to other than God by God's com- them vision and unveils their insights un-
mand seeking nearness to God and obey- til they witness this withness. This-that
ing God will be felicitous and attain deliv- is, the gnostic's witnessing-is what is
erance, but he who prostrates himself to called "union." So the gnostic has become
other than God without God's command joined (itti~al) to witnessing the actual sit-
seeking nearness will be wretched. God uation. Then this union cannot turn into
says, 'The places of prostration belong to separation {fa~l), just as knowledge cannot
God; so call not upon anyone with God' turn into ignorance. (II 480.12)
(72:18)." God says, "We are nearer to him than
God is with the creatures, but the crea- the jugular vein" (50:16}, thereby describ-
tures are not with God. For He knows ing Himself as being near to His servants.
them, and "He is with" them "wherever" But what is desired from "nearness"
they "are" (57:4}, within the confmes of (qurb) is that it be the attribute of the ser-
their places, their times, and their states. vant. The servant should be qualified as 365
Consummation

being near to the Real exactly as the Real servanthood ('ubiidiyya) and the acciden-
is qualified as being near to him. He says, tal perfection that of manliness (rajii-
"He is with you wherever you are" liyya). The first manifests incomparabil-
(57:4). The Men seek to be with the Real ity, the second similarity.
forever in whatever form He discloses
Himself He never ceases disclosing Him-
self in the forms of His servants continu- The essential perfection, which is dif-
ously, so the servant is with Him wher- ferent from the perfection of manliness, is
ever He discloses Himself continuously. that no lordliness (rabbiiniyya) whatsoever
In the same way, the servant always has a should contaminate the fact that perfect
"whereness" (ayniyya), and God is with man is a servant. Hence he is an existence
him "wherever" he is continuously. while nonexistent, an affirmation while
Hence the whereness of the Real is the negated. It was for this that the Real
form of that in which He discloses Him- brought him into existence.
self The gnostics never cease witnessing The perfection of manliness is acciden-
nearness continuously, since they never tal, while the perfection of servanthood is
cease witnessing forms within themselves essential. Between the two stations lies
and outside of themselves, and that is what lies between the two perfections.
nothing but the self-disclosure of the The degrees of the waystations of these
Real. (II 558.27). two perfections are known to us wher-
ever they might be.
The degree of the essential perfection is
in the Self of the Real, while the degrees
Two Perfections of accidental perfection are in the Gar-
dens. The perfect men possess light, and
they possess wages. God says, "[They are
Perfect man possesses two kinds of the just men and the witnesses in their
perfection, one related to his essential re- Lord's .sight;[ they have their wage," that
is, in respect of their accidental perfection
ality as a form of God, and the other to
and every accidental affair that requires a
the various attributes and qualities which wage, "and they have their light" (57:19),
he manifests in his specific functions in in respect of their essential perfection.
this world and the next. In respect of the "God is the light of the heavens and the
first, "essential" (dhatl) perfection, all earth" (24:35), while the messengers-
perfect men are identical and one with who are the perfect, without any dispute
God, and one might speak of "the Per- -all say, "My wage falls only on God"
fect Man" as a single reality. In respect to (10:72 etc.), for their station gives a wage,
the second, "accidental" ('ara#) perfec- and necessarily so.
Ranking according to excellence (tafli-
tion, each perfect man has a specific
4ul) takes place in accidental perfection,
function to play in the cosmic hierarchy, but not in essential perfection. God says,
and hence there are many "perfect men" "Those messengers-some We have
(kummal). In the first respect the inward ranked in excellence above others" (2:
reality of the perfect men is God as the 253). He also says, "They are degrees
Nonmanifest. In the second respect the with God" (3:163). He does not say, "They
perfect men are God as the Manifest, the have degrees with God." So He made
Divine Form disclosed within the cos- them identical with the degrees, since
mos. From the second point of view, they are identical with essential perfec-
each perfect man is unique, since "Self- tion, while through accidental perfection
they possess degrees in the Garden. So
disclosure never repeats itself." In the
know this!
next world, the perfect men dwell with May God place us among those who
God in respect of the essential perfection, bring together the two perfections! And if
while at the same time they populate var- He should deprive us of bringing them
ious abodes of paradise in respect of the together, may He place us among the
accidental perfection. Ibn al-'Arabi some- people of essential perfection through His
366 times calls the essential perfection that of kindness and generosity! (II 588. 7)
Seeing with Two Eyes

Perfect man's essential perfection has found in the penetration of power into the
to do with the fact that he manifests God objects of power, desire into the objects
Himself without taking any specific of desire, and the manifestation of the
property or name into account. His ac- properties of the divine names. The essen-
cidental perfection appears when he man- tial perfection possessed by the Essence is
absolute independence from all this.
ifests one or more of the divine names In this station the servant does not wit-
that are embraced by the all-comprehen- ness the Essence of Him who brought
sive name Allah. Then he appears in the him into existence in the respect that He
guise of God's generosity or knowledge is qualified by Divinity. His locus of wit-
or vengeance or some other attribute. nessing is His independence from the en-
The second situation distinguishes the gendered effects (al-athiir al-kawniyya)
perfect men from each other, since each which belong rightfully to the Divinity.
manifests a unique commingling of the The servant is poor toward the Essence
properties of the divine names. One per- with an essential poverty. In his worship
fect man may display greater knowledge, he possesses an essential worship without
any command (amr) joined to it, since a
but less strength. Another may manifest command is connected to accidental
more intense vengeance and weaker things, not the essential. It is not said to
forgiveness. These accidental qualities the servant, "Be a servant!", since he is a
depend upon the situation of the cosmos servant in his every essence. It is only said
into which perfect man is placed. His to him, "Do such and such a work, 0
activity is always appropriate to the servant!" This work is an accidental com-
cosmic context and historical circum- mand, and the servant is commanded for
stances-he is, after all, the perfect rep- the sake of the work. He may do the
resentative of God, His chosen vicege- work or he may not. . . .
rent- but the nature of this activity will In this station the servant declares the
incomparability of the Essence of Him
vary in accordance with the spatio- who brought him into existence with a
temporal situation. Ibn al-'Arabi makes praise which is appropriate to essential
these points in continuing his discussion perfection. Then, because he also pos-
of the accidental perfection known as sesses accidental perfection-the perfec-
"manliness." Note that he distinguishes tion of manliness- he praises Him with a
here between the perfection of the Es- praise worthy of God, accident for acci-
sence, which pertains to God's incom- dent, but not by way of declaring incom-
parability, and the perfection of the parability, since the way of declaring
Divinity, which pertains to His similarity incomparability belongs only to the Es-
through the names. He also brings in the sence. God says, "Nothing is like Him"
because of the perfection of the Essence,
distinction between the engendering and "He is the Hearing, the Seeing"
command and the prescriptive com- (42:11) because of the perfection of the
mand. Divinity, which demands both the heard
and the seen. Every demander calls for
The divine opening that is connected to something demanded, and that which
engendered existence-e.g., help against calls for something lacks the states of the
enemies and vanquishing them, mercy servant [for which it calls]. But "God is
and tenderness toward friends-is there- Independent, Praiseworthy" (64:1), so the
sult of manliness, nothing else. Once this tongue of courtesy requires that it be said
station is achieved and its plane is per- that He demands you for you, not for
fected, God calls the servant in his inmost Himself. (II 588.27)
consciousness, a call from His own per-
fection to the servant's essential perfec-
tion. Then the servant declares the Es- In his dual perfection, perfect man
sence of Him who brought him into perceives God with two eyes. Through
existence incomparable with accidental one he sees Him as incomparable,
perfection, which is the divine perfection. through the other as similar. This is the
For in actuality, the divine perfection is perfection of knowledge. 367
Consummation

Man possesses an eminence (sharaj) perceives Him not" (Koran 6:103), and in
over everything in the heaven and earth. the same way, insights perceive Him not.
He is God's sought-after goal among the "Insights" are rational faculties, which
existent things, since it is he whom God perceive Him not with their reflections,
has taken as a locus of self-disclosure. I so they are incapable of reaching and win-
mean by "man" perfect man, since he is ning the object they seek.
perfect only through God's form. In the "And He taught Adam the names, all
same way a mirror, though complete in of them" (2:31). He commanded him to
creation, is only perfect through the dis- teach the Higher Plenum. He commanded
closure within it of the form of the everything 7 in the heavens and the earth
looker. That is the "level" of the mirror, to look after that which was appropriate
and the level is the goal. In the same way for this deputy, since He subjected to him
the Divinity is complete through the everything in the heavens and the earth,
names which it demands from the divine even that which is called "man" in respect
thralls. So It lacks nothing. But Its per- of his completeness, not in respect of his
fection-! mean the level of which It is perfection. As long as this kind which
worthy-is independence from the shares the name "man" with perfect man
worlds. Hence It possesses nondelimited does not attain to perfection, he is one of
perfection through independence from the those subjected to perfect man, who joins
worlds. Him who is Independent of the worlds
God willed to give His perfection its through his perfection. He alone- I mean
due (~aqq) and He wills this always. He perfect man-worships his Lord who is
created the cosmos to glorify Him in Independent of him. Perfect man's perfec-
praise, not for anything else. The glorifi- tion is that his Lord is not without need
cation is God's, while the glorifier does for him, since there is no one who wor-
not possess the state of witnessing, since ships Him outside the mode of glorifica-
it is annihilated (fanii') from the wit- tion but perfect man, since he receives
nessing. But the cosmos does not lag in self-disclosure constantly, and the prop-
glorification for the blink of an eye, since erty of witnessing never leaves him.
its glorification is inherent (dhiitr), like the Hence he is the most perfect of existent
breathing of a breather. This shows that things in knowledge of God and the most
the cosmos never ceases being veiled and constant of them in witnessing.
it seeks witnessing through that glorifica- Perfect man has two visions (na;;r:ar) of
tion. the Real, which is why He appointed for
[Since God willed to give perfection its him two eyes. With one eye he looks
due,] He created perfect man upon His upon Him in respect to the fact that He is
own form and gave news to the angels Independent of the worlds. So he sees
about his level. He told them that he is Him neither in any thing nor in himself
the vicegerent in the cosmos and that his Through the other eye he looks upon
home is the earth. He appointed the earth Him in respect of His name All-merciful,
his abode, since He created him from it. which seeks the cosmos and is sought
He made the Higher Plenum busy with by the cosmos. He sees His Being per-
him in heaven and earth, since "He sub- meating all things. Through the vision of
jected" to him "what is in the heavens and this eye he is poor toward everything in
what is in the earth, all together, for him" respect to the fact that the things are the
(Koran 45:12), that is, for his sake. Then names of God, not in respect of their own
God veiled Himself, for the deputy (nii'ib) entities. Hence, none is poorer toward the
has no property when He who has made cosmos than perfect man, since he wit-
him vicegerent is manifest. So "He is nesses it subjected to himself He knows
veiled from insights, just as He is veiled that if he did not need the cosmos, those
from sight": The Messenger of God, ad- things that are subjected to him would
dressing people who resembled man in not have been subjected to him. He
sensory form but who stood below the knows in himself that he is more in need
level of perfection, said, "God is veiled of the cosmos than the cosmos is in need
from insights just as He is veiled from of him. His all-inclusive poverty stands in
sight; the Higher Plenum seeks Him just the station of the all-inclusive divine Inde-
as you yourselves seek Him. " 6 "Sight pendence. In respect of poverty, he takes
Seeing with Two Eyes

up a position in the cosmos like the posi- the specific characteristics of the perfect
tion of the Real in respect to the divine men are determined by the specific
names, which demand the displaying of names they serve. Viewed from the point
effects in the cosmos. He only becomes of view of the spiritual journey, "assum-
manifest in his poverty by the manifesta- ing the traits of the divine names" is the
tion of the names of the Real.
process of becoming the servant of each
Perfect man is the Real in his indepen-
dence from the cosmos, since the cosmos name. In Ibn al-'Arahi's view, this is the
has been subjected for his sake by the meaning of the hadith, "God has ninety-
divine names that display their effects nine names, one hundred less one. He
within it. Nothing is subjected to him ex- who counts (i~~a') them will enter the
cept that which possesses the display of Garden." 8 One of al-Tirmidhi's ques-
effects, without respect to the entity of tions is, "How many are the shares of
the cosmos. So he is poor only toward servanthood?" Ibn al-'Arabi replies:
God.
Perfect man is also the Real in his pov-
erty toward the cosmos. He knows that There are ninety-nine shares, in keep-
God subjected the cosmos to man only ing with the number of the divine names.
to distract the things, through the subjec- If the servant counts those names, he en-
tion imposed upon them, from seeking ters the Garden. Each divine name has a
knowledge in respect to witnessing, for servanthood specific to itself, through
that does not belong to them, since they which it is worshiped by whichever of the
stand below the level of perfection. created things worships it. Hence no one
Therefore perfect man manifests need for knows these divine names except a friend
that in which the cosmos has been sub- fixed in his friendship. For it has not been
jected. Thereby subjection in the cosmos established for us that the Messenger of
grows stronger, that they may not neglect God has designated them. A number
that of it which the Real commanded of people have counted them [in their
them to perform; for "They disobey not books], but it is not known if they are the
God in what He commands them" (66:6). same ones concerning which the text has
By making manifest this poverty, perfect come....
man conforms to the Real in keeping the Among the Men of Allah there are
cosmos distracted. those whom God has given knowledge of
Hence perfect man is the Real in his these names in respect of the servanthood
poverty, like the names, and the Real in demanded by each of the names from the
his independence, since he does not see servant. So this gnostic friend serves God
that which is subjected to him, only that in accordance with the name which deter-
which possesses effects. In other words, mines his property in his present moment
he sees the divine names, not the entities (waqt).
of the cosmos. Hence he is poor only to- He who counts these divine names will
ward God within the entities of the cos- enter the supra-sensory (ma'nawf) and
mos, while the cosmos knows nothing of sensory (~issf) Gardens. He will enter the
that. (III 151.10) supra-sensory Garden because of the
knowledge of servanthood which these
names demand as is appropriate to them.
He will enter the sensory Garden because
of the works which these names demand
Serving the Divine Names from the servants. (II 92.26)

In respect of God's Essence, or Being The friends of God can be divided


as such, perfect man manifests the all- into a large variety of categories, as Ibn
comprehensive name Allah, but in re- al-'Arabi shows in a thirty-five page sec-
spect of His self-disclosure and the per- tion of the Futu~tit (II 6-39). Each type
fection of manliness, he manifests the of friend displays various perfections of
individual names of God. Each name of knowledge and character, the divine
God has a servanthood specific to it, and roots of which go back to certain specific 36 9
Consummation

names. 9 Thus Ibn al-'Arabi describes the nating over the others, just as the divine
characteristics of the "Substitutes" (abdal) Essence possesses all the names without
as follows: being delimited and defined by any of
them. Perfection, then, is an equilibrium
The Substitutes are seven. They never (i'tidal) in which everything stays in bal-
increase and never decrease. Through ance. All names play their proper role
them God preserves the seven climes. without predominance. In contrasting
Each Substitute possesses a clime within the "lovers" (mu~ibb) of God with the
which he is the governor and friend. . . . gnostics or perfect men, the Shaykh
They know the affairs and mysteries that writes that the lovers become enraptured
God has placed in the seven planets. . . .
by His Beauty, but the gnostics remain
The names that pertain to them are names
of attributes. Among them are 'Abd al- in cold sobriety in face of the greatest of
f:layy ("Servant of the Alive"), 'Abd al- God's self-disclosures, since no name
'Alim ("Servant of the Knowing"), 'Abd dominates over any other.
al-Wadiid ("Servant of the Loving"), and
'Abd al-Qadir ("Servant of the Power-
The gnostics remain sober (~a~w) and
ful") . . . . Among them are 'Abd al-Sha-
do not become enraptured in God in the
kiir ("Servant of the Grateful"), 'Abd al-
way that the lovers become enraptured in
Sami' ("Servant of the Hearing"), and
Him, since He discloses Himself to the
'Abd al-Ba~ir ("Servant of the Seeing").
lovers in nondelimited beauty, but He
Each of these divine attributes has a Man
discloses Himself to those who know
from among these Substitutes. By means
Him in nondelimited perfection. What
of the name God gazes upon them. The
docs perfection have in common with
name is the attribute which dominates
beauty?'"
over them. In fact, there is none of the
In perfect man the names impede one
Men who docs not have a relationship
another (tamiinu'), and this mutual imped-
with a divine name, through which he re-
ing leads to their not displaying effects in
ceives the means to the good which he
him who has this attribute. Hence he re-
possesses. Each of them corresponds to
mains incomparable (munazzah) with the
the inclusiveness and compass that is
display of effects along with the Non-
given by the divine name. It determines
delimited Essence, concerning which no
the measure of the Man's knowledge. {II
name or attribute gives any knowledge.
7.9)
So perfect man is in extreme sobriety, like
the messengers, who are the most perfect
Ibn al-'Arabi alludes to an experiential of human types. For perfect man is in ex-
side of this special relationship between treme nearness, and through it he be-
God's friend and the divine names while comes manifest in the perfection of his
discussing the "opening of sweetness" servanthood while witnessing the perfec-
(fotu~ al-~alawa). tion of the Essence of Him who brought
him into existence.
Once you verify what we have said,
When the Real named me a servant of
you will understand that your tasting has
His names and opened me up to this
nothing in common with the tasting of
sweetness, I found no more intense effect
the Men, the perfect. It is they whom
than from the name Inaccessible. The
God has purified for Himself, selected for
meaning of this is that He makes man
Himself, and made incomparable through
stand in the station of being a servant of
each divine name so that he will acquire Himself. Hence, they and He are like
discrimination among the realities and ac- He and they. He named the perfect one
from among them "al-'A~r," 11 since He
tualize the divine sciences. {II 506.30)
"pressed" one thing together with another
in order to extract what He sought. He
Though many of God's friends are pressed the essence of a servant, nonde-
dominated by the properties of specific limited in his servanthood such that he is
divine names, the perfect man displays untainted by any lordship whatsoever, to-
370 all the names without any name domi- gether with the Essence of the Real, to-
Seeing with Two Eyes

tally Nondelimited by any servanthood turns the whole of the cosmos, 'Abd
toward a divine name which would de- Allah and 'Abd al-Jami' ("Servant of the
mand engendered existence. Once the All-comprehensive"). 13 These two names
two essences stood opposite each other in refer respectively to the Pole's essential
such a standing, that which was pressed and accidental perfections, which are as
out (mu'ta~ar) was identical to the perfec-
near as possible to being identical, since
tion of the Real and the servant. This was
the sought after goal for the sake of which
the "All-comprehensive" is both a name
the 'A~r came into existence. So if you of God and the name of the name Allah,
have understand that to which we have so it and Allah are practically synony-
alluded, you have attained to felicity and I mous. In any case, every pole is named
have placed before you the ladder of per- by two names, Servant of Allah and ser-
fection. Therefore climb! ... vant of some other name. 14
Perfect man is more perfect than the
cosmos in its totality, since he is a tran-
script of the cosmos letter for letter, and When the poles and the righteous (al-
~iili~un)are named by known names, they
he adds to it the fact that his reality does
not accept shrinking (taqii'ul), though the are named the servant only of that name
highest of the angelic spirits, Seraphiel, which has taken charge of them. God
accepts shrinking, since he shrinks sev- says, "When the servant of Allah (i.e.,
enty times a day. 12 • • • "Shrinking" only the Prophet Mu}:!ammad) stood calling on
takes place in relation to a precedent ele- Him" (72:19). Hence God named him
vation, but the universal servant (al-'abd "'Abd Allah," even if his father had
al-kulll) has no elevation in his servant- named him "Muhammad" and "Ahmad."
hood, since he is stripped of attributes The Pole is fore~er specified by this all-
(mas/Ub al-aw~iij). If Seraphiel brought comprehensive name, so he is 'Abd Allah
forth the state of this universal servant in this world.
in his servanthood, he would not again Then the poles are ranked in excellence
shrink. So understand my allusions! I among themselves, even though they all
have apprised you through this report come together in this name which is de-
that this angel is among those creatures manded by their station. Each of them is
who know the most about God. He also specified by another divine name. He
shrinks time after time because God's self- is attributed to it and called by it outside
disclosures continue time after time, since of the station of Polehood (qutbiyya).
the Real never discloses Himself in a sin- Hence Moses' name is 'Abd al-Shakur
gle form twice. In each self-disclosure ("Servant of the Grateful"), David's spe-
Seraphiel sees what leads to shrinking. cific name is 'Abd al-Malik ("Servant of
This is the sound doctrine, given by true the King"), and Mu}:!ammad's name is
knowledge of God. (II 615.22,34) 'Abd al-Jami'. There is no pole who does
not possess a name specific to him in ad-
dition to the all-inclusive name which he
The "universal servant" is perfect man possesses, that is, 'AbdAllah. It makes no
in respect of the fact that he is the servant difference if the pole is a prophet in the
of every (kull) divine name, not just this time of prophecy which has now come to
name or that. He cannot be called 'Abd an end, or a friend of God in the time of
al-Karim ("Servant of the Generous") or the Shari'a of Mu}:!ammad. (II 571.18)
'Abd al-Majid ("Servant of the Glori-
ous") to the exclusion of any other epi- Perfect man serves God in the guise of
thet. On the contrary, he must be called the name Allah, not any other name. Just
the servant of every name, or, the "ser- as Allah is Nondelimited Being, so per-
vant of Allah," the all-comprehensive fect man is the nondelimited thrall of Al-
name. Hence, though there are many lah (al-ma'luh al-mutlaq). He accompanies
kinds of "poles" (qutb)-those friends of Allah in every self-disclosure. In other
God around whom various realities of words, the perfect servant, through his
the universe turn-Ibn al-'Arabi calls the nothingness and effacement, manifests all
absolute Pole (al-qutb), around whom the divine names. He assumes the traits 371
Consummation

and fully realizes the properties of every he flows with all created things in perfect
name, without being delimited by any harmony and equilibrium. He is like a
one name or group of names. Lesser tree or a bird in his ordinariness, follow-
friends of God, though they realize the ing the divine will wherever it takes him,
name Allah to some degree by being with no friction, no protest, complete se-
human, manifest in practice only some of renity, no waves. He is so much at ease
the names. Ordinary mortals assume with the continual flux of secondary
various traits of the names in disequilib- causes that he remains unnoticed by his
rium and imbalance, leading to deviation contemporaries. There may be outstand-
from the human norm and preventing ing spiritual masters who attract disciples
them from passing beyond the level of through their teachings and miraculous
"animal man." gifts, but the most perfect of the masters
are never even noticed except by those
There can be no sheer servanthood, un- whom God chooses and guides. In re-
contaminated by any lordship whatso- spect of this characteristic, Ibn al-'Arabi
ever, except in perfect man alone. And calls the most perfect of the gnostics the
there can be no sheer lordship, uncontam- "People of Blame" (maliimiyya). Though
inated by any servanthood whatsoever, the name "People of Blame" has histori-
except in God. So man is upon the form
cal precedents in Sufism, Ibn al-'Arabi
of the Real through incomparability and
being far removed from contamination in defines the term and describes those who
his reality, for he is the nondelimited di- deserve it in terms specific to his own
vine thrall, and the Real is the Nondelim- teachings. 15
ited God. And by all of this I mean per-
fect man.
Perfect man is separated from him who The People of Blame are those who
is not perfect by a single intangible reality know and are not known. (II 145.1)
(raqlqa), which is that his servanthood is The People of Blame are the unknown,
uncontaminated by any lordship whatso- those whose stations are unknown. No
ever. Since perfect man has this high po- divine affair dominates over them such
sition, he alone is the goal sought after that it might be known that God has a
through the cosmos. special solicitude towards them. Their
This perfection became manifest in Adam states conceal their stations because of the
in His words, "He taught Adam the names, wisdom of the abode: They never become
all of them" (2:31). He added emphasis manifest in the locus of contention, since
with "all," since it is a word that requires sometimes people contend with their
all-encompassingness. Thereby the Real Master-who is God-in this house in
gave witness to his perfection. In the respect of His Divinity. But this tribe
same way it became manifest in Mu}:lam- have realized their Master, so this realiza-
mad, in his words, "I came to know the tion has prevented them from becoming
knowledge of the ancients and the later manifest within the abode within which
folk." So Adam's knowledge was in- their Master is concealed. l-Ienee they
cluded in his knowledge, since Adam 1s flow with the common people (al-'iimma)
among the ancients. (II 603.14) in respect of the outward acts of obedi-
ence which the common people perform .
. . . No act becomes manifest from them
which would distinguish them from the
common people. This contrasts with the
The People of Blame miraculous breaking of habits through
states displayed by some of the friends. (II
501.25)
By manifesting all the divine names The People of Blame are the masters
without a trace of Lordship and thereby and leaders of the folk of God's path.
displaying perfect servanthood, perfect Among them is the master of the cosmos,
man becomes, one might say, totally or- that is, Mu}:lammad, the Messenger of
372 dinary. In him, nothing stands out, since God-God bless him and give him peace!
Seeing with Two Eyes

They are the sages, those who put things tion (zuhd), constant devotion (tabattul),
in their proper places. They do things and pure acts, all of them praiseworthy.
well and put the secondary causes in their They purify their inward dimensions
correct locations, while negating them in from every blameworthy attribute which
the places from which they should be ne- has been blamed by the Lawgiver. How-
gated. They violate nothing of what God ever, they do not see anything beyond the
has arranged in His creation, leaving it works they perform. They have no
just as He has arranged it. Whatever is re- knowledge of the states and the stations,
quired for this world, they leave for this nor do they possess the God-given sci-
world, and whatever is required for the ences from Him, nor the mysteries, nor
next world, they leave for the next world. unveilings, nor anything of what is found
They look at things with the same eye by others. These are called the "worship-
with which God looks at things. They ers" (al-'ubbiid). If anyone should come to
never confuse realities. ask them for a prayer, one of them may
A person who abolishes a secondary well chide him or say, "What thing am I
cause in the place where its Establisher- that I should pray for you? What position
the Real-has established it has called its have I?" He is wary lest he be stricken by
Establisher stupid and remained ignorant self-satisfaction. He fears the calamities of
of His measure. A person who depends the ego (najs) and that making a show
upon the secondary cause has associated (riyii') should enter into that. If one of
others with God and becomes a heretic, them should busy himself with reading,
so he will remain forever in the earth of his book will be the Ri'iiya of al-Mul}.asibi
Nature. Hence the People of Blame place or something of the same genre. 17
secondary causes in their places, but they The second kind are above the first.
do not depend upon them. The disciples They see all acts as belonging to God and
(tilmldh) of the People of Blame, who are they understand that they possess no act
the Truthful (al-~iidiqun), undergo con- whatsoever. Hence making a show disap-
stant fluctuation within the stages of pears from them completely. If someone
Manliness. But the disciples of others un- should ask them about something about
dergo constant fluctuation within the fri- which the people of the path are wary,
volities of the ego (al-ru'uniit al-naf they say, "Do you call upon any other
siyya). 16 The measures of the People of than God, if you speak truly?" (6:40), and
Blame are unknown. None knows them they say, "Say: 'Allah', then leave them
but their Master, who was partial toward alone" (6:91). They are like the worship-
them and singled them out for this ers in earnestness, striving, abstinence, re-
station. (II 16.15) nunciation, trust, and so on. However,
while they possess all that, they see some-
In the following passage Ibn al-'Arabi thing beyond the situation of the wor-
shipers, that is, states, stations, sciences,
contrasts the "People of Blame" with mysteries, unveilings, and charismatic
two other types among the Men of Al- gifts (kariimiit). So they attach their aspira-
lah, the "worshipers" (al-'ubbad) and the tions to acquiring those things. Once they
"Sufis." It is especially noteworthy that reach something of that, they make it
in this passage, as is frequently the case manifest among the common people as
in his writings, the Shaykh employs the charismatic gifts, since they see no one
term "Sufi" not as a generic term for the but God. They are the people of good
seekers and finders of God, but as a des- character (khuluq) and chivalry (fotuwwa).
ignation for a particular type of spiritual- This group is named the Sufis. In the
ity which entails a certain amount of out- view of the third group, they are the peo-
ple of frivolity (ru'una) and the possessors
ward show and self-satisfaction, and thus of egos. Their students are like them-
denotes certain friends of God who are selves: They make claims and pass by all
less than perfect. God's creatures with a self-conceited gait,
manifesting leadership over all the Men of
The Men of Allah are three. There is no Allah.
fourth: The third group add nothing to the five
Men who are dominated by renuncia- daily prayers and the supererogatory ex- 373
Consummation

ercises (rawiitib). They do not distinguish which have been put in their places. For
themselves from the faithful who perform the most part the people have been veiled
God's obligations by any extra state from God. But in reality and in actual
whereby they might be known. They fact, the people are poor only toward
walk in the markets, they speak to the Him in whose hand is the accomplish-
people, and none of God's creatures sees ment of their needs, and that is God. So
any of them distinguishing himself from [the People of Blame] say: "Here God has
the common people by a single thing; named Himself by everything toward
they add nothing to the obligatory works which there is poverty in reality. God is
or the Sunna customary among the com- not poor toward anything, but everything
mon folk. They are alone with God, is poor toward Him." These then are the
firmly rooted, not wavering from their People of Blame, the highest of the Men.
servanthood for the blink of an eye. They Their students are the greatest of the
find no flavor in leadership, since Lord- Men, undergoing fluctuation in all the
ship has overcome their hearts and they stages of Manliness. 18
are lowly before it. God has given them There is no one who has achieved the
knowledge of the places of things and of station of chivalry and good character
appropriate works and states. They are with God, but not with anyone else, ex-
veiled from the creatures and stay con- cept they. They have achieved all the sta-
cealed from them by the covering of the tions and have seen that God veils Him-
common people. For they are sincere and self from the creation in this world, while
purely devoted servants of their Master. they are His elect. So they veil themselves
They witness Him constantly in their eat- from the creatures through the veil of
ing and drinking, their waking and sleep- their Master. From behind the veil they
ing, and their speaking with Him among witness no one in the creatures other than
the people. their Master. When they reach the here-
They put all secondary causes in their after and the Real discloses Himself, they
places and know the wisdom in them. will also become manifest through the
You see them as if they were the ones manifestation of their Master. But their
who had created everything, since they rank in this world is unknown in entity.
affirm and emphasize the secondary For the common people, the worship-
causes. They are poor toward all things, ers are distinct by their mortification,
since everything in their view is named their keeping away from people and peo-
"Allah." But no one has any need of them ple's states, and their avoidance of mixing
in anything, since in them has become with them in body. So they have their re-
manifest nothing of independence or exal- ward. The Sufis are distinct in the eyes of
tation through God, or any of the charac- the common people by their claims and
teristics of the Divine Presence which their miraculous breaking of habits, such
would require things to have need for as reading people's thoughts, and having
them. They see that the things have no their prayers answered. . . . They do not
poverty toward them. But they have pov- refrain from manifesting anything that
erty toward the things, in keeping with will lead people to know about their near-
God's words to the people, "You are the ness to God since, they suppose, they
poor toward God, and God-He is the witness nothing but God. But a great
Independent, the Praiseworthy" (35:15). knowledge escapes them. Moreover, this
Though they have gained independence state of theirs is not safe from deception
through God, they never make manifest and being led on stage by stage.
any attribute which would make it possi- The People of Blame do not distinguish
ble to ascribe to them the name by which themselves from any of God's creatures
God has described Himself, that is, the by anything, so they are unknown. Their
"Independent." They maintain for them- state is the state of the common people.
selves outwardly and inwardly the name They are called "People of Blame" for
by which God has named them, that is, two reasons. One is that the term is as-
the "poor." From here they know that cribed to their students because they
poverty is only toward God, the Indepen- never cease blaming themselves next to
dent. But they see that the people are God. They never perform a work with
374 poor toward all the secondary causes which they are happy, as part of their
Seeing with Two Eyes

trammg. For no one can be happy with Because the perfect gnostic is not de-
works until after they have been accepted, fined by any specific attribute, he is able
and this is unseen by their students. As to manifest conflicting and contradictory
for the great ones among them, the name attributes, just as he is able to believe
is ascribed to them because they conceal in every belief. The all-comprehensive
their states and their rank with God when
they see that people criticize their acts and
name, Allah, brings together contrary at-
blame what they do because the people do tributes. The perfect gnostic, who is the
not see the acts as coming from God. locus of self-disclosure for this name,
They only see them as coming from him brings together all opposites. Ibn al-
upon whose hand they become manifest. 'Arabi explains this while discussing the
So they blame and criticize the acts. But station of "expansion" (bast), whose op-
were the covering to be removed and posite is "contraction" (qah4).
were they to see that the acts belong to
God, no blame would attach to him upon The final end and ultimate return of the
whose hands they appeared. In this state
gnostics-though their entities remain
all those acts would be noble and good.
immutably fixed-is that the Real is iden-
So also is it with this tribe themselves:
tical with them, while they do not exist.
Were their rank with God to become
This station is possessed only by the
manifest to the people, the people would
gnostics. Hence they are contracted in the
take them as gods. But since they have state of their expansion. A gnostic can
habitually been veiled from the common never be contracted without expansion or
people, the blame which is ascribed to the
expanded without contraction. But when
common people when something worthy anyone other than the gnostic is in the
of it appears from them is also ascribed to
state of contraction, he does not have the
them. It is as if their rank itself blames state of expansion, and when he is in the
them because it is not manifest. (III
state of expansion, he does not have the
34.28) state of contraction. Hence the gnostic is
known only through the fact that he
brings opposites together, for all of him is
the Real. Thus Abii Sa'!d al-Kharraz was
asked, "Through what have you known
The Station of No Station
Allah?" He replied, "Through the fact
that He brings opposites together," for he
witnessed their coming together in him-
Perfection is an equilibrium in which self, and he knew that he was upon His
all divine names play their proper role form. He had heard Him say, "He is the
without the predominance of one name First and the Last, the Manifest and the
or some names over others. Perfect man Nonmanifest" (57:3); and it was this verse
acts as God's deputy and vicegerent in he brought in proof of his statement. (II
every situation, since the perfect balance 512.9)
of the names within him means that God
acts through him in respect of Allah, the In traversing the spiritual path, the
all-comprehensive name, not in respect gnostic passes from station to station,
of one of the specific names that are em- never losing a positive attribute after
braced by the name Allah. Hence perfect having gained it. One by one, in perfect
man is not delimited by any specific at- harmony, he assumes the traits of the di-
tributes, since he encompasses all attrib- vine names. Having reached the highest
utes. He assumes the attribute appropri- station, he owns all stations. Having as-
ate to the occasion, just as God always sumed the traits of all divine names, he
discloses Himself in keeping with the re- now manifests the name Allah itself. Just
ceptacle. It is in this sense that Ibn al- as Allah designates nothing specific, but
'Arabi defines "perfection" in his l~(ila~at rather everything- Being and all its at-
as "being removed from attributes and tributes-so also perfect man is nothing
effects. " 19 specific, since he is all things. Each 375
Consummation

station of the path represents a specific what they describe!" (37:180). (II
perfection of knowledge and character. 646.27)
Hence, Ibn al-'Arabi calls the highest sta-
tion which represents no specific perfec- The possessors of no station are called
tion "no station" (Iii maqam). He sees an by several other names in various con-
allusion to it in the Koranic verse, "0 texts. Perhaps the closest synonym,
people of Yathrib, you have no station however, is the "Muhammadan" (Mu-
(Ia muqam)" (33:13). Everyone who l)ammadi). The Muhammadan friend of
resides below this station is delimited and God inherits his knowledge, stations,
defined by certain divine attributes rather and states directly from the Prophet Mu-
than others. But the gnostic possesses all l)ammad, without the intermediary of
divine attributes and is delimited by Jesus, Abraham, Moses, or any of the
none. He appears in each and every 124,000 other prophets. As Ibn al-'Arabi
situation as wisdom requires and the points out, the term also has another
secondary causes demand. He alone meaning, but it plays a less important
among created things is able to "put role in his teachings:
everything in its proper place" and "to
give to each thing its due," since he alone The highest of all human beings are
manifests the name Allah in its perfec- those who have no station. The reason for
tion. this is that the stations determine the
properties of those who stand within
The people of perfection have realized them, but without doubt, the highest of
all stations and states and passed beyond all groups themselves determine the prop-
these to the station above both majesty erties. They are not determined by prop-
and beauty, so they have no attribute and erties. They are the divine ones (al-iliihiy-
no description. It was said to Abii Y azid, yiin), since the Real is identical with
"How are you this morning?" He replied, them, and He is "the strongest of those
"I have no morning and no evening; who determine properties" (95:8).
morning and evening belong to him who This belongs to no human being except
becomes delimited by attributes, and I only the Muhammadans, as a divine solic-
have no attributes." (II 133.19) itude already given to them. God has said
The root of this knowledge of Allah is concerning their likes, "But as for those
the station reached ultimately by the unto whom the most beautiful reward has
gnostics, that is, "no station," to which already gone forth from Us, they shall be
God alludes in the verse, "0 people of kept far from it" (21:101), that is, from
Yathrib, you have no station" (33:13). the Fire, since the Fire is one of these sta-
This station becomes delimited by no at- tions. So in reality, they are kept far from
tribute whatsoever. Abii Y azld called at- the stations. Hence the possessors of sta-
tention to it with his words when it was tions are those whose aspirations (himma)
said to him, "How are you this morn- have become limited to certain goals and
ing?" ... ends. When they reach those goals, they
"Morning" belongs to the eastern sun find in their hearts other, new goals, and
and evening to the western sun. The east- these goals which they have reached
ern sun pertains to manifestation, the become the beginning stages for other
world of the kingdom (mulk), and the vis- goals. Hence the goals determine their
ible, while the western sun pertains to properties, since they seek them, and such
curtaining, the world of the unseen, and is their situation forever.
the dominion (malakiit). In this station the But the Muhammadan has no such
gnostic is the "olive tree that is neither of property and witnesses no goal. His vast-
the east nor of the west" (24:35), since no ness is the vastness of the Real, and the
description determines the properties of Real has no goal in Himself which His
this station, nor does he become delimited Being might ultimately reach. The Real is
by it. This is his share of "Nothing is like witnessed by the Muhammadan, so he
Him" (42:11) and of "Glory be to thy has no ultimate goal in his witnessing.
3 76 Lord, the Lord of inaccessibility, above But other than the Muhammadan wit-
Seeing with Two Eyes

nesses his own possibility. Hence he that a person not be delimited by a station
stands in a state or station which, in his whereby he is distinguished. So the Mu-
eyes, may come to an end, or change, or hammadan is only distinguished by the
cease to exist. He sees this as the ultimate fact that he has no station specifically. His
goal of knowledge of God, since he has station is that of no station. The meaning
given the property its full due in respect of this is as follows:
to himself and his Lord. A man may be dominated by his state
Jesus is a Muhammadan. That is why so that he knows only by means of it, is
he will descend at the end of time. attributed to it, and is designated by it.
Through him God will seal the Greater But the relationship 'of the stations to the
Friendship. 20 He is God's spirit and His Muhammadan is the same as the relation-
word, and the words of the Real are never ship of the names to God. He does not
exhausted. So the Muhammadan has no become designated by a station which is
ultimate goal in his mind which he might attributed to him. On the contrary, in
reach. (III 506. 30) every breath, in every moment, and in
In this Path no one is called a "Muham- every state he takes the form which is re-
madan" except two individuals: Either a quired by that breath, moment, and state.
person who has been singled out for in- Hence his delimitation does not last. For
heriting knowledge of a ruling that did the divine properties are diverse at every
not exist in any Law before Mu):lammad, moment, and he is diverse in accordance
or a person who brings together all the with their diversity. God is "each day
stations, then emerges from them, en- upon some task" (55:29), and so also is
tering "no station," like Abu Y azid and the Muhammadan. This is indicated by
his equals. This person is also called a God's words, "Surely in that there is are-
"Muhammadan," but everyone other minder for him who has a heart" (50:37).
than these two is ascribed to one of the He did not say "rational faculty," which
prophets. That is why it has been re- would delimit the person. The "heart"
ported that the Prophet said, "The learned only has this name because of its fluctua-
masters ('ulamii') are the inheritors of the tion in states and affairs continuously and
prophets. " 21 He did not say that they with each breath.
were the inheritors of one prophet in par- Among God's servants is he who
ticular. ... Likewise he said, "The learned knows how he undergoes constant fluctu-
masters of this community are the proph- ation at each instant, and among them is
ets of the other communities," or in an- he who is unaware of that. Both the Mu-
other version "like the prophets of the hammadan Pole and the Solitary (al-muf
Children of Israel. " 22 (I 223. 2) rad) 23 undergo fluctuation in knowledge
The Muhammadan Poles are those who with each breath, just as every creature of
inherit from Muhammad in the revealed God undergoes fluctuation in state with
laws and the state~ which he possessed ex- each breath. Hence this person is superior
clusively and which were not found in only through the knowledge of that
any Law or messenger that preceded him. within which and upon which he under-
If it was present in a Law that preceded goes fluctuation, not through the fluctua-
his Law or a messenger who preceded tion itself, since the latter permeates the
him and was also present in him, the man entire cosmos. However, most people do
inherits from that specific messenger, but not know this in a differentiated mode
by means of Mu):lammad. Hence he is as- and specifically, though they do know it
cribed to that messenger. If he is a mem- in an undifferentiated way. So their sta-
ber of this community, he is called a Mu- tions are measured by the extent of their
sawi if he inherited from Moses, or an awareness of that within and upon which
'Isawi [if he inherited from Jesus] or an they undergo fluctuation. (IV 76.27)
Ibrahim! [if he inherited from Abraham], The perfect friend calls upon God in
or whichever messenger or prophet it every station and tongue, but the messen-
might be. No one is ascribed to Mu):lam- gers-who are many-stop with that
mad except him who is like what we have which was revealed to them. What has
said concerning that which belongs exclu- been revealed to one of them may not
sively to him. have been revealed to another. But the
The most all-inclusive specification is Muhammadan gathers together through 3 77
Consummation

his level every call that has been dispersed When the Real delimits Himself within
among the messengers. Hence he is non- a form to the recipient of self-disclosure,
delimited because he calls with every without doubt the form delimits the
tongue. For he is commanded to have viewer. He is with each viewer in a form
faith in the messengers and in that which that is not seen by any other viewer.
was sent down to them. So the Muham- Hence, no one sees Him nondelimited by
madan friend does not stop with a specific existence except him who is destitute,
revelation, except in respect to the rulings him from whose witnessing all forms
of lawful (~alai) and unlawful (~artim). As have disappeared. Thus He says about the
for his calling, those things about which thirsty man, "[He supposes the mirage to
nothing was said, and those things con- be water,] until, when he comes to it, he
cerning which nothing was sent down finds it is no-thing," so He negates that it
in Mul)ammad's Law indicating that it should be the thing sought, "and there he
should be avoided, he does not avoid it if finds God" (24:39), that is, with no-thing.
it was brought by any revelation to any of For "Nothing is like Him" (42:11), and
the prophets, messenger or non-messen- He is "Independent of the worlds" (3:97).
ger. (III 167.3) Hence no one perceives Him except him
whom God has made destitute of the
All creatures are poor (faqlr) toward worlds. And he who is destitute of the
God by definition, but the Muhamma- worlds stands in extreme independence
dan friend is destitute (mujlis) of every- from the worlds. When secondary causes
thing other than God. In explaining this upset him, the Real brings him back to
point, Ibn al-'Arabi turns to a hadith Himself. He knows to whom he returns
which divides the people of paradise into and why he returns. He returns destitute
in respect to Him who is Independent
the poor and the rich. The Prophet said, from him. He knows the Real as He
"I stood at the gate of the Garden. Most should be known, so he follows Him.
of the people who entered it were from The right of his own entity is nonexis-
among the poor (miskln), while the peo- tence and witnessing, while the right of
ple of riches were imprisoned. " 24 his Lord is Being and witnessing.
The Prophet, the possessor of perfect
The Prophet said, "One dirham out- unveiling, said, "The possessors of riches
strips a thousand, " 25 since the possessor are imprisoned," and he who is impris-
of the dirham has nothing else, so he oned is delimited. But he who is destitute
spends it for God and returns to God, has no riches to delimit or imprison him,
since he has no other support to which he so he is not delimited by this delimitation
might return. But the possessor of the of the possessors of riches. Hence he is
thousand dirhams gives some of what is nearer to the divine form through nonde-
with him, and he leaves some, to which limitation than are the possessors of
he returns, so he does not return to God. riches, since they are delimited.
Hence the possessor of the single dirham Hence the possessor of riches stands in
has outstripped him in going to God. If the level of him who sees the Real in
the possessor of the thousand had spent things and delimits Him by them, and
everything he had, like the possessor of necessarily so, since his station exercises
the single dirham, the two would be its ruling property over him. But he who
equal in station. Here the Lawgiver does is destitute is a Muhammadan. He has no
not take into account the amount of the station. For it was said to the Prophet,
gift, he only considers that to which the "Nothing of the command belongs to
giver goes back after giving. He is judged thee" (3:128); so God made him destitute.
by that to which he returns. "Riches" belong only to him who pos-
The returners to God are "destitute" of sesses the command, for everyone who
everything other than God. A rich man possesses the command is the possessor of
who sees the Real in every form will not riches, since the "command" is that of en-
reach the level of him who sees Him in gendering (takwln), so that what the per-
no-thing (Ia shay'), for the latter sees Him son desires comes to be. Hence he is not
freed of all relationships, nondelimited, destitute. He who leaves his own reality
3 78 and without any delimitation. has slipped in his path26 • • • • Hence, re-
Seeing with Two Eyes

maining in one's own root is preferable, vant embraces Me." The most inclusive
and this is what is indicated by His words sense is that He is as you are, as indicated
to the noblest of mankind, the most com- in His words, "He is with you wherever
plete of them in witnessing, and the high- you are" (57:4), for here He mentions
est of them in existence: "Nothing of the "whereness." "Place" among existent es-
command belongs to thee." So He made sences (dhawiit) corresponds to "rank"
him destitute. (makiina) among levels.
"0 People of Y athrib, you have no sta- In the view of the Tribe, "place" is a
tion, so return!" (33:13), for "God will waystation on God's carpet and belongs
give you a new configuration in that to the People of Perfection, who have
which you know not; you have known passed beyond stations and states, majesty
the first configuration," in other words, and beauty. They have no attributes, no
you knew that you were configured descriptions, and no station, like Abii
within that which you know not, "so Yazid.
why will you not remember?" (Koran Know that crossing over the stations
56:62). The Folk of Allah never leave the and the states is one of the specific charac-
home of destitution, for in every breath teristics of the Muhammadans. It belongs
they are "upon a clear sign" without any only to the People of Courtesy, those
confusion, a new knowledge which they who sit with the Real on the carpet of
had not known. God gives them new awe with intimacy. They are perpetually
configurations constantly in that which in equilibrium, fixity, and rest. However,
they know not. They do not possess con- they possess swift movements in their in-
sideration, circumspection, and delibera- ward dimension with every breath. "You
tion, since no one considers anything but will see the mountains, that you supposed
existent substrata, that is, the boundaries to be fixed, passing by like clouds" (27:
which imprison them, preventing them 88).
from knowing God, so that "They are in If the Real discloses Himself to them in
confusion as to a new creation" (50:15): a limited form, they bow their heads. In
They are in it, but they are unaware of it. that state they see Him causing their states
When they enter the Garden on the Day to fluctuate, not in accordance with the
of Resurrection, they step out of it only form within which He disclosed Himself
into "What no eye has seen, what no ear to them. This causes them to bow their
has heard, and what has never passed into heads. So they stand between nondelim-
the heart of any mortal."" Since it has itation and delimitation. No station deter-
not passed into the heart, which possesses mines their properties, for there is none.
constant fluctuation in its faces, then what They are the possessors of place upon the
do you think about reason, which has no carpet of their configuration and the pos-
fluctuation? May God place us among sessors of rank in their lack of lodging. In
these destitute ones and separate us from respect of their rank they undergo con-
the station of the people of riches, the stant variation, and in respect of their
prisoners! (III 105. 8) place they are fixed. Through their own
essences they are in their place, but
Ibn al-'Arabi summarizes the perfec- through the divine names they are in their
rank. In respect of the names they possess
tion of perfect man and the meaning of
the "praiseworthy station" 211 and the near
the station of no station in discussing the rank on the Day to be Witnessed, the Vis-
true knowledge of "place" (makiin). itation, 29 and the Arrival.
Through their own essence they pos-
God says, "0 people of Y athrib, you sess the limited place, the intended mean-
have no station" (33:13). Concerning Idris ing, fixity in witnessing, the state of find-
He said, "We raised him up to a high ing, vision of Him in every existent in
place" (19:57). "Place" is a divine descrip- rest and stillness. They witness Him in
tion in an all-inclusive and specific sense. the Cloud with the eye through which
The all-inclusive sense is indicated in His they witness Him in the Sitting, with the
words, "The All-merciful sat upon the eye through which they witness Him in
Throne" (20:5), and the specific sense in the heaven of this world, with the eye
His words, "The heart of My faithful ser- through which they witness Him in the 379
Consummation

earth, with the eye through which they it possesses Necessary Being through It-
witness Him in the withness, with the eye self. ...
through which they witness Him m Hence the creatures have gone astray in
"Nothing is like Him" (42:11). All of creation, since it is a night from which
these are attributes of place. daytime has been stripped away. They are
As for their witnessing in respect to in darkness, bewildered, astray. They
rank, their eyes are diverse in relation- have no light by which to find guidance,
ship. The eye with which they witness such as the stars which God has appointed
Him in such and such is not the same as for him who would be guided by them
the eye with which they witness Him in "in the darknesses of the land and the sea"
something else. The witnessed is in one (Koran 6:97). This is the view of the com-
eye, the witnesser views from one eye, mon people.
and the vision differs in respect to that But the elect are "in darknesses, they
which is viewed. Some of us see the di- do not see. Deaf, dumb, blind" (2:17),
versity of vision (na?ar) as deriving from they do not understand. Sometimes they
the diversity of the Object of vision (al- say, "We are we and He is He," some-
man?ur), while others see the diversity of times they say, "He is we and we are
the Object as deriving from the diversity He," and sometimes they say, "We are
of the vision. . . . not purely we and He is not purely He."
The real situation belongs to rank, since Then God declared that these elect ones
there can be no fixity in any single affair speak the truth concerning their bewilder-
in existence. Hence place is fixed within ment, for He said to the most elect of His
rank. In the same way, we say that "sta- creatures in knowledge and gnosis, "You
bility" is "stability in variegation," not did not throw when you threw, but God
that variegation is opposed to stability. (II threw" (8: 17). Hence He negated the
386.19) same thing that He affirmed, so He nei-
ther negated nor affirmed. Where are the
common people in relation to this ad-
The true servant of God manifests the dress? So knowledge of God is bewilder-
properties of the name Allah in the most ment, and knowledge of creation is be-
perfect manner, giving everything its due wilderment. (IV 279.26)
just as God gives everything its creation.
Ibn al-'Arabi tells us that the all-compre- The gnostic is not bewildered because
hensive name yields all properties in the he is lost, but because he has found. He
servant, yet three properties stand out
is nothing, yet he is everything. He has
from the rest: the declaration of incom- been freed from every delimitation, yet
parability, worship, and bewilderment he assumes them all. He smells no whiff
(~ayra). 30
of Lordship, yet he rules the cosmos. He
is known and unknown, affirmed and
God says, "What is there after the Real denied, existent and nonexistent, He/not
but error?" (10:32), and it is nothing but He. Dwelling in no station, he deter-
creation. "Error" is bewilderment, and mines the properties of every station. He
through the creatures the property of er- even surpasses God's lover, if the lover is
ror became manifest.
not also a gnostic.
The very Being of the Real
is a verified Light, Knowledge is more excellent than love,
The very existence of creation which is why God commanded His
is a shadow following after. . Prophet to seek increase in it from Him.
It is identical to the divine friendship
You look at creation in one respect and whereby God takes charge of His servants
you say, "It is the Real." You look at it in and ennobles them. Through knowledge
another respect and you say, "It is cre- they come to know that He cannot be
ation." But in itself it is neither the Real, known.
nor other than the Real. . . . The Real But if the lover is not a gnostic, he cre-
alone has only the name "Real," since ates in himself a form by which he be-
Seeing with Two Eyes

comes enraptured and of which he is en- tion to negation and the declaration of in-
amored. Hence he only worships and comparability. But the knowledge of un-
yearns for that which is under his own veiling affirms it and preserves it. No
sway. Nothing can remove him from this locus of manifestation appears to it with-
station but knowledge. out its seeing Him within it. And both
The bewilderment of the gnostic in the knowledges are correct.
Divine Side is the greatest of bewilder- He belongs to each faculty of percep-
ments, since he stands outside of restric- tion in accordance with the faculty in or-
tion and delimitation .... He possesses all der to teach it that it will never leave its
forms, yet no form delimits him. That is own office and will not grasp with its
why the Messenger of God used to say, hand anything of the knowledge of God
"0 God, increase my bewilderment in except that which it is in itself So it
Thee!" For this is the highest station, the knows its own essence and describes it-
clearest vision, the nearest rank, the most self. It emerges from delimitations and
brilliant locus of manifestation, and the bounds by His manifestation within it, so
most exemplary path. . . . that He may be the object of worship. For
No curtain and no veil remains, for this "He has decreed that" none be "wor-
most elevated locus of witnessing rends shiped but Him" (17:23). Hence the mis-
and tears them all. The curtain delimits believers suppose that the idols and stat-
the curtained and the veil limits the ues are His loci of manifestation, so they
veiled, but He has no limit upon His Es- apply the name "God" to them and wor-
sence and no delimitation to His majesty. ship only God, which is what is denoted
How can anything veil Him? "Running by that locus of manifestation. Hence
before Our eyes-a recompense for him God takes care of their needs and gives
who denied" (54:14). them to drink, and He punishes them if
He who says, "Nothing is like Him" they do not honor the Divine Side in this
(42:11), has spoken the truth, since the inanimate form, so they enter among the
only existent from which no eye is absent wretched . . . . So look at Being's perme-
and which no "where" restricts is God, ation of these loci of manifestation. Look
for all sensory and supra-sensory forms how one group reaches felicity, and oth-
are His loci of manifestation. He speaks ers become wretched!
from every form, but not in every form. One of the Sufis said, "Whatever you
He is seen by every eye, He is heard by imagine within yourself or give form to
every hearing, but it is He from whom no in your imagination-God is different
speech is heard. He is conceived by the from that." He is both right and wrong.
rational faculty, but no sight looks upon He makes manifest and he veils.
Him. He is defined, but He has no locus Another one said, "God is not proven
of manifestation within which to become by any proof, nor conceived ofby any ra-
delimited. The "He" is inseparable from tional faculties. Rational faculties reach
Him. "There is no god but He, the Inac- Him not with their reflective powers, and
cessible, the Wise" (3:6). "He obliterates," gnostic sciences fail to call Him down
but He is identical with what is obliter- with their invocations." For when He is
ated, "and He establishes" (13:39), and He invoked, He is invoked through Him.
is identical with what is established. So And through Him He is reflected upon
"Nothing is like Him" (42:11) in this and conceived of. He is the rational fac-
property, and through Him sound knowl- ulty of the rational thinkers, the reflection
edge bestowed by Him bears witness to of the reflectors, the invocation of the in-
Him. vokers, the proof of the provers. Were He
The knowledge of proofs negates this to come out of a thing, it would cease to
vision, since it has nothing of Him in its be. And were He to be within a thing, it
hands and since this vision has no connec- would cease to be. (II 661.10)
NOTES

Introduction George Allen & Unwin, 1971). See also S.H.


Nasr, Three Muslim Sages (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1964). Corbin's
1. M. Joy, "Images and Imagination," introduction to Creative Imagination (pp.
Encyclopedia of Religion (New York: 38-77) provides many details of Ibn
Macmillan, 1987), VII, p. 104; cf. G. Durand, al-'Arabi's life, though these are interwoven
"The Imaginal," ibid., pp. 109-14. with interpretations with which not everyone
2. Translated by R. Manheim (Princeton: would agree.
Princeton University Press, 1969). 6. References to the Futu~at al-makkiyya
3. Critics oflbn al-'Arabi have been many, (Biilaq, 1329/1911) will be made in the text in
as Osman Yahia has documented in Histoire et this form. The Roman numerals refer to the
classification de /'oeuvre d'Ibn 'Arabi (Damascus: volume number, the Arabic numerals to the
Institut Fran<;ais de Damas, 1964), pp. page and line numbers. In the notes, refer-
114-32; ~f. his Arabic introduction to Sayyid ences will also be made to Osman Yahia's
l:faydar Amuli, Kitab Na~~ al-nu~u~ fi shar~ critical edition (Cairo: al-Hay'at al-Mi~riyyat
fo~u~ al-~ikam, ed. H. Corbin and 0. Yahia al-'Amma li'l-Kitab, 1972-) in the form ofY
(Tehran: Bibliotheque Iranienne, 1975), pp. 1,100.1 (Yahia, vol. 1, page 100, line 1).
36-42. The present study takes for granted 7. He begins doing this systematically in
the positive nature oflbn al-'Arabi's contri- Chapter 293, in response to the request of a
bution to Islamic intellectuality and therefore disciple (II 669. 11).
will not concern itself with the polemical 8. The "divine" entering thought is also
issues that have arisen over the centuries. For called "merciful" (ra~manf) and "lordly"
a general classification of the different evalua- (rabbanl). On khawatir, cf. I 281-84 (Y 4,
tions that have been made of Ibn al-'Arabi's 262-78); II 77.30, 132.29, 467.17, 563-66.
famous doctrine of the "Oneness of Being," The discussion was important in Kalam as
cf. Chittick, "Rumi and Wa~dat a/- Wrljud," in well as Sufism. Cf. Wolfson, The Philosophy
A. Banani and G. Sabagh (eds.), The Heritage of the Kalam (Cambridge: Harvard University
of Rumi (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp. 624ff.
Press, forthcoming). 9. Even in the case of divine inrushes,
4. Her thesis was presented at the Univer- there is no guarantee that the disciple will
sity of Paris (Sorbonne): Essai de Biographie du preserve his mental balance or sanity. Cf.
Shaykh al-Akbar Muhyi 1-Din Ibn 'Arabi, Chapter 15, the section on "Spiritual States."
October, 1987. 10. Reading al-ibdar for al-abkar. The
5. Translated by R. W.J. Austin (London: second term, so far as I know, has no techni-
Notes I Page xiii

cal significance in Ibn al-'Arabl's vocabulary, (farlqa) in the year 580 [1184]" (II 425.13).
whereas he frequently employs the first and However, the context of this statement leaves
devotes chapter 256 of the Futu~iit to it. He some doubt as to what Ibn al-'Arabi means
defines it in one of its senses as follows: "God by "this path." He may mean the Sufi way as
set up the 'shining of the full moon' as an such, but he also may mean the "path of
image in the cosmos for His disclosure of God's solicitude," which makes possible
Himself within the cosmos through His quick and easy passage through the stations
ruling property. The shining of the full moon (mentioned a few lines earlier, II 425.4). He
is the divine vicegerent (al-khalifat al-iliihi) may also mean the particular path of ascen-
who becomes manifest within the cosmos sion into the "Presence of Marriage and the
displaying the names of God and His proper- Presence of Doubts" which he is discussing,
ties, such as mercy, severity, vengeance, and or he may mean something else. Ibn al-'Arabi
pardon. In the same way, the sun becomes could not have been twenty years old at his
manifest in the moon itself, illuminating the meeting with Ibn Rushd, since he says he had
whole of it, and is then called the 'full moon.' not yet sprouted a beard and a mustache. The
Hence the sun sees itself in the mirror of the present account suggests that he could have
full moon" (II 556.5). Cf. II 449.21, 554.29, been as young as twelve or thirteen. This
657.11; III 56.19, 115.35. would not have been too unusual, from his
11. Ibn Sawdakin, Wasii'il al-sii'il, p. 21 point of view. He tells of the famous Sufi
(edited in M. Profitlich, Die Terminologie Ibn Sahl al-Tustari reaching a high stage of
'Arabis im "Kitiib wasii'il as-sii'il'' des Ibn realization at the age of six (II 20. 19, trans-
Saudakin [Freiburg im Breisgau: Klaus lated in Chapter 15, note 18). In Sufis of
Schwarz Verlag, 1973]). The Fu~u~ commen- Andalusia he tells of a master of ten or eleven
tator Mu'ayyid al-Din al-Jandi also tells us years of age whom he met as a youth, and
about Ibn al-'Arabi's initial opening, though concludes the description with the words,
he differs concerning the number of months "Some of the masters are young, some old"
during which the Shaykh remained in retreat: (p. 126). Chodkiewicz-Addas, on the basis of
"According to what has been related to us a good deal of evidence suggests that Ibn
concerning the Shaykh, his first opening was al-'Arabi's "entrance into the path" refers to
opened up to him in the month of his discipleship at the hands of his first
Muharram. He entered the retreat for the first master, Abu'l-'Abbas al-'Uryabi. In other
tim~ in the city of Seville in Andalus and for words, at twenty he began his "wayfaring"
nine months he did not break his daily fast. (su/Uk) in the technical Sufi sense, while in his
He entered the retreat at the beginning of early teens he had undergone his first opening
Muharram, and he was commanded to leave as the result of a divine "attraction" ( jadhba),
ito~ the day of the Feast of Fastbreaking [the through the intervention of the prophets
first day ofShawwal]. He was given the good Jesus, Moses, and Muhammad (Essai, pp.
news that he was the seal of Muhammadan 75-82). However, it seems unlikely that a
sanctity and the Prophet's most perfect inher- person would enter into a "retreat"
itor in knowledge, states, and station." (Shar~ (khalwa)-as Ibn al-'Arabi mentions in his
fu~u~ al-~ikam, ed. S.J. Ashtiyani [Mashhad: account of his meeting with Ibn
Danishgah, 1361/1982], p. 109, with correc- Rushd-without the guidance of a master.
tions from a manuscript copy.) A somewhat The long retreat mentioned by Ibn Sawdakin
longer version of this account is given in and al-Jandi must certainly have been directed
some manuscripts, but not in the printed by a shaykh, though it is not certain that this
version, ofJandl's Persian Nafo.at al-rn~ [e.g., retreat is the same as the retreat mentioned by
Istanbul, HaCI Mahmud 2447, folio 23b]). On Ibn al-'Arabi as preceding his meeting with
Ibn al-'Arabl's role as the "Seal of the Ibn Rushd. It is worth noting that the passage
Muhammadan Saints," that is, the last of in which Ibn al-'Arabi says he entered the
those "friends of God" who inherit fully from path in the year 580 is highly mysterious,
the Prophet Mul).ammad, cf. M. since he is discussing his visionary experi-
Chodkiewicz, Le sceau des saints (Paris: ences and employs technical terminology
Gallimard, 1986). whose significance is not clear. He writes:
12. Austin (Sufis of Andalusia, p. 23) and "The extremity of the cosmos which we have
Chodkiewicz (Le sceau, p. 16) suggest that Ibn witnessed ... through unveiling is 1000
al-'Arabi entered Sufism at the age of twenty, worlds, no more. Those worlds which we
since he mentions "my entrance into this path have witnessed through tasting, which we 383
Notes I Pages xiii-xviii

have passed through step by step, with which opened up to me without rational considera-
we have vied, and which we outstripped in tion or reading, but through a retreat in
two presences-the Presence of Marriage and which I was alone with God, even though I
the Presence of Doubts [?] (shukiik)-are had not been seeking such knowledge. He
sixteen worlds of eighty presences. We said, 'Praise belongs to God, that I should
witnessed the rest of the worlds through have lived in a time in which I saw "one
unveiling and a giving of knowledge, not whom God has given mercy from Him, and
through tasting. We entered into everything taught him knowledge from Him" (Koran
we mentioned of these divine replenishments 18:65)"' (I 325.16).
through tasting, with the common people 14. Abii Muhammad 'Abdallah Badr ibn
among the Folk of Allah. But we added to 'Abdallah the Ethiopian was Ibn al-'Arabi's
them through a divine name, the 'Last.' servant (khadim), disciple, and constant
Through it we acquired leadership (riyasa) companion for twenty-three years until his
and the repose of God attained by those death, which, Ibn al-'Arabi tells us, occurred
brought near Him, as mentioned in His in Malatya (Sufis of Andalusia, p. 158), in
words, 'Then, if he is one of those brought about 618/1221.
near, there shall be repose and ease, and a 15. In the introduction to a bibliography of
Garden of Delight' (56:89). I attained to these some of his own works, he writes something
stations at my entrance into this path in the similar: "I have not aimed in anything I have
year 580 in a short period of time within the written for the goal of authors. Rather,
Presence of Marriage, with the People of inrushes have entered in upon me from God
Purity, and within the Presence of Doubts, and nearly burned me alive. In order to
with the People of Severity and Overcoming. distract myself from them, I have written
. . . These are strange sciences and rare down what can be written. Hence I left the
tastings. We met some men who possessed path of authorship, though not because I
them in the Maghrib, some in Alexandria, intended to do that. I have also written books
two or three in Damascus, and one in Siwas. as the result of a divine command given to
The last was missing a little something from me by God in a dream or an unveiling."
this station, so he presented it to us, and we Fihrist al-mu'allafot, ed. A. E. Affifi, "The
completed it for him until he realized it in a Works of Ibn 'Arabi," Revue de Ia faculte de
short space of time. He was a stranger, not lettres de l'Universite d'Alexandrie 8 (1954): 194.
from that country, but from Akhla~." (II 16. A recent study by Masataka Takeshita
425.8) throws light on the historical precedents of
13. Ibn al-'Arabi had little respect for most some of Ibn al-'Arabi's ideas: Ibn 'Arabi's
of the learned masters of such rational Theory of the Perfect Man and its Place in the
sciences as Kalam and philosophy, but great History of Islamic Thought (Tokyo: Institute
respect for Ibn Rushd. He saw him primarily for the Study of Languages and Cultures of
as a master of the Shari'a, not as the heir to Asia and Africa, 1987).
Aristotle as he has been perceived in the 17. Los Angeles: University of California
West. This is made clear in another passage, Press, 1983. The work was originally
where Ibn al-'Arabi describes Ibn Rushd as published with the title A Comparative Study
follows, again alluding to their meeting: "We of the Key Philosophical Concepts in Taoism and
have met very few truly intelligent men. Sufism (Tokyo: Keio University, 1966).
They are those who have the greatest knowl- Though the new edition has certain revisions,
edge of the measure of God's messengers, mainly stylistic, the old edition has the advan-
follow most carefully the Sunna of the tage of an index of Arabic terminology.
Messenger, and are most intensely concerned 18. Shar~ fu~ii~ al-~ikam, p. 5.
with its preservation. They know the venera- 19. Qiinaw!'s commentary, al-Fukiik, deals
tion due to God's majesty, and they are aware only with the chapter headings of the Fu~ii~,
of the knowledge about Himself that God but it was a major source of inspiration for
gives only to His servants-the prophets and later commentators. Cf. Chittick, "The
those who follow them-through a special Chapter Headings of the Fu~ii~," Journal of the
divine effusion that is outside ordinary learn- Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society 2 (1984): 41-94.
ing and cannot be acquired through study and 20. Cf. Chittick, "The Last Will and Testa-
effort or reached by reason through its own ment of Ibn 'Arabi's Foremost Disciple and
reflective powers. I met one of the great ones Some Notes on its Author," Sophia Perennis
3 84 among them. He had seen what God had 4/1 (1978): 43-58.
Notes I Pages xviii-19

21. Cf. S.J. Ashtiyani, Shar~-i Muqaddima- cussion of the states and stations as ascending
yi Qay~ari bar Fu~u~ al-~ikam (Mashhad: levels is An~ari's Maniizil al-sii'irin, ed. and
Bas tan, 1385/1965-66). transl. S. de Laugier de Beaurecueil, Les
22. Cf. Chittick, "Mysticism versus Phi- Etapes des itinerants vers Dieu (Cairo: lm-
losophy in Earlier Islamic History: The al- primerie de l'Institut Fran<;ais d'Archeologie
Tiisi, al-Qiinawi Correspondence," Religious Orientale, 1962).
Studies 17 (1981): 87-104. 6. The term al-musammii is commonly used
23. Cf. Izutsu, The Concept and Reality of by Ibn al-' Arabi as a synonym for Essence.
Existence (Tokyo: The Keio Institute of Cul- The rationale for this is eminently clear as
turalandLinguisticStudies, 1971);M. Moha- soon as we remember that the original mean-
ghegh and lzutsu (trans.), The Metaphysics of ing of dhiit ("Essence") in Arabic is "possessor
Sabzaviiri (Delmar, N.Y.: Caravan Books, of," that is, possessor of attributes. Since at-
1977). tributes and names are in this context synony-
24. Cf. the chapter, "An Analysis of Wa~­ mous, Essence has practically the same literal
dat al-Wujud: Toward a Metaphilosophy of meaning as the "Named": that which is sig-
Oriental Philosophies," in lzutsu, Concept and nified by the names or attributes.
Reality. 7. I say "explaining through language"
25. Ibn 'Arabi, Al-Futu~iit al-Makkiyya: since Ibn al-'Arabi discerns the divine root
Textes choisis/Selected Texts, by Michel through tasting and unveiling. If God gives
Chodkiewicz, with the collaboration ofW.C. the taste, one knows immediately and with-
Chittick, Cyrille Chodkiewicz, Denis Gril, out intermediary; but explaining the "taste" is
andJames W. Morris (Paris: Sindbad, 1989). something quite different.
Especially welcome is Chodkiewicz's, "intro- 8. Repeating what was said earlier, noth-
duction a la lecture de Futu~iit al-Makkiyya." ingness has no existence whatsoever, except
26. Ibn AI' Arabi: The Bezels of Wisdom, inasmuch as we conceive of it in our minds as
New York: Paulist Press, 1980. the opposite of Being, or a "direction" to-
27. A basic outline oflbn al-'Arabi's cos- ward which existence gushes forth. Ibn al-
mology, with diagrams, is provided in 'Arabi calls the Void (al-khala')-which is the
Chittick, "Ibn al-'Arabi and his School," in "place" where the cosmos takes shape-a
Islamic Spirituality: Manifestations, ed. S.H. "supposed extension" (imtidiid mutawahham),
Nasr (vol. 20 of World Spirituality: An Ency- since it has no existence other than as a device
clopedic History of the Religious Quest; New we employ to explain the situation of existing
York: Crossroad, forthcoming). things. On the Void, cf. Cosmology.
9. See especially his Spiritual Body and Ce-
lestial Earth (Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1977).
Chapter 1. The Divine Presence 10. The Arabic insiin, a key term in Ibn al-
'Arabi's vocabulary, will be translated either
as "human being" or, on occasion, in defer-
1. Le sceau des saints, p. 26. ence to the traditions and music of the Eng-
2. As in the sometimes abused phrase often lish language, as "man," the non-gendered
heard in Persian Sufi poetry, hama ust. Cf. sense of the term being meant. In Arabic insiin
A. Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam has no gender connotations, though it is
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina grammatically masculine. Men and women
Press, 1975), pp. 147, 274, 283, 362, 376. are equally insiin.
3. For a detailed explanation of several ver- 11. Cf. II 677.13: "The first thing God
sions of this scheme, cf. Chittick, "The Five brought into existence [after the sphere of the
Divine Presences: From al-Qiinawi to al- mansions of the moon] was the earth, which
Qay~ari," Muslim World 72 (1982): 107-128. is the limit of the Void, the utmost limit of
4. The use of the first person plural to refer the dense things and the darknesses. The
to God is common in the Koran, as is the use earth has kept on descending (niizil) con-
of the first person singular. Ibn al-'Arabi says stantly until now, while the Void has no end,
that the singular pronoun refers to the Divine since it is a supposed extension not in a body.
Essence Itself, i.e., the name Allah, whereas So the whole cosmos, all together, is de-
"We" refers to more than one divine name scending forever in search of the center. This
(IV 319.3). search is the search for knowledge, while the
5. The most well-known example of a dis- 'center' is that wherein it can find rest, after 385
Notes I Pages 1,9-36

which there will be no search. But this will Chapter 2. The Names of God
never happen. Hence its descent in its search
is continual and without end. This is called
'the search for the Real', since the Real is the 1. M. Asin Palacios writes that the "whole
object of the search." of the Futii~at" is based upon "belief in the es-
12. See the chapter on jinn in Cosmology. oteric virtue of the divine names" (The Mysti-
13. All these hadiths and many more like cal Philosophy of Ibn Masarra and His Followers
them are found in the standard sources such [Leiden: Brill, 1978], pp. 174-75). Corbin
as Bukhari, Muslim, and Tirmidhi. See Wen- calls the doctrine of the divine names "One of
sinck, Concordance II 74-75. the most characteristic themes of Ibn 'Arabi's
14. The divine attribute is 'ilm, "knowl- thinking" (Creative Imagination, p. 114). S.H.
edge," while the word 'aql, "intelligence" or Nasr is careful to remind us that the Shaykh's
"reason" or "intellect" is not attributed to emphasis upon the names follows naturally
God Himself. Intelligence is the means of upon the whole tradition: "It is through [the
knowing, and He who already knows all names] that Ibn 'Arabi, like other Siifis, en-
things has no need for a means, since there is visages the process of creation as well as that
nothing else He could possibly learn. On the of spiritual realization so that the Names and
human level, the word "intelligence" perhaps Qualities play a fundamental role in every as-
suggests more clearly the implications of the pect of his world view and provide the 'lan-
divine attribute, since it is not primarily a guage,' based on the terminology of the Qu-
question of"what is known," i.e., "knowl- ran, with which he expounds the doctrines of
edge" as "information," but the conscious- Sufism" (Three Muslim Sages [Cambridge:
ness, awareness, discernment, and wisdom of Harvard University Press, 1964], p. 109).
the knowing subject. 2. Cf. IV 294.11, translated in Chapter 3.
15. This is one way of approaching the 3. On the Void, cf. Chapter 1, notes 8 and
subject implicit in many of Ibn al-'Arabi's 11.
formulations. But more central to his own 4. A similar passage (II 360.10) repeats
teachings is the idea that every attribute- these names and adds the names of God in
positive or negative-manifests a divine Greek, "Iesos" [?] (Ishii), Armenian, "Astuac"
perfection of some sort, though it may be (aifiij ), and Turkish, "Tangri" (tankarf). Waq
viewed as a lack from the point of view of means God in several Cushitic languages, in-
other attributes. The Shari'a then functions to cluding Somali and Oromo. Ibn al-'Arabi
redirect even seemingly negative attributes may have known the word through his disci-
into positive channels, on the basis of those ple Badr the Ethiopian.
attributes' ontological content. Cf. Chapters 5. Both realities and levels are important
16-18. technical terms and will be discussed in what
16. Translated by G.M. Wickens as The follows.
Nasirean Ethics (London: George Allen and 6. Ibn Qasi is best known for his in-
Unwin, 1964). See especially the discussion of volvement in the political disturbances which
"justice" ('ad!), which derives from the same led to the overthrow of the Almoravid dy-
root as the word "equilibrium" (i'tidal); on nasty and the landing of Almohad troops in
the relationship between justice and wisdom, Spain. He was assassinated in 546/1151 by
see p. 81. followers dismayed at his decision to ally
17. In Arabic several significant words ap- himself with the Portuguese of Coimbra
plied to God are grammatically feminine, so against the Almohads. Cf. Encyclopedia of Is-
it is not unusual to speak of God as "She" lam (new edition), III 817-18. Ibn al-'Arabi
(e.g., dhat Allah hiya . .. ). wrote a commentary on his Khal' al-na'layn
18. This is a generalization. As always Ibn (cf. Yahia, Histoire et classification, no. 681).
al-'Arabi's teachings do not fit into neat cate- The Shaykh refers to Ibn Qasi's view on this
gories. Not all the figures he deals with question of the names in II 686.25; Dhakha'ir
would necessarily be considered prophets 207. He refers to some of his other views in II
(e.g., Luqman and Khalid), nor do all the at- 52. 7, 60.34, 160.22, 257.11, 693.23; III 24.28,
tributes that he ascribes to them fit into 165. 7. In an especially interesting passage, the
the category of the Most Beautiful Names, Shaykh severely criticizes Ibn Qasi-though
though they are certainly divine attri- without mentioning him by name-for his
butes. view of the "scale of justice" (mrzan al-'adl).
Notes I Pages 36-43

He attributes his mistakes to the fact that he cording to the Peripatetic philosophers (in a
did not have a master thoroughly versed in position which Ibn al-'Arab! accepts as one
the Shari'a (III 176. 7; cf. I 749.20; III 7.13). In valid mode of expressing the situation), in or-
his commentary on Khat' al-na' layn, Ibn al- der for the possible thing to exist, the Nec-
'Arab! calls Ibn Qasl "ignorant" and an "im- essary Being must "give preponderance"
poster" (Chodkiewicz-Addas, Essai, p. 88). (tarjl~) to the side of its existence over its non-
7. Cf. lzutsu, Sufism, p. 100. Cf. the fol- existence. Therefore, in the Shaykh's terms,
lowing: "Though each name bestows a spe- the possible thing constantly "asks" God-
cific reality, each divine name has in its power with the "tongue of its state" (lisiin al-~iil) to
to bestow what is bestowed by all the divine bestow existence upon it. The Most Beautiful
names. God says, 'Call upon Allah or call Names demand the cosmos because it alone is
upon the All-merciful; whichever you call able to display their properties and effects.
upon, to it belong the most beautiful names' See Chapter 5.
(Koran 17:110). In the same way, had He 15. According to the Prophet, "Heralding
mentioned any other of His names, He would visions are the dreams of the Muslim, and
have said about it, 'To it belong the most they are one of the parts of prophecy"
beautiful names'. This is because of the Unity (Tirmidhl, Ru'ya 2). Another hadith found in
of the Named (a~adiyyat al-musammii). So all the standard sources tells us, "Nothing re-
know that!" (I 214.27; Y 3, 318). mains of prophecy but heralding visions,"
8. Ibn al-'Arabl probably quotes Abii (Concordance I 181); most versions add that the
Yaz!d more frequently than any other Sufi, Prophet defined heralding visions as "sound
while considering him one of the "People of dreams" (al-ru'yii al-~iili~a). Cf. Chapter 13,
Blame," the highest ranking friends of God notes 18 and 24.
(III 34.11; cf. II 40.16). For another explana- 16. Ibn al-'Arab! enumerates the "moth-
tion of this saying, see III 212.34. ers" of the names differently according to the
9. Muslim, Iman 302. Ibn al-'Arabl quotes context: Seven: Alive, Knowing, Desiring,
most of the hadith in III 44.29 and a good Powerful, Speaking, Generous, and .Just (I
deal of it in II 309.26. He devotes Chapter 100.15 [Y 2,126.11]). Four: Knowing, Desir-
311 of the Futu~iit largely to the power of ing, Powerful, Speaking (II 66.23) or Alive,
some of God's friends to undergo imaginal- Knowing, Desiring, Powerful (I 469.24 [Y
ization. The chapter is translated into English 7,122.3]). Three: Allah, All-merciful, Lord (I
in Chodkiewicz et al., Al-Futu~iit. 427.4 [Y 6,304.3]; II 437.5, 442.21). On the
10. Here the term a~kiim is used as a syn- "Presences of the Names," cf. the longest
onym for relationships and attributes instead chapter in the Futu~iit, Chapter 558 (IV 196-
of effects. This is not usual, but it is typical of 326), which is divided into ninety-nine sec-
the manner in which Ibn al-'Arabl employs tions, each dealing with the "presence" of one
his terminology-sometimes emphasizing of the names.
one side of a thing's reality (e.g., that per- 17. Ibn al-'Arab! employs the term "com-
taining to the cosmos and manifestation) and mon people" (al-'umum; also al-'iimma) in at
sometimes the other (that pertaining to God least three different senses, which must be un-
and nonmanifestation). derstood from the context. The expression is
11. For a few of Ibn al-'Arab!'s expla- contrasted with the "elect" (al-khu~u~, al-
nations of this saying, cf. II 16.31, 214. 9, khii~~a), and the "elect of the elect" (khu~u~ al-
263.18, 487.8, 561.15; III 405.12; IV 231.3. khu~u~, khii~~at al-khii~~a), terms which also
12. In no way does this imply that God is vary according to the context. In the present
"compelled" to create the universe. See Chap- instance, he seems to have in mind the first of
ter 4. the following possibilities: 1. The common
13. On the important concept of "indepen- people are jurists (fuqahii' ), theologians (a~~iib
dence," see Chapter 4. 'i/m al-kaliim), and the Muslim philosophers
14. That is, possibility in the philosophical (~ukamii' al-isliim), the elect are the Sufis, and
sense, as opposed to the necessity of the Nec- the elect of the elect the highest degree of the
essary Being. The relationship of a possible friends of God, the "Verifiers" or "People of
thing to existence and nonexistence is the Blame." 2. The common people are the gen-
same. It may or may not come to exist within eral run of the faithful, and the elect the ju-
the cosmos, but there is nothing in its own rists, theologians, and philosophers (cf. II
reality that would demand its existence. Ac- 591.34). The elect of the elect would then be
Notes I Pages 43--51

the Sufis. 3. The "common people" are the ble things in respect of their immutability,
majority of the Sufis, the "elect" are the ac- not in respect of their existence. Jealousy be-
complished Sufi masters, and the "elect of the comes manifest through the immutability of
elect" are the Verifiers. the possible things .... God is jealous lest the
18. In his I~tilii~iit, Ibn a!-'Arab! identifies possible things accept existence" (II 10.12).
"adornment" with "assumption of the traits Cf. II 244-46, 500-502.
of the names." Cf. II 128.20, translated in 26. Allusion to several Koranic verses,
Chapter 18. such as, "Have you not seen how God has
19. For explanations of these terms, see subjected to you everything in the heavens
Chapter 5. and the earth?" (31:20).
20. "Folk of Allah" (ahl Allah), synony- 27. "God's qualifying Himself through
mous with "Folk of the Koran," is one of the jealousy" most likely refers to a hadith con-
many epithets by which Ibn al-'Arabi refers cerning the Prophet's companion Sa'd: "He is
to the greatest friends of God. The two terms jealous, I am more jealous than he, and God
derive from the hadith, "God has folk [i.e., is more jealous than I; because of His jealousy
family] among the people: the Folk of the He has forbidden indecencies (al-fawii~ish)"
Koran, who are the Folk of Allah and His (Bukharl, Tawl)id 20; Muslim, Li'an 17).
Elect (khii~~a)" (Al)mad III 128, 242). The Here the "property of jealousy" is that no
Shaykh often quotes or paraphrases this had- "other" can have true existence (cf. above,
ith (e.g., II 299.18, 352.27, 372.14, 510.10; III note 25).
103.34, 121.35).
21. In other words, the Most Beautiful
Names belong to God alone, but the servant
comes to be described by them when he gains Chapter 3. The Divine Roots of
proximity to Him. The lover imagined that Hierarchy and Conflict
in the same way, when God "descends" to
the creaturely level in order to speak to the
creatures, He borrows the names of created 1. "Existence" here quite obviously does
things in order to be understood. not imply any sort of separate or independent
22. Literally, the "knowledge of the traces" existence, since the names-as Ibn al-'Arabi
or "of the outward descriptions," that is, such never tires of stressing-are only relation-
sciences as jurisprudence and Kalam (cf. II ships, not entities.
330.23, 523.10). Ibn al-'Arabl frequently em- 2. As we saw in the previous chapter, in
ploys the term 'ulamii' al-rusum, "the exoteric one respect all names denote the Essence, but
scholars" or "scholars of the outward in another respect each has its own specific
appearances." Often he employs the term meaning. Here Ibn al-'Arab! looks at the
pejoratively, but not always (cf. III 167.8), name Allah in terms of its specificity, so it
since these sciences are valid on their own does not denote the Essence. Elsewhere he
levels. maintains that it denotes the Essence better
23. I.e., the word of God through which than any other name. "[The name Allah] de-
He brings the engendered things into exis- notes the Essence Itself' (Azal 14). Cf. IV
tence. Of the several Koranic passages in 197.1, translated in the next chapter, and II
which it is mentioned, Ibn al-'Arabi quotes 174.26.
most commonly the verse, "Our only speech 3. Cf. III 397.4: "It is no surprise when an
to a thing, when We desire it, is to say to it existent thing displays effects (ta'thi"r)-what
'Be!', and it is" (16:40). is surprising is when a nonexistent thing dis-
24. For a detailed discussion of the two plays effects. All relationships are nonexistent
kinds of worship, sec Chapter 18. things, yet they possess effects and properties.
25. God's "jealousy" (ghayra) removes the In reality, everything that is nonexistent in
properties of the "other" (ghayr), since it de- entity but manifest in property and effect is
mands that the "other" cannot have true exis- called 'unseen' (ghayb), for the thing whose
tence. "The Divine Jealousy requires that entity is absent is 'unseen'."
none be qualified by existence but God" (II 4. Allusion to the Koranic verse which Ibn
226.29). At the same time, jealousy is one of al-'Arabl constantly quotes, "Nothing is like
the divine roots of the "other." "Jealousy re- Him" (42:11).
quires affirming the other, but in reality there 5. The hadith is provided with minor vari-
388 are no others, except the entities of the possi- ations in Muslim, Musafirin 172. Cf. Al)mad
Notes I Pages 51-53

II 433, III 34; for versions in most of the stan- entity of another thing." But in the present
dard sources, see Concordance II 152. context, Ibn al-'Arabi has in mind the identity
6. The hadith is not mentioned in the Con- of all the names and attributes with the Di-
cordance, but Ibn al-'Arabi cites it frequently, vine Essence, and the normal translation
e.g., I 225.24 (Y 3,372), 306.8 (Y 4,417), would not convey this point as clearly.
385.16 (Y 5,502); IV 321.17. 11. In general the Shaykh al-Akbar applies
7. On this "Principle of Plenitude" in the term "Verifiers" (al-mu~aqqiqun) to the
Western thought, see A.O. Lovejoy, The highest category of the friends of God. They
Great Chain of Being (Cambridge: Harvard follow no one's authority (taqlld), since in
University Press, 1936). themselves they have "verified" (ta~qfq) and
8. The statement goes back to the use of "realized" (ta~aqquq)-through unveiling and
the word "desire" in such Koranic contexts finding-the truth (~aqq) and reality (~aqfqa)
as, "Our only word to a thing, when We de- of all things, i.e., the Real Himself (al-~aqq).
sire it, is to say to it 'Be!', and it is" (16:40). Cf. Chapter 165 (II 267-68), 388.13; IV 31.8.
As Ibn al-'Arabi points out, once the object of They arc the same as the People of Blame
desire (muriid) is achieved, the property of de- (Mawiiqi' 29).
sire leaves the thing (II 522.8). The Shaykh 12. As was done recently by one of his de-
frequently makes this point concerning love tractors in Egypt in an episode which once
(ma~abba), which is a specific kind of desire. again has confirmed the living relevance of
"Love never becomes connected to anything his teachings. See Th. E. Homerin, "Ibn
but the nonexistent thing-that which has no Arabi in the People's Assembly: Religion,
existence when the connection becomes es- Press, and Politics in Sadat's Egypt," The
tablished. Love desires the existence or occur- Middle East ]ourna/40 (1986): 462-77, espe-
rence of its object .... What the lover loves is cially p. 471.
the desire of union with the specific person, 13. Mu~iiqarat al-asmii' al-iliihiyya wa mu~ii­
whoever it might be. If it is someone who waratuhii wa mujiiriituhii ft ~ilbat al-munii-
can be embraced, he loves embracing his be- -?ara (I 210.3 [Y 3, 297]). In this passage from
loved. If it is someone with whom inter- the Futu~iit he refers to his depiction of the
course can be had, he loves the intercourse. If Conference of the Names in 'Anqii mughrib
it is someone to be sat with, he loves the sit- (pp. 33ff.) and Inshii' al-dawii'ir (pp. 36-38),
ting. Hence his love only becomes attached to but he seems to be unaware that later on in
that of the person which is nonexistent at the the same volume of the Futu~iit he will pro-
moment, but he imagines that he loves the vide its fullest description. He also refers to
person." (II 327.2; cf. II 113.9, 232.14, 264.1, his description of the Conference in Dha-
332. 9, 334.3, 337.18, 522.4). "Desire" (iriida) khii' ir 201.
differs from "will" (mash I a) primarily in the 14. This term usuaily refers to God as re-
nature of the object, and this has important vcaler of the Koran, though it may often refer
theological consequences. For example, the to the Prophet inasmuch as he established cle-
Shaykh writes, "Desire has no free choice ments of the Law through his Hadith and
(ikhtiyiir). Nothing in the Koran or Sunna has Sunna.
spoken of any such thing, nor does the ratio- 15. The entity or specific characteristic of
nal faculty point to it. Free choice belongs the name cannot become manifest within
only to will, for if He wills, the thing comes God, since He is One in every respect and the
to be, and if He wills, it does not come to be. manifestation of the entities of all the names
. . . Desire is the connection of the will to the depends upon multiplicity. Hence the entities
object of desire, as indicated in His words, of the names can only become apparent in the
'Our only speech to a thing, when We desire cosmos through their effects and properties.
it ... ' (16:40)" (III 48.12). 16. Ibn al-'Arabi adds this clarification be-
9. Once a possible thing comes into exis- cause the term "creation" (khalq) has two
tence, it is clear that God has known that it basic meanings: ijiid or "to bring into exis-
would come into existence for all eternity, so tence" and taqdfr or "to ordain," that is, to es-
its existence is necessary, not through itself, tablish and define the states of the things be-
but through the "other" -the Being of God. fore they come into existence in this world.
10. The expression 'ayn al-shay' huwa 'ayn The Shaykh writes that in the hadith, "God
al-shay' is normally translated as "one thing is created the creatures in darkness," "created"
identical with another thing." This is clearly means "ordained." "Hence, the first divine ef-
one meaning of "the entity of one thing is the fect in creatures was ordainment, before they 3 89
Notes I Pages 53-63
came to exist. . The divine ordainment in witnessed; that is, it cannot be seen through
their case is like the architect who pictures in unveiling (on "witnessing," cf. Chapter 13).
his mind what he wants to build" (II 62.3). Hence, when a person "witnesses" God, he
Cf. II 95.28, 430.4, IV 210.18; Mu'jam 426- witnesses an "entity" which is the Essence,
27. since God has no other entity. However, this
17. Cf. II 57.6: "The first of the divine Entity can never be known in Itself, only in
names is the One/Unique (al-wii~id a/-a~ad), respect of the relationship It establishes with
which is a single, compound name, just as the one who witnesses it, i.e., His self-dis-
Ba'lbak, Ramhurmuz, and al-ra~miin al-ra~!m closure to the witnesser.
(The All-merciful/ All-compassionate) are 2. Since attributes can only be negated
compound. By it we do not mean two from the Essence, no "positive attributes of
names. The One/Unique is the first of the Self' can be attributed to It. All positive at-
names because ... it denotes the Essence It- tributes which can be attributed to God are
self, without any relationship by which It is attributed to Him only in respect of the Di-
described, just like concrete names for things. vinity, and these attributes are shared with
There is nothing more exact as a proper the creatures. "The Real did not name Him-
name, since it is a name of the Essence. . . . self by any name or describe Himself by any
You may object that it is fitting that the name positive attribute unless the creatures are also
'Allah' be the first divine name rather than the qualified by it. The attribute is ascribed to
One/Unique, since Allah is called the each described object in accordance with what
One/Unique, but the One/Unique is not the reality of the object demands. In the Real
called Allah. I will reply: What is denoted by it is prior because the Real is prior in exis-
the name Allah demands the cosmos and ev- tence, and in the creatures it is posterior be-
erything within it. Hence it belongs to Him cause they are posterior in existence. It is said
like the name 'king' or 'sultan': It is a name of concerning the Real that He is an Essence
the Level, not of the Essence. But 'Unique' is who is described as Alive, Knowing, Power-
a name of the Essence .... Nothing is under- ful, Desiring, Speaking, Hearing, and Seeing.
stood from 'One' but the Entity." It is said concerning man the creature that he
18. Here Ibn al-'Arabl alludes to "the Most is alive, knowing, powerful, desiring, speak-
Beautiful Names." ing, hearing, and seeing-no one disagrees
19. These two are discussed in detail in on this" (II 432.35).
Chapter 18. 3. Al-Suyu~l provides five variations on
20. Mala' a'lii aw adnii, i.e., the spiritual this hadith in al:fiimi' al-~agh!r (Fay4 al-qad!r
and corporeal worlds. The "higher plenum" fi shar~ al-jiimi' al-~agh!r [Beirut: Dar al-
-discussed in the next chapter-is a Koranic Ma'rifa, 1972]), III, pp. 262-63.
term often taken to refer to the highest angels 4. Here "names of majesty" are synony-
or archangels, but Ibn al-'Arabl employs the mous with "names of incomparability" (cf.
term to refer to the angelic or spiritual world the last section of the previous chapter).
in general. 5. A well-known Sufi who died in
21. The termfa~l in a philosophical context 286/899. Ibn al-'Arabi: accords him the
is normally translated as specific difference or highest respect by calling him one of the Peo-
differentia and is contrasted withjins or genus. ple of Blame (III 34.1).
Ibn al-'Arabl certainly has this meaning in 6. The Arabic term is shubha, which means
mind, but he is attempting to tie the term something similar, a likeness, a resemblance.
into a much broader discussion. This is indi- As a technical term in the sciences it refers to
cated by the fact that this chapter-devoted doubt and wavering over the exact status of
to Ja~l-is preceded by a chapter devoted to something, e.g., whether it is lawful or un-
wa~l or "joining." Hence I have used a non- lawful, true or false. Ibn al-'Arabl uses the
philosophical term to translate the word. term to refer to an argument which throws a
person into doubt after he has established a
position through rational proofs (daltl).
7. Allusion to several Koranic verses, such
Chapter 4. The Essence and as, "What, is he who is upon a clear sign
the Divinity from his Lord like one unto whom evil deeds
have been decked out fair?" (47:14).
8. The references are probably to the fa-
1. Inasmuch as the Divinity is a "level" and mous Ash'arites Abu'l-Ma'all 'Abd al-Malik
3 90 therefore nonexistent as such, it can never be al-Juwaynl (d. 487/1085), al-Qa~l Abu Bakr
Notes I Pages 63-71
MuJ:tammad al-BaqiWini (d. 403/1013), al- Treasure quoted above, where God says, "I
Ustadh Abii lsJ:taq Ibrahim al-Isfarayini (d. loved to be known."
418/1027), and al-Shaykh Abu'l-J:Iasan al- 18. Reference to a hadith which has come
Ash'ari (d. 324/935), founder of the school. in several versions, such as, "God surely re-
9. Abii Yazld was asked, "How are you joices more through the repentance of one of
this morning?" He replied, "I have no morn- His servants than any of you rejoice when
ing and no evening; morning and evening you find your stray camel in the desert."
belong to him who becomes delimited by at- Muslim, Tawba 1-9; Bukhari, Da'awat 4;
tributes, but I have no attributes." On the etc. (Concordance I, p. 284).
significance of this saying, see II 133.21 and 19. Cf. II 40.35, 379.8, 476.29, 500.11,
646.29, translated in Chapter 20. Cf. II 512.12, 605. 9, 660.14; III 316.16; IV 282.31,
187.11; III 106.16. 325.5; Dhakhcfir 112.
10. Al-Sifotiyyun, i.e., the proponents of 20. On the importance of divine courtesy,
Kalam, since, as mentioned in Chapter 2, it is cf. Chapter 11.
they who employ this term among the three 21. The Fundamental Scale (al-mlziin al-
mentioned here. For another instance of this a~ll), of which the Scale of the Law is the
title, cf. II 60.1 (reading ~ifotiyyln for ~ifotln). branch, is that through which the works of
11. Allusion to the station of khiliifa, "vice- the servants are weighed on the Day of Res-
gerency" or "successorship" of God in the urrection. On scales, see Chapter 11.
earth, granted-in the Shaykh's interpreta- 22. Cf. I 114.15 (Y 2, 199.6); III 157.34,
tion- to the perfect men in virtue of their full 361.27, 441.26.
actualization of the divine form. "No one is 23. Several versions of the hadith are re-
called the 'vicegerent' except through the per- lated in standard sources, including Dariml,
fection of the Divine Form within him" (III Ru'ya 12; and AJ:tmad I 378, IV 66, V 243,
156.35). Cf. Cosmology. 378. The Shaykh provides a detailed com-
12. The fact that God knew this is stated mentary on the hadith in Chapter 306 of the
clearly in the text of the Koran: "0 you who Futu~iit (III 26- 28).
have faith, void not your freewill offerings by 24. These are the four "natures" (tabii'i'),
making people feel obliged and by injury, as i.e., the four constituent qualities of Nature.
one who shows off to men and has no faith in Cf. the following footnote.
God and the Last Day" (2:264). If God has 25. "Nature" (tabl'a) is the forever invisible
forbidden it for the faithful-who are at- materia which allows everything below the
tempting to assume His character traits- world of the spirits ('iilam al-arwii~) to become
then certainly He has also forbidden it for manifest, that is, everything within the
Himself. worlds of imagination and corporeal bodies.
13. Reference to the following saying, In this sense it makes up the "body" as op-
which Ibn al-'Arabi cites as coming from posed to the spirit of a thing; or, it is the
the Torah: "0 son of Adam! I created the thing's "darkness" as opposed to its "light."
things for you and I created you for Myself' Nature is composed of four basic tendencies,
(I 295.32 [Y 4,358.10]). known as the "natures" (tabii'i'): heat, cold,
14. This saying, attributed in Sufi texts to wetness, and dryness. In a second sense, Na-
the Prophet, is better known in the form, "I ture is synonymous with the Breath of the
was a Hidden Treasure, so I loved to be All-merciful. See Chapter 8.
known. Hence I created the creatures that I 26. On the hierarchy of the cosmos in Ibn
might be known." The scholars of Hadith al-'Arabl's teachings, cf. Cosmology.
consider it a forgery, as the Shaykh is well 27. The Philosophy of the Kalam, pp. 8ff.
aware. However, in his view its authenticity 28. A slightly more sophisticated classifica-
has been proven by unveiling (kashf ), or vi- tion would make these into three kinds of
sion of the Prophet in the imaginal world. names: Those that (1.) designate the Essence
Hence he writes that this hadith "is sound on in Itself and (2.) those that designate the Di-
the basis of unveiling, but not established by vinity in respect of (a.) names of incompara-
way of transmission (naql)" (II 399.28). On bility and (b.) attributes of acts (I 563.19 [Y
establishing the soundness of hadiths through 7,81]). As mentioned earlier, the Shaykh pro-
unveiling, see the last section of Chapter 14. vides several ways of classifying the names,
15. Cf. II 300.29, 301.3, 619.21. not all of them completely consistent with
16. Reading bi 'aynihi in place of ya'um- what we are discussing here.
muhu. 29. Allusion to Koran 41:44. "To the faith-
17. Reference to the hadith of the Hidden ful [the Koran) is a guidance and a healing; 391
Notes I Pages 71-72

but as for those who have no faith, in their more commonly he means those Sufis who
ears is a heaviness, and to them it is a blind- have written about the subject under discus-
ness; those-they are called from a far place." sion; in the present context, he means his
30. The "delimitation" of the Essence is spiritual peers, whether or not he has met
discussed in the last section of Chapter 6. them. Thus he uses the expression to refer to
31. Koran translators generally render the great Sufis such as Abu Y azid (II 657.34) or
term 'izza as might or glory, but Ibn al- al-Ghazali (III 316.11). He writes, "I mean by
'Arabi states that the term in this verse means 'our companions' the possessors of hearts,
that no laudation on the part of the creatures witnessings, and unveilings, not the worship-
can attain to Him (III 148.23). He defines the ers (a I- 'ubbiid), nor the pious renouncers (al-
divine name Inaccessible (a I- 'azlz) as "He zuhhiid), nor the 'Sufis' without restriction
who is wanted but cannot be attained" (III -only those among them who are the peo-
153.18). In explaining the Koranic verse, he ple of realities and verification (ta~qlq)" (I
writes "The Inaccessible is the unapproacha- 261.10). Cf. III 34.28, translated in Chapter
ble (al-manl) and the unreachable (al-~imii). If 20, which explains the three basic degrees of
something can be attained in any respect- God's friends-worshipers, Sufis, and the
through an attribute, a description, knowl- People of Blame (the Verifiers).
edge, or gnosis-it is not unapproachable and 35. For the sources of some of these terms,
unreachable" (II 542.2). see note 33 above. The others are found in the
32. On the fact that none knows any but Koran or various hadiths: 1. Laughter (tji~k).
himself, see Chapter 19. This attribute is ascribed to God in several
33. Ibn al-'Arabi frequently cites these at- hadiths found in the standard sources (cf.
tributes on the basis of various hadiths: 1. Re- Concordance III, pp. 483-85). Ibn al-'Arabi
ceiving joyfully (tabashbush): "No Muslim most often cites the hadith related through
takes up an abode in the mosques for the sake Abu Zarin: "The Messenger of God said,
of prayer and invocation without God receiv- 'Our Lord laughs at the despondency of His
ing him joyfully, just as the family of an ab- servants and the nearness of their change of
sent man receives him joyfully when he re- state.' I asked him, '0 Messenger of God.
turns" (Ibn Maja, Masajid 19; Al).mad II 307, Does the Lord laugh?' He replied, 'Yes.' I
328, 340, 453). 2. Rejoicing. Cf. the hadith said, 'We will not lack any good from a Lord
cited in note 18. 3. Wonder (ta'ajjub). "Surely who laughs'" (Ibn Maja, Muqaddima 13; cf.
God wonders at a youth who has no sensual III 452.28; Dhakhii'ir 143). 2. Descent (nuzul).
desire" (Al).mad IV 151). 4. "Being our depu- Reference to the hadith quoted in the previ-
ties" is explained in the hadith of hunger, ous chapter, "Our Lord descends ... " (cf.
thirst, and illness partly cited here. The note 5). 3. Withness (ma'iyya). Allusion to
Shaykh often refers to this hadith, which par- Koran 57:4, "God is with you wherever you
allels Matthew 25:41-45, by mentioning its are." 4. Love (ma~abba). Attributed to God in
three central clauses together: "I was hungry, many Koranic verses. 5. Yearning (shawq).
but you did not feed Me; I was thirsty, but Reference to a hadith not mentioned in the
you did not give Me to drink; I was ill, but Concordance. In one passage the Shaykh refers
you did not visit Me" (I 297.27 [Y 4,369.11], to it as follows: "It has been mentioned in a
407.16 [Y 6, 173.11], 481.22 [Y 7,203.2], report (khabar), concerning whose soundness
570.13 [Y 8,360.11 ]). In Muslim (Birr 43) the (~i~~a) I have no knowledge, that God men-
wording is slightly different, but the meaning tioned those who yearn for Him. Then He
is the same. The first part of the hadith reads said concerning Himself that He is 'more in-
as follows: "On the Day of Resurrection tense in yearning for them,' in a manner ap-
God will say, '0 son of Adam, I was ill and propriate for His majesty" (II 364.19). Having
you did not visit Me.' He will reply, 'How explained the meaning of the hadith, the
should I visit Thee, when Thou art Lord of Shaykh goes on to say, "This is so if the re-
the worlds?' He will reply, 'Did you not port is sound. But I have no knowledge con-
know that my servant so-and-so was ill, but cerning it, neither by way of unveiling nor by
you did not visit him? Did you not know that way of a sound transmission (riwiiya ~a~l~a).
had you visited him, you would have found However, it is mentioned and well-known"
Me with him ('indahu)?"' Cf. W. Graham, (II 364.22). He provides a more complete text
Divine Word and Prophetic Word in Early Islam for the hadith in II 173.13, translated in Chap-
(The Hague: Mouton, 1977), pp. 179-80. ter 18.
34. By "companions" (a~~iib) Ibn al-'Arabi 36. Tasting (dhawq) may be defined as the
392 on occasion means his own disciples, but direct knowledge of something through
Notes I Pages 72-88

opening or unveiling. It is the first stage of al-'Arabi's followers, see Chittick, "Rumi and
the experience of God's self-disclosure, while Wa~dat al- Wujud."
"drinking" (shurb) is the next stage, and 2. Allusion to the hadith of the Hidden
"quenching" (rl) is the third stage (cf. II 133.2 Treasure. Cf. Chapter 4, note 14.
and 548.4, translated in Chapter 13). In some 3. As opposed to "the necessary through
passages Ibn al-'Arabl adds "intoxication" the other" (al-wiijib bi'l-ghayr), i.e., the possi-
(sukr) as a fourth stage (Dhakhii'ir 67). ble thing which has come into existence. Cf.
37. Cf. the passage in which Ibn al-'Arab! Chapter 3, note 9.
recounts his conversation with the king al- 4. See II 232.11 and III 47.30, both trans-
Malik al-Z:ahir, the son of Saladin (III 69.33, lated in Chapter 12.
translated in Chapter 12). 5. Cf. Chittick and P.L. Wilson, Fakhrud-
38. Elsewhere the Shaykh points out that din 'Iraqi: Divine Flashes (New York: Paulist
no verse or hadith can be interpreted exclu- Press, 1982), introduction; and Chittick,
sively as indicating the declaration of simi- "~adr al-Din Qiinawl on the Oneness of Be-
larity, since in each case the Arabs will un- ing," International Philosophical Quarterly 21
derstand a number of senses, including the (1981): 171-84.
declaration of incomparability (I 95.18 [Y 6. The distinction between entified and
2, 104.3]). In the process of mentioning a mental existence is especially important in
number of examples, he cites istllii' as a valid discussions of "impossible things," which
explanation of istiwii' (I 98.7 [Y 2, 116. 7]). cannot exist in the cosmos but can be con-
39. Allusion to the hadith, "God created ceived of in the mind. To mental existence
Adam upon His own Form." Cf. Chapter 10, Ibn al-'Arab! adds two more categories of ex-
note 4. istence: verbal (laf;;l), and written (kitiibl or
40. Reference to the Prophet's words men- khattl or raqaml). Concerning verbal existence
tioned in many hadiths in most of the stan- he writes, "Every object of knowledge enters
dard sources (cf. Concordance I, p. 216, col. 1, into this existence, even the impossible thing
line 17-22). and nonexistence. For the impossible thing is
41. In other words, the theologians have found in words but never receives entified ex-
denied the truth of the revelation by inter- istence. As for nonexistence, if it is the non-
preting God's hand, for example, as signi- existence by which the possible thing is de-
fying "power" or some other abstract con- scribed, it receives entified existence, whereas
cept. if it is the nonexistence which is the impossi-
42. On tashabbuh, which Ibn al-'Arabi ble, it does not receive entified existence" (II
sometimes considers synonymous with "as- 309.29). Cf. I 45.34 (Y 1,208.5).
suming the traits of the divine names" (al- 7. The term "elemental" is applied to
takhalluq bi'l-asmii' al-iliihiyya), cf. Chapter 16. things compounded of the four elements-
43. God's forgetting, deception, trickery, earth, air, fire, and water. Cf. Cosmology.
and guile are all mentioned in the Koran: 8. These are the faculties of the vegetal, an-
"They forgot God, so He forgot them" imal, and rational souls. Cf. Cosmology.
(9:67). "They deceived, and God deceived, 9. Cf. Chittick, "Ibn al-'Arab!'s Myth of
and God is the best of deceivers" (3:54). the Names," Theories of Knowledge: Ancient
"They are devising guile, and I am devising and Medieval, ed. P. Morewedge, forthcom-
guile" (86:16). "The hypocrites seek to trick ing.
God, but He is tricking them" (4:142). 10. Muslim, Birr 55. For a translation of
44. This statement refers both to the hadith the whole text, cf. Graham, Divine Word, pp.
of the Hidden Treasure and to the Koranic 205-206.
verse, "I created jinn and mankind only to 11. The other two types of marriage per-
worship Me" (51:56). The Prophet's compan- tain to the spiritual world (ru~iinl) and the
ion Ibn 'Abbas interpreted "to worship Me" realm of Nature (tabll). Cf. Ill 516.29; also I
as meaning "to know Me" (II 214.16). 170-171 (Y 3, 100-109); Mu'jam 1069-71.
12. III 295.18; cf. Fusus al-hikam 187 and
'Afifi's commentary th~r~on ..
13. This hadith is often translated as "God
Chapter 5. Existence and Nonexistence was, and nothing was with Him," but as the
Shaykh points out, the verb kiin here is a
word which denotes existence (~a~f wujudl),
1. For an introduction to the history of the without temporal implication (II 56.6, trans-
usage of the term wa~dat al-wujud among Ibn lated below, and II 692.24). As for the saying 393
Notes I Pages 88-99
"And He is now as He was" (wa huwa'/-iin 17. E.g., Farghani, Mashiiriq al-dariirl, ed.
kama kiin) sometimes mentioned as part of the S.J. Ashtiyani, (Tehran: Anjuman-i Islami-yi
hadith, Ibn al-'Arabi tells us that it adds noth- I:Iikmat wa Falsafa-yi Iran), 1358/1979, p. 30
ing to the meaning and indicates ignorance on (quoted in ]ami, Naqd al-nu~u~. p. 118).
the part of the person who said it (I 41.25 [Y 18. The terminology of some of Ibn al-
1, 189.14]; II 56. 7, 458.31, 692.24). According 'Arabi's followers suggests that the divine
to the Fu~u~ commentator Qay~ari, that per- names as such are the "universal divine
son was Junayd (cf. a/- Taw~ld wa'l-nubuwwa names" (al-asmii' al-iliihiyyat al-kulliyya), while
wa'l-waliiya, ed. S.J. Ashtiyani in Rasii'il-i the existent things are the "particular divine
Qay~arl [Mashhad: Danishgah, 1357/1978], p. names" (al-asmii' al-iliihiyyat al-juz'iyya). Cf.
13; Jami, Naqd al-nu~u~ fi shar~ naqsh al-fo~u~. Farghani, Mashiiriq al-dariirl, pp. 58-59. Since
ed. W. Chittick [Tehran: Imperial Iranian the terms "universal" and "particular" are rel-
Academy of Philosophy, 1977], p. 67). ative, the two terms may also be used simply
14. The hadith is found in four of the stan- to distinguish those names which have a
dard sources (Concordance VI 260.26). wider scope from those which have a nar-
15. The term He-ness is basically synony- rower scope. Cf. Farghani, Muntaha'/-madiirik
mous with Essence. "Huwiyya signifies the (Cairo: Maktab al-~ana'i', 1293/1876), I, p.
Unseen Reality" (II 130.10) or "the Reality 87.
in the world of the Unseen" (I~(ilii~iit 14). It is 19. As explained in the introduction,
God inasmuch as He is designated by the "opening" (fat~ or fotu~) is more or less syn-
name "He" (huwa), which is a pronoun des- onymous with "unveiling" (kashf) and
ignating absence and therefore nonmanifes- "tasting" (dhawq ). Hence it signifies direct,
tation. The term huwa is mentioned in many experiential knowledge of the realities of
Koranic verses, such as that which is being things, a knowledge that God gives to the
discussed in the present passage- "He is the servant through "self-disclosure" (tajal/1). Cf.
First and the Last, the Manifest and the Non- Chapter 13.
manifest." Often the term can be translated 20. This verse is one of the scriptural
more accurately as "it-ness," since the word sources for Ibn al-'Arabi's "Real Through
huwa can designate anything absent or any- Whom Creation Takes Place" (al-~aqq al-
thing to which allusion can be made and is makh/Uq bihi) discussed in Chapter 8.
thus more general than the gender-specific
"he" might suggest. "The word 'huwa' is
more inclusive than the word 'Allah,' since it Chapter 6. The New Creation
designates Allah, every absent thing, and ev-
erything which possesses an it-ness. And
there is nothing that does not possess an it- 1. Cf. Izutsu, Sufism and Taoism, pp. 205-
ness. It makes no difference if the known or 15; also Izutsu, "The Concept of Perpetual
mentioned thing is existent or nonexistent" Creation in Islamic Mysticism and Zen Bud-
(III 514.22). Cf. IV 443.33 (translated in dhism," in S.H. Nasr (ed.), Melanges offerts a
Chapter 19) and II 579-81. Henry Corbin (Tehran: McGill University, In-
16. Here the Shaykh employs the termi- stitute of Islamic Studies, 1977), especially pp.
nology of logic, but he considers this a uni- 142-46.
versal law, not limited to the mental domain. 2. Cf. his Ayyiim al-sha'n in Rasii'il; also I
Three things are needed for any result (natija) 121.23 (Y 2,234.15), 291.35 (Y 4,236.5); II
to be produced, whether we envisage repro- 441.32; III 45.28, 201-203; Mu'jam 1253-54.
duction in the animal world (male, female, 3. "Individual moment" would be a more
and union), conclusions in the logical domain literal translation. But Ibn al-'Arabi himself
(the major, minor, and middle terms of a syl- glosses ford as "that which does not receive
logism), or the creation of the cosmos (God's division" (alladhllii yaqbal al-qisma, II 384.31).
Essence, His Desire, and His creative Word 4. Ibn al-'Arabi's analogy may seem far-
"Be"). Cf. II 412.26, 440.25; III 106.27, fetched, but it is characteristic of his meth-
126.4. See also Mu'jam 247-50; Fu~u~ 116 odology to employ to the extent possible
(BW 142);Jami, Naqd al-nu~u~. 194-97 (partly Koranic imagery or principles established by
translated in Chittick, "Ibn 'Arabi's own the Koran. Here one should recall the verse,
Summary of the Fu~ii~." Sophia Perennis 2/1 "God is not ashamed to strike a similitude
(1976): 67-68; also journal ofthe Muhyiddin even of a gnat, or aught above it" (2:26); nor
394 Ibn 'Arabi Society 1 (1982): 63-64). is the Shaykh.
Notes I Pages 99-104

5. In view of the fact that the obvious which are also human attributes (e.g., gener-
meaning of the verse is that "next" should be osity, justice, patience, etc.) and the human
read "next world," it may seem that Ibn al- attributes by which God describes Himself in
'Arabi: is forcing an unintended meaning upon the Koran and the hadith (e.g., hand, foot,
the text. But he has no need to force things, laughter, rejoicing, etc.). Cf. Chapter 3, last
since there are other verses that could serve to section.
make his point as well. What he is in fact do- 9. This saying is found embedded in a
ing is bringing out the richness of the original number of different hadiths in the standard
text, while at the same time illustrating a fun- sources; e.g., Bukhari:, Iman 32; Taha.ijud 18,
damental principle of his own hermeneutics: Sawm 52, Libas 43; Muslim, Musafiri:n 215,
Any meaning that can be understood from 221, Siyam 177.
the text without doing violence to the lan- 10. These words are attributed in sequence
guage is meant by God, who revealed it with to Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus
full knowledge of all interpretations. Cf. in a long hadith about the Prophet's interces-
Chapter 14. ~ion on the Day of Resurrection. (Muslim,
6. Muslim, Iman 302. Iman 327; cf. Bukhari:, Anbiya' 3, Tafsir Siira
7. God is called "Time" according to the 17, 5; Tirmidhi:, Qiyama 10; AQ.mad II, 435,
hadith, "Say not, 'Oh, the disappointment of 436).
time!' [or, in another version, "Curse not 11. These words belong to Abii Bakr (II
time"], for God is time." Muslim, Alta? 4, 5; 514.28).
cf. Bukhari:, Adab 101; Muwatta', Kalam 12. For another commentary on the first
3; AQ.mad II 259, 272, 275, 318, 934. The sentence of the Futu~at, cf. II 310.34.
Shaykh writes (III 202.4) that in respect of be- 13. I 266.9 (Y 4,190.11). In the same pas-
ing "Time," God is a single beginningless and sage he mentions that others have also said
endless "Day," without nighttime or day- the same thing, and elsewhere he quotes it
time; but the properties of God's names and from "a group of the Folk of Tasting" (III
attributes divide this single Day into many 127.32) and mentions that it is the position of
days, and these are the "Days of God" men- the "Verifiers" (II 657.14); cf. II 77.27.
tioned in the Koranic verse, "We sent Moses 14. The text is found with the addition of
with Our signs: 'Bring forth thy people from the words "among His creatures" after
the shadows to the light and remind them "thing" in Ibn Maja, Iqama 152. Another ver-
of the Days of God!'" (14:5). The Shaykh sion has bada in place of tajalla (Nasa'!, Kusiif
clarifies the connection between Time and the 16). On the verification of hadith through
constant fluctuation of states in the follow- "unveiling," see the last section of Chapter
ing passage: "Having let us know that He is 14.
Time, God mentioned to us that He possesses 15. Abii Dawiid, Adab 91; Tirmidhi, Adab
days. These are the 'Days of God.' They be- 2, 3, Da'awat 128.
came entified by the properties of God's 16. Al-Rijal (sing. rajul), i.e., the great
names within the cosmos. Each name pos- friends of God. This term is more or less syn-
sesses days, which are the time (zaman) of the onymous with al-akabir, "the great ones."
ruling property of that name. But all are The term "man" is not gender specific, as Ibn
God's Days, and all are the differentiations of al-'Arabi often points out, e.g., "At this point
the property of Time in the cosmos. These the person is called a rajul . ... So the perfec-
Days commingle (tawaluj), interpenetrate, tion of manliness (rajuliyya) lies in what we
and cover each other. This is the diversity of have mentioned, wheth~r the person is male
properties that is seen in the cosmos at a or female" (II 588.6). Cf. Cosmology, where
single time. It derives from the interpenetra- several such passages are quoted.
tion, covering, transformation, and repetition 17. Reference to two hadiths: 1. "I came to
of the Days. Each of these Divine Days has a know the knowledge of the ancients and the
night and a daytime. Their night is the un- later folk" is mentioned in one version of the
seen, i.e., that of them which is unseen by us. hadith of the dispute of the higher plenum
. . . Their daytime is the visible, and it is (quoted in Chapter 4; cf. note 23). This ver-
identical with their property within the cor- sion is not indexed in the Concordance, but Ibn
poreal bodies, down to the last elemental al-'Arabi cites it in I 137.15 (Y 2,302.12); II
body, i.e., everything below Nature" (III 603.20, 608.20. Other versions of the hadith
201.12). have, "I came to know everything in the
8. The reference is to the divine names heavens and the earth" (Tirmidhi, Tafsir Siira 395
Notes I Pages 104-121

38, 2; Al;tmad I 368); "I came to know every- "My heavens and My earth embrace Me not,
thing between the east and the west" (Tir- but the heart of My believing servant does
midhi:, ibid.). 2. "I was sent with the all- embrace Me."
comprehensive words" (Bukhari:, Jihad 122, 31. al-'Ajz 'an dark al-idriik idriik. Ibn al-
Ta'bir 22, I'ti~am 1; Nasa'I, Jihad 1, Tatbiq 'Arabi frequently cites this saying, attributing
100). it to Abii Bakr, as a description of the highest
18. Muslim, Qadar 17; c£ Tirmidhi, level of human knowledge. C£ II 619.35
Qadar 7, Da'awat 89; Ibn Maja, Muqaddima (translated in Chapter 9); III 132.35; Dha-
13; Al:J.mad II 168, 173; VI 182, 251, 302, 315. khii' ir 202.
19. Cf. Concordance V 459.
20. This hadith is frequently cited in Sufi
texts, as well as by al-Ghazall in I~yii' 'u/Um Chapter 7. Cosmic Imagination
al-dln (II1.1.5; III, p. 12), but it is not ac-
knowledged as authentic by most of the exo-
teric scholars. C£ Mu'jam 1265-66. 1. These seven divine attributes are some-
21. C£ above, note 7. times called the "Seven Leaders" or "Seven
22. This famous saying, usually quoted as Mothers," since all the remaining divine and
a hadith, is not accepted by the specialists (c£ cosmic attributes can be traced back to them.
Mu'jam 1261). Ibn al-'Arabi frequently com- Cf. I 100.6f£ (Y 2,126-27); II 134.33, 460.11,
ments on it; cf. Chapter 19. 493.20; lnshii' 33. Cf. Chapter 2, note 16.
23. As mentioned in the introduction, as- 2. Tirmidm, Tafsi:r Siira 113, 3.
sociating others with God (shirk) is the oppo- 3. The more complete form of this hadith,
site of taw~fd, or professing God's Unity. which is narrated from 'Ikrima and whose au-
24. The reference is to the situation of the thenticity is disputed by the specialists, is as
people in hell according to a' short section of follows: "I saw my Lord in the form of a
the long hadith of ta~awwul: "The angels in- beardless Y(outh, wearing a cloak of gold,
tercede, the prophets intercede, the faithful upon his liead a crown of gold, and upon his
intercede, and none remains but the Most feet sandals of gold" (Dhakhii'ir 71). Naturally
Merciful of the merciful. He takes a handful Ibn al-'Arabi is aware that it is not considered
of the Fire and removes from it a people who sound (I 97.27 [Y 2, 114.6]).
have never done any good at all after they 4. Dii:J.ya Kalbi was known as the most
have become coals. He throws them into a beautiful contemporary of the Prophet, and a
river in the Garden, called the 'River of Life'. hadith tells us that Gabriel used to come to
They sprout up like seeds sprout up in the the Prophet in his form (AI;tmad II 107). Cf.
wake of a flood" (Muslim, Iman 302, 304). II 492.3, 495.12, 612.33; III 42.10; Dhakhii'ir
25. Al-l:Iaki:m al-Tirmidhi (fl. 3rd/9th cen- 170.
tury) drew up a list of 157 questions which 5. Bukhad, 'Ilm 38, Adab 109, Ta'bir 10;
could only be answered, so he said, by the Muslim, Ru'ya iO, 11, etc. Cf. Concordance VI
elect among the friends of God. Ibn al-'Arabi 169-70.
was the first and only person to take up the 6. Bukhari, 'Ilm 22, Fa4a'il al-~ai:J.aba 6;
challenge, writing a treatise called al-Jawiib al- Ta'bir 15, 16, 34; Muslim, Fa<,la'il al-~al;laba
mustaqlm. Later he incorporated a vastly ex- 16; Darimi, Ru'ya 13.
panded version of this treatise into Chapter 73 7. Though frequently cited by the Shaykh
of the Futu~iit (II 39-139). C£ al-Tirmidhi, and other Sufis as a hadith, it is not found
Kitiib khatm al-awliyii', ed. 0. Yahia (Beirut: in the standard collections. Abii Ibrahim
Imprimerie Catholique, 1965); Chodkiewicz, Mustamli Bukhari (d. 434/1042-43) attrib-
Le sceau, passim. utes it to 'All ibn Abi Talib (Shar~-i Ta'arruf
26. This is a ~adfth qudsi recorded in most [Lucknow, 1328], III, p. 98).
of the standard sources. Cf. Graham, Divine 8. Allusion to Koran 78:9-11: "And We
Word, pp. 127ff. appointed your sleep for a rest; and We ap-
27. I.e., in answering the previous ques- pointed night for a garment; and We ap-
tion of Tirmidhi, II 111-113. pointed daytime for livelihood" (cf. 25:47).
28. Cf. Chapter 3, note 5. 9. See above, note 3.
29. This saying is found in many versions 10. Abii Dawiid, Adab 88. He also used to
in the standard sources. Cf. Graham, Divine say, "If any of you has seen a dream, let him
Word, pp. 129, 175-76. tell it to me, and I will interpret it for him"
396 30. Allusion to the hadith cited above, (Darimi, Ru'ya 13; Al;lmad II 146).
Notes I Pages 121-127

11. Allusion to the hadith, "The veridical is death,' for each of them has seen it. Then it
[or good, or sound] dream [or, the dream of will be sacrificed. Then he will say, '0 people
the person of faith] is one-forty-sixth part of of the Garden! Everlastingness, and no death!
prophecy." The text is found in most of the 0 people of the Fire! Everlastingness, and no
standard sources (Concordance I 343, s. v. juz'). death!"' (Bukhari, Tafsir Siira 19, 1; Al;tmad
12. This hadith is not indexed in the Con- III 9; other versions are found in Tirmidhi,
cordance, though a number of hadiths speak Janna 20, Tafsir Siira 19, 2; AJ:tmad II 377).
of the Trumpet as a "horn" (qarn).
13. The first hadith is part of the famous
hadith of Gabriel, in which Gabriel comes to
the Prophet in the form of a man and asks the Chapter 8. The Supreme Barzakh
Prophet about al-islam ("submission"), al-lman
("faith"), and al-i~san ("virtue" or "good-
doing" or "perfection"). The Prophet then 1. Tirmidhi, Tafsir Siira 11, 1; Ibn Maja,
explains to his Companions that the man had Muqaddima 13; Al;tmad IV 11, 12.
been Gabriel, and he had come to teach them 2. The hadith is found in Bukhari, Da'awat
their religion (Bukhari, Tafsir Siira 31, 2; 14, and other standard sources.
Iman 37; Muslim, Iman 1; etc.). On the sec- 3. The three types of creation are referred
ond hadith, cf. Chapter 3, note 6. to in the Koran and the hadith: 1. Several
14. Most, if not all of these examples, are Koranic verses refer to God's creation of the
drawn from hadiths. 1. Knowledge as milk: things through "Be!", which, as we have
cited above. 2. Islam as a pillar (Bukhari, seen, Ibn al-'Arabi calls the "Word of the
Ta'bir 23, Manaqib al-An~ar 19; Muslim, Presence" (kalimat al-~a4ra). 2. A hadith
Fa<;la'il al-~al;taba 148, 150). 3. Koran: butter which Ibn al-' Arabi often quotes tells us that
and honey (Bukhari, Ta'bir 47; Muslim, "He created the Garden of Eden with His
Ru'ya 17; Abii Dawiid, Sunna 8; Ibn Maja, hand, He wrote the Torah with His hand,
Ru'ya 10; Darimi, Ru'ya 13; Al;tmad I 236). 4. and He planted the tree of Tiiba [in Paradise]
Religion as a cord (qayd): Probably a reference with His hand." This is not found in the Con-
to the hadith, "I love a cord (in dreams), for it cordance, but Suyiiti gives us the text, "God
is constancy (thabat) in religion" (Bukhari, created the Garden of Eden and planted its
Ta'bir 26; Muslim, Ru'ya 6; etc.). 5. God. a. trees with His hand" (al-]ami' al-~aghlr III,
As a human being: the hadith of 'Ikrima, 444). 3. Adam was created through both of
mentioned above. b. As a light. Probably a God's hands, as mentioned in God's words to
reference to the Prophet's answer to Abii Iblis: "What prevented thee from prostrating
Dharr, who asked him if he had seen his thyself before him whom I created with My
Lord: "I saw a light" (Muslim, Iman 292); "I two hands?" (Koran 38:75). Cf. I 122.14 (Y
saw Him as a light-how should I see Him?" 2,237.16).
(AI;tmad V 147). 4. On the different kinds of corporeal bod-
15. Allusion to various Koranic verses ies and their relationship to Nature, cf.
(e.g., Koran 7:8-9, 21:47, 23:102-3, 101:6- Cosmology.
8) as well as hadiths concerning the Scales set 5. Reference to a hadith, cited in Chapter
up on the Day of Resurrection. For example, 7, note 14.
"Two sentences are loved by the All- 6. On Dil;tya, see Chapter 7, note 4. Ac-
merciful, light on the tongue, and heavy in cording to the accounts of the Battle of Badr
the Scale: 'Glory be to God, and praise' and referred to in the preceding chapter, at the
'Glory be to God the Mighty' " (Bukhari, point when the Prophet threw a handful of
Tawl;tid 58; Muslim, Dhikr 30; etc.). sand toward the enemy, the angels joined the
16. Reference to the following hadith: battle and turned it in favor of the Muslims.
"Death will be brought (on the Day of Resur- This event is mentioned in Koran 8:12:
rection) as a salt-colored ram, and a caller will "When thy Lord revealed to the angels, 'I am
call, '0 people of the Garden!' They will with you, so confirm the faithful. I shall cast
crane their necks and look. He will say, 'Do terror into the unbelievers' hearts, so strike
you recognize this?" They will say, 'Yes, this off their heads and smite their every finger.' "
is death,' for each of them has seen it. Then 7. Labid ibn Rabi'a (d. ca. 41/661) was one
he will call, '0 people of the Fire!' They will of the foremost Arab poets and a contempo-
crane their necks and look. He will say, 'Do rary of the Prophet. He is said to have entered
you recognize this?' They will say, 'Yes, this Islam in the year 9/630-31, when he accom- 397
Notes I Pages 127-149

panied a delegation from his tribe to Medina 18. This fact has important ramifications in
(cf. Encyclopedia of Islam V 583-84). The had- cosmology. See Cosmology; also Chittick,
ith is found in Bukhari, Manaqib al-An~ar 26, "Death and the World of Imagination."
Adab 90; Muslim, Shi'r 3-7, etc. 19. "The Reality of Realities is that which
8. I 97.21 (Y 2, 113.3). Lane cites the first includes both creature and the Real. None of
hadith in the Lexicon (s. v. nafas), but the ver- the considerative thinkers have mentioned it,
sions of these two hadiths given in the stan- only the Folk of Allah. However, the Mu'ta-
dard collections do not mention the All- zilites gave news of something near to it.
merciful. A typical version of the first runs, They said that God is Speaker through a qual-
"The wind comes from the Spirit of God. It ity of being a Speaker (qti'iliyya), Knower
brings mercy and it brings chastisement. So through a quality of being a Knower, Power-
when you see it, curse it not, but ask God for ful through a quality of being Powerful, be-
its good and seek refuge in Him from its evil" cause they fled from affirming any super-
(Ibn Maja, Adab 29; Al}mad II 268, 409, 518; added attribute to the Essence of the Real in
V 123; cf Tirmidhi, Fitan 65; Abu Dawud, order to declare His incomparability. They
Adab 104; Al}mad II 437). The second hadith strove in this direction and came near" (II
is given in the form, "I find the breath of 433.14).
your Lord coming from the direction of 20. Li-kull ~aqq ~aqlqa. The hadith is not
Yemen" (Ai}mad II 541). indexed in the Concordance.
9. Lane gives nafas as a synonym for tanfts, 21. Inshti' al-dawti'ir, pp. 15ff. Cf. Izutsu,
citing these hadiths as examples (Arabic- Sufism, pp. 161-63; also the study of M.
English Lexicon, s. v. nafas). Takeshita, "An Analysis oflbn 'Arabi's Insha
10. II 394-95. Cf. the diagram provided in al-Dawti'ir with Particular Reference to the
T. Burckhardt, Mystical Astrology according to Doctrine of the 'Third Thing'," J oumal of
Ibn 'Arabi, translated by B. Rauf (Glouces- Near Eastern Studies 41 (1982): 243-60.
tershire: Beshara Publications, 1977). 22. Thus it is the father which impregnates
11. On the two kinds of mercy cf. Chit- the Hyle to give birth to the Universal Body.
tick, "The Chapter Headings of the Fu~u~," 23. See Cosmology.
Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society 2 24. The heavens and celestial spheres are
(1984): 72-74. translucent corporeal bodies.
12. Allusion to the hadith of the Hidden 25. See Cosmology.
Treasure (Chapter 4, note 14).
13. On the significance of this remark for
Ibn al-'Arabi's approach to the study of Had-
ith, see Chapter 14, last section. Chapter 9. Knowledge and the Knower
14. Cf Chapter 3, note 8.
15. Ibn Barrajan (d. 536/1141) was called
by some the al-Ghazali of al-Andalus. He was 1. Ibn Maja, Muqaddima 17.
a leader of the resistance movement against 2. Reference to a Koranic verse, repeatedly
the Almoravids, and was summoned to the cited by the Shaykh, which alludes to the spe-
capital at Marrakush by the Almoravid prince cial knowledge inherited by the friends of
and thrown into prison, where he soon died God from the Prophet: "Say [0 Mul}am-
(cf Encyclopedia of Islam III 732). The Shaykh mad!]: 'This is my way. I call to God upon
mentions that he took this term from Ibn insight, I and whoever follows after me'"
Barrajan in II 60.12, 104.6; III 77.25. (12:108). Cf. Chapter 15.
16. Ibn al-'Arabi mentions these two 3. Life is often said to have a certain pri-
verses specifically as Ibn Barrajan's source of ority over knowledge, since that which is
inspiration (II 60.12), but there are several not alive cannot know, but the compass of
similar verses employing the term al-~aqq knowledge is absolute in a manner that does
(6:73, 10:5, 14:19, 16:3, 29:44, 39:5, 45:22, not apply to life.
46:3, 64:3). 4. Concerning his use of the term a~~ab in
17. By quoting this partial Koranic verse, this sense, cf. Chapter 4, note 34.
the Shaykh shows that he is commenting on 5. On Sahl, cf Chapter 15, note 18; on
the meaning of the whole verse from which it Abu Madyan, cf. Chapter 13, note 19. Ibn al-
derives, "He is the First and the Last, the 'Arif (d. 536/1141) was an important Andalu-
Manifest and the Nonmanifest, and He has sian Sufi. He headed a group in Almeria
398 knowledge of everything." which was a focal point for opposition to the
Notes I Pages 149-162

Almoravid jurists. He was summoned along Bukhari:, TawJ:ti:d 36; Muslim, iman 326, 327;
with Ibn Barrajan (Chapter 8, note 15) to AJ:tmad II 436; III 248.
Marrakush, but well treated by the prince. 15. Allusion to Koran 18:109 and 31:27.
Fragments of his correspondence with Ibn 16. Allusion to the famous prophetic say-
Barrajan have been published (P. Nwyia, ing, "He who knows himself knows his
"Notes sur quelques fragments inedits de Lord." Cf. Chapter 19.
Ia correspondence d'Ibn al-'Arlf avec Ibn 17. When the famous Sufi Dhu'l-Niin (d.
Barrajan," Hesperis 43 (1956): 217-21). His 246/861) was asked about the verse "Am I not
Ma~iisin al-majiilis, sometimes quoted by your Lord?," he said, "It is as if it is still ring-
Ibn al-'Arabi:, was edited and translated into ing in my ears" (II 108.31, 566.1).
French by M. Asin Palacios (Paris: Librairie 18. AJ:tmad I 391, 452.
Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1933). Cf. the in- 19. The hadith is found in most sources,
troduction to this work, and Encyclopedia of including Muslim, Salat 222; Dariml, Salat
Islam III 712-13. Others whom Ibn al-'Arabi: 148 (Concordance I 304).
considers Verifiers include Farqad al-Sabakhi: 20. I.e., the Breath of the All-merciful, the
of Basra (d. 131/748-49), Junayd, and al- Barzakh. The Breath is articulated speech, so
f::lasan al-Ba~ri: (Isfor 7). it cannot subsist without words.
6. Cf. Mawiiqi' al-nujum (Cairo: Maktaba 21. Allusion to Koran 41:53: "We shall
MuJ:tammad 'Ali: Sabi:J:t, 1965), esp. pp. 29- show them Our signs upon the Horizons and
32. in themselves, until it is clear to them that He
7. Muslim, Dhikr 73; Tirmidhi:, Da'awat is the Real. "
68, etc.
8. Ibn al-'Arabi: uses the term al-'ilm al-
iliiht, which translates literally as "the divine
science" or "theology," but either of these Chapter 10. Acquiring Knowledge
terms would be misleading. He uses this ex-
pression more or less synonymously with al-
iliihiyyiit, which translates literally as "the di- 1. See Cosmology.
vine things." For a few other examples of 2. The philosophers employed the terms
usage of the term a/-'ilm al-i/iiht in this sense, shahwa and ghaqab or "anger" in a neutral
cf. II 451.33, 459.12, 33, 646.27, 660.20; III sense to indicate the two basic powers of the
97.20, 132.26; for al-iliihiyyiit, cf. II 404.15, animal soul, through which the soul finds
521.12, 523.16, 526.33, 537.13, 536.18, what is necessary for its survival and repels
541.10, 551.34, 560.24, 609. 7, 644.23, 658.10, danger. In the philosophical or psychological
668. 7; III 127.31. context the two terms have often been trans-
9. Cf. II 214.15: "Ibn al-'Abbas said that lated as "concupiscence" (or "appetite") and
the meaning [of 'to worship Me') is 'to know "irascibility."
Me'." 3. Their outward forms possess innate
10. For the source of this hadith, cf. Chap- knowledge since they are inanimate,
ter 6, note 17. compounded of the four elements. But their
11. These words derive from the Koranic spirits-that is, their rational souls-need to
account of how the angels were commanded gain knowledge of God.
to prostrate themselves to Adam. After teach- 4. The text of the hadith is found in a
ing Adam the names, God tells the angels to number of contexts, not all of which would
name the things, and they reply, "Glory be to suggest that the pronoun in "his form" re-
Thee! We have no knowledge save what turns to God (Bukharl, Isti 'dhan 1; Muslim,
Thou hast taught us." Then God has Adam Birr 115, Janna 28; AJ:tmad II 244, 251, 315,
tell them the names, and only then does He 323, 434, 463, 519). Though Ibn al--'Arabi: al-
command the angels to prostrate themselves. most always reads the pronoun as referring
12. Allusion to Koran 16:49: "Their shad- back to God, he recognizes that it may also be
ows incline to the right and to the left, pros- read as referring to Adam, as in the following
trating themselves to God." passage: "If an Islamic philosopher (faylasuf is-
13. On the "prostration of the heart," cf. liimt) [had asked me the meaning of this had-
Chapter 15, note 18. On its fluctuation, cf. ith], I would have answered that the pronoun
Chapter 6. goes back to Adam. The meaning is that
14.. Hadiths to this effect, though not in Adam did not pass through stages (atwiir) of
the exact same wording, are found in creation, as the sperm passes from being 399
Notes I Pages 162-176

water to a human being, one creation after Chapter 11. The Scale of the Law
another. On the contrary, God created him as
he became manifest, and he did not pass by
stages, e.g., from infancy to youth to man- 1. Cf W. Chittick, "A Sufi Approach to
hood to old age, nor did he pass from small- Religious Diversity: Ibn al-'Arabi on the
ness of body to largeness, as does a child Metaphysics of Revelation."
among Adam's progeny. This is the way in 2. Presumably this refers to Bukhari's
which such a questioner should be answered, $a~l~, but I was not able to find the chapter.
since every questioner has an answer appro- Ibn al-'Arabi defines the Sunna of the Prophet
priate to him" (II 124.23). Ibn al-'Arabi points in a manner which ties it into this universal
to another version of the hadith which reads, message of all the prophets: It is "coming to-
"upon the Form of the All-merciful," thus gether in religion, performing it, and not
removing the ambiguity. Though this version scattering in it" (II 168.26).
is not accepted by the authorities in the trans- 3. Ahl al-~aqq, a term Ibn al-'Arabi em-
mission of hadith (a~~iib al-naql), "it has ploys synonymously with ahl Alliih (cf. III
been shown to be sound (~a~f~) by unveiling 385.26).
(kashf)" (II 490. 7). 4. Several of these passages are quoted in
5. The Universal Soul stands below the Cosmology.
First Intellect and represents the receptive di- 5. Every messenger is also a prophet, but
mension of the spiritual world. See not every prophet is a messenger. See
Cosmology. Cosmology.
6. Bukhari, Riqaq 38. Cf Graham, Divine 6. Cf. III 6.22.
Word, pp. 173-75. 7. Allusion to Koran 56:27-55.
7. This last phrase, wa qalrl mii hum, is nor- 8. On the four natures, cf Chapter 8.
mally read, "And they are few" or "How few 9. This sentence is taken from a hadith
they are," with mii understood as extraneous found in Muslim (Iman 293, 295), Ibn Maja
or emphatic. Ibn al-'Arabi's reading seems a (Muqaddima 13), and Al]mad (IV 395, 401,
bit forced, but not completely unallowable. 405).
He is certainly being consistent with his own 10. Taklif, or "being addressed by the
principles of Koran commentary; cf Chapter Law" and being required to follow its i~unc­
14. tions, ceases only at death. Cf below.
8. Literally, the "spirituals" (al-rn~iiniyyun). 11. II 269.33, III 36.17. On the People of
9. Reference to the famous "hadith of su- Blame, cf Chapter 20.
pererogatory works," according to which 12. The hadith is found in several variants
God loves the servant who seeks nearness to and in practically all the standard sources. A
Him through supererogatory works and be- typical version runs, "Surely your soul has
comes all his faculties (Bukhari, Riqaq 38). a right against you, your Lord has a right
This station of knowledge, achieved only by against you, your guest has a right against
the greatest friends of God, is discussed in de- you, and your wife has a right against you; so
tail in Chapter 18. give to each one who [or which] possesses a
10. The technical sense of this allusion to right his [her, its] right." Cf Concordance I
Koran 12:108 is explained below in Chapter 486.
13. 13. Allusion to the well-known hadith,
11. Allusion to the hadith, "Verily the "One of the beauties of a man's Islam is that
Trusted Spirit [Gabriel] blew into my heart he refrains from that which is not his con-
that no soul will die until it completes its cern" (Tirmidhi, Zuhd 11; Ibn Maja, Fitan 12;
term" (Suyii!I, al-Jiimi' al-~aghlr II, 450). Cf. Muwa!!a', J:Iusn al-Khuluq 3, Kalam 17).
Ibn al-'Arabi's words, "By God, I neither 14. Suyii!I, al-Jiimi' al-~aghlr I 224.
speak nor judge except through a blowing 15. al- Tii'ifat al-'iiliya, i.e., the great Sufis.
into my heart from a divine, holy spirit" (III 16. This is an abbreviated form of the
101.6; cf II 637.8). "hadith of supererogatory works" (Bukhari,
Riqaq 38). See Chapter 18.
17. Allusion to several Koranic verses
which allude to the "sealing of the heart,"
e.g., "God has set a seal on their hearts, so
they know not" (9:93).
400
Notes I Pages 176-199

18. On the divine jealousy, cf. Chapter 2, 2. In a slightly d!fferent form the ~adith is
note 27. found in Tirmidhi (Iman 12), Nasa'I (Iman 8),
19. Allusion to the "hadith of the veils": Ibn Maja (Fitan 2), etc.
"God has seventy" -or "seventy thou- 3. Tirmidhi, Qiyama 60. The hadith is
sand"- "veils of light and darkness; were found in several sources in the form, "A per-
they to be removed, the Glories of His Face son has no faith if his neighbor does not feel
would burn away everything perceived by secure from his calamity" (Bukhari, Adab 29;
the sight of His creatures." Ibn al-'Arabi fre- Muslim, Iman 73; etc.).
quently quotes it in this form (e.g., II 80.34, 4. Bukhari, Jana'iz 80, 92, Taf~Ir 30:1;
110.31, 460.7, 488.10, 542.3, 554.9). The Muslim, Qadar 22-24, etc.
Concordance gives a text which states "His veil 5. The hadith is well-known in the form,
is light" in place of "God has ... darkness" "You are more knowledgeable in the affair
(Muslim, Iman 293; Ibn Maja, Muqaddima (amr) of this world of yours" (Muslim, Fa<,la'il
13). 143; Ibn Maja, Ruhiin 15; AQ.mad V 5, 16,
20. The hadith is found in Muslim (Iman 298; VI 128).
164) and other standard sources. 6. On the hadith, cf. Chapter 6, note 24.
21. Allusion to Koran 6:97: "He appointed 7. Muslim, Iman 43.
for you the stars, that by them you might be 8. Allusion to the hadith, "If a person sets
guided in the darknesses of land and sea." Cf. down in Islam a good custom (sunna ~asana)
27:63. which is put into practice, he will have writ-
22. Ibn al-'Arabi adds the phrase "in this ten for him the wage of those who put it into
station" since, from the point of view of an- practice, while nothing will be diminished
other "station" (maqam), there is a certain from their wages; and if a person sets down
similarity between God and man. in Islam a bad custom which is put into prac-
23. Part of the long version of the hadith tice, he will have written for him the load of
of the Hidden Treasure, quoted in Chapter 8. those who put it into practice, while nothing
24. Here Ibn al-'Arabi alludes to the fa- will be diminished from their loads" (Mus-
mous definition of al-i~san: "Worship God as lim, 'Ilm 15, Zakat 69; Nasa'!, Zakat 64; etc.).
if you see Him." Cf. Chapter 7, note 13. 9. Nature, in the more limited sense of the
25. Reference to several hadiths (cf. Chap- term (cf. Chapter 8), is the domain of both
ter 4, notes 33 and 35) and the Koranic verse, imagination and sense perception, that is, ev-
"He is with you wherever you are" (57:4). erything below the spiritual world. The "nat-
26. Another reference to the hadith men- ural" includes everything which takes bodily
tioned above; cf. footnote 16. form, whether in the corporeal or the imagi-
27. Here the term one entity refers to the nal worlds. The corporeal world, in addition
Barzakh, the "entity of the cosmos," whereas to being natural, is also "elemental" ('unsurJ),
a few lines down it refers to Being, as is more that is, composed of the four elements; but
normally the case. the imaginal domains are natural without be-
28. For this analogy, cf. II 519.17; Ill ing elemental. Cf. Cosmology; also Chittick,
127.26. "Death and the World of Imagination," pp.
29. I employ the term "corporeous" to dis- 73-77.
tinguish the term jasad! from the term )ism! 10. Though Ibn al-'Arabi frequently cites
(or jismanl}, "corporeal." Ibn al-'Arabi often the saying, it is not found in the standard
uses the first to refer to imaginal objects wit- sources. Al-Ghazall among others considers it
nessed in the World of Imagination and the a hadith. Cf. Mu'jam 1263.
second to refer to corporeal things of the 11. Corbin has been so successful in
world of everyday experience. Cf. Cosmology. getting across the idea that ta'w!l is central to
Ibn al-'Arabi that an Arab scholar has written
a book on him called the "philosophy of
Chapter 12. Faith and ta'wtl" (N. H. Abu Zayd, Falsafat al-ta'wll
Rational Interpretation [Beirut: Dar al-Tanwir, 1983]). Cf.
Chodkiewicz's review (Studia Islamica 60
[1984]: 177-80), which points out that Ibn al-
1. As pointed out earlier, this sentence, 'Arabi rarely uses the term in a favorable
cited by some authors as a hadith, is fre- sense.
quently given as a definition of knowledge. 12. Creative Imagination, p. 50.
401
Notes I Pages 199-213

13. Corbin goes on to say that any men- which they are seeking and the knowledge
tion of ta'wl/ during Ibn al-'Arabl's era "suf- which they want to acquire. God sets up
ficed to alarm the authorities, jealous of the within themselves a pole around which their
!egalitarian religion and the literal truth." By spheres begin to turn" (I 152.14). Ibn al-
now the reader will have realized that few of •Arabi: often identifies the "world of the
the authorities could have been more jealous breaths" with the Men of Allah (rijal Allah),
"of the !egalitarian religion and the literal that is, the great friends of God (II 6.21; cf. II
truth" than Ibn al-'Arabi: himself, though this 11. 9, 425.23).
did not prevent him from seeing inward 19. On the determining property of God's
meanings in addition to outward forms. On knowledge and its relationship to this Koranic
the question of "Shi'ite leanings" in Ibn a!- verse, see Chapter 17, section on "God's
' Arabi:, cf. Chodkiewicz's remarks in Sceau, Conclusive Argument."
pp. 15, 34, 67-68, 174. The present author 20. As pointed out earlier, taklif, or the
agrees with Chodkiewicz that there is no ba- prescription of the Law, comes to an end at
sis in Ibn al-'Arabl's works for suggesting a death. Al-Sirtlf is usually interpreted to mean
kinship with Shi'ism on the formal level. the bridge over hell leading to paradise on
Whenever Ibn al-'Arabi: mentions Shi'ism, he the Day of Resurrection. On the "inherent
does so with a certain amount of hostility worship" of all things, cf. Chapter 18, first
(cf., e.g., I 282.4 [Y 4,280.8]; II 8.19; III section.
36.15, 138. 9). The fact that the Shaykh ex- 21. Cf. M. Schwartz, '"Acquisition' (kasb)
presses a view of certain things similar to in Early Islam," in S.M. Stern and A.
what is found among some Shi'ites merely Hourani, Islamic Philosophy and the Classical
proves that neither he nor they were pre- Tradition (Columbia, S.C.: University of
vented by literal-mindedness from seeing South Carolina Press, 1972), pp. 355-87;
God manifesting Himself in the cosmos, the R.M. Frank, "Moral Obligation in Classical
Unseen entering into the visible, the spiritual Muslim Theology," Journal of Religious Ethics
present in the corporeal, or mercy preceding 11 (1983): 204-23, esp. 218-19; Encyclopedia
wrath. of Islam IV 692-94; Wolfson, Philosophy, pp.
14. Allusion to a number of Koranic 663-719.
verses, including 6:57: "Say: 'I stand upon a 22. In this verse Ibn a!-'Arabi: reads
clear sign from my Lord'." magh.fira in its primary, literal sense. The term
15. The third son of Saladin, he ruled over is usually translated as "forgiveness."
Aleppo from 582/1186 to 615/1218. 23. Allusion to the hadith of "self-trans-
16. Reference to Koran 13:15: "To God mutation" (ta~awwul) at the resurrection.
prostrate themselves all who are in the heav- 24. One of Ibn a!-'Arabl's foremost disci-
ens and the earth, willingly or unwillingly, as ples (cf. the mention of him in the introduc-
do their shadows in the mornings and the tion).
evenings." 25. Cf. Bukhari:, Tafsir 6,7; 7,1; NikaJ:t
17. In employing the more normal sense of 107; TawJ:ti:d 15, 20; Muslim, Li'an 17; Tawba
the word tawhfd, Ibn al-'Arabi: claims that 32-35.
none of the g~oups is able to escape from a 26. Here, of course, Ibn al-'Arabi:'s anal-
certain "association" or sharing (ishtirak) in ogy is weakened by the picture of the cosmos
the question of the acts (III 211-12). drawn by modern astronomy.
18. In the present context this term seems
to refer to the spiritual realities which govern
the corporeal world, or to the Breath of the
All-merciful itself (cf. Dhakhair 141, 143, Chapter 13. Knowing God's
208). Elsewhere Ibn al-'Arabi: identifies the Self Disclosure
world of the breaths with the world which is
unveiled during God's self-disclosure (Dha-
khair 149, 166, 194) and he defines breaths as 1. The definitions of wajd given in l~(ila~at
the "assaults (sa(awat) of the awe of self- 5 and Futu~at II 133.13 lack the last phrase
disclosure" (ibid., 68). He also defines and have copyist errors; in place of mufoiya
"breaths" as the "fragrances of nearness to the first reads mughayyiba and the second
God" and adds, "When the gnostics smell the mughniya.
perfume of these breaths . . . , they come tr 2. The term ~u~uf (plural of ~a~ifa) is em-
402 know a divine person who has the myster f ployed generically for scriptures. Here Ibn a!-
Notes I Pages 213-223

'Arabi probably has the scriptures of Abra- to every kind of creature, including angel,
ham in mind, since the Koran attributes the jinn, man, animal, plant, and inanimate ob-
term specifically only to Moses and Abraham ject (jamiid). Among animals God mentioned
(87:19), and he has already mentioned the the bee (Koran 16:68), and among inanimate
Torah. objects He mentioned the heaven (41:12) and
3. Farghani translates wujiid as yiifi wa yii- the earth (99:5)-even if, in our view, every-
bandagi" (Mashiiriq al-dariiri", p. 18). thing is alive, for here we follow customary
4. This is the sign by which each group usage according to ordinary sense perception"
will recognize its Lord on the Day of Resur- (II 631.35). In the most specific sense, revela-
rection. Cf. Chapter 19. tion is the descent of the angel upon the hear-
5. For details on this cosmology, see ing and heart of the messenger or prophet,
Cosmology. and it no longer takes place, since there is no
6. In respect of their bodies, which are in- prophet after Mul:J.ammad (II 253.3). "In this
animate, these creatures glorify God like respect, that which pertains specifically to the
other inanimate things, as is pointed out at prophet and not to the friend is 'Law-giving
the end of the paragraph. The "bodies" of an- revelation'" (II 376.6; cf. Cosmology). In a
gels and jinn are imaginal or "corporeous," more general sense, revelation is "that which
not corporeal. Cf. Cosmology. God casts into the hearts of His servants
7. See also II 485-89 (fifteen kinds), 550 without intermediary. He makes them hear a
(four kinds), 666-69 (four kinds), and III speech (~adi"th) in their hearts, but hearing
56.19 (two kinds). does not grasp how it takes place, limits do
8. Muslim, Iman 291; Tirmidhi, Tafslr not define it, and imagination does not give it
Sura 53, 7. form. Nevertheless, he understands it, but
9. Cf. Chapter 11, note 19. he does not know how it has come, from
10. The hadith is found in many versions. whence it has come, nor what is its cause" (II
The closest to that mentioned here is Muslim, 375.19). In this last sense, revelation is experi-
Iman 302, Zuhd 16; Bukharl, Tafsir Sura 4, 8; enced by the friends of God, and it is identi-
Ibn Maja, Muqaddima 13. Cf. Muslim, Iman fied with unveiling or "heralding visions"
299; Bukharl, Mawaqit al-Salat 16, 26; Tafsir (mubashshira), a term derived from the hadith
Sura 50, 2; Bukharl, Adhan 129; Riqaq 52; literature (Chapter 2, note 15). "The revela-
etc. tion of heralding visions is the most inclusive
11. Allusion to Koran 7:40: "Nor shall kind of revelation. It reaches the servant from
they enter the Garden until the camel passes the Real without intermediary, though it may
through the eye of the needle." also come through an intermediary. One of
12. Cf. I~!ilii~iit 6, and the detailed discus- the characteristics of prophecy is that it comes
sion of these three stages in Futii~iit, Chapters through an intermediary, since there must be
248-50 (II 547 -52). an angel involved. But heralding visions are
13. The verses are from Futii~iit I 10.26 (Y not like that. Hence the gnostic servant does
1,73.10). not care about the prophecy which has es-
14. Abu'l-'Abbas 'All ibn 'Isa (d. 386/996), caped him, since heralding visions remain for
a well-known grammarian and Mu'tazilite him" (III 86.14). But Ibn al-'Arabl warns his
rhetorician. reader to be wary of private "revelations": "0
15. The hadith is not indexed in the Con- friend, if you suppose that God has given you
cordance, though Ibn al-'Arab! often cites it revelation, look into yourself for wavering or
(e.g., I 95.15 [Y 2,102.18]; III 151.1). opposition [to the Law]. If you find any trace
16. The term "rust" is derived from Koran of that-through governing (tadbi"r), differen-
83:14: "No indeed, but what they were earn- tiation (tafi.ll), or reflection (tafokkur)-you
ing has rusted upon their hearts." are not a possessor of revelation. If He exer-
17. Allusion to the words, "We lay cover- cises governing control over you, makes you
ings upon their hearts lest they understand" blind and deaf, and comes between you and
(Koran 6:25, 17:46, 18:57). your reflection and governing, while putting
18. The "revelation" (wa~y) mentioned His command into effect through you, then
here is one kind of unveiling. It is not identi- that is revelation, and at that point you are
cal with the revelation given to prophets in the possessor of revelation. Then you will
the form of scriptures. Following Koranic us- know that He has raised you and elevated
age, Ibn al-'Arab! divides revelation into a your position so that you have reached those
number of kinds. "Revelation may be given animals, plants, and inanimate objects about 403
Notes I Pages 223-230

whom you say, 'They are below me.' For ev- 20. Aj'alnr nilran. The Prophet's supplica-
erything other than mankind and thejinn--in tion from which this phrase is taken is found
respect of their totality- has an inborn in several versions, usually without this par-
knowledge of God. Mankind and jinn have ticular phrase. In Muslim, Musafirin 187, the
an inborn knowledge of God only in respect text reads as follows: "He used to say in his
of the differentiation of their parts, like every- prayer or in the prostration, '0 God, place in
thing other than they-angels, plants, ani- my heart a light, in my hearing a light, in my
mals, and inanimate objects. There is nothing sight a light, on my right hand a light, on my
in man- whether hair, skin, flesh, veins, left hand a light, before me a light, behind me
blood, spirit, soul, nails, and teeth- a light, above me a light, below me a light,
which does not have an inborn knowledge of and appoint for me a light' or 'make me into
God through revelation, through which God a light'." This last phrase is found as an inte-
discloses Himself to it. But, in respect of gral part of the text of the supplication in
man's totality and the properties of the com- A]:Irnad I 284.
ing together of all his parts, he is ignorant of 21. Cf. Chittick, "Rumi and Wahdat al-
God. . .. If God were to allow him to hear Wujild," which provides a history of the early
the speech of his skin, his hand, his tongue, usage of the term wa~dat al-wujild and ex-
or his foot, he would hear it speaking plains the different meanings which have been
through knowledge of its Lord, glorifying given to it.
His majesty and calling Him holy. 'On the 22. On the hadith of God's self-transmuta-
day when their tongues, their hands, and tion, see Chapter 2, note 9.
their feet shall testify against them for what 23. A disciple of Abu Madyan, he was one
they were doing' (Koran 24:24). 'They will oflbn al-'Arabi's important spiritual teachers.
say to their skins, "Why did you testify Cf. Sufis of Andalusia, pp. 69-73 et passim; II
against us?"' (41:21). So in respect of his dif- 682.33; III 45:16.
ferentiated parts, man is a knower of God, 24. An "incident" (waqi'a) is a true dream
but in respect of his totality, he is ignorant of or vision. The name is taken from that of sura
God, until he learns-that is, he comes to 56 of the Koran, which begins, "When the In-
know what lies in his differentiated parts. So cident falls-and none denies its falling-
he is the knower while ignorant. 'No soul abasing, exalting." In the Koranic context
knows what comfort is laid up for them se- the verse refers to the Last Day, when God
cretly' (32:17). Hence man, in respect of his comes, and all doubt disappears, since things
differentiation, is the possessor of revelation. are seen in their proper places. Ibn al-'Arabi
But in respect of his totality, he does not pos- says that "Incidents come from inside, since
sess revelation all the time" (II 78.20). they derive from the essence of man. Some
19. Allusion to Koran 35:12: "Not equal people sec them in the state of sleep, some in
are the two seas; this is sweet . . . and that is the state of annihilation ([ana'), and others in
salt . . . , yet of both you eat fresh flesh." the state of wakefulness. They do not veil
Abu Madyan (d. 594/1197) was born near man from the objects of his sense perception
Seville and went to Fez and then to the East at the time" (II 491.6). He identifies Incidents
in search of knowledge. He returned to al- with "heralding visions" (mubashshirat) and
Andalus and settled in Bijaya (Bugia), becom- the "beginnings of divine revelation." The
ing famous for his piety and exemplary life. first of these terms is found in hadiths men-
Summoned to the court at Marrakush because tioned in Chapter 2, note 15, while the sec-
of his fame, he died en route and was buried ond derives from a hadith related from
in Tlemcen. Ibn al-'Arabi frequently cites his 'A'isha: "The first thing through which reve-
words or tells anecdotes about him heard lation began for the Messenger of God was
from his disciples, though he himself does not veridical [or sound) dreams (al-ru'ya al-~adiqa
appear to have met him. Nevertheless, he of- or al-~iili~a) during sleep. He never saw a
ten refers to him as "our shaykh," which dream without it corning [true) like the
would indicate a spiritual if not personal con- breaking of dawn" (Bukhari, Ta'blr 1, Tafsir
tact (I 251.14; II 11.31, 22.24, 261.16, 505.19, Sura 96, 1-3; Muslim, Irnan 252). Cf. II 58.7.
520.7, 551.29; III 117.19; IV 141.25; other 25. Desiring an object but not attaining to
references to him include II 201.21, 222.6, it means that one perceives the object as dis-
648.24, 683.3; III 94.2, 130.12, 136.11). Cf. tant and inaccessible, cold and unkind. Being
Sufis of Andalusia, index; Encyclopedia of Islam oneself the object of desire means that one
404 I 137-38. perceives the desirer as loving and warm.
Notes I Pages 231-251

26. A saying of Abii Talib Makki: (cf. 14. Allusion to al-Kharraz's previously
Chapter 6, note 13). quoted saying concerning God's bringing op-
27. On this saying, cf. Chapter 7, note 7. posites together.
15. Allusion to the Koranic principle,
"God charges a soul only to its capacity"
(2:286).
Chapter 14. Understanding the Koran 16. In al-Tirmidhi:, the book on Tafsi:r be-
gins with a chapter entitled, "Concerning that
which has come about the one who com-
1. Passages in which Ibn al-'Arabi: refers to ments on the Koran according to his own
al-Ghazall in a positive light include II 289.6, opinion." Of the three hadiths, the closest
290.30, 496.29; IV 12.18. Passages which may to what is mentioned here reads, "He who
be read as criticisms of one sort or another in- speaks (qawl) about the Koran according to
clude II 19.16, 262.10, 622.19; Dhakhair 181. his own opinion has taken up his place in the
2. The hadith is found in AQ.mad III 128, Fire."
242. Ibn al-'Arabi: quotes or alludes to it fre- 17. The verse is normally translated, "Let
quently. Cf. II 299.18, 352.27, 372.14, him not associate anyone with . . . ".
510.10; III 103.34, 121.35. 18. The primary sense of the term ghafor is
3. Tirmidhi:, Manaqib 1; Ibn Maja, Zuhd "He who covers and conceals," though in the
37; Darimi:, Muqaddima 8; Ai).mad I 281, 295; religious vocabulary it has the technical sense
III 144. of "Forgiving."
4. The station is mentioned in the Koran: 19. Allusion to Koran 90:10. The "posses-
"It may be that thy Lord will raise thee up to sors of two eyes" are discussed in detail in
a praiseworthy station" (17:79). The Prophet Chapter 20.
says that he will indeed be given this station 20. Ibn al-'Arabi: was well acquainted with
in AQ.mad I 398, III 456 (cf. Darimi:, Riqaq 80: the work of al-Qushayri: (d. 465/1072- 73)
"I will stand at the right hand of God in a sta- and often refers to his famous Risala (cf. II
tion for which the ancients and the later folk 117.8, 143.20, 245.17, 537.27, 569.15, 649.30,
will envy me"). 679.1; III 213.20, 372.22).
5. Cf. Chapter 6, note 17. 21. The reference is to a position taken by
6. Bukhari:, Anbiya' 3; Muslim, Iman 327, the Peripatetic philosophers; they are "with-
328; etc. Some versions add, "without boast- out faith," since they "interpret" instead of
ing" (Tirmidhi:, Tafsi:r Siira 17, 18; AQ.mad I accepting the Koran on face value.
281, 295, etc.). 22. The term came to be employed in the
7. Cf. Chapter 6, note 17. Islamic sciences to mean "jurist," that is, spe-
8. Ibn al-'Arabi: and others frequently cite cialist in the Shari'a, but in the Koranic sense
the hadith in this form, but the Concordance it means "one who understands."
lists only the following: The Prophet was 23. The term is employed in the "princi-
asked, "When did prophecy become your ob- ples of jurisprudence" to indicate how the ju-
ligation [or: When did you become a rist reaches "certainty" (yaqfn} concerning the
prophet]?" He replied, "When Adam was be- rulings of the Shari'a.
tween spirit and body" (Tirmidhi:, Manaqib 24. For more references to this saying, cf.
1; AQ.mad IV 66, V 59, 379). II 253.34; III 140.35, 413.35.
9. Ibn al-'Arabi: summarizes the excellen- 25. For the hadith, cf. Chapter 2, note 15.
cies and superiorities of the Prophet primarily 26. Reference to the sound hadith, "When
on the basis of Hadith in Chapter 337, "On someone comes to Me running, I come to
the True Knowledge of the Station of Mu- him rushing" (cf. Chapter 6, note 29).
Q.ammad" (III 140-146). 27. A slight modification of the verse, "He
10. Allusion to Koran 18:109, 31:27. is with you wherever you are" (57:4).
11. The hadith is not indexed in the Con- 28. Muslim, Istiqsa' 13; Abii Dawiid,
cordance. Ibn al-'Arabi: cites it again in III Adab 105.
141. 7. 29. The hadith is found in Bukhari: (Shuriit
12. Reference to the hadith, often quoted 15) and AQ.mad (IV 330).
by Ibn al-'Arabi:, "The learned masters of this 30. In this sense "locus of manifestation"
community are the prophets of the Children (ma:?har) refers to the appearance of a cor-
of Israel." It is not found in the Concordance. poreous body (jasad) in the World oflmagina-
13. Muslim, Musafiri:n 139. tion. 405
Notes I Pages 251-266

31. On this hadith, cf. Chapter 7, note 13. Sometimes they are called 'affinities' (mu-
32. Pp. 21ff. niisaba)" (III 260.6). Cf. II 80.24, 81.15,
33. For a similar passage on the friend's 446.12, 680.2; III 14.31, 61.27; Dhakhii'ir
knowledge of Hadith, cf. II 376. 11. 194).
34. Allusion to the hadith, "Satan does not 7. These are four of the five ~ukms or "rul-
become imaginalized in my form." Cf. Chap- ings" of the Shari'a. The first two categories
ter 7, note 5. mentioned are synonymous.
8. Tirmidhl, Ru'ya 2; AQ.mad III 267.
9. Allusion to the already cited hadith,
"The veridical dream is one-forty-sixth part
Chapter 15. Weighing Self-Disclosure of prophecy" (Chapter 7, note 11).
10. On the four natures-heat, cold, wet-
ness, and dryness-cf. Chapter 8.
1. See Cosmology. 11. On the hadith from which the term
2. For Koranic mentions of God's decep- "inblowing" or "blowing" is derived, cf.
tion and guile, cf. Chapter 4, note 43. Lead- Chapter 10, note 11.
ing on step by step is mentioned in 7:182: 12. These two prophets have not died but
"And those who cry lies to Our signs- We still live among us. "After the Messenger of
will lead them on step by step from whence God, God has left three messengers alive
they know not." in their bodies within the abode of this world:
3. For other references to this saying, cf. II Idr!s, who was left alive in his body and
162.16 and III 8.13 (quoted below). whom God made to dwell in the fourth
4. The source of this sound hadith is given heaven-for the seven heavens belong to this
in Chapter 12, note 8. world and they remain as long as it subsists,
5. Allusion to the hadith, "In the days of while their form disappears when it disap-
your time, your Lord has fragrant blasts of pears, so they are a part of the abode of this
mercy. Address yourselves to them, so that world .... God also left upon the earth Elias
you may be struck by one of them, never af- and Jesus, both of whom are messengers.
terwards to be wretched" (Siiyii~l, al:fiimi' al- They practice the primordial religion brought
~aghlr II 505). by MuQ.ammad. Everyone agrees that these
6. Raqii'iq, sing. raqlqa. Literally, the term three are messengers. As for Kha~ir-who is
designates something thin, delicate, or flimsy. the fourth-there is disagreement concerning
Ibn al-'Arabl employs it to describe subtle him among others, but not in our view. All
forms or relationships which tie together dif- of them subsist in their bodies in the abode of
ferent levels of existence. He often employs it this world" (II 5.25). Cf. Chodkiewicz, Le
with verbs from the root m.d.d., meaning Sceau, pp. 118-19.
to extend or to stretch. "God created rank 13. Ibn Maja, Zuhd 3. Later on in the same
(makiina) before He created place (makiin). passage, Ibn al-'Arabi adds a sentence to the
Then He stretched tenuities from rank to spe- hadith which he seems to consider part of it:
cific places within the seven heavens and the "They have been ground down by afflictions
earth. Then He brought into existence the and encompassed by misfortunes, but they do
spatially confined things in their places to the not waver and they resort to none but God"
measure of their rank" (II 582.26). "There are (II 385.22).
tenuities which extend from the Universal 14. Cf. II 566-67.
Soul to the Throne .... These are like ladders 15. Ibn al-'Arab! explains: "By 'rational
for the angels, while the meanings which de- madmen', the Sufis mean to say that their
scend in these tenuities are like angels" (III madness is not caused by a corruption of their
28.32). "Know that there is no form in the constitution through some engendered affair,
lower world without a likeness (mithl) in the such as food, or hunger, or something else.
higher world. The forms of the higher world Their madness derives only from a divine
preserve the existence of their likenesses self-disclosure to their hearts. The Real comes
in the lower world .... Between the two to them suddenly and takes away their ratio-
worlds there are tenuities which extend from nal faculties. Their rational faculties remain
each form to its likeness, such that they are imprisoned with Him, enjoying the bliss of
connected and not disconnected. Ascent and witnessing Him, completely occupied by His
descent take place upon those tenuities, so Presence, purified by His beauty. They are
406 they are ascending and descending ladders. possessors of rational faculties without ratio-
Notes I Pages 266-279

nal faculties. But they are known outwardly See also I 76.28, II 102.12. Qushayri relates
as 'madmen,' i.e., (according to the literal that Sahl's uncle taught him the invocation of
sense of the term], as 'curtained' (mastur) from God's name in the heart at a very young age.
the governance of their rational faculties" (I Then at six or seven Sahl went to school
248.12). Cf. II 522.23ff. to learn the Koran, fasting every day. At
16. For other references to Abii 'Iqal, cf. I thirteen he was faced with a problem which
167.8, 251.33; II 188.4, 239.30, 384.18. no one could solve, so he received permission
17. The darkness of "Nature" (tabl 'a), it from his family to travel from Tustar to
should be remembered, is contrasted with the Basra to fmd a teacher. Then he went to the
light of die spirit, to which the rational fac- isl;nd of 'Abbadan, where Shaykh Abii
ulty is intimately connected. I:Iabib I:Iamza ibn 'Abdallah al-'Abbadani
18. Sahl ibn 'Abdallah al-Tustarl (d. (unknown except in this account) provided
283/896) was one of the greatest of the Sufis, the answer. He remained with him for a
and Ibn al-'Arabi cites him frequently. The while, profiting from his words and learning
Shaykh tells the circumstances of the "pros- the rules of courtesy (iidiib), then returned to
tration of the heart" mentioned here as fol- Tustar (Risiilat al-Qushayrl, ed. 'Abd al-I:Ialim
lows: "Sahl ibn 'Abdallah had seen that his Mal}.miid and Mal}.miid ibn al-Sharif, vol. I
heart prostrated itself. He mentioned this to a (Cairo: Dar al-Kutub al-I:Iaditha, 1972], pp.
number of the shaykhs of his time, but they 104-107). Cf. G. Boewering, The Mystical
did not know what he was saying, since they Vision of Existence in Classical Islam: The
had not tasted that. Hence he set out seeking Qur'iinic Hermeneutics of the Sufi Sahl at- Tustarf
someone who would recognize it. When he (d. 283/896), (New York: de Gruyter, 1980),
reached 'Abbadan, he went to see a shaykh p. 40. For references to Sahl in the Futu~at,
and said to him, '0 master, does the heart cf. II 12.1, 40.17, 45.12, 60.11, 93.27, 104.7,
prostrate itself?' The shaykh replied, 'Until 171.21, 318.31, 355.14, 479.27, 543.4, 551.5,
eternity without end.' In other words, the 662.11; III 41.8, 77.26, 150.7; cf. Dhakhii'ir
heart never lifts up its head from its prostra- 150; Mawiiqi' 26.
tion. Through his question Sahl recognized 19. This may be an allusion to his master
that God had given the shaykh knowledge of Abu'l-'Abbas al-'UryaJ:?i, who towards the
the prostration of his heart. Hence his heart end of his life was an 'Isawi, that is, a friend
clung to that attribute, and it did not lift up of God inheriting the sciences of Jesus (I
its head from its prostration in this 223.21 [Y 3,361.10]; III 208.27). Cf Austin,
world-nor will it lift it up in the next Sufis of Andalusia, pp. 63-69; Chodkiewicz,
world. After that he never supplicated God to Le sceau, p. 98.
lift up something which had come down, nor 20. Allusion to the hadith, "Faith has sev-
to push down something which had risen up" enty or sixty and some branches, the best of
(III 86.22). "Sahl ibn 'Abdallah attained to which is the words, 'There is no god but
this station when he was a boy of six years. God,' and the least of which is the removal of
That is why his beginning in this path was harm from the path" (Muslim, Iman 58 etc.).
the prostration of the heart. How many a
friend of God there has been, great in conse-
quence, long in life, who died without
achieving the prostration of heart and without
even knowing that the heart prostrates Chapter 16. Names and Stations
itself-even though he realized the station of
friendship and his feet became firmly
grounded within it. When the prostration o( 1. On this famous ~adlth qudsl, cf. Chapter
the heart is actualized, the heart never lifts up 6, note 20.
its head again. From his fixity in this one 2. On these two hadiths, cf Chapter 7,
step, many steps branch out, while he re- note 13.
mains fixed in it. Most of the friends see the 3. "Descends" and "alight" are both trans-
fluctuation of the heart from state to state- lations of the word nuziil. The word manzil
which is why it is called a 'heart.' But, al- or "waystation" means "place of nuzUI,"
though the states of the possessor of this sta- while muniizala means "mutual nuzul." By
tion undergo fluctuation, they derive from a changing the pronouns, Ibn al-'Arabi gives
single entity upon which he is fixed. This is different shades of meanings to the word
called 'prostration of the heart'" (II 20.19). nuziil as indicated in the translation. 407
Notes I Pages 279-295

4. Cf. II 154.4, where he specifically refers how the division works. Later on in the same
to this section as dealing with the stations. treatise, he writes that "The 'Leaders of the
5. Cf. II 386.5 for a similar passage. Names' (a'immat al-asma) are seven in all, ac-
6. Normally this name would be translated cording to both reason and the Law, while
as "All-forgiving,'' but Ibn al-'Arabi takes it the remaining names are their followers" (33).
back to its root meaning. He then lists seven names, replacing "Hear-
7. One of the clearest discussions of this ing" and "Seeing," found in the table, with
division within the context oflbn al-'Arabi's "Generous" (al-jawiid) and "Just" (al-muqsir).
school is found in Farghani's Muntaha'l- Ibn al-'Arabi based the table on a classifica-
madiirik (I 93, II 81-84). Cf. the briefer Per- tion provided by the theologian Abii Isl).aq al-
sian original of the same work, Mashiiriq al- Isfarayini in al-]alf wa'l-khafi, with one minor
dariirl, pp. 467-69. change (cf. II 134.33, 460.12). For a similar
8. Many Sufis, especially those of the later classification of 108 names on the basis of the
periods, place the world of invincibility be- same seven names (employing al-jawiid and al-
yond the world of dominion, but Ibn al- muqsi!), with a detailed explanation of the ra-
'Arabi makes clear that he means by the term tionale behind the classification, cf. Farghani,
the intermediary world of imagination. Cf. Muntaha'l-madiirik I 27-42.
I~(ilii~iit 16(11 129.17); also II 203.3; IV 15. Nasa'i, Imama 28; Abii Dawiid, Salat
208.27. 93, 98; AQ.mad III 154, 260, 283; V 263.
9. For an earlier discussion of the term, cf. 16. Allusion to Koran 3:26: "Say: '0 God,
al-Ghazali, al-Maq~ad al-asnii, ed. F.A. She- Master of the Kingdom. Thou givest the
hadi (Beirut: Dar el-Machreq, 1971), pp. kingdom to whom Thou wilt, and seizest the
42ff.; translated in R.J. McCarthy, Freedom kingdom from whom Thou wilt.'"
and Fulfillment: An Annotated Translation of al- 17. Muslim, Iman 25,26; Tirmidhi, Birr
Ghaziilf's al-Munqidh min al-Daliil and other 66; AQ.mad III 23. Al-Ashajj al-'A~ari and his
Relevant Works of al-Ghaziill (Boston: fellow members of the 'A~ar family are said
Twayne, 1980), pp. 340-43. to have come before the Prophet to accept Is-
10. At the same time, the Shaykh has res- lam in the year 8 or 10 of the hijra.
ervations about this term. He writes, "As for 18. Abii Dawiid, Adab 149.
those who say that 'gaining similarity to the
Divine Presence to the extent of capacity'-
that is, assuming the traits of the divine
names-is the goal and perfection, that is
true in regards to wayfaring (suliik), but not Chapter 17. Pitfalls of the Path
in the actual acquisition. For there is no gain-
ing similarity through the acquisition itself,
since that is God Himself, and a thing cannot 1. Fazlur Rahman, Islam, 2nd. ed. (Chi-
gain similarity to itself' (II 93. 30). Cf. II cago: University of Chicago Press, 1979), p.
483.27, translated in Chapter 4. 146. This particular criticism rests upon the
11. This should be the same as Abii Bakr words, "a thoroughly monistic system," and
ibn al-Ma'afiri, according to Massignon the it should be obvious that neither "monism"
author of Kitiib al-jawiimid wa'l-'awii~im attrib- nor "system" can easily be applied to Ibn al-
uted to Ibn al-'Arabi (Yahia, Histoire et classi- 'Arabi's teachings.
fication, # 193, p. 274). 2. Muslim, Musafirin 201; Nasa'i, IftitaQ.
12. The hadith is not indexed in the Con- 17.
cordance; Ibn al-'Arabi also quotes it in I 3. Allusion to the words of the angel in the
285.8 and I 742.33. In II 241.27 he calls it a Koran, "None of us there is but has a known
"sound" (~a~IIJ) hadith. station" (37:164).
13. Al-Ghazali makes clear that he wrote 4. Ibn al-'Arabi explains the sobriquet as
his al-Maq~ad al-asnii (above, note 9) to assist having to do with the fact that the jinn and
the servant in assuming the traits of God's men are latecomers in existence. "God named
names. us 'the weighty ones' because of the heaviness
14. In Insha (28) Ibn al-'Arabi provides a in us, which is identical with our being late
table in which he classifies ninety-seven (ta'akhkhur) in existence and which made us
names in keeping with these seven basic slow. For heavy things habitually move
names, though the printed edition of Inshii' slowly, just as light things habitually move
40& does not allow for a clear understanding of quickly. So we and the jinn are among the
Notes I Pages 295-308

heavy things, while we are heavier than the 12. Ibn al-'Arabi gives the hadith in this
jinn, because of the element which dominates form. In Tirmidh1 (Tafs1r Siira 56, 6), it is
over us, i.e., earth" (III 315.25). found as follows: "Hiid, the Terror (56), the
5. Cf. Chapter 2, note 27. Envoys (77), the Tiding (78), and the Dark-
6. By mentioning "possibility," Ibn al- ening (81) have whitened my hair."
'Arabi is alluding to the famous saying of 13. This saying is frequently cited in Sufi
al-Ghazali, "There is nothing in possibility texts as a hadith, but Ibn al-'Arab1 does not
more wondrous than what is." On the debate consider it so. Cf. II 317.14
which this saying set off, cf. E.L. Ormsby, 14. Allusion to Koran 42:13; cf. II 414.13,
Theodicy in Islamic Thought: The Dispute over translated in Chapter 11.
Al-Ghaziill's "Best of All Possible Worlds" 15. Suyii!i, al-Jiimi' al-~aghlr I 142.
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984). 16. The word firiisa is also applied to the
Ibn al-'Arabi refers to and explains the saying science of physiognomy, and the chapter in-
in many contexts. Cf. I 4.33 (Y 1,53), 259.35 cludes a discussion of bodily signs, markings,
(Y 4, 154), 441.11 (Y 6,392), 463.6 (Y 7,82), shapes, and colors whereby experienced
552.14 (Y 8,221); II 96.13, 103.34, 321.19, physicians (al-~ukama min ahl al-tajriba min
345.22, 395.25; III 11.15, 110.4, 166.19, al-'ulamii' bi'l-tabla, II 239.19) are able to
360.21, 398.18, 449.9,; IV 101.11, 260.10; read people's constitutions and characters (II
Inshii' 18; Masii'il (Rasii'il, no. 22) 27; Dha- 237.35-239.23), as well as a discussion of the
khii'ir 208-209. spiritual roots of these signs.
7. Bukhari, Anbiya' 32, 46; Fa4a'il A~:gab 17. This hadith is found in al-Munawi,
al-Nabi 30; Afima 25; Muslim, Fa4a'il al- Kunuz al-~aqaiq fi ~ad!th khayr al-khalii'iq (on
Sa:gaba 70; Tirmidhi, Afima 31; Ibn Maja, the margin of Suyii!I, al-Jiimi' al-~aghlr, Cairo,
Afima 14. A~iya was the wife of Pharoah. 1358/1939) II 24. Two other versions of the
The exact natur.e of the tharld meant by the text are found in al-Jiimi' al-~aghlr (1972) IV
Prophet is not completely clear; it seems to be 428-29.
a kind of meat stew in which bread is dipped. 18. Though Ibn al-'Arabi frequently cites
8. On the high station of bewilderment, cf. the hadith in this form, the collections in-
Chapter 20. dexed in the Concordance have "I was sent to
9. This is the literal significance of the complete the good (~usn) character traits"
Koranic verse. "To uncover the shank" means (Muwat(a' 8) or "the righteous (~iili~) character
something like "To gird the loins." It is to traits" (A:gmad II 381). There is also the had-
prepare oneself for a difficult task and for the ith, "I saw him [the Prophet] commanding
terror which it occasions. The verse is in ref- noble character traits" (Bukhar1, Manaqib al-
erence to the Day of Judgment and is usually An~ar 33, Adab 39; Muslim, Fa4a'il al-Sa:gaba
interpreted to mean, "On the day when man 133).
will face calamity and terror." 19. Allusion to the hadith cited in Chapter
10. The word law is employed in this sort 6, note 17.
of context to indicate that something which is 20. Bukhar1, Adhan 114; Abii Dawiid,
supposed could not have happened. In A Salat 100; Nasa'!, Imama 63; A:gmad V 39,
Grammar of the Arabic Language (3rd. ed., 43, 45, 46, 50.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 21. Ibn al-'Arabi reads the "it" here as re-
1971), Wright states that the particle "implies ferring to Noah's asking. Most translators
that what is supposed either does not take and commentators have read the verse as
place or is not likely to do so" (II 347), "He"-i.e., Noah's son-"is (possessor of) a
whereas Ibn al-'Arabi holds strictly that the work not righteous." Arberry translates as
supposed thing does not occur. He frequently "it," conforming to the natural flow of the
refers to the manner in which law is em- Arabic, but without explaining what "it" re-
ployed in the Koran to explain the nature of fers to. By interpreting "it" to refer to Noah's
the divine will and its relationship to asking, Ibn al-'Arabi reads the text in a way
knowledge and power. Cf. II 116.2, 194. 7, that conforms exactly to the structure of the
252.1, 334.29, 580.15, 665.30; IV 30.27, sentence. No doubt the commentators have
45-46. avoided this reading in order not to attribute
11. There are other Koranic allusions here an unrighteous deed to a prophet.
as well, including "a recompense for what 22. These, of course, are the five "rulings"
they were earning" (9:82) and "a recompense by which the Shari'a includes all human activ-
for what they were doing" (46:14). ~- ~
Notes I Pages 310-337

Chapter 18. Safety in Servanthood and his equals. But other than these two,
none says 'I am Allah"' (IV 11.16).
13. In Sufis of Andalusia (pp. 91-95), he is
1. Cf. Futii~at II 442.20; III 129.10, 199.32. called Abu'l-'Abbas A}:!mad al-Jarrar (though
2. The minor orthographical distinction "al-l:larrar" is correct). Cf. Chodkiewicz-
between 'ubiida and 'ubiidiyya (much less ap- Addas, Essai, index, s. v. Abu'l-'Abbas.
parent in Arabic than in English) may some- 14. The verse refers to God's taking the
times have been ignored by scribes or print- Prophet on the mi'raj, the ascent or "night
ers, a fact which further complicates the task journey" into His Presence.
of trying to maintain a clear distinction be- 15. The hadith is found in this form in
tween the two terms. Bukhari, Riqaq 38; cf. Graham, Divine Word,
3. Cf. Ibn al-'Arabi's commentary on this pp. 173-74.
verse in II 305.12, translated in Chapter 10. 16. Reference to the hadith cited in Chap-
4. This miracle of Jesus is mentioned in ter 13, note 20.
Koran 3:49 and 5:110. Ibn al-'Arabi often re- 17. The hadith is not indexed in the Con-
fers to it, e.g., II 143.3, 274.23; III 149.25. cordance. Al-Ghazali cites it in I~ya' 'uliim
5. Cf. the discussion of the "Conclusive al-dfn 1.2.14 (IV, p. 71); cf. Bukhari, Shar~-i
Argument" in the previous chapter, especially ta'arrufll 173; III 37.
the fact that "man is ignorant of what will 18. This oft-repeated formula occurs in
come into existence from him before it comes many hadiths in all sources (cf. Concordance I
to be." There is also an allusion to the hadith 532).
of the seventy veils, the removal of which 19. Allusion to a ~adfth qudsf which Ibn al-
would burn away the creatures. 'Arabi often discusses: "I have divided the rit-
6. Allusion to the properties of the name ual prayer into two halves between Me and
the "Overwhelming" (al-qahhar) as mentioned My servant ... " (Graham, Divine Word, pp.
in a verse concerning the Day of Resurrec- 182-84). Cf. I 229.35 (Y 3,394); II 100.30,
tion: "The day they sally forth, and naught of 167.27, 517.19; Fu~ii~ 222 (BW 280).
theirs is hidden from God. 'Whose is the 20. Reference to the hadith of Gabriel, in
kingdom today?' 'God's, the One, the Over- which the Prophet says, "Good-doing [or,
whelming'" (40:16). Cf. 14:48. virtue) is that you worship God as if you see
7. In the sources indexed in the Concor- Him [in your kibla], for if you do not see
dance, the last clause is given as, "I shall Him, He sees you." Cf. Chapter 7, note 13.
throw him into the Fire" or "into Gehenna" 21. According to the Shaykh's teachings,
(Ibn Maja, Zuhd 16; Abii Dawiid, Libas 25; perfect man is the axis of the cosmos without
A}:!mad II 244, 376, 414, 427, 442; cf. Gra- whom it could not subsist. Cf. Cosmology;
ham, Divine Word, pp. 162-63). also Chittick, "Ibn 'Arabi's own Summary,"
8. On Labid and this verse, cf. Chapter 8, Chap. 1.
note 7. 22. On this hadith, see Chapter 4, note 33.
9. On the identity of tasbl~ or glorification 23. This hadith is found in Bukhari, Adab
and tanzih or the declaration of God's incom- 13; Tirmidhi, Birr 16; A}:!mad I 321; II 295,
parability, see Chapter 4. 383, 406, 455.
10. Neither the text as published by Ar- 24. On the first hadith, see Chapter 4, note
berry nor the additions made by Nwyia have 33; on the second, Chapter 4, note 35.
this particular Mawqif. 25. Cf. Chapter 10, note 6.
11. Allusion to several Koranic verses, 26. This is a near quotation of Koran
such as 57:11: "Who is he that will lend to 31:27.
God a good loan, and He will multiply it for
him, and his shall be a generous wage?"
12. Elsewhere Ibn al-'Arabi employs this
same saying of Abii Yazid to illustrate a sta- Chapter 19. Transcending the
tion of perfection, that of the nearness of su- Gods of Belief
pererogatory works discussed below. He
writes, "No creature of God says 'I am Al-
lah,' only Allah .... And the perfect servant 1. The verb "to finish with" ( .foragh) is at-
also says it, he whose tongue, hearing, sight, tributed to God in several hadiths, such as,
faculties, and organs are God, like Abii Yazid "Your Lord has finished with the servants:
4IO
Notes I Pages 337-360

a group in the Garden and a group in the The four sayings together have sometimes
Burning" (Tirmidhi, Qadar 8). Here Ibn al- been attributed to the first four caliphs, repre-
'Arabi has in mind the hadith cited in Chapter senting four different degrees of taw~"id (cf.
17, note 17. Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam, p.
2. This reversal of relationships between 147). The last saying, "I have never seen any-
this world and the next is the key to Ibn al- thing without seeing God in it" is attributed
'Arabl's eschatology. Cf. Chittick, "Death to the Sufi Mulpmmad ibn Wasi' (d. 123/741;
and the World of Imagination." Kalabadhi, The Doctrine of the Sufis, trans.
3. Like many other pairs of terms, "un- A.J. Arberry [Lahore: Ashraf, 1966], p. 53;
seen" and "visible" are relative. As a result, Hujwiri, Kashf al-mahjiib, trans. R.A.
the world of imagination is "unseen" in rela- Nicholson [London: Luzac, 1911], pp. 91,
tion to the world of corporeal bodies, but 330); in a slightly different form it is attrib-
"visible" in relation to the spiritual world. uted to 'Ali ibn Abi Talib ('Ayn al-Qu<;lat
The Divine Essence, however, is the Abso- Hamadani, Tamh"idiit, ed. 'A. 'Usayran
lute Unseen (al-ghayb al-mutfaq; cf. II 648. 9), [Tehran: Danishgah, 1341/1962], pp.
which is to say that "None knows God but 279-80).
God." "The 'He' (al-huwa) descends to the 10. This principle is explained in detail in
waystation of the visible thing while It re- Cosmology.
mains in Itself Incomparable. But the He 11. Allusion to the hadith, "The man of
never descends except in forms perceived by faith is the mirror of the man of faith" (Abii
sense perception, whether in the sensory or Dawud, Adab 49; Tirmidhi, Birr 18).
the imaginal realm. It is called 'the He' at the 12. Reference to 34:28: "We have sent thee
time of the manifestation of the form, in or- not, except to all people without exception,
der that it might be known that the He is the good tidings to bear and warning."
spirit of that form and the object of its deno- 13. Ibn al-'Arabi attributes the saying, as
tation. Then it is known that none knows the noted in Chapter 6, to Abu Talib al-Makki.
meaning of that form except God. Thus God 14. The hadith is not found in the
said, 'With Him are the keys to the Unseen; Concordance.
none knows them but He' (6:59). He who is 15. Cf. Chapter 7, note 4.
'with' the He is the same as the He, and the 16. This is the day in the paradisial week
He is unseen, so He who is with the unseen is when the faithful go to visit their Lord and
unseen. Since He is unseen with the unseen, gaze upon Him. The term is derived from a
the visible does not know Him; only the un- hadith, the relevant portion of which reads,
seen knows Him. Hence none knows what is "Then they are given permission to the mea-
in the unseen except He who is unseen" (II sure of Friday among the days of this world,
638.31). and they visit their Lord." Tirmidhi, Janna
4. These two terms derive from Koran 15; Ibn Maja, Zuhd 39.
53:8, which describes the Prophet's mi'riij.
Most commentators read both verbs with Ga-
briel as subject, as indicated, for example, in
Pickthall's translation: "Then he drew nigh Chapter 20. Seeing with Two Eyes
and came down." But the verses are obscure,
and Ibn al-'Arabl's interpretation makes per-
fect sense in the context of the mi'riij: "Then 1. Perception of the angels with the senses
he [the Prophet] drew close and He [God] must take place within the domains within
came down." which sense perception functions, i.e., the
5. Three pre-Islamic idols mentioned in domains of the elements and of "Nature," or
Koran 53:19-20. the corporeal and imaginal worlds.
6. Allusion to the sound ~ad"ith quds"i found 2. Heat and cold are active (fo' il), while
in Bukhari, Muslim, and other sources: "I am wetness and dryness are passive (munfa'il ). Cf.
with My servant's opinion of Me" (cf. Gra- Chapter 8.
ham, Divine Word, p. 130). 3. According to a position taken by Mus-
7. Cf. II 619ff. (translated in Chapter 9). lim mathematicians, "One is the principle and
8. Almost a direct quote of Koran 57:4. origin of the numbers .... And ... two is
9. The first of these sayings is by Abu . . . the first number" (The Brethren of Pu-
Bakr, as we have seen in several passages. rity, quoted in S.H. Nasr, Science and Civili-
411
Notes I Pages 360-371

zation in Islam [Cambridge: Harvard Univer- of his followers paid a great deal of attention
sity Press, 1968], p. 154). In Ibn al-'Arabl's to this teaching. For example, 'Abd al-Razzaq
own words, "One is not a number, though Kashani devotes a long section of his I~tila~at
all the numbers originate from it" (I 253.31). al-~ufiyya to describing the servant of each of
Two is the first of the even numbers, and the ninety-nine most beautiful names of God.
three the first of the odd numbers, a position Cf. The Most Beautiful Names by Sheikh
Ibn al-'Arabi found confirmed through a vi- Tosun Bayrak al-Jerrahi al-Halveti (Putney
sionary conversation with the Prophet (II Vermont: Threshold Books, 1985), where
215.13). "The source of number (al-'adad) is these descriptions have been translated or par-
the one which accepts a second, not the One aphrased at the end of each section.
in Being (al-wa~id al-wujud). Then one accepts 10. Beauty Uamal), it should be remem-
multiplication and composition in the levels bered, is the opposite of majesty (jaliil ),
and expands with a tremendous expansion ad while perfection embraces all opposition.
infinitum .... So 'one' is the narrowest of 11. Al-'A~r, "the Afternoon" or "Time" or
things. In respect of its essence, it is not a "the Age" is the name of sura 103. In this pas-
number in itself, only through being two, sage Ibn al-'Arabi is explaining the various al-
three, or four" (I 307.2). "The entities of two, lusions contained in the word and its usage in
three, four, ad infinitum become manifest Islamic terminology, for example, as the
through the manifestation of one" (II 519.17). name of the afternoon prayer. The root
Cf. II 581.13; III 127.26. meaning of the term is to press, compress,
4. The words, "Are there any more?" are squeeze, extract.
attributed to Gehenna in Koran 50:30. Several 12. Seraphiel (lsrafil) is the greatest of the
versions of the hadith are provided in the archangels and blows the Trumpet on the
standard sources, but in place of the name Day of Resurrection. The "shrinking" men-
Overbearing (al-jabbar) are found names such tioned here refers to the accounts of the
as the Lord of Inaccessibility, our Lord, and Prophet's vision of Gabriel. According to one
the All-merciful (Bukhari, Taw]:tid 7, 25; version, the Prophet told Gabriel, who had
Muslim, Janna 35, 37, 38; Tirmidhi, Janna 20; appeared to him, that he would like to see
Tafsir Sura 50; AJ:tmad II 369, 507, III 13). him in the form in which God had originally
5. The Sufis often cite this hadith, and created him. Gabriel replied that the Prophet
Lane records it (Arabic-English Lexicon, s. v. would not be able to bear the vision. The
muttala'), but Ibn al-'Arabi recognizes that it Prophet insisted, so Gabriel revealed himself
is not found in the usual sources, since he and filled the horizons, and the Prophet
writes concerning it, "Our companions, the fainted. When he regained consciousness, Ga-
people of unveiling, all agree concerning the briel had returned to the first form. The
soundness of this report from the Prophet" (I Prophet said, "I did not imagine that any
187.14). creature of God could be like that." Gabriel
6. Cf. Chapter 13, note 15. replied, "What if you had seen Seraphicl? The
7. Literally "everyone" (man). Bnt Ibn al- Throne is upon his shoulders, while his two
'Arabi quite consciously employs this term to feet have passed beyond the limits of the
refer to all things, since all things are alive. lowest earth. Yet he shrinks because of God's
He writes, "Certain grammarians believe that tremendousness until he becomes like a tiny
the word man can be employed only for that sparrow" (al-Qazwini, 'Aja'ib al-makhluqat,
which understands ('aql). But everything on the margin of al-Damiri, lfayat al-
glorifies God in praise, and no one 'glorifies' ~ayawan [n. p.: al-Maktabat al-Islamiyya,
who does not understand the worthiness of n.d.], I, p. 97).
him whom he is glorifying and praising. 13. "The Pole is the 'servant of Allah' and
Hence the word man applies to all things, the 'servant of the All-comprehensive', so he
since all things understand from God that for is described by all the names through having
which they glorify Him" (III 258.32). assumed their traits and realized them. He is
8. Bukhari, Taw]:tid 12, Shuriit 18; Tir- the mirror of God, the locus of disclosure for
midhi, Da'awat 82; AJ:tmad II 258, 267, 314, the holy descriptions and for the divine loci of
427, 499, 503, 516. self-manifestation. He is the Possessor of the
9. Particularly in his chapters on the indi- Present Moment, the Eye of Time, and the
vidual divine names, Ibn al-'Arabi often dis- Mystery of Destiny" (II 573.19).
cusses those friends of God who have a spe- 14. It is this fact to which the Fu~u~ al-
412 cial relationship with specific names. Certain ~ikam alludes in its very structure: The first
Notes I Pages 371-380

chapter refers to "The Wisdom of the name specific function not given to the Solitary.
Allah as embodied in the prophetic word, The Pole rules the cosmos, but the Solitary
Adam," and, as Ibn al-'Arabi informs us, he does not come under his rule. Hence Ibn al-
means by "Adam" the human being, made 'Arabi compares the Solitaries to the "Enrap-
upon the form of Allah. Then each of the tured Angels" (al-mala'ikat al-muhayyamun),
remaining chapters of the book is devoted who stand at an equal rank with the First In-
to the manner in which a specific prophet tellect (al-'aql al-awwal ). But the attention of
manifests a specific divine attribute; but each the Intellect is turned toward bringing the
prophet, by also being "Adam," manifests the cosmos into existence, while the Enraptured
name Allah. Angels are turned solely toward the contem-
15. Cf. Chodkiewicz, Le Sceau, esp. pp. plation of God (cf. I 93.5 [Y 2,91.9], 199-202
136-38; see also Mu'jam 1003-06. [Y 3,245-58]; II 19. 9, 53.14,20, 488.33,
16. The next passage translated below 675.6; III 137.12; Mu'jam 876-78). For use of
ma~~s clea;, that these "disciples of others" are the term muftad, cf. III 86.28; IV 77.19. Cf.
the Sufis. Chodkiewicz, Le sceau, esp. chaps. VII and
17. al-Ri'aya li ~uquq Allah, by al-I;Iarith al- VIII.
Mul:tasibi (d. 243/857), on whom, cf. 24. Bukhari, Riqaq 51, Nikal:t 87; Muslim,
Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions, pp. 54 et pas- Dhikr 93.
sim. Books "of the same genre" include Qut 25. The text as found in one of the stan-
al-qu/Ub of Abii Talib al-Makki (d. 386/996) dard sources reads, "One dirham outstrips
and ai-Ghazali's I~ya' 'u/Um al-dln. These deal 100,000 dirhams." When the Prophet was
largely with the psychological and spiritual asked to explain, he replied: "One man has
attitudes which must accompany the outward two dirhams, and he gives one of them in
observance of the Law. alms. Another man goes to the midst of his
18. "Manliness," as pointed out above, is wealth, takes from it 100,000 dirhams, and
the "accidental" as opposed to the essential gives them in alms" (Nasa'i, Zakat 49).
perfection of the perfect men, the means 26. Here again Ibn al-'Arabi alludes to
whereby they manifest the names and attrib- those imperfect gnostics who employ their
utes of God in their multiplicity. powers and in particular their Resolve
19. I read tanazzuh as in the Futu~at (II (himma) to create what they desire.
129.19) rather than tanzlh as in the Hyderabad 27. This ~adlth qudsl begins with the
edition of I~(ila~at (16). words, "I have prepared for My righteous
20. On Jesus as the universal "seal of servants what. . . . " The text is found in
friendship" or "sanctity," see Chodkiewicz, Bukhari, Muslim, and other standard sources
Le Sceau, especially chap. VIII. (Graham, Divine Word, pp. 117-19).
21. Bukhari, '11m 10; Abii Dawiid, '11m 1; 28. Allusion to the station of the Prophet
Ibn Maja, Muqaddima 17; Darimi, at the Resurrection (cf. Chapter 14, note 4).
Muqaddima 32; Al:tmad V 196. 29. The "Day to be Witnessed" is men-
22. Neither version is found in the Concor- tioned in Koran 11:103: "That is a Day man-
dance, though both are frequently cited in kind will be gathered to, a day to be wit-
Sufi texts. nessed." On the "Visitation," cf. Chapter 19,
23. The "Solitary" (more commonly fard note 16.
[pl. aftad] than muftad) stands at a rank equal 30. Cf. IV 197.17, translated in Chodkie-
to that of the Pole, but the Pole is given a wicz et al., Al-Futu~at.

413
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Muslim. al-.Sa~~- Cairo: Ma!ba'a Mui)am- 'Arabi's Inshii' al-Dawii'ir with Particular
mad 'All Sabi:i), 1334/1915-16. Reference to the Doctrine of the 'Third
Muwa(ta'. See Malik. Thing'." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 41
Nasa'i, al-. al-Sunan. Beirut: Dar Ii)ya' al- (1982): 243-60.
Turath al-'Arabi, 1348/1929-30. - - - · Ibn 'Arabi's Theory of the Perfect
Nasr, S.H. Science and Civilization in Islam. Man and its Place in the History of Islamic
Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Thought. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of
1968. Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa,
Three Muslim Sages. Cambridge: 1987.
Harvard University Press, 1964. Tirmidhi:, al-. al-Jiimi' al-~a~l~, wa huwa sunan
Niffari:, Mui)ammad al-. The Mawiiqif and al- Tirmidhr. Ed. A.M. Shakir. Cairo: al-
Mukhiitabiit. Ed. and trans. by A.J. Ar- Maktabat al-Islamiyya, 1938.
berry. London: Luzac, 1935. Tirmidhi:, al-Baki:m al-. Kitiib khatm al-aw-
- - - · "Textes inedits." In Paul Nwyia. liyii'. Ed. 0. Yahia. Beirut: Imprimerie
Trois oeuvres inedits de Mystiques Musulmans. Catholique, 1965.
Beirut: Dar el-Machreq, 1973. Tiisi:, Na~i:r al-Di:n. The Nasirean Ethics.
Nwyia, P. "Notes sur quelques fragments Trans. G.M. Wickens. London: George
inedits de la correspondence d'Ibn al-'Ari:f Allen and Unwin, 1964.
avec Ibn Barrajan." Hesperis 43 (1956): Wensinck, A.J., Mensing, J.P., and Brug-
217-21. man, J. Concordance et indices de Ia tradition
Ormsby, E.L. Theodicy in Islamic Thought: musulmane. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1936-1969.
The Dispute over Al-Ghaziill's "Best of All Wolfson, H. The Philosophy of the Kalam.
Possible Worlds". Princeton: Princeton Uni- Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
versity Press, 1984. 1976.
Profitlich, M. Die Terminologie Ibn 'Arabls im Wright, W. A Grammar of the Arabic Lan-
"Kitiib wasii'il as-sii'il" des Ibn Saudakln. guage. Third ed., Cambridge: Cambridge
Freiburg im Breisgau: Klaus Schwarz University Press, 1971.
Verlag, 1973. Yahia, 0. Histoire et classification de !'oeuvre
Qay~arl, Sharaf al-Di:n Dawiid. Shar~ fu~ii~ al- d'Ibn 'Arabi. Damascus: Institut Fran<;ais de
~ikam. Tehran: Dar al-Funiin, 1299/ Damas, 1964.
1881-82.
INDEX OF SOURCES

Azal I 152.14 (Y 2,366.1): 402n18


9: 136 I 153.34 (Y 2,372.2): xiv
14: 388n2 Chapter 16
Inshii' al-dawii'ir I 160.4 (Y 2,398.3): 62
33: 408n14 Chapter 17
I 163.21 (Y 3,64.3): 276
I~tilii~iit al-~ufiyya
Chapter 19
7: 227 I 166.4 (Y 3, 79.4): 220
14: 214, 394n15 Chapter 21
Riizl I 170.8 (Y 3, 101.4): 150
5: 302 Chapter 25
Fu~u~ al-~ikam I 187.14 (Y 3, 187.11): 412n5
65 (BW 68): 42 Chapter 33
79-80 (BW 88): 37 I 210.7 (Y 3,297.9): 37
81 (BW 93): 299 Chapter 34
90,91 (BW 106, 107): 346 I 213.30 (Y 3,314.1): 160
93 (BW 108-109): 36 I 214.27 (Y 3,318.2): 387n7
96 (BW 115): 299 I 216.9 (Y 3,325.1): 276
113 (BW 137): 355 Chapter 35
120 (BW 149): 340 I 218.5 (Y 3,334.4): 255
125 (BW 154): 97 I 218.19 (Y 3,335.15): 170
159 (BW 197): 143 I 218.21 (Y 3,335.18): 220
225 (BW 282): 344 I 218.21 (Y 3,336.2): 202
Chapter 36
al-Futu~iit al-makkiyya I 223.2 (Y 3,358.11): 377
khutba Chapter 44
I 10.16 (Y 1,72.10): xiv I 248.12 (Y 4,89.6): 407n15
I 10.26 (Y 1,73.10): xiv I 248.27 (Y 4, 92.2): 267
muqaddima Chapter 45
131.11 (Y 1,139.7): 170 I 251.3 (Y 4, 104.1): xiii
I 34.3 (Y 1, 151.3): 280 Chapter 46
I 36.29 (Y 1,165.11): 298 I 253.31 (Y 4,119.1): 412n3
I 41.9 (Y 1,187.15): 60 Chapter 47
I 4127 (Y 1,190.2): 364 I 258.35 (Y 4, 147.4): 295
I 41.31 (Y 1,190.11): 181 I 260.18 (Y 4, 158. 9): 162
I 41.34 (Y 1,191.2): 39 I 261.9 (Y 4, 162.2): 169
I 43.32 (Y 1, 199.10): 73 I 261.10 (Y 4,162.5): 392n34
I 44.32 (Y 1,203.15): 196 Chapter 48
I 47.2 (Y 1,212.17): 290 I 266.15 (Y 4,191.11): 336
Chapter 2 I 266.18 (Y 4,192.4): 336
I 59.12 (Y 1,264.12): XV Chapter 50
I 90.23 (Y 2,78.5): 84 I 271.7 (Y 4,217.12): 233
Chapter 3 I 271.20 (Y 4,219.11): 70
I 91.19 (Y 2,82.6): 148 I 271.27 (Y 4,220.14): 168
Chapter 6 I 272.17 (Y 4,224.5): 73
I 119.3 (Y 2,223.15): 137 Chapter 52
I 120.12 (Y 2,229.5): xii I 276.2 (Y 4,245.4): 320
Chapter 7 I 276.19 (Y 4,248.4): 323
I 124.14 (Y 2,246.10): 286 Chapter 54
I 125.33 (Y 2,251.12): 163 I 279.5 (Y 4,263.6): 94
I 126.13 (Y 2,255.4): 165 I 279.7 (Y 4,263.12): 250
Chapter 11 Chapter 55
I 138.29 (Y 2,309.8): 142 I 283.4 (Y 4,285.12): 195
Chapter 12 Chapter 56
I 144.27 (Y 2,334.14): 196 I 285.8 (Y 4,296.13): 286
Chapter 13 Chapter 57
I 148.18 (Y 2,350.1): 125 I 287.10 (Y 4,308. 7): 92
Chapter 14 Chapter 58
I 150.13 (Y 2,357.13): 252 I 289.20 (Y 4,321.6): 112
Chapter 15 Chapter 59 419
Index of Sources

I 292.15 (Y 4,338.12): 98 II 69.32: 42


Chapter 60 II 69.34: 62
I 293.5 (Y 4,342.11): 150 II 72.19: 286
I 293.17 (Y 4,344.12): 141 II 74.6: 322
Chapter 63 II 78.20: 404n18
I 304.16 (Y 4,407.6): 118 II 82.4: 99
I 305.21 (Y 4,413.9): 238 II 85.10,20: 356
I 306.3 (Y 4,416.8): 123 II 88.5: 240
I 307.2 (Y 4,422.3): 412n3 II 88.15: 240
Chapter 64 II 88.21: 240
I 314.9 (Y 4,463.2): 197 II 88.26: 311
Chapter 65 II 92.26: 369
I 319.27 (Y 5,73.11): 169 II 93.14: 356
Chapter 66 II 93.19: 55, 150
I 322.33 (Y 5,91.5): 54 II 93.30: 408n10
I 325.16 (Y 5, 105.3): 384n13 II 93.33: 90
Chapter 67 II 94.10: 313
I 328.14 (Y 5,121.1): 343 II 94.15: 136
Chapter 68 II 96.25: 331
I 373.33 (Y 5,436.12): 317 II 99.20,27: 88
Chapter 69 II 100.35: 64
I 389.31 (Y 6,65. 9): 174 II 101.29: 153
I 405.27 (Y 6, 162.12): 343 II 103.28: 136
I 406.14 (Y 6,167.3): 94 Il107.20: 239
I 441.15 (Y 6,393.5): 50 II 109.6: 143
I 450.22 (Y 6,453.6): 284 II 110.30: 58
I 462.6 (Y 7, 73.5): 95 II 113.33: 109
Chapter 72 II 115.27: 37
I 679.31 (Y 10,148.1): 294 II 116.4: 75
I 691.1 (Y 10,225.5): 58 II 118.22: 264
Chapter 73 Il119.21: 244
II 3.28, 4.3,26 (Y 11,256.3, II 122.14: 95
258.2, 262.2): 278 II 122.19: 57
II 5.25 (Y 11,269.11): 406n12 II 123.4: 177
II 7.9 (Y 11,278.4): 370 II 123.26: 130
II 10.12 (Y 11,298.6): 388n25 II 123.35: 276
II 16.15 (Y 11,340.10): 373 II 124.17: 327
II 20.19 (Y 11,365.8): 407n18 II 124.23: 400n4
II 21.35 (Y 11,378.4): 90 II 126.3: 326
1!26.35 (Y 11,410.5): 194 II 128.20: 314
II33.20 (Y 11,451.10): 315 II 129.19: 375(n19)
II 34.1 (Y 11,454.12): 49 II 129.23: 133
II38.33 (Y 11,486.10): 321 II 130.1: 215
II 39.27: 95 II 130.10: 394n15
II 42.3: 283 II 132.4: 227
II 51.23: 222 II 132.25: 227
II 54.6: 95 II 132.26: 266
II 56.3: 88 II 133.2: 220
II 56.16: 90 II 133.19: 376
II 56.28: 364 II 133.25: 264
II 56.33: 34 II134.21: 241
II 57.1: 50 Chapter 74
II 57.6: 390n17 II 143.6: 279
II 57.10: 50 Chapter 76
II 57.30: 58 Il145.1:372
II 61.10: 57 II 145.29, 147.26: 211
II 61.27: 53 II 148.10: 303
II 62.3: 390n16 Chapter 78
II 63.2: 138 II 151.3: 93
II 65.21: 331 II 152.5: 119
II 66.14: 115 Chapter 80
420 II 69.3: 92 II 153.26: 322
Index of Sources

II 153.33: 311 II 218.35: 300


Chapter 81 Chapter 133
II 154.27: 196 II 219.23: 348
Chapter 82 Chapter 138
II 156.17: 157 II 224.3: 73
Chapter 84 Chapter 139
II 157.15: 291 II 226.2: 57
Chapter 85 Chapter 140
II 159.11,27: 365 II 226.22: 64
II160.1:95 II 226.29: 388n25
Chapter 88 Chapter 145
II 163.26: 174 II 230.15: 62
Chapter 89 II 230.19: 165
II 167.2: 325 Chapter 146
II 167.32: 95 II 231.33, 232.1: 66
II 168.2: 325 II 232.11: 204
Chapter 90 II 232.28: 41
II 168.13: 325 II 233.34: 257
II 16d ..!ll: 329 Chapter 148
II 168.26: 400n2 II 235.35: 304
II 170.6: 276 II 236.5: 302
II 171.1: 240 II 236.31, 237.6: 305
II 171.24: 108 II 241.1 : 224
II 173.8: 330 Chapter 149
Chapter 91 II 241.28: 288
II 176.10: 278 II 242.20,28: 43
II 176.12: 283 II 243.5: 310
Chapter 92 II 243.9,30: 288
II 177.4: 363 Chapter 150
Chapter 99 II 244.21: 296
II 183.8: 124 Chapter 153
II 183.31: 181 II 248.24: 87
Chapter 102 Chapter 154
II 185.27: 105 II 251.29: 68
Chapter 108 Chapter 157
II 190.8: 161 II 256.3: 311
II 191.6: 160 Chapter 158
Chapter 117 II 257.17: 172
II 198.28: 308 II 257.28: 60
Chapter 120 Chapter 159
II 203.3: 39 II 259.1: 194
Chapter 121 Chapter 162
II 204.8: 207 II 263.13: 64
Chapter 125 Chapter 164
II 208.16: 44 II 267.11: 283
Chapter 126 Chapter 167
II 208.34: 348 II 280.31: 103
Chapter 127 II 281.15: 165
II 211.35: 349 II 281.27: 130
Chapter 128 II 283.9: 134
II 212.17: 280 Chapter 168
Chapter 129 II 284.28: 175
II 213.23: 104 Chapter 170
Chapter 130 II 287.7: 365
II 214.15: 399n9 Chapter 172
Chapter 131 II 289.9: 234
II 216.7: 96 II 289.25: 81
II 216.12: 114 II 290.14: 167
Chapter 132 II 290.25: 170
II 217.1,26: 302 II 291.3: 256
II 218.13: 302 II 291.30: 234
II 218.16: 303 Chapter 176 421
Index of Sources

II 295.21, 296.15: 355 II 364.22: 392n35


Chapter 177 Chapter 181
II 297.33: 149 II 364.28: 273
II 298.2: 168 Chapter 182
II 300.35: 36 II 366.27: 213
II 303.13: 44 Chapter 184
I! 303.28: 94 II 370.4: 148
II 304.33: 104 II 371.5: 38, 312
II 305.12: 164 Chapter 186
II 305.35: 197 II 372.20: 99
II 306.9: 187 Chapter 187
II 307.11: 296 II 374.24: 194
II 307.19: 74 Chapter 188
II 307.29,35: 296 11375.19: 403n18
II 308.16: 313 II 376.6: 403n18
II 308.22: 312 II 378.24: 121
II 309.17: 121 II 379.3: 116
II 309.29: 393n6 II 379.24, 380.4: 121
II 310.5: 125 Chapter 190
II 310.6: 125 II 382.27: 83
II 310.17: 126 Chapter 191
II 310.24: 125 II 384.31: 99
II 310.25: 134 Chapter 192
II 311.12: 126 II 384.34: 264
11311.19: 117 II 385.8: 298
II 311.33: 127 II 385.12: 265
II 312.4: 124 II 385.22: 406n13
II 312.23,31: 121 Chapter 194
II 313.12: 118 II 386.19: 380
II 313.24: 134 Chapter 196
II 316.9: 149 II389.1:71
II 318.30: 149 II 389.6: XV, 232
II 319.4: 266 Chapter 198
II 319.13: 160 II 390.24: 128
II 319.15: 75 II 390.35: 297
Chapter 178 II 391.1: 276
II 325.25: 286 II 391.33: 134
II 326.12: 180 II 394.21: 129
II 326.18: 181 II 395.1: 129
II 326.26: 297 II 396.13, 27: 130
II 327.2: 389n8 II 396. 30: 35
II 328.19: 172 II 399.28: 131, 250,
II 331.23: 128 391n14
II 334.24: 298 II 401.29: 128
II 335.12: 68 II 404.9: 181
II 336.5: 161 II 407.3: 74
II 336.12: 301 II 409.4: 350
II 342.11: 293 II414.1:45
II 344.15: 285 II 414.13: 171
II 346.12: 242 II 415.18: 134
II 350.23: 44 II 425.8: 384n12
II 350.28: 314 II 425.13: 383n12
II 353.29: 96 II 431.28: 98
II 354.19: 329 II 432.8: XV
II 355.33: 114 II 432.12: 104
II 358.3: 266 II 432.16: 139
II 358.22: 238 II 432.35: 390n2
II 360.6: 61 II 433.14: 398n19
Chapter 179 II 435.15: 174
II 363.23: 306 II 437.8: 310
Chapter 180 II 437.20: 131
422 II 364.19: 392n35 II 438.20: 114
Index of Sources

!I 438.23: 284 II 507.30: 225


II 439.17: 360 II 508.5: 39
II 442.20: 310 II 508.6: 297
II 443.4: 239 Chapter 218
II 444.13: 115 II 509.31: 341
II 451.1: 161 Chapter 219
II 453.16: 38 II 512.9: 375
II459.1:131 Chapter 220
II 459.21: 84 II 513.17: 208
II 462.7: 67 II 514.32: 93
II 462.19: 53 II 515.9: 352
II 463.16: 173 Chapter 221
II 466.20: 215 II 515.33: 321
II 468.3: 40 Chapter 222
II 468.35: 48 II 516.34: 36
II 469.2: 46 II 517.23: 92
II 469.11,17: 48 Chapter 223
II 471.25: 177 II 518.12: 67
II 472.10: 142 II 519.10: 91
II 472.35: 345 II 519.17: 412n3
II 473.29: 220 Chapter 226
II 475.32: 230 II 523.2: 204
Chapter 200 Chapter 229
II 480.12: 365 II 527.11: 51
Chapter 201 Chapter 230
II 480.31: 174 II 527.27: 267
II 480.33: 57 II 528.17: 322
Chapter 203 II 528.33: 267
II 482. 26: 96 II 529.19: 322
II 483.7: 110 II 529.22: 227
Chapter 204 Chapter 231
II 483.27: 76 II 529.33: 268
Chapter 205 II 529.34: 151
II 484.23: 90 II 531.9: 269
Chapter 206 Chapter 233
II 485.20: 196, 216 II 532.30: 108
II 485.29: 226 II 533.2: 149
II 487.34: 130 II 533.4: 64
Chapter 207 Chapter 235
II 490.7: 400n4 II 535.26: 212
II 491.6: 400n24 Chapter 236
Chapter 209 II 537.1: 212
II 495.23: 227 Chapter 237
II 495.27: 228 II 538.1: 212
II 496.11: 225 II 538.1,21: 213
Chapter 211 Chapter 238
II 498.27: 264 II 539.2: 38
II 499.7: 73 Chapter 240
II 499.13: 40 II 541.5: 67
Chapter 212 Chapter 241
II 500.6: 99 II 542.2: 392n31
II 500. 16: 345 Chapter 246
Chapter 213 II 544.16: 199
II 501.4: 115 II 546.5: 220
II 501.25: 372 Chapter 247
Chapter 214 II 547.24: 228
II 502.21: 182 Chapter 248
II 502.33: 61 II 548.4: 221
Chapter 216 II 548.14: xiv
II 505.17: xii, 224 II 548.15: xxi
II 506.30: 370 Chapter 251
II 507.12: 364 II 552.12: 154 423
Index of Sources

II 552.22: 341 II 592.32: 55


II 552.32: 176 II 593.10: 293
Chapter 252 Chapter 276
II 553.5: 176 II 594.28: 201
Chapter 254 II 596.6: 72
II 554.3: 176 II 596.14: 284
II 554.16: 106 II 597.4: 342
Chapter 256 II597.17:60
II 556.5: 383n10 II 597.35: 342
II 557.11: 62 Chapter 277
Chapter 259 II 600.3: xii
II 558.14: 224 II 601.11: 46
Chapter 260 II 601.18: 226
II 558.27: 366 II 602.22: 176
II 558.34: 151 Chapter 278
II 559.20: 152 II 603.4: 286
II 559.25: 330 II 603.14: 372
Chapter 261 II 604.11: 207
II 561.11: 319 II 605.14: 243
Chapter 262 II 605.20: 221
II 562.10: 306 Chapter 279
Chapter 263 II 606.30: 217
II 563.4, 13: 260 II 606.33: 209
II 563.19: 135 II 608.26: 52
II 563.23: 302 II 609.2: 61
II 563.29: 327 Chapter 280
Chapter 266 II 612.6: 151
II 567.5: 227 II 614.4: 326
II 567.10: 227 Chapter 281
II 567.19: 244 II 615.22,34: 371
Chapter 268 II 616.7: 318
II 569.10: 261 II616.19: 195
Chapter 270 II 616.34: 309
II 571.18: 371 Chapter 282
II 573.19: 412n13 II 618.15: 235
II 573.32: 265 II 619.11: 156
II 574.27: 220 II 619.15: 58
Chapter 271 II 619.27, 620.9:
II 575.17: 216 156
II 575.25: 142 Chapter 284
II 576.2: 292 II 626.3: 223
II 577.32: 279 Chapter 285
II 578.1: 281 II 628.27: 166
II 578.19: xii II 629.28: 102
Chapter 272 II 629.33: 206
II 579.9: 59 II 631.4: 318
II 580.14: 71 II 631.35: 403n18
II 580.19: 57 Chapter 286
II 581.4: 245 II 632.29: 218
II 582. 10: 364 Chapter 287
Chapter 273 II 638.31: 411n3
II 582.26: 406n6 II 639.6: 98
II 583.16: 161 Chapter 288
II 583.21: 270 II 640.23: 175
Chapter 274 II 640.32: 319
II 587.32: 88 II 641.6: 345
II 588.6: 395n16 II 642.26: 318
II 588.7: 366 Chapter 289
II 588.27: 367 II 644.17: 238
II 588.30: 64 II 646.27: 376
II 589.28: 105 II 648.4: 140
Chapter 275 II 648.7: 164
424 II 590.31: 234 Chapter 290
Index of Sources

II 649.23: 284 III 46.27, 47.25: 205


Chapter 291 Ill 48.12: 389n8
II 653.25: 106 Chapter 314
II 654.16: 39 III 53. 22: 38
II 654.20: 175 III 55.29: 258
II 654.24: 133 III 56.2: xii
II 655.5: XV Ill 56.5: 91
II 655.26: 175 Chapter 316
Chapter 292 Ill 61.2: 241
II 657.13: 111 III 64.7: 56
II 659.1: 211 Chapter 317
II 660.7: 201 Ill 65.22: 89
II 661.10: 381 III 67.15: 217
II 663.9: 228 III 67.29: 326
Chapter 293 III 68.12: 133. 284
II 665.23: 37 Chapter 318
II 666.34: 85 III 69.30: 202
II 667.14: 341 III 70.23: 252
II 667.22: 313 Chapter 319
Chapter 294 III 72.20: 110
II 671.5: 157 III 72.32: 177
II 671.29: 220 Chapter 320
II 672.19. 70 III 77.19: 72
II 673.18: 150 Chapter 321
Chapter 295 III 78.9: 311
II 677.13: 385n11 III 78.12: 197
II 677.30: 97 III 79.28: 171
Chapter 296 Chapter 322
II 681.24: 209 III 81.30: 64
Chapter 297 Ill 83.7: 180
II 682.20: 11 III 83.12: 196
II 683.19: 337 Chapter 323
II 683.29: 35 III 86.14: 403n18
II 684.13: 36 III 86.22: 407n18
II 686.4: 155 Chapter 324
Chapter 298 III 88.12: 276
II 687.12: 307 III 90.18.28: 141
II 688.27.294 Chapter 325
Chapter 299 III 92.3: 71
II 692.25: 364 Ill 93.25: 130
Chapter 301 Ill 94.2: 242
III 6.13,26: 173 Ill 94.16: 364
Ill 6.34. 7.22, 8.10: 260 III 95.19: 129
Ill 8.23: 320 III 96.7: 215
Ill 9.6: 260 Chapter 326
Chapter 304 III 97.13: 133
III 18.20: 317 III 98.19: 67
III 19.24: 274 III 99.12: 162
Chapter 307 Chapter 327
III 28.32: 406n6 III 101.6: 400n11
Chapter 308 III 101.18: 345
III 32.9: 318 III 101.20: 216
Chapter 309 Ill 101.31: 226
III 34.28: 375 Chapter 328
Ill 35.35: 177 III 105.8: 379
III36.19:315 JII 106.18: 174
Chapter 310 Chapter 330
III 38.23: 263 III 112.13: 300
Chapter 311 Chapter 331
Ill 41.23: 323 III 116.18: 216
III 42.5: 223 III 116.23: xii
III 44.24: 38 Ill 117.3: 343
Chapter 312 Chapter 332 425
Index of Sources

III 120.19: 71 III 232.20, 234.15: 186


III 120.32: 239 Chapter 353
III 121.25: 346 III 239.19: 174
Chapter 333 III 239.23, 240.25: 179
III 126.33: 38 Chapter 355
III 129.17: 107 III 248.18: 195
Chapter 335 III 249.22: 179
III 132.9: 76 III 250.24: 107
III 132.15,24: 353 III 251.3: 352
III 134.25: 45 Chapter 356
Chapter 336 III 254.23, 255.8: 102
III 136.8: 324 Chapter 357
III 137.23: 38 III 257.16: 246
Chapter 337 III 258.32: 412n7
III 141.7: 240 III 260.6: 406n6
III 142.27: 241 Chapter 358
III 142.27, 143.6: 330 III 263.16,35, 265.1: 159
Chapter 338 Chapter 359
III 147.5: 318 III 272.32: 225
III 147.16: 43 Chapter 360
III148.19: 71 III 274.25: 214
Chapter 339 III 274.28: 362
III 151.10: 369 III 275.5: 82
III 153.18: 392n31 III 276.9,18:214
III 154.18: 276 III 276.32, 277.12: 214
Chapter 340 III 282.21: 104
III 156.27: 14 III 288.14: 99
III 156.35: 391n11 III 289.4: 34
III 157.34: 57 III 289.23: 65
Chapter 341 Chapter 361
III 160.13: 189 III 298.17: 329
III 160.34: 239 Chapter 362
III 161.13: 111 III 305.16: 161
III 161.15: 227 III 306.8: 227
III 161.16: 352 III 306.19: 86
III 161.24: 342 Chapter 363
III 162.10: 326 III 311.2: 341
III 162.23: 109 Chapter 364
III 163.19: 174 III 314.2: 184
III 164.31: 81 III 314.22: 359
Chapter 342 III 315.6: 291
III 167.3: 378 III 315.11,16: 100
Chapter 347 III 315.25: 409n4
III 193.3: 87 III 316.27: 41
III 195.23: 302 III 317.12: 39
Chapter 348 III 317.15: 50
III 198.23: 119 III 317.28: 66
III 198.28: 100 III 317.31: 157
III 198.33: 107 Chapter 366
III 199.9: 98 III 333.17: 151
III 200. 26: xxi III 333.20: 161
III 201.12: 395n7 Chapter 369
Chapter 349 III 361.5: 123
III 207.33: 291 III 361.13: 96
III 208.7: 46 III 362.5: 36
Chapter 350 III 363.32: 61
III 214.26: 105 III 368.27: 41
III 215.3: 105 III 369.31: 224
Chapter 351 III 371.27: 324
III 217.7: 82 III 373.1: 42
III 225.20: 280 III 373.26: 290
III 225.32: 48 III 376.22: 365
III 229.12: 105 III 377. 14: 291
426 Chapter 352 III 382.34: 151
Index of Sources

III 384.18: 354 IV 18.32, 19.22,34: 231


III 389.21: 291 Chapter 421
III 397.4: 388n3 IV 30.5: 223
III 397.5: 140 IV 30.11: 328
III 397.8: 36 Chapter 445
III 398.21: 284 IV 58.26: 175
III 403.21: 208 Chapter 446
III 404.28: 345 IV 60.33: 241
III 405.3: 297 Chapter 462
Chapter 370 IV 76.27: 377
III 408.11,28,32: 51 Chapter 471
III 409.14: 341 IV 102.31: 357
III 410.17: 110 Chapter 472
III 410.18:71 IV 105.3: 230
III 410.24, 411.22: 303 Chapter 503
III 413.12, 24: 303 IV 140.25, 141.9: 328
Chapter 371 Chapter 504
III 416.19: 45 IV 142.30: 337
III 419.25: 40 IV 143.2: 350
III 419.34: 133 Chapter 510
III 420.2: 130 IV 150.1,9: 141
III 420.15: 140 Chapter 538
III 429.4: 132 IV 182.11: 300
III 441.31: 35 Chapter 558
III 442.3: 117 IV 196.11: 58
III 443.5: 83 IV 196.31: 46
III 443.8: 127 IV 197.1:66
Chapter 372 IV 208.33: 62
III 452.12: 48 IV 221.2: 222
III 452.24: 97 IV 221.20: 150
III 452.30, 453.1,8: 182 IV 228.12,18: 49
III 454.1: 119 IV 231.21: 38
Chapter 374 IV 260.28: 343
III 462.11, 463.12,27: IV 272.22: 327
361 IV 278.33: 351
III 465.3,25: 338 IV 279.26: 380
Chapter 375 IV 282.18: 124
III 470.16: 339 IV 288.1: 42
III 470.26, 471.12: 362 IV 294.11: 52
Chapter 377 IV 311.26: 137
III 484.35: 89 IV 313.22: 156
Chapter 381 IV 318.26: 210
III 506.17: 105 IV 319.5: 42
III 506.30: 377 IV 319.10: 151
III 510.21: 293 IV 319.31: 65
Chapter 382 IV 319.34: 88
III 514.22: 394n15 IV 320.3: 97
III 515.33: 337 IV 320.14: 85
III 516.3: 86 IV 324.30: 227
III 516.14: 337 IV 325.2: 116
Chapter 385 Chapter 559
III 527.26: 266 IV 386.17: 341
III 528.6: 290 IV 419.3: 40
Chapter 407 IV 419.7: 36
IV 11.9: 95 IV 420.28: 339
IV 11.16: 410n12 IV 430.28: 293
Chapter 414 IV 443.33: 342
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INDEX OF KORANIC VERSES

1:5 Guide us on the straight path. 21, 301, Book . . . ; none knows its inter-
303 pretation, save only God .... 200
1:6-7 the path of those whom Thou hast 3:8 And bestow upon us mercy from Thee
blessed . . . . 301, 303 .... 200
2:15 God mocks them. 42, 210 3:13 Surely in that there is a lesson. 120
2:16 Their commerce has not profited them 3:26 Say: "0 God, Master of the Kingdom
.... 257 . . . . Thou exaltest whom Thou wilt
2:17 . . . . deaf, dumb, blind. 280 ... ". 6
2:20 [etc.] God is powerful over everything. 3:28, God warns you about His Self. 62, 63,
92 3:30 74, 155, 165, 233
2:26 God is not ashamed to strike a similitude 3:30 [The day] every soul [shall find what it
even of a gnat . . . . 394n4 has done of good brought forward]
2:29 He knows everything. 348 .... 226
2:30 What, wilt Thou place therein one who 3:30 It will wish if there were only a far space
will do corruption .... ? 68, 142 between it and that day. 226
2:31 He taught Adam the names . . . . 276, 3:31 If you love God, follow me, and then
368, 372 God will love you. 274
2:32 We have no knowledge. 152 3:38 He will teach him the Book .... 247
2:40 Fulfill My covenant .... 110 3:54 They deceived God and God deceived.
2:43 Perform the prayer . . . . 209 42, 393n43
2:62 [etc.] Whoso works righteousness ... 3:97 God is Independent of the worlds. 9,
308 49, 60, 86, 189, 214, 319, 327, 378
2:75 distort God's word .... 277 3:114 command the approved, forbid the
2:94 the Last Abode is theirs exclusively .... disapproved .... 272
308 3:128 Nothing of the command belongs to
2:96 .... the people most eagerly desirous thee. 114, 378, 379
.... 307 3:144 MuJ:tammad is naught but a messenger
2:107 To Him belongs the kingdom .... 88 .... 324
2:115 Whithersoever you turn, there is the 3:154 The command belongs to God entirely.
Face of God. 4, 12, 20, 51, 89, 111, 114
122, 143, 277, 280, 343, 355 3:163 They are degrees with God. 366
2:144 Turn your face towards the Holy 3:181 God is the poor and we are the inde-
Mosque. 111 pendent. 318
2:148 in every direction . . . . 111 3:182 God is never unjust toward His ser-
2:156 Allah, there is no god but He .... 348 vants. 300
2:185 [God] desires ... ease .... 307 3:200 Be patient, vie you in patience, and be
2:186 When My servants question thee about steadfast. 209
Me-surely I am near .... 38, 65, 109 4:1 scattered abroad from the pair of them
2:189 Enter houses by their doors. xvi, 270 many men and women. 359
2:205 God loves not corruption. 142 4:36 Worship Allah. 363
2:251 God gave him the kingship and wisdom 4:46 distort words from their meanings.
.... 203 277
2:253 .... some We have ranked in excellence 4:48 God does not forgive that any should be
above others. 366 associated with Him. 108
2:255 They encompass nothing of His knowl- 4:58 God commands you to deliver trusts
edge .... 171 back to their owners. 317
2:264 0 you who have faith, void not your 4:59 Obey God, and obey the Messenger
freewill offerings .... 391n12 .... 170
2:269 He gives wisdom to whomsoever He 4:79 Whatever evil visits you is from your-
will: He who has been given wisdom self. 142
.... 203, 247 4:80 So he who obeys the Messenger has
2:282 Be godfearing and God will teach you. obeyed God. 241
xii, 30, 70, 149, 200, 256, 259 4:95 God has preferred the strugglers over
2:284 He forgives . . . and He chastises . . . . those who sit at home .... 211
287 4:97 But was not God's earth wide, so that
2:286 God charges a soul only to its capacity. you might have emigrated in it? 179
309 4:99 God is All-pardoning, All-forgiving. 88
3:6 There is no god but He, the Inaccessible, 4:113 He has taught thee what thou knewest
the Wise. 75, 218, 320, 381 not. 247
3:7 It is He who sent down upon thee the 4:126 He encompasses everything. 176 429
Index of Koranic Verses

4:136 0 you who have faith, have faith in 7:89 Our Lord embraces all things in know!-
God. 195 edge. 148
4:142 The hypocrites seek to trick God, but 7:95 but they are unaware. 207
He is tricking them. 393n43 7:143 Give me vision that I may gaze upon
4:171 Go not beyond the bounds in your Thee. 228
religion . . . . 173 7:145 We wrote for him on the Tablets con-
4:171 The Messiah, Jesus son of Mary ... was ceming everything . . . . 258
His word .... 127 7:146 I shall turn away from My signs those
4:176 [etc.] God is Knower of all things. 148 who wax proud .... 141
5:5 his practice has failed .... 257 7:156 My mercy embraces all things, but I shall
5:23 Put all your trust in God . . . . 177 prescribe it .... 26, 107, 108, 120,
5:35 Struggle. 209 130, 132
5:44 We sent down the Torah. wherein is 7:172 When thy Lord took from the children
light and guidance .... 241 of Adam .... "Am I not your Lord?"
5:48 To every one We have appointed a Law ... 154, 235
and a way .... 171, 303 7:180 To God belong the most beautiful names
5:64 God loves not those who do corruption. .... 52, 114, 210, 290
142 7:182 .... We will lead them on step by step
5:66 Had they performed the Torah and the .... 406n2
Gospel .... 200 7:184 Have they not reflected? 163
5:77 They misguide many .... 270 7:185 Have they not considered the dominion
5:105 what you were doing. 299 of the heaven and of the earth? 165
5:120 He is powerful over everything. 347 7:189 God is high exalted above what they
6:2 He decreed a term . . . . 98 associate! 298
6:3 He is God in the heavens and the earth. 7:205 And remember your Lord ... in the
morning and evening. 63
125, 348
6:25 [etc.] We lay coverings upon their hearts 8:12 When thy Lord revealed to the angels,
.... 403n17 "Am I not with you ... ?" 397n6
6:38 We have neglected nothing in the Book. 8:17 You did not throw when you threw, but
258 God threw .... 113, 114, 115, 116,
6:40 Do you call upon any other than God 118, 130, 176, 183, 211, 324, 327, 362,
... ? 373 380
6:54 Your Lord has written for Himself 8:29 If you are godfearing, He will give you
mercy. 110, 214 discrimination. 200, 258
6:57 Say: "I stand upon a clear sign from my 9:1 A declaration of being quit on God's
Lord." 402n14 part. 211
6:59 With Him are the keys to the Unseen; 9:6 Grant him protection till he hears the
none knows them but He. 411n3 Speech of God. 348
6:59 Not a leaf falls, but He knows it. 148 9:31 They were commanded to worship but
6:90 Those are they whom God has guided One God .... 349
.... 72, 303 9:67 They forgot God, so He forgot them.
6:91 They measured not God with His true 238, 296, 327, 393n43
measure. 187, 337 9:79 God derides them. 210
6:91 Say: "Allah," then leave them alone. 373 9:82 a recompense for what they were earn-
6:97 He appointed for you the stars, that you ing. 409n11
might be guided in the darknesses of 9:93 God has set a seal on their hearts
the land and the sea. 380, 401n21 .... 400n17
6:103 Sight perceives Him not. 89, 223, 368 9:98 Listening, Knowing. 213
6:105 We turn about the signs. 137 9:122 to gain understanding in religion . . . .
6:122 Why, is he who was dead, and We gave 249
him life . . . . 224, 234 9:128 eagerly desirous is he over you. 308
6:149 To God belongs the conclusive argu- 10:2 .... that they have a foot of firmness
ment . . . . If He had willed with their Lord. 361
.... 206, 297, 299, 300, 301, 308 10:3 governing the affair. 174
6:153 This is My straight path, so follow it 10:24 for a people who reflect. 163
.... 303 10:32 What is there, after the Real, save er-
7:12 [38:76] I am better than he .... 24 ror? ... 380
7:39 what you were earning. 299 10:64 God's words possess no changing. 102
7:40 Nor shall they enter the Garden until 10:68 They say, "He has taken a son." ... 71
the camel passes through the eye of 10:72 [etc.] My wage falls only on God. 56, 366
the needle. 403n11 11:4 He is powerful over all things. 298
430
Index of Koranic Verses

11:17 upon a clear sign from his Lord. 188, mothers' wombs, not knowing
249, 251 anything. 247
11:46 .... Do not ask Me that whereof thou 16:81 shirts to protect you from the heat. 210
hast no knowledge .... 308 16:96 What is with you comes to an end, but
11:56 .... Surely my Lord is on a straight what is with God remains. 102, 103
path. 301 16:125 Dispute with them in the most beauti-
11:103 .... a day to be witnessed. 413n29 ful way. 55
11:105 Among them are wretched and felici- 17:1 Glory be to Him who carried His servant
tous. 295 by night. 318, 323
11:107 He performs whatsoever He desires. 17:20 The giving of thy Lord can never be
122, 347 walled up. 91
11:112 Go thou straight, as thou hast been 17:23 Thy Lord has decreed that you worship
commanded . . . . 300, 302 none but Him. 342, 343, 381
11:118 They never cease in their oppositions 17:44 There is nothing that does not glorify
.... 68 Him in praise .... 66, 157, 246,
11:123 To Him all affairs shall be returned 340, 344
.... 46, 73, 301, 303 17:72 And whosoever is blind in this world
12:39 [etc.] the One, the All-subjugating. 361 .... 345
12:76 We raise in degrees whomsoever We will 17:79 As for the night, keep vigil a part of it,
.... 8, 274 as a supererogatory work for thee. 326
12:81 We have only witnessed what we know 17:79 It may be that thy Lord will raise thee
.... 329 up to a praiseworthy station. 405n4
12:108 .... I call to God upon insight .... 17:81 The Real has come and the unreal has
202, 236, 256, 261, 326, 398n2 vanished away .... 133
13:2 Every one runs to a stated term. 97 17:84 Say: Each works according to His man-
13:2 He governs the affair, He differentiates ner. 114
the signs. 137, 162, 326 17:110 Call upon Allah or call upon the All-
13:3 [etc.] In that there are signs for a people merciful .... 34, 349, 363, 387n7
who reflect. 62 18:28-29 Be thyself patient with those who call
13:13 [etc.] glorifies by praising Him. 71 upon their Lord .... Say: "The Truth
13:33 What, He who stands over every soul for is from your Lord." .... 316
what it acquires . . . . 207 18:65 one of Our servants whom We had
13:39 He obliterates and He establishes. 381 given mercy from Us and whom We
14:4 [God] sent no messenger save with the had taught knowledge from Us. 148,
tongue of his people . . . . xvi, 75, 235, 236, 247, 384n13
277, 341 18:51 I did not let them witness the creation of
14:5 We sent Moses with Our signs .... the heavens and the earth. 208
"Remind them of the Days of God." 18:68 What thou hast never encompassed in
395n7 knowledge. 221
14:22 And Satan says, " ... So do not blame 18:79 I desired to damage it. 210
me, but blame yourselves." 300 18:81 We desired. 210
14:48 Upon the day the earth shall be changed 18:82 Thy Lord desired; I did not act on my
into other than the earth . . . . 360 bidding. 210, 263
18:104 Shall We tell you who will be the greatest
15:21 There is no thing whose treasuries are
losers in their works? .... 74, 248,
not with Us .... 87, 96, 103, 173,
257, 275
302, 343
18:119 Let him not associate [any]one with his
15:85 We created not the heavens and the earth
Lord's worship. 244
.... save through the Real. 85,
133 19:17 He became imaginalized to her as a man
15:87 the tremendous Koran. 241 without fault. 117
16:40 Our only speech to a thing, when We 19:29 . . . . then Mary pointed to the child.
desire it, is to say to it "Be!," and it 246
is. 87, 88, 102, 128, 213, 311, 388n23, 19:57 We raised him up to a high place. 379
389n8 19:59 Then there succeeded after them a later
16:49 Their shadows incline to the right and generation who have neglected prayer
the left . . . . 399n12 and followed passions. 160
16:60 And to God belongs the highest simili- 19:67 Will not mari remember that We created
tude. 215 him aforetime, when he was nothing?
16:71 God has caused some of you to surpass 290
others in provision. 8 19:85 On the day when We shall muster the
16:78 He brought you forth from your godfearing to the All-merciful in
droves. 37 431
Index of Koranic Verses

19:93 None is there in the heavens and the earth with God has no proof for that. 360,
that comes not to the All-merciful as 363
a servant. 308, 310, 311, 321 24:24 On the day when their tongues, their
20:5 The All-merciful sat upon the Throne. hands, and their feet shall testify
51, 73, 107, 125, 216, 348, 379 against them .... 404n18
20:7 He knows the secret and that which is 24:25 They know that God, He is the Evident
more hidden. 298 Real. 121
20:14 Verily I am God, there is no god but 24:35 God is the Light of the heavens and the
I; so worship Me! 195 earth. 196, 225, 326, 366
20:16 [Moses] was made to imagine, by their 24:35 olive tree that is neither of the east nor
sorcery, that their ropes and staffs of the west. 376
were sliding. 116 24:39 when he comes to it, he finds it is no-
20:41 I have made thee well for Myself. 318 thing .... 378
20:50 He gave each thing its creation, then 24:40 And to whomsoever God assigns no
guided. 42, 173, 174, 178, 294, 296, light, no light has he. 214
297, 298, 301, 336, 339 24:41 Each knows its own prayer and its own
20:110 They encompass Him not in know]- glorification. 344
edge. 165 25:6 Prostrate yourselves to the All-merciful.
20:114 Say: My Lord, increase me in know]- 363
edge! 104, 143, 147, 151, 153, 156, 25:7 What ails this Messenger that he eats
158, 218, 264, 268, 273, 300, 340, food ... ? 30
345, 351 25:43 Have you seen him who has taken his
20:115 He forgot. 296 caprice to be his god? 137, 161
21:2 There comes not to them a remembrance 25:70 God will change their evil deeds into
from their Lord temporally originated good deeds. 208
.... 138, 341 25:72 When they pass by idle talk, they pass
21:17 Had We desired to take an amusement by with nobility. 320
.... 348 26:80 Whenever I am sick, He heals me. 210
21:20 They glorify Him by night and day
.... 312 27:14 They denied them, though their souls
21:22 Were there gods in heaven and earth acknowledged them .... 194, 197
other than Allah . . . . 356 27:88 You will see the mountains, that you
21:23 He shall not be questioned as to what supposed to be fixed, passing by like
He does. 301 clouds. 18, 379
21:25 We never sent a messenger before thee 28:50 Who is further astray than he who fol-
except that We revealed to him .... lows his caprice without guidance
171 from God? 137
21:27 They are honored servants . . . . 142 28:88 Everything is annihilated except His
21:47 We set up the scales of justice. 173 Face (its face). 18, 39, 88, 102, 118,
21:101 But as for those unto whom the most 127, 195
beautiful reward has already gone forth 28:88 To Him (it) belongs the property and
from Us .... 377 to Him (it) you shall be returned. 39,
21:116 [44:38] We created not the heavens and 40, 102
the earth and all that between them is, 29:56 0 My servants who have faith, surely
in play. 134 My earth is wide, so worship Me! 179
22:18 Have you not seen how before God 29:69 Those who struggle in Us, surely We
prostrate themselves .... And many shall guide them on Our paths. 211
merit the chastisement. 163 30:4 (To God) belongs the affair, before and
22:61 Listening, Seeing. 213 after. 195, 351
22:78 as is His due. 211 30:7 who know an outward significance of
23:61 vie in good works, outracing to them. the present life .... 99, 248
200 30:8 did not create the heavens, the earth,
23:91 Glory be to God above what they de- and what is between them except
scribe! 71 through the Real. 121
23:108 Slink you into it, and do not speak to 30:30 God's creation possesses no changing.
Me! 294 102
23:115 What, did you think that We created 30:47 It is ever a duty incumbent upon Us to
you only for sport? 134 help the faithful. 214
23:116 . . . . There is no god but He, the Lord 30:50 Behold the effects of God's mercy: How
of the noble Throne. 134 He brings the earth to life after it
23:117 And he who calls upon another god was dead. 39
Index of Koranic Verses

31:20 Have you not seen how God has sub- 39:18 Those are they whom God has guided
jected to you .... 388n26 and those-they are the possessors of
31:26 Surely God is the Independent, the the kernels. 230
Praiseworthy. 158 39:47 There will appear to them from God
31:27 Though all the trees in the earth were what they had never reckoned. 155
pens .... 9, 127 39:53 0 My servants who have been immod-
32:17 No soul knows what comfort is laid up erate toward yourselves! .... 108
for them secretly. 404n18 39:69 And the earth will shine with the light of
33:4 God speaks the truth, and He guides on its Lord. 225
the way. 344 40:7 Our Lord, Thou embracest all things in
33:13 0 people of Y athrib, you have no mercy and knowledge. 19, 107, 148
station. 376, 379 40:16 .... "Whose is the kingdom today?"
33:21 You have a good example in the Mes- "God's, the One, the Overwhelming."
senger of God. 72 410n6
33:35 for them God has prepared forgiveness 40:19 He knows the treachery of the eyes and
and a mighty wage. 194 what the breasts conceal. 298
33:43 It is He who prays over you. 343 40:35 In such a manner does God set a seal
33:46 calling unto God by His leave, and as a on every heart which is "magnificent,
light-giving lamp. 323 overbearing." 314, 315
34:28 40:60 Call upon Me and I will answer you.
We have sent thee not, except to all
people without exception . . . . 241 10
35:12 41:6 Say, "I am but a mortal like you. To me
Not equal are the two seas ... yet of
both you eat fresh flesh. 404n19 it has been revealed." 48
35:15 41:21 They will say to their skins, "Why did
0 people, you are the poor toward God,
you testify against us?" 404n 18
and God-He is the Independent, the
Praiseworthy. 44, 46, 64,303, 317,374 41:38 They glorify Him by night and day,
and grow not weary. 312
36:73 knower of the unseen and the visible. 41:42 to which falsehood comes not from
298 before it nor from behind it . . . .
36:82 His command, when He desires a thing, 244, 245, 246
is to say to it 'Be!', and it is. 293 41:43 Naught is said to thee but what was
36:83 in whose hand is the dominion of all already said to the messengers before
things. 46 thee. 171
37:95 Do you worship what you yourself 41:44 To the faithful [the Koran] is a guidance
carve? 234 and a healing .... 391n29
37:96 God created you and what you do. 114 41:53 We shall show them Our signs upon the
37:164 None of us there is but has a known horizons and in themselves, until it is
station. 19, 295, 299, 408n3 clear to them that He is the Real. xv,
37:180 Glory be to thy Lord, the Lord of in- 43, 92, 164, 245, 359, 399n21
accessibility, above what they 41:53 Is it not enough that thy Lord is witness
describe .... 71, 75, 95, 376 over every thing? 92
38:5 What, has he made the gods One God? 41:54 Surely He encompasses everything. 93,
.... 234, 363 365
38:24 Those who have faith and do deeds of 42:11 Nothing is like Him, and He is the
righteousness, and few they are not. Hearing, the Seeing. 73, 74, 75, 104,
163 111, 112, 113, 122, 172, 180, 182, 187,
38:26 Give rulings among men by the Real, 228,231,233,260,277,320,347,348,
and follow not caprice .... 161 353,354,360,367,376,378,380,381,
38:69 I had no knowledge of the Higher 388n4
Plenum when they disputed. 67, 142 42:13 He has laid down for you as Law what
38:75 What prevented you from prostrating He charged Noah with .... 41, 171,
yourself to him whom I created with 303
My two hands? 277, 313, 397n3 42:27 but He sends down in measure whatso-
39:3 to bring them nigh in nearness to God. ever He will. 173
343 42:51 It belongs not to any human being that
39:7 He approves not misbelief in His ser- God should speak to him, except by
vants. 300 revelation, or from behind a veil. 176
39:9 Are they equal-those who know and 42:52 but We made it a light, whereby We
those who know not? 8, 147 guide whom We will of Our servants.
39:9 Only those who possess the kernels re- 194
member. 238 42:53 Unto Allah all things come home. 302 433
Index of Koranic Verses

43:84 He is the Sage, the All-knowing. 203 54:14 Running before Our eyes .... 348, 381
44:38-39 We created not the heavens and the 54:49 Surely We have created everything in
earth and all that between them is, in measure. 343
play .... 133 54:50 Word ... but one, like the twinkling
44:49 "Taste! Surely thou art the inaccessible, of an eye. 98, 330
the generous!" 315 55:1-2 The All-merciful: He taught the Koran.
45:12 He subjected what is in the heavens and 200
what is in the earth, all together, for 55:3-4 He created man, He taught him the ex-
him. 368 plication. 247, 320
45:23 him who has taken his caprice to be his 55:7-9 He set up the Scale .... 173, 260, 320
god, and God has misguided him in 55:19 He let forth the two seas . . . . between
spite of knowledge. 197, 257 them a barzakh . . . . 117, 205
46:9 I know not what shall be done with me 55:29 Each day He is upon some task. 18, 38,
or with you. 224 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 104, 107, 109,
46:14 a recompense for what they were doing. 183, 297, 338, 377
409n11 55:31 We shall finish with you .... 337
47:7 If you help God, He will help you. 87 56:1 When the Incident falls . . . . 404n24
47:14 What, is he who is upon a clear sign 56:11 The Outstrippers, the Outstrippers!
from his Lord . . . . 390n7 .... 151
47:15 Rivers of wine, a pleasure to the drink- 56:33 Its fruit are .... neither cut off, nor
ers. 198 forbidden. 123
47:19 Know that there is no god but God. 233 56:62 God will give you a new configuration
.... 379
48:10 Those who swear allegiance to thee 56:85 We are nearer to him than you .... 154
swear allegiance in truth to God. 324 56:89 Then, if he is one of those brought near
48:10 God's hand is above their hands. 255 .... 384n12
48:21 merciful to one another. You see them
bowing, prostrating. 272 57:1 Everything in the heavens and the earth
glorifies God. 245, 311
49:13 The most noble among you in God's 57:3 He is the First and the Last, the Manifest
eyes is the most godfearing. xiii and the Nonmanifest, (and He has
50:15 No indeed, but they are in confusion knowledge of everything). 67, 89, 102,
as to a new creation. 18, 96, 97, 98, 115, 125, 134, 298, 375, 394n15,
99, 106, 338, 378 398n17
50:16 We are nearer to him than the jugular 57:4 He is with you wherever you are. 125,
vein. 12, 154, 249, 330, 364, 365 264, 343, 348, 364, 365, 366, 379,
50:22 .... "You were heedless of this, so We 392n35, 401n25, 405n27
have now unveiled from you your 57:7 that in which He has made you vice-
covering ... " . 119, 354 gerents. 114
50:29 The Word is not changed with Me. 298 57:11 Who is he that will lend to God a good
50:30 Are there any more? 412n4 loan .... 410n11
50:37 Surely in that there is a reminder for him 57:19 they have their wage and they have their
who has a heart. 107, 111, 377 light. 366
51:21 And in your souls-what, do you not 58:7 Three men whisper not together, but
see? 84 He is the fourth of them. 249
51:50 So flee to God! 158 58:11 God raises up ... those who have
51:51 And set not up with God another god. been given knowledge in degrees. 196
158 59:2 So take heed! 120
51:56 I createdjinn and mankind only to wor- 59:9 Whoso is guarded against the avarice of
ship Me. 65, 150, 311, 312, 393n44 his own soul. 317
53:3 He does not speak out of caprice. 241 59:19 They forgot ... so He made them forget
53:8 Then he drew close and He came down. themselves. 141
411n4 61:4 God loves those who fight in His path
53:23 They follow only surmise and the ca- in ranks . . . . 285
price of their souls. 151 61:14 Be helpers of God. 87
53:28 and surmise avails naught against the
62:2 It is He who has raised up from among
Real. 151
53:32 the unlettered people a Messenger
Surely thy Lord is wide in concealment.
207 from among them. 236
53:44 He makes to die and makes to live. 361 62:5 is as the likeness of an ass carrying books
53:45 He creates the two kinds, male and fe- .... 219
434 male. 361 64:1 God is Independent, Praiseworthy. 367
Index of Koranic Verses

65:1 Fear Allah, your Lord. 363 82:5 soul will know what it has sent before
65:12 He encompasses everything in know!- and left behind. 226
edge. 298, 347 82:8 composing you in whatever form He
66:6 They disobey not God in what He desired. 337
commands them. 68, 312, 331, 368 83:14 No indeed, but what they were earning
66:8 their light running before them and on has rusted upon their hearts. 403n16
their right hands. 194, 246 83:15 No indeed, but on that day they will be
67:14 Shall He not know, He who created, veiled from their Lord! 364
while He is the All-subtle, the All- 84:6 0 man, you are laboring toward your
aware? 298 Lord laboriously .... 20
68:4 Surely thou art upon a tremendous 85:16 accomplishes what He desires. 300
character. 21, 241 85:20 Allah is behind them, encompassing. 228
68:42 The shank shall be uncovered. 299 86:5 Let man consider of what he was created
69:10 seized them with a tightening grip. 315 .... 317
70:21 Surely man was created fretful .... 317, 86:16 They are devising guile, and I am clevis-
350 ing guile. 393n43
71:17 God makes you grow up from the earth 88:17 What, do they not consider how the
.... 83 camel was created? 165
72:18 The places of prostration belong to God 90:8-10 Have We not appointed for him two eyes
.... 365 .... 94, 362
72:19 When the servant of Allah stood calling 91:8 By the soul and Him who proportioned
on Him. 371 it .... 248
72:28 He has enumerated everything in num- 95:4 We indeed created man in the most
hers. 298 beautiful stature. 336
73:20 Lend to God a good loan. 327 95:8 the strongest of those who determine
76:3 whether he be thankful or unthankful. 94 properties. 376
77:8 When the stars shall be extinguished. 360 96:1-5 Recite: In the name of thy Lord, who
78:9-11 And We appointed your sleep for a rest created .... 247
96:14 Does he not know that God sees? 348
.... 120, 396n8
78:26 98:5 They are commanded only to worship
a suitable recompense. 299
God .... 327
79:24 I am your lord the most high. 23, 314
112:1-4 He is God, One .... 245, 337, 338
80:15 by the hands of noble and pious emis-
saries. 320

435
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INDEX OF HADITHS AND SAYINGS

The accident docs not remain for two moments God has seventy-or seventy thousand-veils of
[Ash'aritcs]. 97, 103 light and darkness .... 217, 328, 364, 401n19
All ~aqqs have a reality. 138 God has three hundred character traits. He who
Among the best of you is the most beautiful in assumes one of them as his own character trait
character traits. 22 will enter paradise. 283
The angels intercede, the prophets intercede, the God is, and nothing is with Him. 88, 90, 131, 132,
faithful intercede .... They sprout up like seeds 169, 319, 364, 393n13
sprout up in the wake of a flood. 396n24 God is in the kibla of him who performs the
Approach Me through that which I do not possess prayer. 51, 122, 198, 277, 365
-lowliness and poverty [Abu Yazid]. 40, 319 God is Time. 107, 395n7
Assume the character traits of God. 283 God is veiled from intellects (insights) just as He is
Be wary of the perspicacity of the man of faith, for veiled from sight . . . . 223, 368
he sees with the light of God. 304 God never discloses Himself in a single form to two
The best thing in the Scale on the Day ofJudgment individuals, nor in a single form twice [Abu
will be a beautiful character. 22 Talib Makki]. 103, 111, 231, 353
Death will be brought in the form of a salt-colored God surely rejoices more through the repentance of
ram. 124, 397n16 one of His servants .... 391n18
Do not curse the wind, for it derives from the God taught me courtesy, so how beautiful is my
Breath of the All-Merciful! 127 courtesy! 175
Every child is born according to primordial nature God will become wrathful with a wrath with the
.... 195 like of which .... 101
Every religion has its moral character . . . . 22 God wonders at a youth who has no sensual desire.
Every unveiling not borne witness to by the Book 392n33
and the Sunna is nothing [a Sufi]. 258 God would not forbid you to take usury and then
Faith has seventy or sixty and some branches . . . . take it from you Himself. 284
407n20 God's mercy precedes His wrath. xv, 23, 130, 291
Feed us with "fresh flesh" [Abu Madyan]. 224, 249 The good, all of it, is in Thy hands, while evil does
The Fire will continue to say, "Are there any more," not go back to Thee. 290, 291, 307
until the Overbearing places His foot within it. 361 Good-doing is that you worship God .... See
The first thing God created was the Intellect. 250 Worship God . . . .
The first thing through which revelation began for Had his certainty increased, he would have walked
the Messenger of God was veridical dreams . . . . upon the air. 326
404n24 Has any of yon seen a dream? 121
Give to each that has a right/due its right/due. 174, He came to be in a cloud, neither above which nor
178, 179 below which was any air. 125
Glory be to Him who has set down no path to He created the Garden of Eden with His hand . . ..
knowledge of Him except incapacity to know 397n3
Him [a Sufi]. 164 He is a light. How should I see Him? 217
Glory be to me [Abu Y azid]. 320 He is the Lord and King of every thing. 88
God created Adam upon His own form. 16, 17, He lowers the just scale and raises it. 173
162, 274, 277, 286, 287, 296, 319, 327, 362, He transmutes Himself into the form in which they
393n39, 399n4 saw Him the first time .... 38, 100, 336, 337,
God created the creatures in darkness. 389n16 338
God created the Garden of Eden and planted its He who comments according to his own opinion
trees with His hand. 397n3 becomes an unbeliever. 244
God does not become bored that you should be- He who dies knowing that there is no god but God
come bored. 101, 105, 109 will enter the Garden. 197
God has commanded me to restrain my soul with He who knows himself (his soul) knows his
them. 316 Lord. 107, 177, 250, 312, 344, 345, 346, 359,
God has folk among the people: the Folk of the 399n16
Koran, who are the Folk of Allah and His elect. He who misadvises us is not one of us. 178
239, 388n20 He who speaks about the Koran according to his
God has ninety-nine names, one hundred less one. He own opinion has taken up his place in the Fire.
who counts them will enter the Garden. 42, 369 405n16
Goq has placed the people in their waystations The heart is between two of the fingers of the All-
['A'isha]. 48 Merciful . . . . 111 43 7
Index of Hadiths and Sayings

The heart of My servant embraces Me. See My If a person sets down in Islam a good custom . . . .
heavens .... 258, 401n8
The hearts of all the children of Adam are like a If any of you has seen a dream, let him tell it to me
single heart between two of the fingers of the All- .... 396n10
Merciful . . . . 106 In a dream I was given a cup of milk . . . . 119
My heavens and My earth embrace Me not, but the In the days of your time, your Lord has fragrant blasts
heart of My believing servant does embrace Me. of mercy . . . . 406n5
107, 276, 339, 340, 348, 379, 396n30 In you are two qualities which God and His Messen-
Heralding visions are the dreams of the Muslim, and ger love: deliberation and forbearance. 288
they are one of the parts of prophecy. 249, 387n15 Incapacity to attain comprehension is itself compre-
Hiid and its sisters have whitened my hair. 300 hension [Abii Bakr]. 4, 112, 132, 155, 164, 345
I am Allah [Abii Yazid]. 320, 410n12 Is there a sign by which you will recognize God? 336
I am his hearing . . . , his sight . . . , and his It is a horn of light that Seraphiel has put to his
hand. 176, 326, 327, 328, 329. See My ser- mouth. 122
vant .... It is as if it is still ringing in my ears [Dhu'l-Niin].
I am more intense in my yearning to meet My servant 399n17
than he is in desiring Me. 344, 411n6 It is newly acquainted with my Lord. 249
I am the Real [al-I;Iallaj]. 320 Knowledge (faith) is a light which God throws into
I am with My servant's opinion of Me. 344, 411n6 the heart ... [a Sufi ?]. 170, 194, 215
I came to know everything in the heavens and the This knowledge of ours is delimited by the Book
earth. 395n17 and the Sunna [Junayd]. 258, 259
I came to know the knowledge of the ancients and The learned masters are the inheritors of the
the later folk. 150, 239, 240, 372 prophets. 377
I count not Thy praises before Thee .... 155, 165, 345 The learned masters of this community are the
I desire not to desire [Abii Yazid]. 307 prophets of the Children of Israel. 377, 405n12
I find the Breath of the All-Merciful coming to me Leave aside your self and come! [Abii Yazid]. 319
from the direction of Yemen. 127, 398n8 Our Lord descends to the heaven of this world every
I have divided the ritual prayer into two halves night .... 51, 125, 392n35
between Me and My servant .... 410n19 Thy Lord has finished with creation and character.
I have never seen anything without seeing God before 305, 337
it [Abii Bakr]. 102, 178, 215, 348 Your Lord has finished with the servants: a group
I have no attributes: See I have no morning .... in the Garden and a group in the Burning. 410n1
I have no morning and no evening ... ; I have Our Lord laughs at the despondency of His servants
no attributes [Abii Yazid]. 65, 376, 391n9 and the nearness of their change of state. 392n35
I love a cord, for it is constancy in religion. 397n14 My Lord-Mighty and Majestic is He-came to me
I never waver in anything I do (the way I waver ... ). at night in the most beautiful form . . . . 68
162, 330 Magnificence is My cloak and tremendousness My
I saw a light. 397n14 shawl .... 315
I saw Him as a light-how should I see Him? 397n14 Make me into a light! 225
I saw my Lord in theformofa youth. 116, 120, 396n3 Make your ranks solid . . . . 285
I seek refuge in God from a knowledge which has no Man dies in accordance with the way he lived .... 354
use. 149 The man of faith is the mirror of the man of faith.
I stood at the gate of the Garden. Most of the people 411n11
who entered it were from among the poor .... 378 Many have become perfect among men, but among
I was a prophet when Adam was between water and women only Mary and Asiya .... 296
clay. 239, 240 May God increase you in eager desire . . . . 307
I was a Treasure but was not known .... 66, 126, The Most Merciful of the merciful removes from the
180, 204, 250, 391n14, 391n17 Fire a group who had never done any good. 197
I was hungry, but you did not feed Me; I was ill The most perfect of the faithful in faith is the most
but you did not visit Me. 72, 329, 330, 392n33 beautiful of them in character. 21
I was sent to complete the noble (beautiful) character No Muslim takes up an abode in the mosques for the
traits. 22, 306, 308, 409n18 sake of prayer and invocation without God re-
I was sent with the all-comprehensive words. 239, ceiving him joyfully .... 392n33
306, 330, 396n17 None knows God but God [al-Kharraz et al.]. 4,
l will be the master of mankind on the Day of Res- 7, 28, 62, 69, 153, 233, 341, 411n3
urrection, without boasting. 239, 240, 322 Nothing remains of prophecy but heralding visions.
I will praise Him with words of praise which God will 387n15
teach me . . . . 153 0 God, I ask Thee by every name by which Thou
43 8 I will stand at the right hand of God .... 405n4 hast named Thyself .... 155, 156
Index of Hadiths and Sayings

0 God, increase my bewilderment in Thee! 199, 381 There is no power and no strength save in God, the
0 My servants, if the first of you and the last of All-high, the Tremendous. xiii, 326
you and the mankind of you and the jinn of you There is no verse of the Koran which does not have
.... , that would not diminish My kingdom an outward sense, an inward sense . . . . 363
by anything . . . . 85 There is nothing in possibility more wondrous than
0 son of Adam! I created the things for thee and I what is [al-Ghazali]. 409n6
created thee for Myself ["The Torah"]. 391n13 Through the fact that He brings opposites together
On the Day of Resurrection God will say, "0 son [al-Kharraz]. 67, 115, 116, 375
of Adam, I was ill and you did not visit Me." The truest verse sung by the Arabs is the line ofLabid,
... 392n33 "Is not everything other than God unreal?" 127,
One dirham outstrips a thousand. 378 315
One of the beauties of a man's Islam is that he refrains The Trusted Spirit blew into my heart .... 400n11
from that which is not his concern. 400n13 Two sentences are loved by the All-merciful . . . .
The paths to God are as numerous as the breaths of 397n15
the creatures [Sufi saying]. 303, 347 His veil is light. 224, 401n19
People are asleep, and when they die, they awake. The veridical dream is one-forty-sixth part of proph-
119, 120, 231 ecy. 397n11, 406n9
A person has no faith if his neighbor does not feel The water takes on the color of its cup Uunayd]. xiii,
secure from his calamity. 401n3 149, 229, 233, 341, 342, 344, 349
The person of faith is he before whom people feel Were Moses alive, he would find it impossible not to
secure .... 194 follow me. 240, 241
The person of faith is he before whose calamities What no eye has seen, what no ear has heard .... 379
his neighbor feels secure. 194 When Adam was between spirit and body. 405n8
Praise belongs to God for every state. 103 When God discloses Himself to a thing, it humbles
Prophecy and messengerhood have been cut off .... itself to Him. 103
261 When someone comes to Me running, I come to him
Read the Koran, since his character was the Koran. rushing. 111, 249, 405n26
241, 242 When someone remembers Me in himself, I remem-
Reflect upon all things, but reflect not upon God's ber him in Myself. 109
Essence. 62, 155 When they are seen, God is remembered. 265, 272
Sa'd is jealous, I am more jealous than Sa'd, and God While His two hands were closed, God said to Adam,
is more jealous than I. 295, 388n27 "Choose whichever you like." ... 114
Satan does not become imaginalized in my image. The wind comes from the Spirit of God .... 398n8
117, 406n34 The womb is a branch of the All-merciful. 330
The search for knowledge is incumbent upon every Worship God as if you see Him, (for if you do not see
Muslim. 147 Him, He sees you). 122, 198, 277, 339, 401n24,
Self-disclosure never repeats itself [Sufi axiom]. 18, 410n20
28, 103, 229, 274, 336 You are more knowledgeable [than I] in the best
My servant draws near to Me through nothing I love interests of this world of yours. 196
more than . . . . Then I am his hearing through You shall see your Lord just as you see the moon
which he hears .... 325, 330. See I am his on the night when it is full .... 217
hearing ....
You take your knowledge dead from the dead, but
Your soul has a right against you .... 400n12 we take our knowledge from the Alive who does
The soul is an ocean without shore [one of the not die [Abii Yazid]. 249
gnostics]. 154

439
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INDEX OF NAMES AND TERMS

abad, Y<i~at al-, 331 act(s) (afiil), 205-211, 331, 349, 375; of God, 5, 8,
Abaser (mudhill), 6, 36, 287, 361 9-12, 34, 42, 95, 109; of the servant, 194, 293;
'abath, 180 attributes (names) of, 62, 134, 287, 354; attributes
'Abbadan, 407n18 (names) of (contrasted with those of incomparabil-
'abd, 132, 308, 310; 'Abd al-'Allm, 370; 'AbdAllah, ity), 58, 70, 155, 172, 282, 284, 345, 391n28; an-
371; 'Abd al-Ba~lr, 370; 'Abd al-J:Iayy, 370; nihilation of, 207; avoidance of by God, 178;
'Abd al-Jami', 371; al-'abd al-kulll, 371; 'Abd al-Malik, presence of, 123; self-disclosure in, 208-209; all are
371; 'abd mamliik, 55; 'Abd al-Qadir, 370; 'Abd al- beautiful (good), 128, 293; all belong to God, 208,
Saml', 370; 'Abd al-Shakiir, 370, 371; 'Abd al- 293
Wadiid, 370; 'abduhu wa rasiiluhu, 24, 310; 'iibid, 44, activity (fi'l, failiyya), 140, 360
311; 'ubbiid, 373, 392n34; 'ibiida, 171, 311; al-'ibiidat 'ada, 99, 301; kharq al-'iida, 99, 265
al-'araqiyya, 45; al-'ibiidat al-dhiitiyya, 45; 'ubiida, adab,9,41, 88,172, 175,200,209;iidiib,272,407n18;
50,310, 329, 410n2; 'ubiidiyya, 24, 50, 56, 165, 310, al-adab al-iliihl, 67, 175; iidiib Allah, 175; sii' al-adab,
366, 410n2; ma'biid, 44, 311 xvi, 231; ad!b, 175; al-udabii', 210; al-ad!b al-
abdiil. See badal. iliihl, 177; ma'daba, 175
'iibid. See 'abd. 'adad, 412n3; a~~iib al-'adad, 243; muta'addid, 90
'iibir, 185 adiih, 72
abode (mawtin), 165, 281 a' dal. See 'ad/.
Abraham, 210, 377, 403n2 Adam, 4, 26, 28, 68, 142, 201, 241, 259, 296, 413n14;
abrogration (naskh), 108, 171, 258, 261, 268 created upon divine form, 276, 277, 399n4; created
absence (ghayba), 116, 119, 120, 176, 198, 279; con- with two hands, 277; in God's right hand, 114,
trasted with presence, 361 124; identical with perfect man, 276, 368, 372;
absorption (istighriiq), in love, 285-286 second to Mu]:tammad, 240; taught the names,
abstinence (wara'), 279, 280, 282-283 240, 276, 399n11; and Eve, 358
Abu'l-'Abbas al-Ashqar, 62 'adam, 7, 212; al-'adam al-azall, 246; al-'adam al-iqiifi,
Abu'l-'Abbas al-'Uryabl, 383n12, 407n19 7, 88; al-'adam al-mut/aq, 7, 87; ma'diim, SO, 81;
AbCt 'Abdallah (Mu]:tammad) ibn al-Kattanl, 62, ma'diimiit, 11; ma'diimiin, 87; arnr 'adam!, 55; urniir
169 'adamiyya, 36, 47
Abii Bakr, 4, 178, 215, 316, 324, 395n11, 411n9; aqdiid. See qidd.
(his words, "Incapacity ... "), 155, 345, 396n31; address (khitiib), 90, 230, 244, 251, 262; divine,
worthiness of for the imamate, 324 282; by Gabriel, 251; by the Law, 74, 177, 207,
Abii Bakr ibn 'Abdallah al-Maghafirl, 284 209, 210, 328; by the Real, 132, 201, 247
Abii Bakr ibn al-Ma'afirl, 408n11 'adhiib, 108
Abii Dharr, 397n14 adlb. See adab.
Abii Ghana'im ibn Abi'l-Futii]:t al-J:Iarranl, 'ad/, 22, 173, 174, 386n16; rnlziin al-'ad/, 386n6; a'dal,
XIV 351; i'tidiil, 304, 370, 386n16
Abtt J:Iabib J:Iamza ibn 'Abdallah al-'Ab- adornment (ta~alll, ta~liya) (defined), 314;
badani, 407n18 (mentioned), 43, 272, 280, 322, 323, 342
Abu'l-J:Iakam. See Ibn Barrajan. advance (taraqql), 269
Abii J:Iamid. See Ghazali. af iii. See fi' l
Abii Ibrahim Mustamll Bukhari, 396n7 afqal, 276
Abii 'Iqal al-Maghribi, 266, 407n16 Affifi, 384n15
Abii Jahl, 300 affinity (muniisaba), 261; scales of, 259
Abu'l-Ma'all, 63 affirmation (ithbiit), of attributes to God, 345; and
Abii Madyan, 149, 224, 249, 323, 404n19, 404n23 ne1~ation, 60, 113, 114, 115, 118, 164, 177, 211,
Abu'l-Qasim. See Qushayri. 260, 324, 366, 380
Abu'l-Qasim ibn Qasl. See Ibn Qasi. affliction (balii'), 107, 162
Abii Sa'id al-Kharraz, 62, 67, 115, 116, 243, 375, 'Afi fi. See Affifi.
405n14 ajkiir. See .fikr.
Abii Talib al-Makki, 103, 413n17 afterlife. See next world.
Abt1 Yaz!d Basraml, 37, 40, 65, 149, 249, 307, 'afii, 22
319,320,323,376,377,379,387n8,391n9,392n34, agent (jii'il), 57, 97, 114, 290, 292, 349
410n12 aghrii{ See gharaq.
Abii Zarln, 392n35 aghyiir. See ghayr.
Abii Zayd, N.H., 401n11 agreeableness (mula' arna), 291; with constitution, as
acceptance (qabiil), by reason (see reason) a criterion of good and evil, 292, 306, 309
accident(s) ('araq), 124, 216, 294, 367; cosmos as, a~ad, 58, 244-245; al-wii~id al-a~ad,
127; evil as, 291; accidental ('araql), 291; states, 390n17; a~adiyya, 36, 90, 235, 244, 278;
93; contrasted with esential (inherent, intrinsic), a~adiyyat al-a~ad, 25, 337, 364; a~adiyyat
160, 306, 316, 366. See also substance. al-'ayn, 349; a~adiyyat al-kalirna, 360; 441
Index of Names and Terms

a~ad (continued) the Essence, 66, 388n2, 390n17; as synonymous


a~adiyyat a/-kathra, 25, 364; a~adiyyat with al-~aqq, 132; Folk (ahl) of (defined), 239,
al-musamma, 387n6. See also wahid. 247, 388n20; (mentioned), xxi, 43, 99, 110, 111,
'ahd, 110 . 149, 155, 164, 166, 167, 168, 198, 203, 205, 206,
ahkam. See hukm. 207, 208, 213, 215, 219, 220, 227, 232, 239,
ahl Allah, 3S8n20, 400n3; ahl al-~aqq, 400n3; 244, 247-249, 257, 267, 280, 281, 285, 303, 329,
ahl al-kashf wa'l-wujud, 3, 212, 226; ahl al-naq~, 331, 338, 340, 346, 353, 354, 365, 379, 384n12,
269; ahl al-na?ar, 52, 160; ahl al-ra'y, 259; ahl 398n19; Folk and Elect of, 170, 222, 239, 341; Men
al-rusum, 244; ahi al-samii', 262; ahl al-tajriba, of (see man); one relationship of to all things, 57;
409n16; ahl al-ta'wil, 74 servant of, 371; straight path of, 301, 302; always
A~mad al- 'A~~ad al-l:farirl, 323 specified by another name, 302; brings together
ahsan. See husn. all good, 157; comprehends all names, 64, 66, 67,
a~wal. See ~a/. 157, 276, 302, 303, 304 (see also all-comprehensive);
a'imma. See imam. connected with perspicacity through faith, 304;
a~r (hawa), 125, 137; walking upon, 326 contrasted with All-merciful, 34; contrasted with
'A'isha, 48, 241, 242, 296, 404n24 He, 394n15; contrasted with the Real, 133; con-
ajal, 97 trasted with the servant, 132, 133; contrasted with
ajanib, 185 the divine thrall, 132; demands the cosmos, 50,
ajnas. See )ins. 390n17; denotes Divinity (or Level), 47; denotes
ajr, 55 God alone, 245; named by all objects of poverty,
'ajz, 110, 358; al-'ajz 'an dark al-idrak idrak, 396n31; 46, 303, 374
i'jaz, 330 allusion (ishara), 246, 249-250, 281, 289
akabir. See kabfr. Almohad, xi, 386n6
akhbar. See khabar. Almoravid, 386n6, 398n15, 399n5
akhdh, 157; akhdh al-mithaq, 154 'ama, 125
akhira,124 'ama/, 149, 151, 178, 193, 194, 256, 258; a'ma/, 171,
akhlaq. See khuluq. 205; al-'ama/ al-dhati, 282; 'amali, 162
Akhla~, 384n12 aman, amana. See amn.
akwan. See kawn. amani, 198
ala, 166; a/at, 120, 183 ambiguity, of existence, 11-12, 15, 112-113, 211
'a/aim. See 'a/am. 'amm. See 'umum.
'a/aiq. See 'alaqa. amn, 194; aman, 157; amana, 175, 275; iman, 45, 193,
a/am, 156 282, 335, 397n13; al-iman a/-a~1i, 195; al-.firasat
'a/am, 155, 245; ism 'a/am, 66; 'a/am, 4-5, 83; 'a/am al-imaniyya, 304; mu'min, 22, 194, 282; 'alim mu'min,
al-anfas, 205; 'a/am al-arwa~, 391n25; 'a/am 75, 196
al-ghayb al-mu~aqqaq, 140; al-'alam a/-~ayawani, amr, 84, 100, 138, 140, 148, 172, 367, 401n5; amr
119; 'a/am ~aghir, 16; 'a/am al-shahada, 114; 'a/am 'adam!, 55; umur 'adamiyya, 36, 47; al-amr al-i/ahi,
al-shuhud, 114; 'alama, 41, 83, 189, 215, 221, 228, 141; al-amr al-iradi, 295; amr ma'qui, 35; al-amr al-
255, 336; 'ala'im, 163 taklifi, 293; al-amr al-takwini, 292; amr thubUti, 71;
'a/aqa: qa( al-'alaiq, 111; ta'al/uq, 48, 60; muta 'allaq, amr wujudi, 233, 290; umur wujudiyya, 36; fl nafs
40 a/-amr, 97; ~ighat a/-amr, 293; ulu'l-amr, 72; amri,
a/at. See ala. 311
Alexandria, 384n12 'Amr. See Zayd.
'Ali (ibn Abi Talib), 248, 396n7, 411n9 amthal. See mithl.
'ali, 23, 58; 'ulwi, 14; muta'a/i, 35, 58 an, 18; .fi'l-anat, 18
'alim, 'alim. See 'ilm. 'ana', 108
Alive (al-hayy). 285, 320; as precondition of analogy (mithal), 85
names, 49, 52 anatomy (tashnq), 284; divine, 284; of man, 276
all-comprehensiveness Uam', jam'iyya), 195, 239; of anfas. See nafas.
the Koran, 239; Presence of, 54; all-comprehensive angel(s) (malak, malaika), 4, 13, 14, 15, 18, 73, 84,
Uami'), name, 5, 30, 188, 239, 274, 276, 302, 371, 91, 93, 117, 170, 257, 268, 330, 354, 368, 406n6;
380; engendered thing, 30, 239; presence, 54, 126, enraptured, 140, 413n23; of revelation, 164, 261;
188; words, 104, 239, 240, 241, 306, 330, 396n17; bodies of, 126; casting of (see casting); dispute
servant of the, 371. See Allah. of, 38, 67-68, 141, 142, 356; failure of to dream,
All-merciful. See mercy. 121; failure of to witness self-disclosure, 216;
All-provider. See provision. knowledge (sciences) of, 162, 217, 239; known
Allah (defined), 5, 8, 9, 20, 49, 66-67, 132-133; station of, 295; objection of to creation of Adam,
(discussed), 16, 27-28, 34, 35, 46, 54, 56, 59, 62, 142; prostration of, 152, 399n11; witnessing of (by
95, 282, 301; 'AbdAllah, 371; ahl Allah, 388n20, the friends), 252, 260, 262; contrasted with human
400n3; arq Allah al-wasi'a, 179; ma siwa Allah, being (see man); have no prohibitions, 312; per-
4, 39; rijal Allah, 402n18; as coincidence of form only obligatory works, 328; the angel created
opposites, 59, 67, 188; as a correlative term, 60; from man's soul, 142-143; angelic (malaki), spirits,
442 as the end of every path, 302, 303; as a name of 312. See Gabriel, plenum, Seraphiel.
Index of Names and Terms

animals (i]ayawan), 84, 117, 142, 152, 162, 206, a~l. 37, 259, 288; al-a# al-iliihl, 10; u~iil, 256;
246, 295, 301, 403n18; rational (see rational); below u~iil al-fiqh, 166; a~ll, 287, 312; al-lman al-
human level, 196, 403n18; constantly renewed a~ll, 195; al-mlzan al-a~l1, 391n21; al-wujiid
knowledge of, 218; animal man (see man); being al-a~ll al-iqafi, 88; bi'l-a~ala, 43
addressed by an imaginal animal, 262; animate asmii'. See ism.
(i]ayawiinl), plane, 121; soul, 160; world, 119 aspiration (himma), 104, 218, 373, 376; ascents of,
annihilation (fanii'), 93, 94, 116, 119, 217, 229, 230, 257. See also Resolve.
328, 368, 404n24; of acts, 207; by a state, 176, 212; 'A~r. 370-371, 412n11; mu'ta~ar, 371
contrasted with subsistence, 219, 321; annihilation association (of others with God) (shirk), 108, 137,
(halak), ofthings, 102, 118 195, 197, 205, 206, 252, 312, 343, 350, 360, 361,
An~ari, 385n5 363; (of Unity with Lordship), 244; as the only
antinomianism, 289 unforgiveable sin, 197
anwar. See niir. assumption (of the traits of the names). See traits.
anzal, 50 astrology, 40
approval (riqii), divine, 150-151, 183, 300, 305 Astuac, 386n4
'aqaba, 318 athar, 9, 35, 39, 265; al-athar al-kawniyya, 367; ta'thlr,
'aqd, 336, 353; 'aqlda, 227, 335; i'tiqad, 193, 194, 335 141, 388n3
'iiqi/. See 'aql. atom (jawhar fard), 278
'aql, 63, 70, 107, 136, 147, 159, 235, 386n14, 412n7; attentiveness (tawajjuh), (defined), 280; (mentioned),
al-'aql al-awwal, 413n23; (warii') tawr al-'aql, 75, 61, 86, 101, 102, 103, 283; divine, 297; of divine
169; ahl al-'uqiil, 160; 'aqll, 63, 159, 173, 198; burhiin name(s), 48, 279, 280, 319; of the heart, 277
'aqll, 169; 'iiqil, 159; 'uqalii', 160, 238, 146; 'uqala' attributes (~ifiit), 36, 65, 95, 100; divine (defined),
al-majanln, 266; ma'qiil, 35, 59, 136, 138; ma'qiiliit, 5, 9-10, 34, 52; (mentioned), 286; divine and en-
217; 'iqiil, 107 gendered, 102; eternal, 73, 181; lordly, 313; nega-
Aqra' ibn I;Iabis, 316 tive (contrasted with positive), 59; positive (of self:
Arab(s), 250; Arabic, 35, 245; Arabic alphabet, 128 see positive); of acts (contrasted with those of
'araq, 71, 291; a'raq, 97, 124; 'araql, 45, 160, incomparability: see acts); of creatures as mani-
366 festation of Essence, 182; of the Essence, 61; of
a'riis, 86 God, 196; of God as man's trust, 317; of imper-
arbab. See rabb. fection, 179, 182; of incomparability, 62, 172 (see
archetype, 84 also acts); of majesty, 112; of negation, 59, 172;
architect, 390n 16 of perfection, 182; of self, 65, 101, 110 (see also
ard Allah al-wiisi'a, 179 positive); of temporally originated things, 181;
argument (IJujja), 195, 207, 299; conclusive, 206, names of, 354; nonexistence of, 73; practice of, 282;
297-301, 308; rational, 165; of God against the allow for similarity, 73; contrasted with entity,
servants, 196; of the Law, 156 315; negated from God (see negation); negated from
'iirif. See ma'rifo. perfect man, 376-379; unknowability of their
Aristotle, 384n13 mode of ascription, 288; Attributists (~ifiitiyyiin),
arithmeticians, 243, 250 65. See names.
arkan, 13 audition (listening) (sama), 212-213; of creature con-
Armenian, 386n4 trasted with speech of God, 128, 183, 213, 322
arrogance (takabbur), 307 Austin, R.W.J., xx
'arsh, 51, 107 authority (sultan), 63, 87, 102, 103, 115, 202,
art (~an'a), artifact (ma~nii'), 45, 173, 320, 344 265; of the names, 53; following authority (taqlld),
articulation, place of (makhraj), 128-129, 130 (defined), 166-167; (mentioned), 154, 169, 244,
a~ala. See a~/. 344, 350, 354, 389n11; by faith, 197; of God, 166,
asbiib. See sabab. 167, 170, 188, 365; by imagination, 166; of parents,
ascent, ascension (mi'riij, 'uriij), 43, 282, 342; of 195; of reflection by reason, 166, 182, 188; as the
aspirations, 257; ladder of, 219-220, 406n6; con- root of all knowledge, 166, 167, 188, 350; con-
trasted with descent, 181, 342, 406n6 trasted with being "upon insight," 202; contrasted
ascetic discipline (riyaqa), 110, 111, 245, 280, 305 with ijtihad, 166; contrasted with proofs, 195; con-
asceticism. See renunciation. trasted with verification, 166; legal authority (see
ashiib. See suhba. legal)
A~ha.ij 'Abd ;1-Qays (al-'A~ari), 288, 408n17 avarice (shui]IJ), 307
Ash'ari, al-Shaykh Abu'l-J::Iasan a!-, 391n8; Avenger, Vengeful (muntaqim), 20, 36, 40, 55, 150
Ash'arite(s), 33, 62, 63, 70, 73, 97, 98, 203, 204, Averroes. See Ibn Rushd.
205-211, 237, 336, 353 Avicenna, xviii, 12, 70, 116
ashkhiis. See shakhs. awe (hayba), 37; contrasted with intimacy, 279, 360,
Ashtiy.ani, Sayyidjalal al-Din, xxii, 383n11, 385n21, 361, 379
394n17 aw'iya, 87
Asin Palacios, M., 386n1, 399n5 awliyii'. See wall.
Asiya, 296, 409n7 aya, 140, 336, 358; iiyat, xv, 13, 43, 82, 89,. 92, 99,
asking (su'iil). See prayer. 141, 164, 268 443
Index of Names and Terms

a'yan. See 'ayn. bringing to be (takwin), 152, 153, 331. See


ayn, 125; ayniyya, 236, 366; ayniyyat, 111 engendering.
'ayn, 36, 52, 83, 84, 114, 389n9; a'yan, 35, 36; fi' 1- beauty (jamal), and majesty, 23-24, 150, 279, 360,
a'yan, 83; 'ayn al-~aqq, 83; 'ayn mawjiida, 84; 'ayn 361, 376, 379, 412n101; contrasted with perfection,
al-shay' huwa 'ayn al-shay', 389n10; 'ayn al-ta~klm, 370, 376, 379; beautiful (~asan), courtesy, 175;
268; 'ayn thabita, 12, 83, 84; al-a'yan al-thabita, 7; most beautiful names (see names)
al-'ayn al-wa~ida, 83, 182; 'ayn al-yaqln, 166, 251; bee, 162, 403n 18
a~adiyyat al-'ayn, 349; dhu'l-'aynayn, 362; Ia 'ayn beetle, 196
fl'ayn, 36; wujiid al-'ayn, 61; al-wujiid al-'aynl, 41, 48, beginninglessness (azal), 62
154; ta'yln, 39, 48, 154; ta'ayyun, 83, 85 Being (wujiid), (defined), 6-8, 12; (mentioned), 16,
'Ayn al-Quqat Hamadani, 411n9 22, 102, 132, 133, 188, 260, 299; all-inclusive, 354;
azal, 62, 64, 101; al-' adam al-azall, 246 all-pervading, 111; Divine, 53; eternal (contrasted
'a?lm, 21, 23; a'?am, 50 with temporally originated existence), 61, 137-
'aziz. See 'izza. 138, 276; Nondelimited, 30, 109, 204-205, 252,
'azl, 51 290, 292, 357; One, 129; Real, 116, 231; Sheer, 95;
True, 118; verified, 118; mirror of, 205, 299;
badal: abdal, 360 Oneness of (see Oneness); perfection of, 294; prior-
badaya, hi (arlq al-, 115 ity of over existence, 286-287; belongs only
Badr, battle of, 126, 397n6 to God, 95, 364; contrasted with entities, 231;
Badr al-I:labashi, 'Abdallah al-Yamani, xiv, contrasted with existence, 6-7, 14, 24, 79-81,
384n14, 386n4 112-113, 133, 324, 331, 337, 357, 380; contrasted
Baghdad, 267 with nonexistence (see nonexistence); Being/
bada', 40 existence, 80, 94, 132, 137, 324, 326; nothing in
ha'ith, 351 Being/existence but God, 94, 95, 96, 113, 133,214,
bakhil See bukhl. 284, 290. See existence, Necessary Being.
bala', 107, 162; ibtilii', 313 belief(s) (i'tiqad, 'aqlda), (defined), 194,335-336, 340;
Ba'lbak, 390n17 (mentioned), 303, 337-344, 349; the god of, 339,
banner of praise (liwa' al-~amd), 239, 240 343-344, 351, 355; God's self-disclosure in form
baqii', 219, 321 of, 209, 217, 303, 336, 338, 339, 340, 355; ima-
Baqillani, al-Qaqi Abu Bakr Mul).ammad a!-, ginalization of, 354; negation of in the hereafter,
391n8 155; diversity of, 338, 339-340; vision of God in
baraka, 273 form of, 339; all accepted by God, 252; all accepted
barhami, 237 by gnostics, 349, 352-355; contrasted with faith,
bari', 35 194, 335, 347; contrasted with sciences, 218; deter-
barr, 22 mined by divine names, 355; determined by
barzakh (defined), 14, 117-118, 124; (mentioned), oneself, 66, 105, 344, 351; governed by imagina-
XV, 21, 34, 39, 58, 61, 68, 81, 123, 125, 136, 139, tion, 339; precedes witnessing, 227
181, 205, 354, 357, 361; al-barzakh al-a'la, 125; beloved (ma~biib). See love.
barzakh al-barazikh, 30; barzakhi, 14, 355; Barzakh beneficence (i~san), 282
(defined), 125-126, 181, 204-205; (mentioned), bestowal (wahb, mawhiba), (defined), 200-201;
134, 143, 182, 184, 214, 362; Supreme, 125, 139, (mentioned), 268; divine, 247; sciences of, 200;
143, 204, 357; of barzakhs, 30, 125, 204; of contrasted with earning, 200, 222, 231, 259, 264,
imaginalization, 219; as locus of similarity, 181, 278, 280; contrasted with reflection, 169; bestowals
183; as the most perfect world, 125 (mawahib), states as, 222, 264, 278, 280
ba~ar, 89, 127, 223; kashf ba~arl, 206; ba{ir, bewilderment (~ayra, ta~ayyur), 3, 4, 29, 74,
49; 'Abd al-Ba~ir, 370; ba~ira, 89, 119, 168, 105, 114, 149, 185, 195, 199, 206, 207, 211, 215,
219, 223 296, 349, 358, 380-381
base character traits (safsaf al-akhlaq). See trait. Bilal, 316
bashariyya, 176 blame (dhamm, lawma), 272; blameworthy (madh-
ba~lr. See ba~ar. miim) (contrasted with praiseworthy), 175, 176,
bas(, 375 208, 210, 260, 271, 304, 305, 308, 315, 373; people
bat, 224 of blame (malamiyya), 174, 314, 372-375, 387n8,
hatil, 127, 132, 133, 236 387n17, 389n11, 390n5, 392n34
ba(in, xiii, 16, 89, 120, 129, 152, 158, 196, 218, blessing (baraka), companionship of, 273; to seek
245, 246, 260, 327, 338, 351; al-ba(iniyya, 363 blessing (tabarruk), 323
ba(n, 363 bliss (na'lm), 106, 227; contrasted with chastisement,
ba(sh al-shadld, al-, 40 164, 230, 299, 302
bayan, 156 body (corporeal) (jism,jasad), 72, 102, 141, 185, 325;
Bayrak al-Jerrahi al-Halveti, Sheikh Tosun, 412n9 corporeous, 185; dense, 141, 142; elemental, 395n7;
Be (kun), 41, 45, 54, 87, 88, 89, 90, 93, 102, 126, luminous, 126; natural, 234; translucent, 140, 141;
128, 204, 213, 245, 292, 293, 297, 311, 321, 322, universal, 398n22; of man, 173; of man as the "wide
444 360, 397n3; man's saying "Be!", 178, 313, 350; earth," 179; reaction of to a state, 262; world of,
Index of Names and Terms

134; speech of bodily parts, 294, 395n16. See cor- charismatic acts (gifts) (kariimat), 99, 265, 373
poreal, spirit. chastisement ('adhiib), 108, 156, 161, 311
Boewering, G., 407n18 chivalry (fotuwwa), 65-66, 373, 374
book (kitiib), People of the, 194; and Sunna, 121, Chodkiewicz, M., xvii, xix-xx, 4, 27, 383n11,
258, 259, 262, 272, 389n8. See Koran. 383n12, 385n25, 387n9, 401n11, 402n12,
boredom (mala/), 101, 105-106, 187 413n15
bounds (~udud), of God, 168, 272, 312, 365; of Chodkiewicz-Addas, C., xi, 383n12, 387n6, 410n13
the Law, 168 circle (da'ira), the cosmos as, 216; the Divine Presence
bowing (ruku'), 315; of gnostics before tyrants, 315 as, 25
brahmin, 237, 270 daim(s), (making) (da'wa, iddi'ii), 65, 72, 94, 106, 152,
brain (damiigh), 351 158, 195, 266, 314, 320, 331; as a divine attribute
breath (nafas), 212, 294, 303, 368, 377; possessor of, (connected to Form), 195, 317, 318; of the Sufis,
212; world of, 205-206, 402n18; from the All- 373, 374
merciful, 323; of the All-merciful, (defined), 127- day (tin), 13; world of, 4; contrasted with spirit,
130; (mentioned), xv, 19, 23, 34, 97, 126, 130, 131, 17
133, 134, 140, 180, 181-182, 297, 337, 338, 357, Clement (al-~alfm), 246, 340
391n25, 402n18; as derived from love, 126, 128, dime (iqllm), seven, 370
131; as derived from Nature, 140; compared with clothing (thawb), of existence on entity, 85, 102, 204
human breath, 127-132; identified with First In- Cloud ('amii'), 125-129, 131-138, 181, 338, 379;
tellect, 159; relieves the names, 130-131 distinguished from the Breath, 126
Brethren of Purity (Ikhwan ~afa'), 411n3 coincidence of opposites (jam' al-a4diid). See
bride ('arns), of God, 272 opposites.
bridge, narrow (~ira(), 207 color(s) (alwiin), 139, 324
bu'd, 151, 319 command (amr), 54, 90, 98, 101, 140, 261, 267, 360,
Bugia, 404n19 403n18; accidental (contrasted with essential), 367;
bukhar, 45 divine, 141, 205, 256, 261, 266, 293, 319, 365;
Bukhar1, 171, 303 engendering (contrasted with prescriptive), 292-
bukhl, 306; bakhi1, 42 294, 295, 297, 310, 321, 346-347, 349, 367; pre-
Burckhardt, T., 398n10 scriptive, 300; of God (engendering), 245, 378; of
burhan, 64; burhan 'aqlf, 169 God (prescriptive), 168, 183, 207, 256, 367; world
burnj, 359 of, 142; contrasted with creation, 142, 293; con-
burnz, 134 trasted with prohibition (or the forbidden), 172,
bushrii, 262 178, 207, 263, 294, 308, 312, 324; contrasted with
bustiin al-~aqq, 294 imperative mood, 293
commentary (tafslr), xv, 199, 244-250; of the Folk
call (nida', du'a'), 55, 293, 367, 377-378; of the names, of Allah, 244, 245, 246-250; all is true, 244. See
55. See prayer. interpretation, Koran.
camel (jamal), passing through eye of needle, 218 common people ('iimma, 'umum), (defined), 387n17;
capacity (wus', quwwa), 93, 107, 109, 110, 267 (mentioned), 72, 75, 151, 196, 225, 247, 345, 353;
caprice (hawa), (defined), 137, 161; (mentioned), 20, contrasted with elect, 43, 260, 380, 387n17; con-
177, 202, 256, 257, 269, 351; contrasted with rea- trasted with friends, 251, 252; contrasted with
son, 161, 179 gnostics, 116, 214; similar to People of Blame,
casting (ilqii'), 249, 258, 261; of the angels, 252, 260- 372, 374, 375
261, 262; into heart, 403n18; of the inrush, 267; common usage ('urf), 315; and Law, 46, 288; and
of the satans, 271; casters (mulqiyat), 260 reason, 240
categories (maquliit), 75, 349 community (umma), 272, 308, 353
cause ('ilia, sabab), 74, 95, 176; first, 44, 45, 177; companions (a~~iib), of Ibn al-'Arab1, (defined),
secondary causes (asbab), 44-46, 129, 157, 158, 149, 392n34; (mentioned), 72, 123,247, 273, 412n5;
159,175-177,180,206,222,292,373,374, 378;as (mentioned by name), 169, 323; of the Prophet,
God's names, 44; abolishment of (by possessor of 251, 270
states), 177, 265; darkness of, 179; established by companionship (~u~ba), 271, 272; of blessing, 273;
God, 44, 176, 177, 179; poverty toward, 45-46, contrasted with training, 273; companionship,
374. See veil. unceasing (isti~~iib), 105, 106
certainty (yaqln), 227, 326; eye of, 166, 251; knowl- compass (i~iita), 49, 51, 52
edge of, 251 competition (muza~ama), 90, 312-313, 322
chameleon, 99 composition (tarklb), 142, 356
chance (ittifoq), 167, 168, 256 compulsion (jabr), 297; (iq(irar), 56, 328, 330-
change (taghayyur, taghylr), 54, 96, 100, 103, 107; 331
none in the Real, 231, 337; changing (tabdi1), 102; Concealing (al-ghafor), 246, 340; All-concealing (al-
continual change (tabaddul), 61, 97, 102, 118 ghaffor), 281
character (khuluq), 241, 283, 304, 350; good, 373, concentration (jam'iyya), 223, 264, 265
374; tremendous, 241. See traits. concept(ualization) (ta~awwur), 113, 125 445
Index of Names and Terms

conditionality (tawqif), 41, 42 names), 16, 48, 52-53, 114, 264; as a mark, 83,
configuration (nash'a), 68, 178, 238, 312, 352, 379; 189; as mercy, 131; as one in spite of manyness, 41,
human, 128-129,152, 195,276,287,317,319,339; 84, 338; as possessing two sides and a center, 216;
last, 286; most perfect, 128, 276, 319; original, 230; as properties of the Real, 40; as sought by the
of the soul, 305; of this world, 307; Configurer names, 40-41, 50, 52, 60-61, 390n17; as words of
(munshi'), 311 God (see word); beginning of, 216; delimitation
conflict (niza', tanazu'), 55-56, 67 of, 188; divine form of (see form); entrance of into
connection (ta'alluq), 48, 49, 51, 54, 60, 62, 70, existence (see existence); eternity of (see eternity};
209, 389n8 forms of, 120, 123, 134; interconnectedness of,
consciousness, inmost (sirr), 152, 158, 249, 257, 272, xxi, 177; necessary perfection of, 296; nonexistence
319, 367 of, 84, 85; perception by in state of nonexistence,
consensus (ijmii'), 272, 273 93, 101, 102, 104, 132, 183, 245-246; prostration
consideration (rational) (na+ar), (defined), 159- of, 311; realities of brought together by man, 286;
160, 165-166; (mentioned), xiii, xiv, 71, 74, 75, science of, xxi; servanthood of, 61; signs of (see
110, 156, 163, 167, 169, 180, 188, 194, 195, 198, signs); worlds of, 4-5 (see also world); worship
201, 202, 217, 218, 232, 237, 243, 328, 342, 350, (glorification) by, 71, 157, 294, 311-312, 368;
351, 360, 363, 379; reflective, 60, 149, 166, 170, created for its own sake, 65, 86, 367; created for
235, 328, 344; sound, 84, 116; contrasted with knowledge of God, 76, 216
reason's acceptance, 238; contrasted with unveil- cosmology, 5, 12-16, 100, 128, 131, 139, 143; rela-
ing, 197, 345; considerative (na;;ari), proofs, tivity of cosmological terms, 13-15
181; sciences, 163; considerative thinkers, people courtesy (adab), (defined), 175-178; (mentioned), 9,
of consideration (nu;;;;ar, na;;iriin, ahl 41, 42, 66, 88, 122, 172, 200, 206, 209-210, 211,
al-na+ar, ~a~ib al-na+ar), 52, 60, 74, 84, 237, 265, 270-271, 273, 320, 346, 355, 367; divine,
121, 167, 203, 233, 237; Muslim, 201 67, 175, 177, 288; in love, 107; divine root of, 175;
constancy (thabat), imaginalized as a cord, 126 lack of (see discourtesy); people of, 379; rules of,
constellations (buru;), 68, 359 175, 271, 272; teaching of, 166, 308; brings together
constitution (miziij), 160, 220, 230, 271, 307, 350; all good, 175; man of courtesy (adlb), 175; divine,
balanced, 351; harmonious, 262; perfect, 348, 352; 177; the Courteous (al-udabii'), 210, 271, 272, 273
necessary diversity of, 338, 342, 347, 351 covenant (mfthaq), 195, 338; taking of, 154, 155,
container (;;arf), 127, 134 195, 234-235; covenant ('ahd), with God, 110, 272
contraction (qab4), 131, 280, 340; contrasted with covetousness (sharah), 306, 307
expansion, 361, 375 cowardice (jubn), 307
contradiction (tanaquq), in divine reports, 188; creating, Ever- (khallaq), 98, 99, 102, 105, 281; man
contradictory (naqlq), 66, 112, 204 as, 178
contrariety (taqabul), 67-68, 142; of the names, 361; creation (khalq), 389n16; divine, 178; first, 123, 206;
of servant and Lord, 324; contrary names (al-asmii' as the Barzakh between light and darkness, 214,
al-mutaqabila), 67, 68, 303, 361; contraries 362; imperfection of, 43; purpose of, 65, 76, 150,
(naqlq), 116, 184, 324 216, 368; renewal of, 96, 97-98, 99, 105, 111, 153,
control, governing. See governing. 156, 157, 229, 338; stages of, 399n4; three kinds of,
convention (waq'), 51, 236, 292; conventional 397n3; world of, 142; cannot judge the Creator,
(waq'f), 311 198; contrasted with command, 142, 293; con-
Corbin, Henry, ix, x, xvii, xix, xx, xxii, 15, 199, trasted with performance (see performance); con-
382n3, 382n5, 386n1, 401n11, 402n12 trasted with the Real (see real); follow's God's
corporeal (jismanf), world (contrasted with spiritual knowledge, 206
world), 4, 5, 134, 391n25; contrasted with spiritual, Creator (khaliq), 11, 131, 311; created thing as, 313;
14, 309 (see also body); corporeal things (ajsam), 73 demands created things, 64, 177
corporealization (tajsfm, tajassum), 75; of meanings, creatures (khalq), 11, 99
126 cup, and wine, 109
corporeous (jasadf), 401n29, 403n6; body, 185, curtain(ing) (sitr), 176; world of, 117; contrasted with
405n30; forms, 184, 185 disclosure, 105-106, 361; contrasted with mani-
correlation (iqiifa), 60-61, 64 festation, 376
corruption (jasad), 142; of imagination (see imagi- Cushitic, 386n4
nation); of consideration (or reflection), 124, 164,
166-167, 169 qabit, 282; qabt, 112
cosmos ('a/am), (defined), 5, 18, 83, 127, 156; as daj'a, 96
body and spirit, 359; as chronically diseased, 347; dahr, 100, 107, 303
as correlative of Divinity, 61; as derived from dii'im. See dawam.
speech and listening, 128, 183, 213; as denoting da/ala, 35, 36, 74, 92, 115, 153, 196, 215; dall/, 62,
God's existence, 188; as a divine transcription, 297; 193, 390n6; dala'il, 163; istid/al, 169, 217
as a dream, 119, 120; as evanescent, 127; as the Damascus, xi, xiv, 384n12
farthest thing from God, 319; as God's body, 93; daqlqa, 281
as God's self-disclosure, 298; as imagination (see I;>ar1r al-Silawi, al-, 62
446 imagination); as loci of manifestation (for the darkness (;;ulma), (defined), 213-214, 224; (men-
Index of Names and Terms

tioned), 142; sheer, 214, 362; true, 140; of en- destiny (qadar), 272, 314; mystery of, 412n13
gendered existence, 214, 224; of ignorance, 196, destruction (haliik), 269; through knowledge, 269
224; as a kind of light, 140; of Nature, 140, 142, dhiit, 5, 135, 385n6; dhawiit, 379; dhiit al-asmii', 135;
163, 407n17; as a veil, 215; divine names as, 58; dhiitl, 45, 83, 130, 160, 166, 311, 319, 349, 366,
contrasted with light (see light); contrasted with 368; al-'amal al-dhiitl, 282; ~add dhiitl, 279
shadow, 94, 215 dhawq, 3, 44, 70, 86, 153, 158, 168, 220, 392n36,
qiirr, 287 394n19
qariira, 167, 188, 234; qariirl, 160, 194, 328; dhihnl, al-wujud al-, 83
qariiriyyiit, 237 dhikr, xii, 63, 109, 265; tadhakkur, 154
David, 203, 371 dhilla, 40; mudhill, 6, 36, 287
da'wii, 65, 94, 152, 195; mudda'l, 152 Dhu'l-Niin al-Mi~ri, 154, 399n17
dawiim, 'ala'/-, 97; dii'im, 93 qidd: atfdiid, 103;jam' (bayn) al-aqdiid, 59, 112,
day (yawm), 98; of the task, 98; Days of God, 395n7; 115; jam'uhu al-4iddayn, 67; atfdiid mutaniifira,
day(time) (nahiir), and night, 120, 181, 225, 380, 68; tatfiidd, 141
395n7 differentiation (taft.ll), 94, 157, 221, 395n7,
death (mawt), 173, 279-280, 354-355, 41ln2; as de- 403n18; of existence, 283; contrasted with undif-
parture of spirit, 234; as ignorance, 234-235; em- ferentiation, 87, 131, 154, 181
bodiment of, 124; removal of covering at, 343 4i~k, 395n35
deception (makr), 256, 257; by the ego, 257; by God, Dii}.ya (al-Kalbi), 117, 126, 355, 356, 396n4
76,151,187,267-269,270,287,318, 374,393n43; qlq, 111, 122, 131
by unveiling, 257; protection from God's, 268, disagreement (khiliif), among Sufis, 264, 266, 273,
318; Best of Deceivers (khayr al-miikirln), 73 280
decree (qaqii'), and destiny, 272, 314 disciple (murld, tilmldh), 271-274, 322, 373; training
definition (~add), 319-320; essential, 70, 279, 319 of, 224-225, 271, 272; cannot have two shaykhs,
degrees, Uplifter of (raj!' al-darajiit), 12, 48, 49. See 273; and shaykh, 224-225, 271-274, 281,
ranking in degrees. 324
deiformity (ta'alluh), 316 discipline. See ascetic discipline.
delimitation (taqyld), 188, 227, 238, 328, 337, 377; disclosure (self-)(tajalll) (of God), (defined), 91-92,
world of, 109; contrasted with nondelimitation, 164, 196, 216-220; (mentioned), 29-30, 61, 118,
107, 109-112, 163, 177, 211, 231, 282, 287, 290, 251, 267, 277, 296, 390n1, 404n18; all-merciful and
339-340, 344, 347, 352, 354, 355, 356, 378, 379, all-inclusive (contrasted with specific and in-
381 dividual), 216; divine, 92, 134, 168, 169, 187, 196,
deliverance (najiit), 365; through knowledge, 150, 151 216, 217, 219, 228, 230, 271, 282, 311, 406n15;
demonstration (burhiin), 64, 136, 156, 198, 199, 236, unseen (contrasted with visible), 339; in acts, 208-
299, 300; rational, 122, 169, 181 209; in all things, 46, 126, 187, 216, 349; as the
denial (inkiir), 164, 227; of God in His self-disclosure, Barzakh, 181; in forms, 215, 220, 221, 230, 231,
103, 110, 111, 126,228,336,338,352, 355; by Law, 342, 352-353, 366; in forms of beliefs (see belief);
243; of prophets (or friends), 194, 197, 236, 248; in forms of immutable entities, 298; in hearts, 126,
by rational faculty, 154, 243 338, 406n15; in images, 229; as light(s), 93, 216-
denotation (daliila), 163-164; of God, 92, 115, 153; 220; in loci of manifestation, 217, 342; through
of the names, 35, 36-38, 47, 66, 350; God's denot- the name Manifest, 218; to the manifest and non-
ing (proving) Himself, 65, 164, 255, 298 manifest dimensions of soul, 218-219; as mani-
density (kathiifa), contrasted with subtlety, 141; dense festation, 342; in meaning, 220-221; in names, 124,
(kathif), 141, 142; natural world, 223; contrasted 220-221; in next world, 228; as proofs of divine
with subtle, 14, 164 names, 187; in rational concepts, 227; as the reason
deputy (nii'ib), of Mui}.ammad, 241; of the Real, for the declaration of similarity, 155; as source of
271, 343, 368; deputation, deputyship (niyiiba), 99, faith, 196; in Unity (impossibility of), 346; in veils,
286; names of, 210; God's, 72 230, 313; from behind the veil, 217; everlasting-
descent (nuziil), gentle divine, 361; imaginal, 348; ness of, 93; knowledge gained by, 94, 111, 169,
of the gnostic to a state, 265-266; of God, 43, 72, 185, 216, 219, 238, 262, 321; non-repetition of,
73, 111, 180, 185, 187, 278, 279, 313, 318, 327, 18-19, 103-104, 137, 185, 229, 230, 336, 353,
388n21, 392n35; of God to imagination, 277; of 371; perception of through sensation, 218; sciences
a spiritual attribute, 262; contrasted with ascent, of, 219; teaching through, 232; two modes of,
181, 342, 406n6 217-218, 339; contrasted with curtaining, 105-
designation (ikhti~ii~). divine, 261 106, 361; contrasted with unveiling, 220; erases
desire (iriida), 64, 229-230, 300, 367, 389n8; divine, all claims, 314; limited by receptivity (prepared-
293; of God, 293, 329; of the servant, 210, object ness), 91-93, 105, 219, 280, 338; perceived by
of nonexistent, 51, 389n8; contrasted with will, imagination (see imagination); witnessed by all
389n8; Desiring (al-murld), 49, 51, 52, 54, 285; eager except mankind and jinn, 216; Self-discloser
desire (~ir~). 306, 307-308, 316; individual (mutajalll), 92, 104, 109; locus (object, recipient)
desire (gharm!), 120, 150, 151, 177, 226, 252, of self-disclosure (mut<ijallii lah, majlii), 71, 92, 109,
288, 304, 305, 306, 307; reaching of as a criterion for 168, 211, 215, 218, 343, 353, 368, 378, 412n13;
good and evil, 291, 292, 306, 309 divine, 262; the greatest divine, 240 44 7
Index of Names and Terms

discourtesy (sii' al-adab), xvi, 177, 231, 267, 270, Durand, G., 382n1
272, 273, 355; of ai-Ghaza!J, 232, of gnostics, 268, dust (habii', turiib), 140, 317
273
disease (illness) (maraq), 72, 94, 173, 206, 271, 272, earning (iktisiib), 350; contrasted with bestowal (see
304, 347 bestowal); prophecy cannot be earned, 219, 261;
disengagement (tajna, tajarrud), 142, 198, 356; from earned (muktasab), character traits, 288; knowledge,
form, 136; from imagination, 354; of meanings 200; earnings (makiisib), stations as, 222, 264, 278,
(from substrata), 115, 120, 122, 184-185, 187, 280
219, 225, 330 earth (arq), 13, 317, 409n4; God's wide, 179; world
disequilibrium (in~iriij), 173, 304; of the consti- of, 134; as center of circle, 216; as constantly de-
tution, 304; of the soul, 305; proper use of, 305 scending, 385n11; heaven and, 204, 380; earth
disobedience (ma'~iya), 272; acts of, 293; the dis- (turiib), 13
obedient ('u~~iit), 350 ease (rii~a), 120, 132, 153; everlasting, 331; exis-
dispersion (forq), 91; contrasted with gathering, 361 tence as, 120; mercy as, 130; shadow as, 94, 215
disposition, innate (jibilla), 286, 287, 288, 307, 317, ecstasy (wajd), 212-213
320, 350 Eden, 397n3
distance (bu'd), 330, 340; contrasted with nearness, effects (iithiir), (defined), 39-40; (mentioned), 61, 95,
151, 223, 320, 361 141, 299, 324, 349, 359, 388n3; engendered, 363,
distinction, being distinguished (tamylz, tamayyuz), 367; of names, 35-36, 41, 48, 53, 56, 57, 86, 95,
36, 37, 48, 95, 183, 205, 206, 221, 377; from God, 96, 114, 130, 282, 284, 319, 363, 369
238; through God, 216; of the realities, 174, 205, effusion (fayq, ifiiqa), 65, 85, 299; divine, xii, xiii,
342 162, 169, 249, 384n13
distress (karb), 31 ego (nafs), 225, 252, 269, 373; deception of, 257;
diversity (ikhtiliif). See entity. frivolities of, 373
divine (iliihl), faculty, 75; knower, 236; perfection, elect (khii~~a), 75, 170, 268, 271, 374, 378n17;
64, 74, 76, 367; Presence (see presence); servant, deception of, 268; elect of, 268, 387n17; contrasted
73; station, 282, 283; contrasted with engendered with common people (see common people)
(see engendered); contrasted with lordly, 149, 282; elements ('anii~ir, arkiin), 13, 14, 38, 68, 91, 93,
divine things (al-iliihiyyiit), 20, 38, 51, 57, 116, 203, 198, 216; transmutation of, 100; world of, 142;
399n8; knowledge of, 150, 235; divine ones (al- elemental ('un~url), (defined), 393n7, 401n9;
iliihiyyiin), 376; divine thrall (ma'liih), (defined), (mentioned), 308; body, 395n7; plane, 121; reality,
60-61; (mentioned), 64, 86, 89, 177, 233,296,320, 84; substrata, 356; non-elemental, 308
368; nondelimited, 371-372 Elias, 263, 406n12
divinity (uliiha, uliihiyya), (defined), 49, 59, 61; embodiment (ttijassud), 116; offorms, 355; of mean-
(mentioned), 39, 158, 314, 343, 372; as a barzakh, ings, 122, 123, 124, 184, 234, 354-355; of spirits,
61-62; completion of, 368; knowledge of (per- 117, 126, 141, 142, 355
ceived by reason), 196; perfection of, 64, 74, 367, emergence (~udiir), of things from God, 178
368; properties of, 50: relationships within (con- encounter (/iqii'), 106, 258, 262
trasted with unity of), 260; contrasted with Es- end (ghiiya, nihiiya), none for wayfaring, 288; of the
sence, 41, 49, 58, 59-61, 64, 69, 110, 155, 214, path, 176. See finitude, infinity.
235, 357, 359, 364, 367, 390nl, 390n2, 391n28; engendered (kawnl), 138; contrasted with divine, 102,
cannot be witnessed, 60, 155, 390nl; demands the 118, 124, 212, 220, 321, 362, 363; engendered ex-
cosmos, 41, 52, 64-65; dependent upon cosmos, 61 istence (kawn), (defined), 41-44, 89; (mentioned),
divorce (tiliiq), 86 54, 61, 62, 67, 87, 93, 95, 102, 104, 111, 112, 119,
doctrine ('ilm, maqiila), 74, 103, 149, 355; diversity 130, 131, 141, 143, 150, 155, 177, 206, 212, 214,
of, 74, 81, 349, 350-351 281, 285, 340, 347, 365, 367; as darkness, 214, 224;
dominion (malakiit), world of, 223, 282, 376, 408n8 letters of, 128, 129; nothing in but God, 327; en-
dreams, dreaming (maniim, ru'yii), 15, 113, 115, 116, gendered things (kii'iniit, kawii'in, akwiin, mukaw-
119-121, 229, 251, 384n15; false, 282; of God, waniit), (defined), 41, 89; (mentioned), 64, 73, 99,
120, 121, 180; as prophecy, 121; within a dream, 100, 111, 116, 122, 123, 139, 151, 156, 181, 207,
231; everlastingness of, 231; interpretation of, 116, 208, 210, 284, 287, 288, 301, 324; engendering
119, 120; locus of, 121; dream-visions (ru'yii), 119, (takwln), 141, 378; by the servant, 265; engender-
262 ing command (see command)
drinking (shurb), (defined), 220; (mentioned), 72, 90, enjoyment (ladhdha), 126, 128
153, 393n36 entified ('aynl), existence (see existence); contrasted
du' a al-~iil, 46 with intelligible (see intelligible); entification
duality, 356-361; yields disputes, 356; dualists (ta'ayyun), 83, 85, 126
(thanawiyya), 360 entity ('ayn, pl. a'yiin), (defined), 83; (mentioned), 94,
due (rightful) (~aqq), (defined), 174; (mentioned), 114, 133, 176, 292, 337; engendered, 104; ex-
175, 177, 178, 272, 346, 350, 355, 368, 376 istent, 88; Manifest, 182, One (Single), 41, 214,
dukhiil, 43 344, 360, 363, 390n17; One (contrasted with di-
dunyii, 345 versity of names, properties, relationships, etc.),
448 duped, to be (talbls), 256, 257, 263, 271 52, 57,65, 76,83-84,102,104,105,115,126,127,
Index of Names and Terms

129, 156, 183, 278, 338, 350, 360; one (of cosmos cidentality of, 291; transformation of into good,
contrasted with that of God), 183; possible, 116; the 208; Nature as, 142; nonexistence as, 226, 290-291;
Entity, 36, 49, 59; of the Real, 92, 215, 231; of the derives from possible things, 291; derives from op-
possible things, 38, 86, 92, 93, 95, 96, 126, 157, position to Law, 208. See good.
182, 187, 214, 231, 245, 314, 388n25; of the things, exaltation ('izz), 219, 316; through God, 284, 374
89; manifestation of, 94, 130; movement of into ex- examination (self-) (muraqaba), 168, 348; of exami-
istence (see existence); prostration of, 204; states nation, 348; of the heart, 108, 168, 348; abandoning
of, 183; Unity of, 349; contrasted with attribute, of, 348-349
315; contrasted with effects, 141; contrasted with exile (ghurba), 267, 322
existence, 35, 324; contrasted with knowledge, 218; existence (wujud), (defined), 6-8, 14, 80-81; (men-
contrasted with level (see level); contrasted with tioned), 18, 173; engendered (see engendered);
locus of manifestation, 58, 315; contrasted with re- entified, 83, 85, 87, 128, 141, 393n6; formal, 337;
lationships, 36, 47, 61, 83, 136, 364; contrasted imaginal, 290; intelligible, 128, 141; mental, 83,
with state, 183, 220; immutable entities (al-a'yan 393n6; relative, 88; sensory (contrasted with supra-
al-thabita), (defined), 11-12, 83-86; (mentioned), sensory), 290; temporally originated, 61; verbal,
87, 88, 91, 103, 129, 130, 132, 135, 136, 204-205, 393n6; verified, 91, 258; written, 393n6; as a
228, 278, 290, 297, 311, 321, 322, 342, 364, 375; barzakh, 15, 113; as clothing (robe) on entity, 85,
existence of, 126, 298; infinity of, 85 (see infinity); 102, 205, 278; of God, 82, 158, 181, 188, 195, 233,
Mu'tazilite understanding of, 204, 205; nonex- 234, 303; as good (see good); as identical with
istence of (see nonexistence); sense perception by Being, 92; as identical with God, 89, 94, 278; as
in nonexistence (see nonexistence); gnostics as, mercy, 130, 148; through the other, 94; acquisition
321-322, 375 of, 90, 94; entrance into from nonexistence, 41,
envy (~asad), 72, 195-196, 306, 307 42, 84, 85, 86, 87, 93-94, 101, 102, 103, 129, 131,
epitome (mukhta~ar), 276, 296 133, 134, 136, 154, 157, 204, 209, 216, 236, 246,
equilibrium (i'tidal), 304, 379, 386n16; of character 278, 290, 311, 322, 344-345, 393n6; finitude of
traits, 22-23, 27; of the natures, 173; perfection as, (see finitude); light of, 22, 223; nonexistence of,
370 122; nothing unreal in, 236, 315; actualizes per-
esoteric sense (batin), 245; esotericists (batiniyya), fection, 174, 183; contrasted with entity (see entity);
363 contrasted with immutability (see immutability);
essence (dhat), (of other than God), 62, 65, 76, 87, contrasted with witnessing (see witnessing). See
101, 164, 207, 218, 249, 277, 278, 286, 312, 319, Being, finding, nonexistence.
320,349, 379; (ofGod, defined), 5, 9, 10, 33, 385n6; existent (thing) (mawjud), (defined), 7, 81, 94-95,
(of God, mentioned), 76, 122, 208, 319, 320, 340, 126; (mentioned), 11, 96, 102, 131, 137, 141, 153,
385n4; Nondelimited, 370, 371; Ontological, 360; 164, 204, 276, 292; first, 101; existent/found thing,
absoluteness of, 28-29; attribute of, 61; indepen- 214, 227; both existent and nonexistent, 366;
dence of (see independence); knowledge of, 123, neither existent nor nonexistent, 117, 118, 136,
180, 189, 196; manifestation of, 16, 182, 219-220, 138, 139, 205, 362; Existent (Being) (al-mawjud),
365; name of, 245, 276, 390n17, 391n28; oneness of 81, 93, 95, 132, 345; the First, 360; none but God,
in spite of many names (relationships), 35-36, 52, 327
53, 56-57, 278 (see also entity); perfection of, 64, exoteric knowledge (al-'i/m al-rasml), 44, 161, 257;
218, 367; practice of, 282; Presence of, 53; prohibi- exotericscholars('ulamaa/-rusum), 72, 73,104,148,
tion of reflection upon, 62-63, 71, 74, 155, 165, 244,247-249,252,261,262,343, 388n22;haveno
232, 233, 350; self-disclosure of, 339; unchanging- tasting of states, 203; exoteric (C?ahir, C?<ihirl),
ness of, 18, 231; Unity of, 81; unknowability of, 259; contrasted with esoteric, 245
28-29, 58, 60, 62-63, 75, 81, 135, 155, 163, 164, expansion (bas!), contrasted with contraction, 361,
172, 177, 187, 198, 228, 233, 288, 342, 348-349, 375
358, 364; vision through, 331; contrasted with Di- expression (verbal), ('ibara), 113, 119
vinity or God (see Divinity); contrasted with Level extension, supposed (imtidad mutawahham), 129,
(see level); contrasted with names (attributes), 36, 385n8, 385n11
52, 56, 152, 282; contrasted with relationships, 360; eye ('ayn), 223; divine, 305; two (of man), 94, 246,
contrasted with self-disclosure, 218, 228; not a cor- 362, 363, 368; light of, 123; possessor of two, 362;
relative term, 60; witnessed but not known, 60 of certainty, 166, 251; ofGod, 187,232, 245,287,
eternity (qidam), debate over that of cosmos, 84-85; 327; of time, 412n13; of understanding, 250, 252;
eternal (qadlm), attributes, 73; contrasted with tem- preferred over reason, 218
porally originated (see temporal origination); eter-
nity without beginning (azal), 64, 101, 132 face (wajh), 102, 118, 343; many (of cosmos), 41;
ethics, 21-23, 283; importance of balance in, 23, 27; many (of God), 20, 150, 156; specific, 42; of God,
and ontology, 22 xiv, 19, 94, 102, 111, 122, 143, 277, 280, 355;
Ethiopian, 35 of God as the Lord of a thing, 310; of God in all
Eve, 359 things, 158, 349, 363; glories of, 176, 217, 221,
evening (ghuriib), contrasted with morning, 376 328, 329; light of, 328
evidence (dalala), 215; of God, 157 faculty (quwwa), 101, 111, 116, 167, 179, 217, 236,
evil (sharr), (defined), 290-292; sheer, 290, 292; ac- 393n8; cognitive (as opposed to practical), 162; 449
Index of Names and Terms

faculty (continued) fotiJ, 168, 222, 394n19;fotu/J, xii, 223, 224, 394n19;
divine, 75; external (as opposed to internal), 339; fotuiJ al-IJaliiwa, 370; fotuiJ al-mukiishafo,
form-giving, 115, 120; imaginal, 115; juridical, 215
237; rational (see reason); reflective (see reflection); father (ab), 308; spirits as, 142; fatherhood as a re-
sensory, 74, 120, 163, 240; spiritual, 236, 237; of lationship, 61
imagination (see imagination); limitations of each, Fatil].a, 240, 248, 301
165, 167, 168, 203; all are light, 214; man as Real's fatwii, 202
faculties (hearing, sight, etc.), 329-331; Real as fawii/Jish, 388n27
man's faculties, 167, 168, 182, 325-329, 410n12 fawqiyya, 51
fot/1, 130; fot/a'il, 161; fot/il, 48; mafqul, 48; foyq, 85, 169; al-fayq al-iliih!, 162; ifiiqa, 65
ifi!iil, 50; tafoqu/, (defmed), 8, 51; (mentioned), foylasuf isliiml, 399n4; faliisifa, 70
12, 13, 14, 48, 182, 247, 336, 363, 366 foza', 306
fohm, 119 fear (khawf), 280
firil. Seefi'/. felicity (sa'iida), (defined), 150-151, 164, 175, 226;
faith (lmiin), (defmed), 193-199; (mentioned), 63, (mentioned), 26, 111, 153, 158, 210, 225, 252, 305,
111, 120, 164, 186, 187, 282, 288, 303, 351; as 307, 324, 351, 355, 358; of everything, 356; of
following authority, 197; as inward practice, 152; everything other than man andjinn, 195; cosmos
as a step on the path, 219; light of, 164, 186, 194, created for, 291; truthful man of, 178; contrasted
196, 245; objects of, 197; perfecting of, 236; per- with wretchedness, 150-151, 153, 164, 173, 180,
spicacity through, 304; sobriety of, 198; testing of, 213, 270, 291, 292, 295, 302, 304, 347, 365, 381;
195; verification of, 255; confirmed by unveiling, depends upon declaration of Unity, 197; depends
255, 314; contrasted with belief, 194, 335, 347; con- upon faith, 194, 196, 197, 201, 336; depends upon
trasted with interpretation, 201; contrasted with increase, 157; depends upon Law, 171, 172, 213,
knowledge, 193-195, 196-197; contrasted with 270, 274-275, 292, 293, 303, 312; depends upon
misbelief, 347; contrasted with reason, 74, 75, 111, knowledge, 150; depends upon religion, 160; de-
341; contrasted with verification, 168; contrasted rived from love, 180-181; inaccessible to reason,
with witnessing, 185; leads to felicity (see felicity); 180; felicitous (sa'!d), and wretched, 55
not established by rational proofs, 193-194; per- female (unthii), contrasted with male, 139, 140, 141,
ceives both incomparability and similarity, 196 361, 394n16. See woman.
faithful (mu'minun), 374; contrasted with gnostics, Fez, 169, 404n19
199; paired with people of witnessing (unveiling), fikr, 62, 63, 159, 169; ajkiir, 111; ahl al-fikr, 160;
232, 246 a~IJiib al-ajkiir, 160; al-na'?ar al-fikr!, 60, 149, 165;
folak al-buriij, 359; folak al-IJayiit, 137; folak al-manii- al-quwwat al-mufokkira, 74, 160; tafokkur, 61, 63,
zil, 359 165, 403n18
foliisifa. See foylasuf fi'l, 194, 360; aj'iil, 5, 205; al-fi'l bi'l-himma, 265;fii'il,
fiiliq, 42 97, 114, 207, 411n2;firiliyya, 140; maj'ul, 114;
familiarity (ulja), 221 maj'uliit, 345; infi'iil, 141, 349, 360; infi'iiliyya,
fona', 93,176,207,219,321, 328,368,404n24; ijna', 140; munfo'il, 411n2
94 finding (wujud), (defined), 3-4, 6, 212; (mentioned,
fantasy (wahm), 122 8, 104, 203, 379; necessary, 212; as perception, 214;
foqlh, See fiqh. of God by God, 212, 213; of the Real (in the heart),
foqr, 44, 64, 273; foq!r, 24, 378; foqara', 273; iftiqiir, 212, 273; contrasted with not-finding, 212; un-
40, 43, 44, 45 veiling and (see unveiling); witnessing and, 238;
for': forii', 256; forii' a/-a/Jkiim, 202; for'!, 312 existence/finding, 213; finders (wiijidun), 4, 212
Farah!, al-, 116 finitude, of existence, 85, 96, 99, 204. See infinity.
foriigh, 410(b)n1; tafogh al-ma/Ja/1, 111 fiqh, 39, 170, 236; u~ul al-fiqh, 166; foqlh, 202, 247,
foraiJ, 67 249;foqaha', 72, 387n17; tajaqquh, 249
forii'iq. See fort/. firiisa, 304, 409n 16; al-firiisat al-!miiniyya, 304
foriir, 157, 158 fire (niir), the, 150, 161, 376; glorification within,
ford, 413n23; zamiin (zaman) ford, 97, 98; fordiyya, 294; roof of, 360; world of, 4; cannot accept one
360; mu.frad, 377, 413n23; mu.fradiit, 166; infiriid, 111, who declares God's Unity, 197; and the Garden
168 (see Garden)
fort/, 325, 394n3; fort/ al-muiJiil, 124, 357; fora' it/, First (al-awwal), and Last, 133, 134, 361
56, 325; qurb al-fara' id, 325 ji(ra, 20, 162, 195; ma.ft.ur, 162
Farghanl, Said al-Dln, 394n17, 394n18, 403n3, flight (Jariir), from ignorance to knowledge, 158; to
408n7, 408n14 God, 157, 158
forq, 91;fiiriq, 166;forqiin, 239, 363; ta.friqa, 67 fluctuation (taqallub, qalb), (defined), 106; (men-
Farqad al-Sabakhi, 399n5 tioned), 104, 183, 211, 219, 362, 373, 374, 395n7;
fasiid, 121, 142 oftheheart, 106-109,111,112, 152, 159,377,379,
fa~/, 57, 365, 390n21; al-fa~l al-muqawwim, 276; 407n18; of the Real in states, 183
fii~il. 117, 204; taft.!/, 25, 87, 114, 154, 157, following (ittibii'), 326; contrasted with Law-giving,
162, 403n18; tafii~!l. 131; mufaHal, 17; 268-269; follower(s) (tiibi'), of the messengers, 256,
450 khayiil munfo~il. 117, 198 261; of the Prophet's companions, 251
Index of Names and Terms

foot (qadam), of God, 75, 187, 232; two feet of God, Garden(janna), 150,151, 169,366,369,379;sensory
359-360 and supra-sensory, 369; bliss of, 106, 156; earth of,
Footstool (kursl), paired with Throne, 93, 172, 359- 359; glorification within, 294; contrasted with Fire,
360 359, 360-361
forbidden (ma~;;ur, manhl 'anh), 172, 178, 207, Gehenna, 360
307, 308-309 generosity (karam), 22, 50, 65, 287
forgetting, forgetfulness (nisyiin), as a divine at- gentleness (luif), 72, 73, 110
tribute, 76, 296, 327, 393n43; by man, 195, 238 genus (}ins), 235, 390n21; genera (ajniis), 91, 95, 96,
form (~ura), 11, 89, 97-98, 120, 127, 140, 216, 129, 216
228, 378, 381; corporeous, 184, 185; divine (of the ghaqab, 20, 150, 399n2
cosmos), 16, 17, 100, 114, 133, 183, 205,285,297, ghaffiir. See magh.fira.
359, 362; (of deception), 257; (of imagination), 116; ghafla, 273, 320
(ofman), 16, 17, 18,20,40, 73,114,129,131,162, ghafur. See magh.fira.
188, 207, 208, 209, 274-279, 283, 284, 286, 287, ghalabat al-;;ann, 249
288, 295-296, 319-320, 324, 327, 328, 329, 330, ghanl. See ghinii.
336, 352, 362, 372, 375, 378, 391n11, 399n4; (of gharaq, 177, 226, 291, 292; aghraq, 150
man as a source of danger), 296, 300, 317, 318, 326; ghiiya, 129, 176
imaginal (see imaginal); lordly, 136; real from the ghayb, 14, 93, 176,228,339,342,360, 388n3; al-ghayb
Real, 252; of the cosmos, 182; within the Being al-mut/aq, 164, 411n3; 'iilam al-ghayb al-mu~aq­
of the Real, 102; and meaning (see meaning); rules qaq, 140; ghayba, 106, 116, 198; ghaybuba, 116
over imagination, 122; form-giving (mu~awwir), ghayr, 50, 115, 176, 295, 356, 388n25; aghyiir, 91, 223,
faculty, 115, 120, 163, 214; form-giver, 276; as- 245; (alab al-ghayr, 50; al-wiijib bi'l-ghayr, 51;
sumption of forms (ta~awwur), 122, 123 ghayriyya, 294; ghayra, 176, 295, 388n25; al-ghayrat
Franks, 35 al-iliihiyya, 46
free (~urr), contrasted with servant, 384; free Ghaziili, Abii f:Iiimid al-, xviii, 62, 116, 235, 237,
choice (free will) (ikhtiyiir), 20, 208, 308-309, 284,392n34,396n20,405n1,408n9,408n13,409n5,
389n8; contrasted with compulsion, 20, 56, 328, 410n17, 413n17; discourtesy of, 232
330-331; contrasted with predestination, 205; free ghil;;a, 307
disposal (ta~arruj, ta~rif), 99, 111, 114, 265, 266 ghinii, 64, 98, 158, 273; ghanl, 24, 58
freedom (~urriyya), 60-61, 182; of the Essence, ghurba, 267, 322
60, 64 gift, giving ('a(ii'), of God, 92, 248; through God,
friend(s) (wall), of God, (defined), 4, 256, 265; (men- 284
tioned), 175, 246, 369, 407n18; perfect, 377; of glories (subu~iit) of face (see face); glorification
Satan, 26; kinds of, 315, 320, 369-370, 373-374; (tasbl~). 142, 246, 312, 340; and incomparability,
knowledge ofbased on Koran and Sunna, 257-258; 71, 318, 340, 344; of God by whole cosmos, 71,
Law-giving of, 258; power of to undergo imagi- 157, 294, 368, 404n18, 412n7; compared with
nalization, 38; share of in prophecy, 258, 262, 263; breathing, 294, 368
differentiated from prophets (and messengers), 44, gnosis (ma'rifa), (defined), 148-149; (mentioned), 89,
172, 221, 260-261, 268-269, 271, 315, 377; inherit 120, 306; station of, 266; gnostic sciences (ma'iirif),
from prophets (see inheritance); similar to prophets xiv, 149, 238, 381; divine, 284
(and messengers), 169,215,219,228,233,236,238, gnostic(s) ('iirif), (defined), 4, 110, 148, 149; (men-
251, 262, 266, 267, 320, 371; more excellent than tioned), 48, 72, 73, 101, 121, 178, 202, 208, 212-
friends in other religions, 258; the prophets among 213, 219, 221, 227, 228, 247, 259, 281, 299, 311,
the friends (anbiyii' al-awliyii'), 250-252; friend- 315,317,320,321,340,342,365-366,375,402n18,
ship (waliiya), 258, 369; divine, 380; the greater, 413n26; perfected, 322; as nonexistent entities,
377; station of, 269, 407n18. See also gnostics. 321-322, 375; belief of, 349, 352-355; exile of,
frivolity (ru'una), of the ego, 373 322; going astray of, 257, 268, 273; intoxication
fo4ul, 63, 171, 174 of, 199; meeting of two in witnessing, 229; con-
foqahii'. See .fiqh. trasted with common people, 116, 214; contrasted
foqarii'. See faqlr. with faithful, 199; contrasted with lovers, 370, 380;
forqiin. See farq. contrasted with poets, 181; give things their due,
forn'. See far'. 174; humble themselves before tyrants, 315. See also
Fu~u~ al-~ikam, xvii-xix, xx, 27, 28, 29, 412n13 friends, Folk of Allah, Verifiers.
fotu~. See fat~. god (iliih), 49, 50, 58, 60, 110, 214, 296, 343; created
Futu~iit al-makkiyya, al-, xi-xiv, 28; as commen- by belief, 339, 341, 343-344, 349, 350, 351, 355;
tary on the Koran, xv; based on Law and unveil- nondelimited, 372; worshiped by reason (reflec-
ing, 231; commentary on the first line of, 103 tion), 201, 232; multiplicity of, 234, 351, 363;
fotuwwa, 65, 373 demands the divine thrall (see divine); supports
the possible thing, 59. See Allah.
Gabriel, 400(a)n11, 411n4, 412n12; appearance of as godfearing(ness) (taqwii), xii, xiii, 70, 149, 200, 232,
Dil).ya, 117, 126, 355, 356; appearance of to 248, 259
Mary, 117; hadith of, 251, 282, 397n13, 410n20; good (khayr), (defined), 290-292; (mentioned), 131,
locus of manifestation of, 251 157, 173; sheer, 93, 290, 291, 292; existence as, 226, 45 I
Index of Names and Terms

good (continued) ~aqaiq, ~aqlqa. See ~aqq.


290-292; knowledge as, 148; through courtesy, ~aqq (defined), 49, 132-133, 174; (mentioned),
175; contrasted with evil, 94, 142, 209-210, 226, 35,42,43, 74,86,95, 100,138,165,173,175,178,
271, 289-292, 293, 301, 305-306, 307, 308 (see 212, 255, 274, 346, 357, 368, 389n11, 398n16;
also evil); good-doing (i~san), 327; done only ~uqiiq, 272; al-~aqq al-makhliiq bihi, 133, 394n20;
by God, 172 ahl al-~aqq, 400n3; 'ayn al-~aqq, 83; bustan
Gospel, 200, 213, 244 al-~aqq, 294; wujiid al-~aqq, 273; al-wujiid al-~aqq,
governing (tadbfr), 326, 403n18; spirit, 40, 217; by 116; li-kull ~aqq ~aqlqa, 398n20; ·~aqlqa, 37, 107,
rational faculty, 407n15; Governing (al-mudabbir), 134, 135, 171, 182, 260, 389n11; ~aqaiq, 35;
174; governing control (ta~akkum, ta~klm), ~aqlqat al-~aqaiq, 135; al-~aqlqat al-kul-
265, 266, 267, 313, 361, 403n18; eye of, 268 liyya, 135; al-~aqa'iq al-rabbiiniyya, 37; ~aqlqa
grammar (na~w), 173, 258; grammarian, 219, 250 'un~uriyya, 84; qalb al-~aqaiq, 205; ~aqlql, 271;
gratitude (shukr), 279, 280 khayiil ~aqlql, 262; tartw ~aqlql, 51; al-wujiid
great ones (akabir), 108, 266, 322, 375, 395n16 al-~aqlql, 118; ta~qlq, 119, 166, 168, 389n11,
Greek(s), 203, 386n4 392n34; mu~aqqiqiin, 4, 149, 389n11; 'iilam al-
guidance (hidaya), xv, 297; divine, xvi, 252; light of, ghayb al-mu~aqqaq, 140; wujiid mu~aqqaq, 91,
179; and misguidance, 25-26 118; ta~aqquq, 231, 288, 389n11; isti~qiiq, 95
~araj, 13f
haba, 38 ~araka, 102, 126, 205
habit ('iida), 99, 176; (miraculous) breaking of, 99, ~ariim, 256, 363, 378
265, 267, 268, 273, 313, 315, 372, 374; rules over ~arf, 19; ~arf wujiidl, 88, 204, 393n13
rational souls, 184 Harmer (al-#rr), 287
hadath. See hudiith. ~asad, 195, 306, 307
~add, 58, 60: 69, 148, 155, 319, 363; ~udiid, 91; ~asan. See ~usn.
~add dhiitl, 279; ma~diid, 189 l;lasan al-Ba~ri, a!-, 399n5
had!. See hidiiya. ~a~r. 154; ma~~iir, 131, 228; in~i~iir,
~adlth, 403n18; ~adlth qudsl, 85, 107, 276, 325, 60, 196
348, 410n19; mu~addath, 262; mu~addith(iin), ~asra, 156
251, 259; hadith, 250-252; confirmation of by un- hate (bugh4), through God, 272
veiling, 103, 131, 250; scholar of, 251, 259; forging hawii, 20, 56, 137, 161, 177; hawa, 125, 137; ahwa,
of, 251; soundness of, 250; weakness of, 251 137
~iidith. See ~udiith. ~aya, 22, 168, 348
~a4ra, 5, 29, 116, 119, 188; ~a4ariit, 226; ~a4rat hayiikil al-niiriyyat al-miiddiyya, al-, 356
al-~iss, 5; al-~a4rat al-i/iihiyya, 5; ~a4rat ~ayat, 17; .falak al-~ayiit, 137; ~ayy, 49, 52;
al-insiin, 178, ~a4rat a/-jam', 54; al-~a4rat 'Abd al-I;Iayy, 370; ~ayawiin nii(iq, xv, 276;
al-jiimi'a, 188; ~a4rat al-khayiil, 5; al-~a4rat al-insiin al-~ayawiin, 275; al-'iilam al-~ayawiinl,
al-miisawiyya, 28; ~a4rat al-muthul, 229; ~a4ra 119; al-mu~yl, 6, 36
shuhiidiyya, 229; kalimat al-~a4ra, 102, 397n3; ~ayawan. See ~ayiit.
~u4iir, 43, 105, 168, 210, 320, 328 hayba, 37, 360
~iijiz, 118 haykal. See hayiikil.
~akam, 67 ~ayra, 3, 114, 211, 296, 380; ta~ayyur, 185
haklm. See hikma. hayiila, 89
hiikim. See hukm. ~ayy. See ~ayiit.
~til, 100, 183, 261, 262, 264, 278; a~wiil, 10, 65, ~a;;;;, 286
66, 99, 169, 176, 183, 198, 212, 220, 222; ~iii He (huwa), the, 5, 342, 381, 411n3; contrasted with
kawnl, 55; du'a al-~iil, 46; lisiin al-~iil, 387n14; Allah, 394n15; He/not He (huwa Ia huwa), 4, 6,
qarlnat al-~iil, 277; ~ii~ib al-~iil, 265; ta~awwul, 7, 9, 18, 24, 29, 80, 81, 95, 113, 114, 115, 116, 118,
38, 61, 100, 101, 107, 185, 264, 336, 396n24, 133, 136, 143, 149, 182, 205, 208, 211, 290, 329,
402n23; isti~iila, 97, 100, 101 347, 358, 362, 380; it/not it, 116, 362; knowl-
haliik, 269 edge/not knowledge, 156; he-ness (huwiyya), (de-
~alii!, 256, 363, 378 fined), 394n14; of God, 90, 132, 135, 136, 215,
~aliiwa, 224; .futii~ al-~aliiwa, 370 315, 327, 339, 354; taw~ld of, 134; contrasted
~allm, 22 with Lordship, 313
hall. See huliil. hearing (sam'), 214; existential (as contrasted with
i:Ialla:j, al~. 320 immutable), 183; immutable, 245; the Real as
hama iist, 385n2 man's, 167, 305, 325-329; man as the Real's, 329.
~amalat al-Qur'iin, 241 See audition.
~amd, 71; liwa al-~amd, 240 heart (qalb), (defined), 106-109, 111; (mentioned),
hamm. See himma. xii, xiii, xiv, xv, 170, 271, 349; as God's Throne,
I;Ianbalis, 353 107; as seat ofknowledge, 106-107, 148, 193, 194;
hand (yael), of God, 75, 126, 183, 187, 232, 233, 284, attentiveness of, 277; blindness of, 224; descent
287, 327; two hands (of God), 126, 232, 233, 277, into, 260, 261, 262; elimination of darkness from,
452 287, 327; two hands (of man), 114 214-215; eye of, 223; finding God in 212, 213;
Index of Names and Terms

fluctuation of (see fluctuation); mirror of, 223, ~ukm, 9, 39, 48, 121, 172, 251, 406n7; a~kam,
352; nondelimitation of, 107; polishing of, 168, 223; 20, 39, 149, 365, 387n10;forii' al-a~kam, 202;
possessor of, 215; practice of, 173, 259; prostration al-~akim al-mutlaq, 119; al-~akim al-
of, 152, 272, 407n18; safety offrom reflection, 236; muta~akkim, 123; 'ayn al-ta~klm, 268;
sanctification of, 111; seal of, 176; states of, 212; ta~akkum, 124, 265, 313
the witness within, 227; chosen by God, 245; con- ~uliil, 264, 325, 329; ~all, 138. See also
trasted with reason, 107, 109, 111-112, 159, 211, ma~all.
358, 377, 379; embraces God, 111, 112, 245, 344, human beings (see man); human nature (bashariyya),
346; inspired by God, 248; perceives God's self- 176
disclosures, 107, 126, 339; receptive toward divine hunger (jii'), 46, 72, 222, 392n33
names, 266 ~urma, 35; i~tiram, 106, 271
heaven (sama), 125; fourth, 406n12; seven, 360, ~urr, 308; ~urriyya, 60, 182
406n6, 406n12; of this world, 379; and earth, 204, ~usn, 175, 409n18; ~usn al-akhlaq, 22; ~asan,
380 290; a~san, 55; ~usna, 290; i~san, 219, 282,
heed, taking (i'tibar), 202-203, 217 327, 397n13, 401n24; mu~sin, 282
heedlessness (ghajla), 142, 185-186, 273, 320, 324, ~u~ul, 204; ta~~~~. 108, 148
355 huwa, al-, 5, 342, 394n15, 411n3; huwa Ia huwa. 4;
hell, 20. See Fire. huwiyya, 90, 339, 350, 394n15
helping (na~r), by God, 87, 214, 285, 367; of God, hyle (hayiila), 89, 140, 355, 398n22; universal, 302
87 hypocrite (munafiq), 194, 225, 350
heralding vision. See vision.
hereafter (akhira), contrasted with "here-before,"
124. See next world. !-ness (anaya, ananiyya), 327; taw~id of, 171
heresy (il~ad), 349, 371 'ibada. See 'abd.
hermeneutics, 30, 199 'ibara. See 'ubur.
hidaya, 25; al-hadl, 26, 35 iblas, 330
hierarchy (tartlb), 14, 51; among the names, 23; of Iblis, 24, 330; appearance of before Jesus, 194;
intelligible realities, 53; related to wisdom, 92, 134, failure of to prostrate self, 277; remaining of in
174 the Fire, 197; and the garden of Solomon, 198.
high ('ulwi), spirits, 305; contrasted with low, 14, 360, See Satan.
406n6 Ibn 'Abbas, 150, 393n44, 399n9
~ijab, 313; ~ujub, 45; ~ujub mawtfu'a, 45 Ibn al-'Arabi, acquaintance of with some Ash'arites,
~ikaya, 268 62; answer of to a question by Shaykh al-Kftmi,
~ikma, 12, 50, 174; ~ikmat al-wujud, 174; al- 229-230; the burning away of his tongue, 328;
tartlb al-~ikaml, 134; ~aklm, 22, 174; certainty of, 167; comments of on his writings,
~ukama al-islam, 387n17; al-~ukama' al- xiv-xv, xxi, 221, 231, 232, 281, 288, 400(a)n11;
ilahiyyun, 56; al-~ukama min ahl al-tajriba, conversation of with the Prophet, 412n3; dialogue
409n16 of with God, 206-207; discussion of with some
hima, 392n31 gnostics, 221-222; dreams of, 41, 322; entrance of
himma, 104, 218, 279, 376, 413n26; al-fi'l bi'l-himma, into Sufism, 383n12; father of, xi, xiii, xiv; initial
265; ma'arij al-himan, 257; hamm, 168 opening of, xiii, xiv, 383n11; invitation of to the
J:Iira', 158 people, 316; life of, x-xi; meeting of with Ibn
~iq, 306, 307 Rushd, xiii-xiv, 383n12, 384n13; meeting of with
hiss, 100; hadrat al-hiss, 5; hiss!, 173, al-Malik al-:(':ahir, 202; his mode of
· 259, 308·, 369; md~susat, i63; ~ura ma~susa, discernment between sound and corrupt
115 consideration, 167-168; perfect servanthood of,
hlta. See ihata. 322-323; role of as Seal of the Muhammadan
h~ly (qudu~)." spirit, 169, 400(a)n11; All-holy (quddus), Saints, 383n11; shaykh of, 272; unveilings of,
35, 172 206-207, 217-218, 252, 267-268, 269-270, 290,
hope (raja'), 280 363, 365, 370, 383n12; wife of, 186
~ubb, 325; ka's al-~ubb, 109; al-iradat al-~ub­ Ibn al-' Arif, 149, 398n5
biyya, 86; ma~abba, 389n8, 392n35; mu~ibb, Ibn Barrajan, Abu'l-J:Iakam 'Abd al-Salam, 133,
61, 114 284, 398n15, 398n16, 399n5
Hftd (sura ot), 300 Ibn al-Kattani, Abu 'Abdallah (Mul:_J.ammad), 62,
J:Iudhayfa ibn al-Yaman, 270 169
~udud. See ~add. Ibn Qasi, Abu'l-Qasim, 36, 386n6
~utfur. See ~atfra. Ibn Rushd, xiii, 383n12, 384n13
~uduth, 50, 138, 163, 183; ~adith, 64, 84; al- Ibn Sawdakin al-Nftri, Shams al-Din Isma'il, xiii,
wujud al-~adith, 61; mu~dath, 138, 154; al- xiv, 209, 383n11, 383n12
ma'anl al-muhdatha, 73 Ibn Taymiyya, 289
~ujub. See ~ijab. Ibrahimi, 377
Hujwiri, 411n9 ihtihaJ, 86
~ukama. See ~ikma. ibtila'. See bala. 453
Index of Names and Terms

itfiifa, 60; itfiifat, 35; i4afi, 11, 87, 308; al- illness. See disease.
'adam al-i4afi, 7, 88; al-rii~ al-i4afi, 17; 'ilm, 17, 74, 147, 170, 255, 258, 386n14; (contrasted
al-wujiid al-allf al-i4afi, 88; muta4a'if, 60 with ma'rifa), 148-149; al-'ilm hi Allah, 107; al-'ilm
idbar, 382n 10 al-ilahl, 399n8; al-'ilm al-rasml, 161, 257; 'ilm al-rusiim,
i4lal, 26; mu4ill, 26 44; 'uliim al-sirr, 270; al-'ilm al-umml, 235; rasikhiin
idols (alnam), 381 fi'l-'ilm, 56; 'ilml, 162; ma'liim, 37, 60; ma'liimat, 11,
idrak, 159, 214; al-'ajz 'an dark al-idrak idrak, 396n31; 38, 115; al-'ilm tabi' li'l-ma'Liim, 298; 'alfm, 49; 'Abd
mudrak; 85; mudrakat, 214 al-'Alim, 370; 'alim, 49, 148, 149, 174, 224; al-'alim
Idris, 379, 406n12 al-ilahl, 236; 'a/im mu'min, 75, 196; 'ulama, 105, 148,
i4tirar, 328, 329; i4firarl, 20, 56 149, 170, 200, 202, 377; al-'ulama' bi'l-(abla,
ifa4a. See fay4. 409n16; 'ulamii' al-rusiim, 72, 148, 171,247, 388n22;
if4al. See fa41. 'ulama' al-sharla, 171; ta'allum, 247
ifna'. See fana'. ilqa'. See liqa'.
ifiiqar. See faqr. iltidhadh. See ladhdha.
ignorance (jahl), (defined), 290; (mentioned), 43, 55, images (mithal), 14, 229, 252; ideal of prayer, 259;
94, 106, 148, 157, 158, 177, 180, 187, 201, 224, presence of, 229
315, 321, 324, 326, 365, 394n13, 404nl8; as death, imaginal (khayall, mitha/1), 214; conformity with
234-235; as root of the cosmos, 188; darkness of, God, 338; descent, 348; existence, 290; form, 119,
196, 224; regret because of, 156; veil of, 135; negates 180, 362; light, 123; man, 262; presence, 116, 354;
good, 308; not ontological, 55, 91, 258, 290; un- realm, 411n3; thing(s), 115, 225; contrasted with
covered in afterlife, 155, 156 sensory, 218; contrasted with true, 271; imaginal
i~a{a, 49, 51, 60, 93, 138; mu~l!, 93; faculty (al-quwwat al-mutakhayyila), 115, 198;
~Ita, 48 imaginative (kahayall), faculty, 74; imaginalization
i~la', 369 (takhayyul, tamaththul), 180, 184, 231, 362, 387n9;
i~san. See ~usn. ofbelief, 354; of a spiritual being, 262; of Satan, 252;
i~timal, 244; mu~tamalat wujiih, 206 barzakh of, 219; presence of, 227-228, 234, 251;
ihtimam, 71 imaginalized things (mutakhayyalat), 126; imagin-
ihtiram. See hurma. ing (takhayyul), 198
Ii!Ya' 'uliim a·L-din, 396n20, 413n17 imagination (khayal, mithal), (defined), 14-16, 116-
[jab. See wujiib. 117; (mentioned), 100, 113, 115-124, 169, 204, 267,
ijad. See wujiid. 338-339, 381, 403n18, 411n3; contiguous, 117,
i'jaz. See 'ajz. 126; delimited, 15; discontiguous, 117, 126, 198,
ijmal, 87, 114, 154; mujmal, 17, 25, 131 354; nondelimited, 15, 16, 113, 117, 118, 124, 125,
ijtihad. See jihad. 126, 136, 184, 338, 357; true, 262; as a barzakh,
ijtima'. See jam'. 14, 113; as light, 122-123; in the next world, 338;
ikhbar. See khabar. as a talisman on meanings, 184-185; corruption of,
ikhlal, 267 121, 123; descent of God to, 277; dream-visions in,
ikhtilaf See khilaf 262; entrance into world of, 38; faculty of, 74,
ikhtilam. See khalm. 116, 162-163, 231, 262; existence (cosmos) as, 15-
ikhtilal. See khuliil. 16, 18, 116-117, 118, 125, 143, 182, 231; forms
ikhtiyar. See khayr. subsisting within, 198; knowledge of, 121; narrow-
Ikhwan al-~afi' (Brethren of Purity), 41ln3 ness of, 122; presence of, 5, 118, 123, 126, 185,
'Ikrima, 396n3, 397n14 187, 198, 202, 355; relation of to faith, 282; ruling
iktisab. See kasb. power of, 119, 121-124, 184, 339; treasury of (see
ilah, 49, 59, 60, 62, 66, 296; al-tashabbuh bi'l-ilah, 283; treasury); wideness of, 122; world of, ix, 4, 5,
ilahl, xiii, 118, 149, 198; ilahiyyat, 20, 51, 57, 116, 14, 17, 113, 115, 122, 185, 220, 263, 391n25,
203, 399n8; al-ilahiyyiin, 376; al-adab al-ilahl, 67, 401n29, 405n30, 408n8; connected with reflection,
175; al-adib al-ilahl, 177; al-akhbar al-ilahiyya, 164; 162-163; contrasted with reason (in its perception
al-'alim al-ilahl, 236; al-all al-ilahl, 10; al-fay4 of similarity and self-disclosure), 29-30, 70, 74-
al-ilahl, 162; al-ghayrat al-ilahiyya, 46; al-~ukama' 76, 121, 123, 126, 143, 180, 184, 339; contrasted
al-ilahiyyiin, 56; al-'ilm al-ilahl, 399n8; al-janab al- with sense perception, 123; does the impossible,
ilahl, 39; al-kalimat al-ilahiyya, 172; al-khalifat 123-124; embodies meanings (see embodiment);
al-ilahl, 383n10; al-ma?ahir al-ilahiyya, 216; al- follows (belongs to) sense perception, 123, 124,
mlzan al-ilahl, 160; al-mustanad al-ilahl, 10; al- 163, 166, 282; gives forms to all things and non-
tablb al-ilahl, 304; al-ta4ahl al-ilahl al-khayall, things, 122, 123; goes back to the observer, 338;
338; ta'rif ilahl, 180; al-tawassu' al-ilahl, 19; waif subservient to form, 122
ilahl, 138; ma'liih, 60, 132, 296, 320; al-ma'liih al- imam, of the prayer, 284; a'immat al-asma', 408n14;
mutlaq, 371; uliiha, 39, 49, 59, 66; taw~ld al- Abii Bakr's worthiness for imamate, 324
uliiha, 235; uliihiyya, 49, 59; ta'alluh, 316. See also !man. See amn.
Allah. imkan, 19, 41, 43, 87, 296, 337, 347; mumkin, 82,
il~ad, 349 310; mumkinat, 12, 154
ilham, 262 immutable (thabit), 12; entities (see entities); hearing,
454 'ilia, 176 183, 245; sight, 245; substance, 127, 362; im-
Index of Names and Terms

mutability (thubut), 85, 126, 132, 137, 140, 183, individual(s) (shakh~), 91, 95, 96, 97, 129, 142,
299; nondelimited in Being (contrasted with non- 216; individual things (mu.fradiit), 166
delimited in nothingness), 204; of the Barzakh, 205; in.fi'iil. See.fi'l.
of the entities, 136, 231, 313; necessity of, 183; infinity, 109; of divine names, 42; of entities (possible
thingness of (see thingness); contrasted with exis- things), 42, 85, 96-97, 99, 103, 104, 128, 129,
tence, 85, 86, 87, 91, 93, 140, 183, 388n25 154, 156,204-205, 341; ofGod, 153; ofknowledge,
imperative mood (~fghat al-amr), 293, 300 154, 156-158, 330; of the three known things, 204
imperfection (naq~), 43, 266; attributes of, 179, in.firiid. See ford.
182; people of, 269; perfection of, 294-296; con- inheritance (wirth), from a prophet, 258, 268, 376,
trasted with perfection, 176 377, 407n19; inheritor (wiirith), 268, 383n11; of the
impossible (thing) (mu~iil, mumtani'), (defined), 82, messengers (prophets), xiii, 247, 252, 271, 305,
204; (mentioned), 86-87, 121, 122, 123, 140, 158: 308, 350, 377
existence (occurrence) of, 116, 124, 134, 393n6; in~iriif, 173, 304
joining of to possible, 124; supposition of, 124, 357; in~i~iir. See ~a~r.
contrasted with necessary, 94, 204; identical with inkiir, 236, 243
darkness, 214, 362 innate (fi(rl, ma.ft.ur), knowledge, 162, 163
imtidiid mutawahham, 385n8 inniyya, 74, 112
imtiniin. See minna. inqiliib. See qalb.
inaccessibility ('izza), 361; of God, 71, 315, 370, inqiyiid, 82, 219
392n31; of possible things, 115 inrush (wiirid), (defined), 266-267; (mentioned), xiii,
in'iim, 65, 130; mun'im, 20, 35, 303 198; divine, 214
inanimate (things, objects), (jamiid), 84, 403n18; insiin, 40, 84, 385n10; al-insiin al-~ayawiin, 275;
their knowledge of God, 162, 216; rational speech insiin kabfr, 16; al-insiin al-kiimil, xxi, 5, 27, 46, 295;
of, 246 ~aqrat al-insiin, 178; al-la(ifat al-insiiniyya,
'iniiya, 71, 212 159
inblowing (nafth), 169, 262 Inshii' al-dawii'ir, 284
incapacity ('ajz), 110, 163, 350, 358; of all things, 218; in~ibiigh, 93
to know God, 112, 132, 143, 155, 164, 345 insight (ba~fra), (defined), 119, 219, 223, 236, 378;
Incident (wiiqi'a), (defined), 404n24; (mentioned), (mentioned), 202, 256; eye of, 135, 179; paired with
229, 249, 268, 365 sight, 89, 158, 208, 223, 233, 245, 304, 365, 368;
incoming thought. See thought. "upon insight," 148, 168, 201-202, 236-237, 249,
incomparability (the profession or declaration of) 252, 258, 260, 267, 268, 269, 337
(tanzlh), (defined), 9, 69, 70-71; (mentioned), 50, inspiration (ilhiim), 248, 262, 341
65,82, 105,137,163,164,180,219,248,282,318, instruments (iiliit), 183; of the rational soul, 120; of
327, 380, 398n19, 411n3; of perfect man, 370; reason, 160, 162, 166
affinity of with reason (see reason); attributes of, intellect ('aql), 159; First, 129, 140, 141, 159, 162,
62, 172; names or attributes of (contrasted with 182, 198, 359, 400(a)n5, 413n23; two faces ofFirst,
names or attributes of acts), 58, 70, 155, 172, 282, 360; of the waystation, 269; contrasted with eyes,
284, 345, 391n28; connected with majesty, 23-24, 89. See reason.
50; contrasted with similarity, 9, 23-24, 29, 58, intelligible (ma'qul), 36, 42, 50, 73, 75, 95, 102, 118,
68-70,109-112,126,155,180,182,187,229,292, 136, 183, 230; property, 299; quality, 35, 50; reality,
313, 337, 342, 348, 357, 359-360, 361, 363, 366, 41, 52, 53, 141; relationship, 349; thing, 138;
367, 393n38; right combination of with similarity, contrasted with entified, 128, 141; contrasted with
73-76, 89, 110-112, 187-189, 229, 233, 276-278, existent, 59, 139; contrasted with sensory, 121,
318, 346-348, 355 198, 358-359
incontrovertible (qarurf), 160, 167, 169. See also intention (qa~d), of God in Koran, 243-244; in-
self-evidence. tention (niyya), 307; in prayer, 259
increase (mazfd, ziyiida), 157, 269; of knowledge, interaction (mu'iimala), 278, 279, 287, 288
148, 151, 153, 156, 157, 158, 176, 218-220, 340, intercession (shafo'a), 197, 308
345, 380; everlastingness of, 219 intermediary (wiisita), 142, 293
incumbent (wiijib), 172, 261, 312, 325 interpenetration (tadiikhul), (of divine and engen-
'ind, 206; 'ind Alliih, 96; 'indiyya, 302 dered or Real and created), 102, 124, 141, 178,
independence (ghinii), 64, 214; intrinsic (contrasted 181, 182, 395n7
with accidental), 316; as the highest level, 46, 316; interpretation (of the Koran) (ta'wll), (defined),
of God (the Essence), 41, 46, 50, 60, 61, 64-65, 67, 199-202, 242-243; (mentioned), 113, 156, 165,
82, 110, 177, 310, 318, 367, 368; of God in relation 203, 207, 231-232, 314, 395n5 (see also ta'wfl);
to existence (but not immutability), 86; of man corrupt, 124, 164; farfetched, 121,201, 202; validity
through God, 158, 219, 273, 284, 316-317, 374, ofliteral, 243; acceptance by reason on basis of, 259;
378; contrasted with mercy, 368; contrasted with all meanings of known and intended by God, 243-
poverty (see poverty) 244; avoidance of(by shaykhs), 272, 282; harmful-
indifferent (mubii~), 172, 261, 308-309, 363 ness of, 269; necessary qualifications for interpreter,
inqighii(, 262 242; contrasted with commentary, 245; contrasted
indiriij, 90 with faith (see faith); as a means to curry favor 455
Index of Names and Terms

interpretation (continuted) i'tiqad. See 'aqd.


with kings, 202; interpretation (ta'bi"r), of dreams i(liiq, 41, 109; 'ala'l-i(laq, 66; mu(laq, 107, 108;
(see dreams). See commentary, Koran. al-'adam al-mu(laq, 7, 87; al-ghayb al-mu(laq,
intimacy (uns), 67; contrasted with awe (see awe) 164, 411n3; al-~iikim al-muflaq, 119; al-kamal
intiqal, 120, 183, 280 al-mu(laq, 294; al-khayal al-mu(laq, 15, 117;
intiqam, 40; muntaqim, 20, 36 al-ma'liih al-mu(laq, 371
intoxication (sukr), 197-198, 279, 393n36; divine itmam. See tamam.
(with God), 198, 199; natural, 198; rational, 198. ittifaq. See muwiifaqa.
See also sobriety. ittikhiidh, 49
invincibility (jabariit), world of, 282, 408n8 ittisa'. See wus'.
invocation (dhikr), 168, 223, 237, 238, 328, 381. See itti~aj See waif
remembrance. itti~al. See wa~l.
inward (dimension, etc.) (ba(in), 196. See outward. izagha, 108
'iqal. See 'aql. Izutsu, T., xvii, xix, xx, xxii, 385n23, 385n24, 394n1,
iqama, 108; iqamat al-~alat, 56 398n21
iqtida', 50 'izza, 115, 273, 392n31; 'azi"z, 23, 303, 392n31; al-
irada, 17, 210, 293, 300, 389n8; al-iradat al-~ubbiyya, mu'izz, 6, 36
86; al-amr al-iradi", 295; muri"d(iin), 49, 224, 229, 271
322; murad, 229, 389n8
irtibat, 98 jabr, 61, 297;jabariit, 282;jabbar, 23, 37, 274, 412n4
'lsa~i, 377, 407n19 jadhba, 383n12
Isfarayini, al-Ustadh Abu Isl;taq Ibrahim a!-, jahl, 55, 91, 188, 290; jahil, 43
390n8, 408n14 ja'l, 297, 351;jii'il, 42
i~ghii', 262 jaliil, 23, 360, 412n10; nu'iit al-jalal, 50
ishara, 246; isharat, 289 jail. See jilwa.
ishtiqaq, 66 jam', 175, 236, 239;jam' al-aqdad, 59, 112; al-jam'
ishtirak. See shirk. bayn al-aqdad, 115;jam'uhu al-qiddayn, 67;
Islam, 122, 203; Muslim(s), 201, 277; islam, 187, 219, ~a4rat al-jam', 54;jam'iyya, 195, 223, 239;
282, 397n13; ~ukamii' al-islam, 387n17; faylasiif jama'a, 43;jamii'at, 68;jami', 5, 221, 240, 241; 'Abd
islam!, 399n4; muslim, 282 al-Jimi', 371; al-~a4rat al-jami'a, 188; al-ism
ism: asmii', 5, 265; ism 'a/am, 66; asmii' Allah, 22; asmii' al-jami', 30, 188, 239, 302; al-kawn al-jiimi', 30, 239;
al-asmii', 34; al-asmii' al-ilahiyya, 275, 393n42; al- jawami' al-kalim, 239;jima' al-khayr, 175; majmu', 240,
asmii' al-ilahiyyat al-juz'iyya, 394n18; al-asmii' 276, 327, 357; mtljmii' al-asma' al-mutaqabila, 67;
al-ilahiyyat al-kulliyya, 394n18; mu~a4arat al- ijtima', 59, 69, 279; al-ijtima' al-wujiidi", 53
asmii' al-ilahiyya, 389n13; al-ism al-jami', 30, 188, jamad, 403n18; jamadat, 162
239, 302; asmii' al-kawn, 42; al-asmii' al-kawniyya, jamal, 23, 360, 412n10
42; al-asma' al-khalqiyya, 43; al-asmii' al-mutaqiibila, Jami, 'Abd al-Ral;tman, 394n13
67; a'immat al-asmii', 408n14; dhat al-asmii', 135; jami'. Seejam'.
musamma, 36, 385n6; musamma wujiidi", 95; jamid, 155
a~adiyyat al-musamma, 386n7 jam'iyya. Seejam'.
'i~ma, 318; ma'~iim, 331 janab al-ilahi", a/-, 39
isolation (infirad), 111 Jandi, Mu'ayyid al-Din al-, xvii, 383n11, 383n12
isrii', 43, 326 jasad, 116, 405n30; jasadi", 401n29; ~uwar jasadiyya,
Israel, children of, 377 184; tajassud, 116, 141; tajassud al-arwa~, 15
Israfil. See Seraphiel. alJawab al-mustaqlm, 396n25
isti'diid, 75, 91, 153; isti'dad al-ma~all, 67 jawad. See jiid.
istidliil. See dali"l. jawami'. See jami'.
istidriij, 267 jawari~, 120
istifiida, 94; istifiidat al-wujiid, 90; mustafad, 188 jawiiz, 119
istighraq, 285 jawhar, 71 ;jawahir, 97; al-jawhar al-kull, 157; al-jawhar
istihala. See hal. al-thabit, 127; jawhariyya, 87
isti~qaq. See ~aqq. jazii', 150, 299
isti"lii', 73, 393n38 jealousy (ghayra), divine, 46, 96, 176, 295-296, 316,
i~(ila~, 118, 245, 250, 353 343, 388n25, 388n27; of the angels, 68
istiniid, 37; mustanad, 37; al-mustanad al-iliihl, 10 Jesus, 246, 272, 313, 326, 383n12, 406n12, 407n19,
istiqlal, 179 413n20; as a Muhammadan, 377; as a word of God,
istiqriir, 73, 102 127, 131; descent of, 263; and Iblis, 194
isti~~ab. See ~u~ba. jibilla, 286
istiwii', 73, 393n38 jida/, 155
i"thar, 65 jiha, 51
ithbiit. See thubut. jihiid, 211; mujahada, 111, 223, 305; mujahidiin, 211;
i'tibar. See 'ubiir. ijtihad, 166, 200; mujtahidiin, 236
456 i'tidal. See 'adl. jilwa (jalwa), xii, 19;jall, 112; mtljla, 71; tajalll, 16,
Index of Names and Terms

19, 43, 61, 96, 164, 196, 216, 394n19; Iii takriir fi'l- wii~id al-kathlr, 25, 121, 140, 214; takaththur, 35
tajalll, 18; mutajalll, 104 Kattanl, Abu 'Abdallah (Mul:Iammad ibn), 62, 169
jimii'. Seejam'. kawn, 42, 58, 88, 89, 101, 103, 114, 364; akwiin, 40,
jinn, 4, 117; paired with man(kind), 19, 65, 150, 41, 89, 100, 139; al-kawn al-jiimi', 30, 239; asmii'
294, 404n18; (in knowledge), 161, 163, 216-217; al-kawn, 42; kawnl, 102, 118; al-asmii' al-kawniyya,
(in worship), 312 (see also weighty ones) 42; al-iithiir al-kawniyya, 367; ~iii kawnl, 55; kiin,
jins, 390n21; ajniis, 96 88, 125, 364, 393n13; kun, 41, 89, 360; kayniina,
jism, 17, 72; ajsiim, 15, 73;jismiinl, 14, 309, 401n29; 125, 329; kii'in, 204; kii'iniit, 41, 89, 125; kawii'-
jisml, 401n29; tajslm, 75 in, 89, 99; waif kiyiinl, 138; makiin, 51, 379,
joy (ladhdha), 156, 158, 198; of the names, 53 406n6; ;;aljiyyat al-makiin, 134; makiina, 134, 379,
jubn, 307 406n6; takw!n, 86, 152, 153, 183, 265, 331, 378;
jud, 17, 50, 65, 132;jawiid, 408n14 a/-amr al-takwlnl, 292; mukawwin al-asbiib, 45;
jumla, 19 mukawwaniit, 41, 89; takawwun, 89, 90
Junayd, 258, 259, 394n13, 399n5; (his saying about kayj, 29, 62, 69, 288, 342; kayfiyya, 234; kayfiyyiit,
water and the cup), xiii, 149, 229, 341-342, 344 353; takyif, 125, 287, 329
Jungianism, x kayniina. See kawn.
junun, 26; majnun, 266; 'uqalii' al-majiinln, 266 kernel (lubb), contrasted with shell, 230, 238-239
juridical (fiqhi), faculty, 237; proofs, 235 khabar, 172, 251; akhbiir, 169; al-akhbiir al-iliihiyya,
jurisprudence (fiqh), xviii, 39, 170; sound, 236; prin- 164; ikhbiir, 119
ciples of, 166; jurists (foqahii'), 147, 236, 237, 252, khablth, 350
387n17; injustice of, 72, 247; worldly ambition of, khiidim, 384n14
202 Kha9ir, 210, 221, 235, 247, 252, 263, 406n12
justice (qis(, 'ad/), (defined), 174; (mentioned), khajl, 112
173, 175, 210, 260; scale of, 124 Khat' al-na'layn, 36
Juwaynl, Abu'l-Ma'ali 'Abd al-Malik al-, 390n8 khala', 385n8
juz'iyyiit, 247; al-asmii' al-iliihiyyat al-juz'iyya, 394n18 khalf. See khiliifa.
Khalid, 386n18
ka, 73 khalifa. See khiliifa.
Ka'ba, 107; Black Stone of, 323 khiiliq. See khalq.
kab!r, 58; kabii'ir, 108; kibriyii', 314; akiibir, 176, 266, khalq, 11, 21, 49,125,132,178,283,310, .357, 389n16;
322, 395n16; takabbur, 307; mutakabbir, 23, 58 khalq jad!d, 18, 96; khalq siidhij, 163; tajdld al-khalq,
kadd, 200 18; al-asmii' al-khalqiyya, 43; khiiliq, 11, 35, 37, 313;
kiidhib, 43 khalliiq, 178, 281; makh!Uq, 41; makhliiqiit, 11
kaffiiriit, 68 khalwa, xii, 111, 159, 383n12
kii'in. See kawn. kharq al-'iida, 99, 265
Kalabadhi, 411n9 Kharraz, Abu Sa'id, 62, 67, 115, 116, 243, 375, 405n14
kaliim (Kalam), xiv, 17, 34, 232, 245, 247; ( = school khalla, 288
of thought), xv, xviii, 33, 34, 52, 63, 69, 70, 81, khalm, 67; ikhti!iim, 67
147, 165, 205, 233, 277, 382n8, 384n13 (see also khii!!(a). See khu!ii!.
theology); ( = scripture), 244; a!~iib 'ilm al- kha(ar, 27, 165
kaliim, 387n17; mutakallim, ( = name of God), 34, khiitir, 266, 352; khawii(ir, xiii, 271, 382n8
53, 128; (= theologian), 74, 147; kalima, 19, 127, khattl, al-wujiid al-, 393n6
140, 244, 245; kalimat al-~aqra, 102, 397n3; khawiitir. See khiitir.
al-kalimat al-iliihiyya, 172; a~adiyyat al-kalima, khayii( 14, 115, i 16-117; khayiil ~aqlql, 262;
360; jawiimi' al-kalim, 239 khayiil munfo!il, 117, 198; al-khayiil al-muqayyad,
kamiil, 43, 296; al-kamiil al-mu(laq, 294; kummal, 15; al-khayiil al-mu(laq, 15, 117; khayiil
366; al-insiin al-kiimil, xxi, 5, 27, 46, 295 mutta!il, 117; ~aqrat al-khayiil, 5; khiziinat
kiin. See kawn. al-khayiil, 120; khayiill, 271; al-taqiihl al-iliihl
karam, 50, 65; kariima, 148, 265; kariimiit, 99, 373; al-khayiill, 338; al-wujiid al-khayiilf, 118;
karlm, 22, 287; al-kuramii', 320; makiirim al-akhliiq, mutakhayyaliit, 126; al-quwwat al-mutakhayyila, 115
22, 175, 241, 286 khayr, 131, 142, 148, 290; khayriit, 175; al-khayr
karb, 131 al-ma~q, 93, 290; khayr al-miikirln, 73; jima
kar!m. See karam. al-khayr, 175; nawiifil al-khayriit, 325; ikhtiyiir, 56,
ka' s al-~ubb, 109 208, 328, 329, 389n8; ikhtiyiirl, 20, 56
kasb, 206, 301; makiisib, 222, 264; iktisiib, 219, 239, khidma, 56
259; muktasab, 200, 288 khiliif, 68, 100, 338; mukhiilqfo, 293; mukhiilif, 104;
Kashanl, 'Abd al-Razzaq, xviii, xix, 412n9 ikhtiliif, 35
kashf, 63, 70, 153, 168,220,224,226, 391n14, 394n19, khiliifo, 286, 313, 391n11; khalifa, 24, 276;
400(a)n4; kashf balarl, 206; ahl al-kashf wa'l- al-khalifat al-iliihl, 383n10; khalf, 65
wujud, 3, 212, 226; man Iii kashflah Iii 'ilm lah, 170; khitiib, 262
mukiishafo, 224, 226;fotii~ al-mukiishafo, 215 khiziina, 96; khiziinat al-khayiil, 120
kathiifo, 141; kathif, 14 Khizr. See Khadir.
kathra, 65, 157; a~adiyyat al-kathra, 25, 364; al- Khubbab ibn al~Aratt, 316 457
Index of Names and Terms

Khuday, 35 impossible, 154, 341, 349; as a perfection, 266; of


khuluq, 21, 241, 283, 373; akhliiq, 21, 283; khuluq the realities, 312; as recollection, 154; as the root
'a?fm, 21, 241; l}usn al-akhliiq, 22; makiirim of felicity (deliverance), 151, 153; of self, 229,
al-akhliiq, 22, 175, 241, 286; safsiif al-akhliiq, 286; 230, 311, 341; of self and Lord, 154, 177, 312,
takhalluq, 21, 43, 60, 65, 71, 73, 95, 114, 208, 283, 344-346, 359; of self as the fruit of existence, 278;
286; al-takhulluq hi akhliiq Allah, 22, 283; of self-disclosure, 94, 111, 169, 185, 216, 218,
al-takhalluq hi'l-asmii', 265; al-takhulluq hi asmii' 219, 238, 262, 321; of self-disclosure cannot be
Alliih, 22; al-takhulluq hi'l-asmii' al-iliihiyya, 275, communicated, 353-354; of servanthood as
393n42 bringing about nearness, 319; as the source of all
khuruj, 157, 219; makhraj, 128 good, 148; of things as they are in themselves,
khu~u~. 268, 387n17; khu~u~ al- 245; of things through God, 167; ascent in, 123;
khu~u~. 268, 387n17; khii~~. 130; constant renewal of, 156, 157, 218, 262; decrease
khii~~a. 387n17, 388n20; khii~~at of, 218-220; highest kind of, 112, 218; increase
al-khii~~a. 387n17; takha~~u~. 85; of, 148, 151, 153, 156, 157, 158, 176, 218-220,
ikhti~ii~. 54, 330 340, 345, 380; infinity of, 154, 156-158, 330; light
kibla, 122, 180, 228, 277, 328, 365 of, 196, 197, 257; limitations on, 188; pain through,
kihriyii'. See kahlr. 156; passage from one to another, 280; perfection
king (sovereign) (malik), 64, 120, 196, 267, 316, of, 367; root of, 150; search of the cosmos for,
365, 390n17; level of, 48, 49, 50, 110, 152, 240, 385n11; seeker of, 153; three kinds of, 188; three
331; support of jurists by, 72, 202; and subject, ways to, 328, 347; two kinds of, 168-169, 173,
48, 152, 247; kingdom (mulk), 87, 313; of God, 197, 200, 218; all present in man, 154; always
85, 88; world of, 282, 376 better than ignorance, 175; always determined by
kitiih, 19; umm al-kitiih, 240; al-wujud al-kitiihr, 396n6; the knower, 219; contrasted with entities, 218;
kitiiha, 258 contrasted with faith, 193-195, 196-197; con-
kiyiinf. See kawn. trasted with ignorance (see ignorance); contrasted
knowers, men of knowledge ('ulamii'), 349; divine, with imaginal perception, 209; contrasted with
236; perfected, 308; of God, 73; through God, practice (see practice); contrasted with reason, 255;
202; most knowledgeable of, 155. See learned. contrasted with tasting, 222; derives from imagi-
Knowing (al-'iilim, al-'alfm), 37, 54, 174, 285, nation, 121; derives from marks, 255; derives from
389n19; great scope of, 48, 49, 51, 52 mercy, 148; gained through godfearing (see god-
knowledge (possessed by man) ('ilm, ma'rifa), fearing); identical with existence, 4, 91, 188, 258;
(defined), 148-149, 220; all-embracing (ofGod), knowledge that God cannot be known, 112, 132,
355; all-encompassing, 170; all-inclusive, 236; 143, 154, 155, 380; more excellent than love, 380;
bestowed (contrasted with earned), 200 (see also knowledge/not knowledge, 156; negates evil, 308;
bestowal); certain, 166; destructive, 269; divine, object(s) of knowledge (ma'lum), 11, 37, 79, 123,
111; engendered (contrasted with divine), 153; 153, 214, 217, 298, 299, 341, 361; three, 204-205;
God-given, 235, 236, 237, 249, 252, 373; innate four, 136; none but God, 214; known thing (ma'-
(of God), 158, 162, 399n3, 404n18; Law-defined, lum), 119, 122; three levels of, 115. See also gnosis,
173; perfect, 320; positive, 354; rational, 173, 258; science, tasting, unveiling, witnessing.
self-evident (see self-evident); sound, 170, 188, knowledge (possessed by God) ('ilm), 19, 38, 121,
201, 210, 381; transmitted, 232; unlettered, 295, 298, 357, 386n14; eternal, 247; precedent, 157,
235-237; useful, 149-150; useless, 150, 242; 195, 238; as an attribute of all-encompassingness,
verified, 168, 243, 288; as the basis of nearness to 148, 398n3; of cosmos through Self, 38, 84, 131,
God, 151; of certainty, 155; of divine things, 150, 167, 297-298, 339, 346; of particulars, 248, 249;
235; of God, xxi, 150, 271, 318, 328, 353-354, of universals, 298; effects of, 305; existence of
355, 368, 376-377; of God as the life of the soul, things in, 88; (infinite) objects of, 11, 38, 153, 154;
234; of God as the purpose of creation, 76, 150, man's ignorance of, 180, 255, 300-301; presence of,
216; of God by all things (except jinn and man), 5; relation of to destiny, 314; Scale of, 178, 255;
157, 158, 163, 216-217, 404n18; of God compared to man's rational faculty, 238; followed
determined by knower, 341-342, 349; of God by existent forms, 320; follows the object ofknowl-
through God, 166, 167; of God through cosmos edge, 206, 298-300, 305; identical with Himself
(self-disclosure), 153, 156, 164; of God must (His Essence), 38, 154, 167, 297-298; knowledge-
come through Law or God's knowledge-giving, giving, bestowal of knowledge (ta'rif), divine, 76,
163, 213, 233; of God must come through 171, 180, 201, 217, 257, 259, 263, 277, 337
following authority, 350; of God must come Konya, xviii
through self, 71, 167, 176, 216, 341, 345-346; of Koran (qur'iin), 35, 238-244; tremendous, 241; as the
God must come through things, 157, 225; of character of Mul;tammad, 241; as containing all
God's appropriate attributes (through reason), knowledge, 239; as light, 215; as the straight path of
233; of God's existence, 233, 234; of God's Level, Mul~ammad, 303; all-comprehensiveness of,
345; as the greatest blessing, 148, 156; of the 239, 240; all meanings of intended by God, 243-
infinite, 154; as the means to pass to the 244, 245; carriers of, 241; context of, 242; diverse
nonmanifest, 217; of other than God, 150; of understandings of, 92; explanation of through
458 other than temporally originated things as allusions, 247, 249-250; Folk of, 239, 340; inimita-
Index of Names and Terms

bility of, 330; interconnection of verses of, xxi, leading on step by step (istidriij), 257, 267, 374; of
221; interpretation of (see interpretation); knowl- the gnostics through discourtesy, 273
edge of the Sufis as understanding of, xii, xv, learned (masters) ('ulamii'), 170, 182, 200, 252, 284,
257-258; recitation of, 168, 223, 238, 340; two 305, 354; of the Law, 259; their seeking favor with
senses of each verse of, 247; understanding of as kings, 202. See also exoteric, jurists, knowers.
given by God, 242, 248-249, 257; understanding learning (ta'allum), 247
verses of through reflection, 165; meaning of word legal authority (mujtahid), 236; legal investigation
qur'iin, 239, 240, 241, 363; contrasted withforqiin, (ijtihiid), 236
239, 363 letters (~uriif), of Arabic alphabet, 128-129; man-
kray(ur, 35 ifestation of in breath, 128, 338; contrasted with
kufr, 347 meaning, 129
kull, 346; al-jawhar al-kull, 157; al-rii~ al-kull, 152; level(s) (martaba), (defined), 47-51; (mentioned),
al-'abd al-kullf, 371; al-asmii' al-iliihiyyat al-kulliyya, 152, 173, 235, 240, 368; all-inclusive, 126; highest,
394n18; al-~aqfqat al-kulliyya, 135; al-nafs al- 298; highest divine, 330; all as contained in man,
kulliyya, 162 188; all as divine, 46; of entities (engendered
kummal. See kiimil. things), 91, 115, 129, 174, 216; of God, 67, 102,
kun. See kawn. 319, 343, 345; of king (see king); of man, 319; of
kuramii'. See karfm. the names, 39; as source of effects, 50; as source of
kursf. 172 excellence, 48; as source of ranking in degrees, 50-
51; distinction of, 204; Possessor of, 345; ranking
of, 343; contrasted with entity, 47-51, 59, 134, 183,
Labid (ibn Rabi'a), 127, 315, 397n7 331; contrasted with Essence, 49-50, 54, 59, 60,
ladder (sui/am, mi'r<lj), of ascent, 219; of perfection, 110, 345, 350, 390n17; contrasted with existence,
371; for the angels, 406n6 346
ladhdha, 106; iltidhiidh, 86; taladhdhudh, 268 life (~ayiit), 205; knowledge as, 234-235; sphere
ladunnf, 235, 236 of, 137; intrinsic to all things, 157, 216, 403n18,
laf?, 244; laf? mushtarak, 73; ishtiriik.fi'l-laft., 412n17; priority over knowledge, 398n3
69; laf?i, 319; al-wujud al-laf?l. 393n6 light (nur), (defined), 7, 93, 122, 213-215; assigned
Last (al-iikhir), 133, 134, 344 to the possible thing, 214; divine, 170, 288, 304;
Lat, 343 greatest, 223; imaginal, 123; meeting of two, 223,
Lafii'if al-ishiiriit, 246 224, 226, 262; radiant (contrasted with rayless),
la!ff See luif. 217-218; scattered, 223; sheer, 214, 362; thrown
laughter (4i~k), of God, 72, 85, 181, 183, 187, into the heart, 170, 194, 197, 215; of disengaged
232, 287, 313, 327, 394n35 meanings, 225; of existence (Being), 22, 223; of
Laugier de Beaurecueil, S. de, 385n5 faith, 164, 186, 194, 196, 245; of God's face, 328;
law, 299, 409n10 of guidance, 179; ofknowledge, 196, 197, 257; as
Law (shar', sharf'a), (defined), 170-171; (mentioned), knowledge, 170, 225; as knowledge and existence,
27, 194, 258-263, 343; as a criterion for good and 196; of the locus of manifestation, 223; as (cause
evil, 292, 306; ofMui}.ammad, 240, 241; abolition of of) manifestation, 122, 215; as name of God, 196,
rulings of, 207, 208; argument of against reflection, 204, 226; of the One Entity, 104; of reason, 196;
156; benefit of, 171; bounds of, 168; convention of sight, 223; of the soul, 226; as source of all
of, 292; denial in accordance with, 243; discourtesy perception, 214; as substance of the spirits (angels),
toward, 273; diversity of, 347; handhold of, 179; 13, 14, 141, 356; of the sun and stars, 210-211; of
imaginal embodiment of, 252; lamp of, 179; light things' essences, 217-218; density of, 141; diverse
of, 270; modification of by the friends, 258; neces- names of, 214; divine names as, 58; God as, 214;
sity of for felicity (see felicity); necessity of for God perceived in the form of, 122; imagination as,
knowledge, 163, 213, 233; necessity of for achiev- 122-123; man as, 331; self-disclosure as, 216; works
ing perfection, 274; necessity of for reaching God, as, 194; becoming light, 225; brings the possible
273; rulings of (see rulings); two kinds of knowl- thing into existence, 214; contrasted with darkness,
edge given by, 172; aids nature, 307; cannot be 13-14, 58, 63, 87, 93-94, 164, 179, 196, 213-214,
changed by unveiling, xvi, 251; contnsted with 223, 225, 234-235, 284, 290, 323, 362, 364-365,
reason (see reason); impossible to follow two at 380; contrasted with mysteries, 342; contrasted
once, 273; makes possible love of God, 180; schools with Nature, 140, 142, 163, 407n17; contrasted
of Law (madhiihib), 252. See also scale, Shari'a. with shadow, 94, 215, 380; dispels darkness, 63, 93,
lawiizim, 102 214; dispels engendered existence, 214; identical
lawful (~alii/), contrasted with unlawful, 252, with Being, 7, 13, 213
256-257, 258, 363, 378 lightning (barq), 278
Lawgiver (shari'), (defined), 389n14; (mentioned), likeness (mumiithala), negation of, 50, 76, 172
53, 74, 111, 122, 137, 160, 182, 188, 201, 203, 236, liqii', 106, 258, 262; ilqii', 230, 258, 262; al-mulqiyiit,
258, 259, 265, 288, 315, 328, 345, 373, 378; Law- 260; talaqqf, 342
giving (tashn'), 251; the friend's share in, 258; sci- lisiin, 172, 244; lisiin al-hiil, 387n14
ences of, 257; contrasted with following, 268 listening (samii'). See au"dition.
leadership (riyiisa), 73, 270, 373, 374, 384n12 liwii' al-~amd, 240 459
Index of Names and Terms

loathesome (khab!th), contrasted with pleasant, 284, magicians, 265


350 magnificence (kibriyii'), 314, 315, 317; magnificent
locus (ma~all), 67, 91, 92, 99, 103, 114, 121, 134, (mutakabbir), 314
138, 142, 207, 276, 344; freeing of, 111, 168, 245. ma~abba. See ~ubb.
See disclosure, manifestation, witnessing. ma~ajja, 149
logic (man(iq), 173, 258, 259, 394n16; logician, ma~all, 40, 103, 134, 325, 339, 350; ma~iill, 39;
219, 250 isti'diid al-ma~all, 67; taftigh al-ma~all, 111
longing (raghba), 107 ma~dud. See ~add.
lord (rabb), (defined), 310, (mentioned), 134, 244, miihiyya, 74, 80
282, 301; essential (contrasted with Lord of will), ma~jur, 131
328; specific, 346; contrasted with vassal, 60-61, mahsur. See hasr.
89, 135, 177, 214, 280, 310. See also knowledge mah~us. See hi;s.
(of self and Lord), servant. ma~w, 116, i 76, 237; ma~w .fi ithbiit, 114
lordliness (rabbaniyya), 323, 366; lordly (rabbiinl), 149; ma~;;ur, 172
attributes, 313; description, 318; forms, 136; ma'iyya, 88, 181, 392n35
power, 313; relationships, 284; robes, 318; sciences, majiin"in. See majnun.
223; station, 282, 283 majiiz, 182, 286
Lordship (rububiyya), (defined), 313; (mentioned), m:Uesty (jaliil), descriptions (attributes) of, 62, 112;
64, 135, 235, 244, 312-313, 322, 323, 370, 372; connected with incomparability, 23-24, 50; con-
essential, 328; claiming of by man, 314, 318, 320; trasted with beauty (see beauty)
tasting of by man, 321; contrasted with He-ness, majlii. See jilwa.
313. See also servanthood. majmu'. Seejam'.
love (~ubb, ma~abba, 'ishq), as root of the Breath majnun. See junun.
of the All-merciful, 126, 128, 131; for God, 128, makiin, makana. See kawn.
238, 272, 285-286; for God in all self-disclosures, makiirim. See karam.
108-109; for God depends upon reason, 238; for makiisib. See kasb.
God made possible by revelation, 180; of super- makh/Uq. See khalq.
erogatory works, 325, 326; object of always non- makhraj. See khuruj.
existent, 131, 389n8; sincerity in, 284; stands below making (ja'l), 297, 298, 351
knowledge, 380; all love is for God, 181, 343; God's Makki, Abii Talib, 103, 413n17
love for creatures, 67, 128, 132, 171-172, 180, makr, 151, 267, 268; makr nafs"i, 257; khayr al-miikir"in,
284-285, 325; God's love to be known, 82, 131, 73
132; beloved (ma~bub), 106, 109, 241; of God, 61 makrnh, 172
lover (mu~ibb), of God, 43-44, 114, 241, 266; God mala' al-adnii, al-, 67, 390n20; al-ma/a' al-a'lii, 67,
as, 61, 72, 114, 238; assumes traits of beloved, 43; 390n20; al-mala' al-asfal, 67
contrasted with gnostic, 370, 380-381; and be- malii'ika, 13; al-maM'ikat al-muhayyamun, 413n23
loved, 72, 106, 284, 285-286; cosmos as lover and ma/akut. See mulk.
beloved, 181 mala/, 105
lowliness (dhilla), 315, 317, 319 maliimiyya, 314, 372
lubb, 230, 238 Malatya, 384n14
Luqman, 386n18 male (dhakar). See female.
lutj, 23, 141; Iatif, 14; latifa, 278; al-latifat malik. See mulk.
al-insiiniyya, 159 Malik al-Zahir (Ghazl ibn al-Malik al-Na~ir
~ala!, al-Dln ibn Ayyiib), a!-, 202, 393n37
ma'iil, 108, 120, 130, 151, 180, 225, 338 ma'/Uh. See iliih.
ma'bud. See 'abd. ma'/Um. See 'ilm.
McCarthy R.J., 408n9 mamnu'. See man!.
macrocosm (al-'iilam al-kab!r), and microcosm, xv, 4, man, 412n7
30, 136, 276, 282, 297 man (human being) (insiin), (defined), 16-17, 235,
ma'daba, 175 274-275; great (contrasted with small), 276; high-
miidda, 115, 185, 320; mawiidd, 184; al-hayiikil al- est, 376; perfect (see perfect); as mirror of God,
nuriyyat al-miiddiyya, 356 178, 352; as most perfect configuration, 128, 276,
madhhab, 43, 63; madhiihib, 252 319; eminence of, 368; failure of to witness self-
madness (junun), 266, 406n15; rational madmen disclosure, 216-217; levels of, 277, 350; narrowness
('uqalii' al-majiin!n), 266, 406n15 and wideness of, 352; oneness of, 352; oneness of
ma'dum. See 'adam. in spite of diversity, 40, 115; presence of, 178; scale
mafqul. See faql. of, 319-320; brings together all levels (realities,
mafi.ur. See .fitra. things), 188, 195, 276, 286, 296, 312; comprehends
maful. Seefi'l. all divine names, 274-275,276,286, 313; contrasted
maggot, 182 with angels, 142, 217, 312, 328; created only for
maghfira, 402n22;ghafur, 20, 36, 340, 405n18;gh<Ufiir, God, 188; created upon God's form (see form);
22, 281 equivalent to whole cosmos, 188; his bodily parts'
460 Maghrib, 384n12 knowledge of God, 294, 404n18; paired with jinn
Index of Names and Terms

(see jinn); possesses no innate knowledge of God, mark ('alama), 45, 83, 163, 189,221,255, 345; whereby
162; situated between existence and nonexistence, God will be recognized (at the Resurrection), 215,
362; man (rajul), (defined), 322, 395n16; (men- 228, 336-337, 340
tioned), 370; the Man, 177, 317; Men, 104, 199, marriage (nika~), 14; divine, 86
273, 322, 331, 355, 356, 366, 370, 374; the Men martaba, 40, 47; maratib, 35; maratib al-wujiid, 14;
of Allah, 198, 228, 284, 331, 369, 373, 402n18; ~a~ib al-martaba, 50; rutba, 47, 134; tartlb, 47,
the highest Men, 374. See also manliness, woman. 134; tart!b al-'alam, 14, 47; tart"ib ~aq!qf, 51; al-
ma'na, 11, 20, 28, 34, 36, 50, 115; ma'an"i, 100, 184, tart"ib al-~ikam!, 134
354; al-ma'an! al-mu~datha, 73; ma'nawl, 73, 105, Mary, 117, 127, 131, 246, 247, 296
122, 240, 290, 308, 369 Maryam hint Mul]ammad ibn 'Abdiin, 186
Manat, 343 ma~ali~. See ~ala~.
manazil. See nuziil. Mashariq al-darar!, 394n17, 394nl8, 403n3, 408n7
mandiib, 172 mashhad. See shuhiid.
man!', 392n31; mamnii', 217; mani', 42, 66, 287; mashhiid. See shuhiid.
tamanu', 370; mumtani', 82 mash I'a, 110, 293, 388n8
Manichaeans, 360 mashrii'. See shar'.
manifest (dimension) (?ahir) (see also outward), maskan, 281
of the Essence, 219-220; of God, 125, 126, 338; as masliib. See salb.
name of God (contrasted with Nonmanifest), 129, ma~nii'. See ~an'a.
132, 134, 135, 136, 149, 218, 225, 230, 286, 361, ma~raf, 305, 306
365, 366; diversity of forms within, 89, 90, 92, Massignon, L., 408n11
95; contrasted with meaning, 156; contrasted with master (ustadh), 209. See shaykh.
nonmanifest, 16, 89-90, 218, 219-220, 236 mastiir. See sitr.
manifestation (?uhiir), 16, 64, 67, 91, 140, 214, ma'~iim. See 'i~ma.
231, 376; of Being, 92; of the cosmos, 131; of the mathal. See mithl.
Divinity, 61, 94; of the entities, 94, 130; of God Matthew, 392n33
alone, 278; as light, 214, 215; of Lordship, 313; mawadd. See madda.
as veil, 365; locus of manifestation (ma?har), mawahib. See wahb.
(defined), 16, 89-90, 92, 116, 216, 405n30; (men- Mawaqi' al-nujiim, 282
tioned), 49, 50, 53, 57, 60, 94, 95, 105, 136, 141, Mawaqif, 318
150, 165, 208, 217, 220, 310-311, 313, 314, 381; mawhiib. See wahb.
divine, 95, 216, 336, 342, 412n13; human, 322; mawjiid. See wujud.
most brilliant, 381; Natural, 356; of Divinity, 155; mawqiif, 61
of Gabriel, 251; of Mul]ammad, 251, 322; light maw~iif See waif
of, 223; the Manifest in, 90, 92, 95, 109, 115, 116, maw(in, 281, 314
182, 348; names manifest in, 331; belong to the maydan, 165
Level, 60; contrasted with entity, 58, 315 may!, 347
manliness (rajiiliyya), 367, 373, 374; perfection of, ma?har. See zuhiir.
366, 367, 395n16, 413n18 mazld, 269
mansha', 135 meaning(s) (ma'na), 11, 52, 57, 67, 106, 173, 179,
man(iq. See nu(q. 406n6; clothed in substrata, 184; disengaged from
manyness (kathra), 65, 157, 183; relational, 260; as substrata (see disengagement); purified of substrata,
part of man's definition, 235; as a veil on taw~"id, 200; temporally originated, 73; embodiment of(see
155; Unity in, 243, 260. See oneness. embodiment); motion of, 102; passage within, 280;
manzil. See nuzul. scale of, 219; self-disclosure in, 220-221; steps of,
manziir. See nazar. 219; world of, 219; contrasted with words (or
maqadrr. See qadar. letters), 129, 201, 277, 324, 330; contrasted with
maqala, 355 sensory objects (forms, things), 45, 100, 115, 116,
maqam, 104, 220, 226, 278, 401n22; maqamat, 10, 29, 119, 121, 123, 124, 126, 134, 156, 359 (see also
176, 222, 264, 275; Ia maqam, 376 supra-sensory)
maqdiir. See qudra. measure (qadar), 88, 103, 256; God's entrance into,
maqhiir. See qahr. 342-343
maq~iid, 244 Mecca, xi, xiv, 240, 266
maq(a', 129 meddling (foqii/), 63, 71, 166, 174
ma'qiil. See 'aql. mercy (ra~ma), 130; divine, 176; essential, 130; of
maraq, 94, 347 free gift, 26, 130; of obligation, 26, 50, 110, 130;
maratib. See martaba. toward reason, 74; God's veil as, 314; identity of
marbiib. See rabb. with existence, 148, 290-291; names of, 157; ob-
mar~iim. See ra~ma. jects of, 65, 68, 130; precedence of, xv, 23, 25, 291;
mar'!. See ru'ya. return of all things to, 108, 120, 130, 225-226,
ma'rifa, 148-149, 163, 164, 228, 266, 341; ma'arif, 149, 338, 361; embraces all things, 19, 120, 130, 132,
160, 210; 'arif, 148, 341; 'arifun, 4, 110, 148; ta'rif, 148, 356; paired with wrath, 23-26; All-merciful
76,217,251, 263; ta'r!jilah!, 180 (ra~man), 34, 37, 282, 290, 360, 361; two fingers 461
Index of Names and Terms

mercy (continued) mothers (ummahiit), seven, 396n1; of the names,


of, 106, 107, 108; Breath of (see breath); the All- 42, 387n16; of the secondary causes, 45
merciful/ All-compassionate, 390n17; all-merciful motion, movement (~araka), 102, 120, 126, 301;
(ra~miin!), station, 282, 283; Vapor, 132 and rest, 174, 216, 302, 324
messenger(s) (rasiil), 35, 101, 130, 370; the Messenger mu'ahbir. See ta'hlr.
(see Mul).ammad); as the most balanced human mu'iimaliit, 278
beings in constitution, 351; as the only tongues mr/aual, 51
of God, 156; of the outward (contrasted with those mubii~, 172, 261, 363
of the inward), 351; as the purest human beings in mubiishara, 313
locus, 350; human kind of as a test, 196; ranking mubashshira, xvii, 41, 403n18; mubashshiriit, 249,
of, 366; tasting of, 215; contrasted with prophets, 404n24; bushrii, 262
172; not acknowledged through proofs, 194, 196 mubdi', 35
(see also proofs); sent to provide God with excuse mudabbir. See tadblr.
for punishment, 350; sent to teach knowledge and mudda, 98
courtesy, 172; messengerhood (risiila), 172, 203, mudda'i. See da'wii.
252, 257, 261, 269, 351. See friends, prophets. mudhill. See dhilla.
metaphor (majiiz, isti'iira), 286; contrasted with real- muqill. See iqliil.
ity, 182 muqmariit, 210
microcosm (al-'iilam al-~aghir), 16-17, 107. See mudrak. See idriik.
macrocosm. mufokkira. See .fikr.
middle (wasa!), 87, 362 mufa~~al. See tafi.ll.
milal, 110 mujlis, 378
milk (laban), 365; knowledge in the form of, 119, mu.frad. See ford.
120, 122, 126, 234 mu~addath, mu~addith. See ~adlth.
mineral (ma'dan), 142, 295 mu~iil, 82, 87, 122, 123, 140, 204, 362; for4
minna, 130; imtiniin, 65, 82, 130 al-mu~iil, 124, 357
miracle (mu'jiza), 194, 299; relation of to faith, 194. MuJ:tammad (the Prophet, the Messenger), 48,
See charismatic act. 239-241; as 'AbdAllah and 'Abd al-Jami', 371; as
mi'riij, 43, 181,219,318,326, 411n4; ma'iirij al-himam, greatest locus of divine self-disclosure, 240; as a
257 light, 323; as a mirror, 352; as one of the People of
mirror (mir' iit), 104, 118, 127, 178, 215, 383n10; of Blame, 372; as seal of prophets, 306; as source of
Being, 205, 299; of God, 297, 412n13; cosmos as, all Laws, 241; as tongue of God, 241; as unlettered,
127, 297; God as, 322; heart as, 223, 352; man as, 235; all-comprehensiveness of, 239; all-encom-
178, 351-352; MuJ:tammad as, 352; nothingness passing (or infinite) knowledge of, 241, 330, 372;
as, 205; perfection as, 368; soul as, 178 all-inclusiveness of message of, 240, 351-352;
miserliness (bukhl), 42-43, 306, 350 character of, 21, 241; greatness of Law of, 241;
misguidance (iqliil), 25-26 inheritor of, xiii; most perfect constitution of, 352;
miskln, 378 path of, 303; perfect unveiling of, 378; the Real as
mistake (kha(ii'), of faculties, 165-167 hearing and sight of, 326; sitting of with slaves, 316;
mithiil. See mithl. supererogatory works of, 326; superiority of over
mlthiiq: akhdh al-mithiiq, 154 other prophets, 239, 240, 241, 351-352; supplica-
mithl, 50, 73, 97, 100, 117, 229, 406n6; amthiil, 97; tion of, 156; vision by of God in all things, 158;
mathal, 117; mithiil, 14, 85, 117, 229, 259; vision of(by others in unveiling), 249, 251; worth-
~aqrat al-muthul, 229; tanazzul mithiill, 348; iness of for the Koran, 240; given all-comprehen-
(nafy) al-mumiithala, 50, 172; tamthll, 117, 180; sive words, 104, 239, 240, 241, 306, 330, 396n17
tamaththul, 117, 219 MuJ:tammad ibn Sa'id Mardanish, x
miziij, 142, 160, 351; miziij mustaqim, 262 MuJ:tammad ibn Wasi', 411n9
mlziin. See wazn. Muhammadan (MuJ:tammadl), 376-379; com-
mocking, mockery, 42, 73 munity, 251; Law, 256; locus of manifestation, 251;
Mohaghegh, M., 385n23 lucidity, 224; Pole(s), 377; Presence, 184; Reality,
moment, indivisible (al-zaman al-ford), 97, 98; present 139; Jesus as, 377
moment (waqt), 38, 243, 369, 412n13 MuJ:tammadi, 376
moon (qamar), 204; mansions of, 359, 385n11; sphere mu~iiqaqa, 206
of, 121; contrasted with sun, 217, 383n1 0; shining mu~aqqaq, mu~aqqiq. See ~aqq.
of full moon (ihdiir), xiii, 383n10 MuJ:tasibi, al-I:Iarith a!-, 371, 413n17
Morning (shuruq), contrasted with evening, 376 muhayminiyya, 48
mortification (taqashshuj), 202, 374 muhayyamun, al-ma/ii'ikat a/-, 413n23
Moses, 42, 66, 194, 215, 240, 241, 258, 261, 318, mu~dath. See ~uduth.
371, 383n12, 397n7; request of to see his Lord, 222, mu~ihb. See ~ubb.
228; and Kha4ir, 221, 236, 263; and the sor- mu~kam, 201
cerers, 116 muhsin. See ihsiin.
mother (umm), 152; highest, 140, 141; second, 140; mu~tama/. Se~ i~timiil.
462 of the Book, 240-241; Nature as, 140, 141, 142; mu~yl. See ~ayiit.
Index of Names and Terms

mu~l!. See i~ii(a. musta'iir, 43, 73


murizz. See rizza. mustafiid. See istifiida.
mujiihada, mujiihid. See jihiid. mustanad. See istiniid.
mujarrad. See tajr!d. mustaqlm, miziij, 262; al-~irii! al-mustaqlm, 300;
miijid. See wujiid. al-tarlq al-mustaq!m, 285
mu'jiza, 194 mustar!~. See rii~a.
muimal. See ijmiil. muta'addid. See 'adad.
mu;tahidiin. See jihiid. muta' iill. See 'all.
mukallaf See taklif. muta'allaq. See ta'alluq.
mukiishafo. See kashf muta'awwil. See ta'w!l.
mukawwan, mukawwin. See kawn. mutaqii'i.f See iqiifa.
mukhiilafa, mukhiili.f See khiliif muta~akkim. See ~ukm.
mukhta~ar, 276; al-mukhta~ar al-wajlz, 296 mutajall I. See jilwa.
muktasab. See kasb. mutakabbir. See kab!r.
mulii'im, 291 mutakallim. See kaliim.
mulk, 60, 88, 276, 282, 376; malik, 88; malik al-mulk, mutakhayyal, mutakhayyil. See khayiil.
61; malakiit, 282, 376; miilik, 61 mutaniifira, 68
mulqiyiit. See ilqii'. mutaniihl. See nihiiya.
multiplicity (takaththur). See oneness mutaqiibila. See qabiil.
mumiithala. See mithl. mutaraddid. See taraddud.
mu'min. See imiin. mutarjim. See tarjumiin.
mumlt, 6, 36 mu' ta~ar, 371
mumkin. See imkiin. mutashiibih, 201
mumtani', 82 mutatarrif See taraf
muniifiq, 194 mutawahham. See wahm.
muniisaba. See nisba. mutawassi(. See wasa(.
muniizara. See niziir. mutawiitir, 257
muniizala. See nuziil. Mu'tazilite(s), 33, 63, 70, 83, 135, 203,204,205-211,
mun'azil, 71 237, 353, 398n19, 403n14
munazzah. See tanzlh. muthul. See mithl.
mundus imaginalis, ix, xix mutlaq. See itliiq.
munfo'il. Seefi'l. muttafiq. See muwiifoqa.
munfo~il. See fo~l. muttala', 363, 412n5
munificence (jiid), 65, 272, 317; divine, 157, 259; muttaql. See taqwii.
presence of, 223 mutta~il. See wa~l.
mun'im. See in'iim. muwiifaqa, 262, 293; muwiifiq, 104; ittifiiq, 167;
munkariit, 202 muttafiq, 229
Muntaha'l-madiirik, 394n18, 408n7, 408n14 muwa~~id. See taw~!d.
muntaqim. See intiqiim. muwallad, 68
muqallib. See qalb. Mu~affar al-Din Musa, xi
muqallid. See taql!d. muzii~ama, 90, 312
muqawwim, al-fo~l a/-, 276 mystery (sirr, pl. asriir), 178, 187, 201, 223, 235, 247,
muqayyad. See qayd. 252, 370, 373, 402n12; divine, 154; of destiny,
muqsi(. See qis(. 412n13; of the path, 143; sciences of, 169, 187, 219,
muriid. See iriida. 270; tasting of, 353; contrasted with lights, 342
murajja~, murajji~. See tarjl~.
muriiqaba. See raqlb. nab!. See nubuwwa.
Murcia, x, xi nadb, 286, 288
mur!d. See iriida. nafos, 97, 127, 281, 398n9; nafas al-ra~miin, 19,
musabbib, musabbab. See sabab. 34, 127; 'iilam al-anfiis, 205; ma'a'l-anfiis, 98;
mu~iidaja, 212 ~ii~ib al-nafos, 212; tanfis, 127, 398n9
musallat, 184 niifila. See najl.
mu~alll, See ~aliit. najkh, 134
musammii. See ism. nafl, 324; niifila, 324; nawiifil, 55; qurb al-nawiifil, 324;
mu~arrif al-quliib, 106 nawiifil al-khayriit, 324
Musawi, 28, 377 nafs, 17, 38, 162, 225, 373; al-nafs al-kulliyya, 162;
musiiwiq, 101, 132 makr najsl, 257; al-ru' iiniit al-nafsiyya, 373; ~ifa
mu~awwir. See ~iira. nafsiyya, 11 0; ~ifa nafsiyya thubiitiyya, 58, 62;
mushiihada. See shuhiid. waif najsl, 101; nafsiinl, xiii
mushiiraka, mushtarik. See shirk. nafih, 169, 262
mu~lh, 181 nafy, 60, 113; nafy al-mumiithala, 50
muslim. See isliim. na~w, 173
Muslim (al-.'ia~l~), 38, 100, 197, 251, 288 nahy, 172 463
Index of Names and Terms

nii'ib. See niyiiba. do not make the One many, 35-36, 52, 53, 56-57,
na'lm, 106, 227 183, 278; exist only through creatures, 62; mani-
najiit, 150 fested fully only in man, 30, 276, 286; not on-
nakiriit, min ankara/-, 12, 88 tological (contrasted with entities), 35, 50, 52;
Named (al-musammii), (defined), 385n6; (men- rule over creatures, 152; rule over the poles, 371;
tioned), 36-37, 39, 40, 53, 54, 57, 67, 86, 183, solidly joined together, 285
281; identity of with name, 37, 39, 96; unity of, namfma, 307
387n7 naqfqayn, 66, 112; taniiquq, 188
names (asmii'), (defined), 5, 8-11, 34, 40, 41, 42, naql, 131, 161, 215, 250, 391n14; a~~iib al-naql,
53, 155; (discussed), 65, 139, 183, 386n1; all-com- 400(a)n4
prehensive (see all-comprehensive); contrary (and naq~, 43, 266, 294, 296; ahl al-naq~, 269
non-contrary), 67, 68, 303, 361; creaturely, 43; narration, possessor of (mu~addath), 262
engendered, 95; engendered (contrasted with di- nash'a, 68, 129, 184, 305
vine), 124, 220; merciful (contrasted with wrathful), na~!b, 276
151, 157; Most Beautiful, 8, 11, 22, 33, 37, 40, Nasirean Ethics, 22
41, 43, 53, 61, 62, 86, 95, 107, 276, 283, 284, naskh, 108, 171
314, 327, 387n14; ninety-nine, 8, 44, 129, 135, 369; Nasr, S.H., xxii, 382n5, 385n27, 386n1, 411n3
particular (contrasted with universal), 394n18; naH, 219
proper, 66, 155, 245, 390n7; seven, 284, 408n14; na't: nu' iit aljalii/, 50
as abodes, 281; of acts (see acts); of attributes, 354; natfja, 279, 394n16
as a barzakh, 39, 68; as boughs of tree, 100; as niitiq. See nutq.
causes of manifestation, 95; as darknesses (and natural (tab!' f), 142, 143; locus of manifestation,
lights), 58; of deputation, 210; as diverse places of 356; bodies, 234; intoxication, 198; world, 223;
homecoming, 302; of engendered existence, 41-44; worship, 294; contrasted with elemental, 401n9
of the Essence, 245, 276, 354, 390n17, 391n28; as Nature (~abf'a), (defined), 139-142, 391n25, 401n9;
the goal in ascent, 257; as God's character traits, (mentioned), 68, 105, 120, 126, 303, 307, 395n7;
22, 283; as God's family, 41, 52, 56; of good, 157; disengaged, 142; First, 143, greatest, 140; primor-
as the human kingdom, 276; of imperfection, 43; of dial (see primordial); as darkness, 140, 142; as evil,
incomparability, 354, 390n4 (see acts); of majesty 142; as mother, 140, 160; as place of forgetfulness,
and beauty, 23, 150; of the names, 34-35, 36, 37; 195; earth of, 371; science of, 271; two active
of perfection, 43, 112; of praise, 155; as relation- principles of, 141, 360; contrasted with light, 163,
ships, 35-36, 52, 59, 60, 156; as the root of 407n17; contrasted with reason, 271; contrasted
hierarchy, 51; of secondary causes, 46; as sources with spirit, 140, 142, 304; natures (tabii'i'), 142,
of the many gods, 363; of taking to task, 157; as 262; four, 141, 173
waystations, 281; all things as, 42, 44, 94, 210, 368; nawiifil. See niifila.
assuming the traits of (see traits); attentiveness of, nawm, 120
48, 279, 280, 319; authority of, 53; classification of, na?ar, 71, 110, 159, 165, 197, 217, 233, 368, 380;
58, 210, 391n28, 408n14; conditionality of, 41, 42; al-na?ar al-fikrl, 60, 149, 159; na?ar ~a~ I~, 84;
conference of, 53-54; conflict of, 55-56, 67; di- ahl al-na?ar, 52, 160; ~ii~ib al-na?ar, 165;
versity of, 35, 55; effects of (see effects); effusion of a~~iib al-na?ar, 121; na?ar!, 63; nii?ir, 338, 355;
knowledge by, 257; equilibrium among, 27; gnostic nU??iir, 51, 160; nii?iriin, 84; man?iir, 380
as companion of, 281; God's knowledge of, 36; niizil. See nuziil.
hierarchy (levels, ranking) of, 23, 39, 47-52, 68; nii?ir. See na?ar.
infinity of, 42: influence of on the heart, 266; nearness (qurb, qurba), 280, 348; to God, 151, 196,
interaction with in a mutual waystation, 281; joy 201, 294, 365-366; of God to man, 154, 249, 365;
of, 53; leaders of, 408n14; manifestation of (as of obligatory and supererogatory works, 325, 327
cosmos), 16, 40, 48-49, 52-53, 96, 114, 284, 331, (see also supererogatory); contrasted with distance,
369; many faces of, 281; manyness (and oneness) 151, 223, 319, 361; depends upon God's giving
of, 57; Mothers of, 42, 387n16; mutual impeding knowledge, 171
of, 370; negation of, 93; nonexistence of, 50; pre- necessary (wiijib), 121, 122, 123; through the Other,
scripton of Law by, 208; Presences of, 28, 42, 51, 90, 298, 325, 389n9, 393n3; contrasted with
387n16; pronouns as, 210; proofs of, 187; proper- impossible, 94, 196; Necessary Being (wiijib al-
ties of (see properties); relief of, 130; scopes of, wujiid), (defined), 81-82; (mentioned), xxi, 51, 80,
48; secondary causes as, 44; servanthood toward, 81,87,90, 132,204,213,287,325,337,364,380;as
370; sharing of, 137, 183, 390n2; two denotations distinct from the one entity of the cosmos, 183; con-
of, 35, 36-38, 47, 66, 350, 388n2; belong only to trasted with possible thing(s), 69, 82, 90, 123, 124,
God, 43, 95; bestow only existence, 55; correspond 246, 291, 293, 310, 319, 322, 337, 387n14; "neces-
to stations of the Muhammadan, 377; demand en- sary finding," 212
gendered existence, 41, 52, 64-65, 177, 369, necessity (wujiib), of Being, 50, 53; of immutability
387nl4; demanded by states of entities, 40, 183; (contrasted with that of Being), 183; negated from
determine belief, 355; determine the finding of the creation, 298
Real, 212; determine the friend's knowledge, 370; negation (sa/b), of attributes from God, 9, 62, 163-
Index of Names and Terms

164, 182, 186, 187, 282, 345, 349, 365, 381; nubuwwa, 121, 261; nabl, 172
attributes of, 59, 172; negation (naJY), (see af- nufiidh, 267
firmation) number ('adad), 57, 183, 338, 412n3; even (contrasted
next world (hereafter) (iikhira), 121; as an abode of with odd), 360-361; levels of, 183
recompense, 150; as a place of regret, 156; denial of niir, 13, 204, 213; anwiir, 58, 342; al-hayiikil al-niiriyyat
God's self-disclosure in (see denial); lifting of pre- al-miiddiyya, 356; niiriinl, 14
scription in, 207, 208; knowledge of, 219; mani- nuskha, 297
festation of Men in, 374; outward dimension of nu(q, xv, 157, 216, 246, 276; ~ayawiin niitiq,
(compared to inward dimension of this world), 338; xv, 276; man(iq, 173
Pool of, 342; uncovering of ignorance in, 155; un- nu' iit al-jaliil, 50
derstanding of through imagination, 121; con- nuziil, 43, 279, 281, 392n35, 407n3; manzil, 21, 221,
trasted with this world, 67, 222, 266, 309. See also 226, 281, 407n3; maniizil, 278;falak al-maniizil, 359;
resurrection. manzila, 48, 213; nazi/, 383n11; muniizala, 342,
nidii', 55, 293 407n3; muniizaliit, 278; tanazzul mithiill, 348
Niffarl, 318 Nwyia, P., 399n5, 410n10
night. See day.
ni~al, 110 obedience (lii'a), 55, 168, 319, 327; acts of, 151,
nihiiya, 288; Iii nihiiya lah, 96; ghayr mutaniihl, 96 167, 307, 325, 372
nikii~. 86 obfuscation (shubha), (defined), 390n6; (mentioned),
nisba, 40, 52, 125, 135; nisab, 35; muniisaba, 59, 62, 63, 149, 167, 169, 170, 179, 180, 186, 197, 220,
72, 172, 201, 259, 362, 406n6; muniisib, 104, 230, 272, 364; contrasted with proof, 163, 194, 195, 207,
349 236
nisyiin, 296 obligation (wujiib, fiiib), God's of Himself, 26:'50,
niyiiba, 99, 210, 286, 313; nii'ib, 368 110, 130, 214
niyya, 259, 307 obligatory (far4, fan4a, wifiib), 172, 207, 261,
nizii', 67; muniiza'a, 68; taniizu', 55, 142 269, 288, 308-309; obligatory works (.farii'i4),
ni'?iim, 38 324, 374. See supererogatory works.
Noah, 308, 409n21 obliteration (ma~w), 104, 116, 176, 279; in affir-
noble character traits (makiirim al-akhliiq: see trait); mation, 114
the noble (al-kuramii'), 320-321 occult sciences, 265, 269-270
non-thing, not-thing (Iii shay'), 122, 167, 378 ocean. See sea.
nondelimitation (itliiq), of Being (God), 109-112, omen, good (fa'!), 249-250
122; of God's attributes, 287; of heart, 107; of one (wai:J.id, a4ad), 167; the number "one,"
imagination, 124; of man's attributes, 287; of prac- 183, 360-361, 411n3; the one's knowledge of the
tice, 282; contrasted with delimitation (see de- many, 235; the One (al-wii~id), 54; in Being,
limitation) 412n3; the One/Many (al-wii~id al-kathlr), 25,
nonexistence ('adam), (defined), 7-8, 79-80; (men- 121, 140, 214; the One/Unique (al-wii~id al-
tioned), 133, 357; absolute, 36, 87, 122; beginning- a~ad), 390n17
less, 246; impossible (contrasted with possible), 87; oneness (wa~aa), 356; compound, 356; of Being,
relative, 86, 87, 88; sheer, 87, 123, 252; as con- 3, 79-80, 357, 382n3; of the Entity (contrasted with
striction, 131; of cosmos (see cosmos); as darkness, diversity: see Entity); of the Essence, 346; paired
226; as evil (see evil); as a perfection of the friends, with manyness (multiplicity), 7-8, 15, 24-25, 42,
321-322, 331, 375; of the "other," 302; of possible 90, 96, 260, 346, 363; and manyness of God, 41;
things (entities), 54, 64, 65, 83, 86, 87, 94, 95, Oneness (wahdiiniyya), 195, 243
97, 101, 131, 157, 204-205, 245, 321, 322; as the ontological (wujiidl), 264, 278; combination, 53;
reality of the servant, 278; as unreal, 315; existence presence, 223, 355; quality, 36, 58, 290, 314; Real,
of, 122, 123; form of, 122, 123; passage from into 315; thing, 118, 158, 188
existence (see existence); priority of, 101; two kinds opening (fat~, fotii~). (defined), xii-xiii, 222-
of, 7-8, 79-80, 87, 393n6; contrasted with Being, 223, 224, 394n19; (mentioned), xxi, 95, 222, 224-
24, 79, 93-94, 204, 252, 309, 378; contrasted with 225, 237, 258, 271; divine, 236, 272, 367; spiritual,
existence, 11, 87-88, 89, 94, 141, 188, 315, 337, 272; of expression, 224; of the gate (door), xiv, xv,
347, 364, 365. See also nothingness. 261; of sweetness, 224, 370; through tastings, 222;
nonexistent (thing) (ma'diim), 11-12,81, 134; displays of unveiling, xii, 215, 224, 225
effects, 50; perceives and knows, 93, 101, 102, 104, opinion (ra'y), commentary by, 244; possessors of,
132, 183, 245-246, 322; produces multiplicity, 259; opinion ('?ann), God's being with, 343, 344
90-91 opposites (a4diid), 115, 138, 306; coming together
nonmanifest (biifin), as a divine name, 120; of ex- (coincidence) of, 59, 67, 115, 116, 243, 288, 375
istence, 278; sciences of, 219; self-disclosure never opposition (khiliif, ta4iidd), 68, 141, 142; opposi-
occurs within, 218; contrasted with manifest (see tion (mukhiilafa), to the Law, 161, 208, 267, 301,
manifest) 311, 320, 403n18; contrasted with conformity, 293,
nothingness ('adam), 7, 11, 13, 79, 357; nondelimited, 327; determined by prescription of the Law, 293
204-205, 290, 292 order (ni'?iim), 38, 41, 51 465
Index of Names and Terms

Ormsby, E.L., 409n6 through existence, 174, 183; actualized through im-
Oromo, 386n4 perfection, 294-295; contrasted with beauty (and
other (ghayr, siwa), 39-40, 50, 91, 223, 245, 266, 308, majesty), 370, 376, 379; contrasted with comple-
309; than God, 95, 127, 218, 294, 365; as nonexis- tion, 296-297, 368. See also imperfection.
tence, 302; and jealousy, 176; and like, 50; de- performance (kasb), (defined), 206; (mentioned), 208,
manded by God, 50, 296; everything other than 210; contrasted with creation, 206, 207-208, 301
God, 5, 8, 12, 36, 39, 67, 79, 83, 113, 114, 118, Peripatetic, xviii, 12, 33, 113, 123, 147, 405n21
133, 136, 141, 150, 156, 158, 173, 311, 312, 353 Persian, 35
outward (dimension, self, sense, significance, situa- perspicacity (firasa), 304; of faith, 304
tion), (;;:ahir), 168, 187, 201, 257; preservation Pharoah, 23, 314, 320, 409n7; pharoahs, 247
of, 272; contrasted with inward, 152, 158, 223, 224, phenomena (akwan), 103
245, 246, 279, 286, 327, 338, 351. See also manifest. philosophy, x, xvii-xix, 80-81, 202-204; derivation
Overbearing (aljabbar), 37, 314, 315, 412n4; foot of, of Greek word, 203; relationship with Sufism, xviii;
361 philosopher(s) (jaylasuj, ahl al-~ikma), xv, 63,
64, 75, 237, 326, 387n17; natural, 284. See Peri-
pain (alam), 156, 158 patetic, theologians.
pantheism, 79 physician (tab!b), 271, 284, 409n16; divine, 304-
paradise, 20. See Garden. 305; of God's religion, 272
particular (juz'i), names, 394n18; God's knowledge place (makan), 134, 216, 379; and rank (makana), 379-
of, 248, 249 380, 406n6
partner (sharlk), 95 plane (nash'a), 121, 142, 184
passion (shahwa), 223; two kinds of, 160; contrasted planet (kawkab, ~a~ib sama'), 40; seven, 370
with reason, 160-162 plants (nabat), 84, 142, 295, 301, 403n18; their knowl-
path (sabtl, ~ira(, (arlq, rarlqa), straight, edge of God, 216, 246, 403n18
285, 300, 301-303; straight of Allah, 301, 302; of Plato, 203; names as Platonic ideas, 84
Allah, 302-303; of the Blessing-giver, 303, 347; pleasant (iayyib). See loathesome.
of God, 285; of MuJ:Iammad, 303 plenum (mala'), higher, 68, 142, 150, 223, 320-321,
patience (~abr), 279, 280 356, 368; higher and lower, (defined), 67, 390n20;
perception (idrak), (defined), 214; (mentioned), 101, (mentioned), 57
102,116,123,160,166,217,218,327,359, 381;all poets (shu'ara'), 181
is light, 214; all takes place through God, 218; ob- pole (qutb), 371, 402n18, 413n23; Muhammadan,
jects of perception (mudrakat), 214 377; two names of, 371, 412n13
perfect (kamil), (human being), 277, 328, 349; (God polytheists (mushrikun), 249-250
as), 294; constitution, 348; friend, 377; individual, pool (in the next world), 342
266; servant, 277-278, 321-324; more perfect than positive (thubuti), attributes, 60, 180, 187, 365; at-
the perfect, 349; the perfect (men) (kummal), 199, tributes (descriptions) of self, 58, 62, 154, 155, 182,
370; perfect man (al-insan al-kamil), (defined), 27- 390n2; knowledge, 354; quality, 71, 349
30, 276, 277-278; (mentioned), 5, 91, 174, 366- possibility (imkan), (defined), 82-83, 87, 93, 94, 96,
372, 375-376, 410n21; as eye of God, 329; as God's 387n14; (mentioned), 19, 53, 59, 122, 131, 136, 158,
locus of self-disclosure, 368; as God's sought-after 185, 311, 322, 328, 345, 377, 409n6; of the cosmos,
goal, 30, 368, 372; as the Real, 369; as a veil, 329; 41, 43, 86, 347; of God, 185; as proof of God's ex-
divine form of, 327, 329; glorification (worship) istence, 82, 94, 234; perfection of, 296; possible
of God by, 72, 351, 368; imperfection of, 218; (thing) (mumkin), 59, 86, 134, 181; first, 101; pos-
independence of, 369; poverty of, 46, 368-369; two sible things (mumkinat), (defined), 12, 82, 298;
perfections of, 366-369; servanthood of, 319; (mentioned), 39, 40, 51, 93-94, 101, 127, 204, 210,
station of, 46; types of, 27-28; two visions of God 312; as a barzakh, 205; as synonymous with servant,
by, 29-30, 368; contrasted with animal (imperfect) 310; entities of (see entities); entrance into existence
man, 275, 276-277, 296, 298, 368, 372; stands op- o~42, 84,86, 87,93-94,101, 178,214,291;infin-
posite God, 278; perfected (mukammal), gnostics, ity of, 96-97, 99, 154, 341; kinds of, 115; nonex-
322; knower, 308 istence of (see nonexistence); poverty of (see
perfection (kama/), (defined), 275, 294-297, 375; poverty); tasting of existence by, 86; contrasted
(mentioned), 158, 277; accidental (contrasted with with Necessary Being (see Necessary)
essential), 30, 366-367; Divine, 64, 74, 76, 367; poverty (faqr, iftiqar), 44-46, 53, 71, 110, 219, 311,
human, 283; nondelimited, 294, 368, 370; of all 316; essential, 367; universal, 158; of cosmos (pos-
things except man, 296; of the cosmos, 294; as a sible thing) toward God, 43, 46, 61, 64, 65, 82, 98,
criterion of good and evil, 292, 306, 309; as an 99, 102, 181, 199, 214, 273; of cosmos toward
equilibrium, 370, 375; of the Essence (Essential), names, 64; of perfect man (toward all things), 46,
64, 218, 367; of existence, 220; of the Form, 276, 368-369, 374; as proof of God's existence, 82; as
391n11; ofGod, 240, 347, 352; ofmanliness (con- proof of new creation, 98, 99; display of by Folk
trasted with that of servanthood), 366, 367, 395n16; of Allah, 164; divine root of, 40-41; innate
of servanthood, 370; of stations, 279; attributes of, knowledge of, 158; worship through, 312;
76, 348; deprivation of through lordly attributes, contrasted with independence, 60, 64-65, 98,
466 318; ladder of, 371; people of, 376, 379; actualized 133, 158, 273, 316, 360, 368
Index of Names and Terms

power (qudra), 64, 277, 317, 367; divine, 85, 208, 210; Profitlich, M., 383n11
temporally originated, 207, 208, 209; of the servant, prohibition (nahy). See command.
207, 208, 209, 210; presence of, 5; Powerful (al- pronouncement (fatwii), 202, 249
qadlr, al-qadir), 48, 49, 51, 52, 54, 101, 296, 398n19; pronouns, 236; as divine names, 210, 385n4
object of power (maqdur), 37, 64, 208, 296, 367 proofs (dalfl, da/ala), 93, 124, 136, 166, 169,210,237,
practice ('amal), 149, 151, 152, 171, 200, 225, 244, 365; divine, 308; rational (considerative), 63, 65,
249; outward and inward, 152; sensory and of the 74, 76, 111, 115, 122, 168, 180, 181, 182, 186, 196,
heart, 173, 259; of the Essence, 282; as part of faith, 207, 231, 232, 235, 238, 277, 287, 306, 339, 351;
193, 194; scale of, 259-260; paired with knowledge, by which to know God, 171; of divine names, 187;
149, 173, 174, 256, 258-260, 267, 354. See also of God's existence, 82, 94; of God's Oneness, 195,
works. 233; of the messengers' truthfulness, 186, 187, 194,
praise (~amd), 71, 155, 240; banner of, 240; 196-197, 287; of self-disclosure, 187; intoxication
praiseworthy (ma~mud), 218, 318. See blame- by, 198-199; sciences of, 221; can only negate sim-
worthy. ilarity, 81; contrasted with faith, 193-194; con-
prayer (call, asking), through states, 65; through a trasted with following authority, 350; contrasted
specific name, 66-67; with the tongue of immuta- with obfuscation (see obfuscation); contrasted with
bility, 86; not answered, 91-92; prayer (communal, sound knowledge, 201; contrasted with unveiling
daily, ritual) (~alat), 111, 122, 152, 228, 285, (self-disclosure), xv, 235, 381
307, 343-344, 373; of God, 344; imamate of, 284; properties (a~kiim), (defined), 39-40; (men-
scale of, 259-260; divided between God and ser- tioned), 38, 93, 137, 228, 299, 324; divine, 377;
vant, 327 of the entities, 91, 95, 97, 176, 215, 228, 345; of
predestination, contrasted with free will, 205 God, 50, 61, 76, 338; of names (relationships), 36,
premise (muqaddima), 92, 173 37, 62, 64, 67, 71, 86, 151, 212, 284, 313, 395n7;
preparedness (isti' dad)' (defined), 91-93; (mentioned)' ruled over by God (do not rule over Him), 137,
67, 75, 95, 101, 105, 126, 129, 130, 214, 257, 262, 183, 361; ruled over by the Muhammadan, 376;
280, 296, 310, 317, 323, 338, 340, 342, 344, 345, contrasted with entity, 176
362; accidental (contrasted with essential), 342; en- prophets (anbiya'), Law-bringing, 222, 260; agree-
gendered, 212; for existence, 97; of the heart, 339; ment of in message, 170, 171, 201; coming of an
for knowledge, 153, 245; for opening, 261; con- angel to, 262; imaginal form of, 252; knowledge of,
trasted with reception, 261 xii; speaking of about God without restraint, 72;
preponderation, preponderance (tmjf~). (defined), wages of, 56; as deputies of Mu}:!.ammad, 241;
12, 82; (mentioned), 43, 54, 57, 85, 178, 185, 234, among friends, 250-252; as proofs of reason's in-
328, 337, 387n14; Preponderator (murajji~). 53, capacity, 180; connected with guidance, 25-26,
82, 83, 86, 98, 214, 298 297, 303; prophecy, prophethood (nubuwwa), 26-
prescription (taklif), 110, religious, 141; of the Law, 28, 121, 171, 203, 259, 311, 314; cutting off of,
63,164,174,179,195,207,210,244,272,293,300- 261, 263; the friend's share in, 258, 262, 263; can-
301, 347; by one divine name for another, 208; not be earned, 219; contrasted with heralding
lifting of, 207, 208, 293-294; prescriptive com- visions, 403n18. See also friend, messenger.
mand (see command) prostration (sujud), 152-153; of the angels, 152,
presence(s) (~a4ra), (defined), 5; (mentioned), 399n11; of the heart, 152,272, 407n18; of shadows,
122, 185, 204, 226, 258, 298; all-comprehensive, 152, 204, 311; of the whole cosmos, 311; to other
54, 126, 188; Barzakh, 204; Divine, (defined), 5, 25, than God, 365
33-34, 58, 66; (mentioned), xv, 27, 42, 124, 237, provision (rizq ), 53, 61, 173, 222; All-provider (al-
252, 259, 260, 286, 296, 313, 319; Five Divine, 5; razziiq), 53, 61, 66, 281, 350
imaginal, 116, 354; ontological, 223, 355; the, 102, Psalms, 213, 244
229, 272, 397n3; three, 282; Word of the, 102, punishment ('iqab), 26, 108, 152, 197, 350
397n3; of Acts, 123; of Allah, 54; of God, 323, purification (ta{hlr), 245; through dust, 317
406n15; of the Essence, 53; of images, 229; of ima-
ginalization, 227-228, 234, 251; of imagination qabban, 172
(see imagination); of knowledge, 5; of man, 178; qab4, 340, 375; qab4a, 37, 131
of marriage and doubts, 383n12; of Moses, 28; of qabil. See qabill.
munificence, 223; of names, 28, 42, 387n16; of qabill, 91, 112, 163, 238, 338; qabi/, 92, 338;
power, 5, 28; of the Real, 178, 321; of sense per- qabiliyya, 140; taqabul, 67; majmu' al-asma' al-
ception, 5; of witnessing, 226, 229; presence (with mutaqabi/a, 67
God) (~u4ilr), 43, 105, 142, 168, 210, 320, qa4ii', 272, 314
328, 355 qadar, 256, 272, 314; maqadlr, 48. See also qudra.
preservation (~if~). 284; divine, 157; preserva- Qaqi (al-Baqillani), 63
tion ('i~ma), by God, 318 qadlm. See qidam.
primordial nature (fi(ra), 20, 195 qadir. See qudra.
priority (taqaddum), 137, 346; of God's Being over qahr, 23, 314; talab al-qahr, 307; qiihir, 39; qahhar,
servant's existence, 286, 390n2; of nonexistence, 410n6; maqhur, 39
101 qa'il. See qawl.
productions (muwalladat), 91, 93, 142 qa'im, 124 467
Index of Names and Terms

qalh, 106, 112, 152, 159; qa/h al-~aqa'iq, 205; 282; depends upon levels, 50, 182; none in names,
mu:wrif al-qu/Uh, 106; taqd1s al-qalb, 111; qalh1, 57
173, 259; taqlib, 107; muqallib, 152; muqallib al- raqami, al-wujiid al-, 393n6
qu/Uh, 106; taqalluh, 100, 106; inqilah, 38 raqib, 348; muraqaha, 107, 168, 348; tark al-muraqaha,
qar1nat al-~al, 277 348
qarn, 397n12 raqiqa, 372, 406n6
qa(', 151; qa( al-'ala'iq, 111 rasikhiin fi'l-'ilm, 56
qawi. See quwwa. rasm: ahl al-rusiim, 244; 'ilm al-rusiim, 44; 'ulama' al-
qawl, 128, 194, 213, 313, 405n16; qa'il, 34; qa'iliyya, rusiim, 72,148,171,247, 388n22; rasmi, 279, 319;
398n19 al-'i/m al-rasmi, 161, 257
qayd, 255, 397n14; taqy1d, 107, 109, 337; muqayyad, rasiil. See risala.
15 rational ('aqll), 173; rational animal (~ayawan
Qay~ari, Sharaf al-Din Dawiid, xviii, 394n13 na(iq), xv, 276; rational faculty ('aql) (see rea-
Qazwini, a!-, 412n12 son); rational soul (al-nafs al-na(iqa) (see soul);
qidam, 62, 163; qadlm, 84; al-wujiid al-qad1m, 61 rational speech (nutq), xv, 216-217; of all things,
qilada, 166. See taqlld. 157, 246, 276 (see also glorification); rational
qishr, 230, 238 thinkers (al-'uqala'), (defined), 160, 246;
qis!, 17, 173; muqsi!, 22, 408n14 (mentioned), 63, 75, 123, 124, 167, 170, 180, 201,
qiyam, 325; qa'im, 124 207, 232, 237
quddiis, 35, 172 rat/, 173
qudra, 17, 207, 277; qadir, 39, 49, 296; 'Abd al-Qadir, ra' iif, 22, 49
370; maqdiir, 37, 60, 296 rawatih, 374
qudus, riift al-, 169 ra'y, 244; ahl al-ra'y, 259
quenching (rl), 153, 220, 393n36 rayn, 223
quiddity (mahiyya), 74, 80-81 razzaq. See rizq.
Qiinawi, ~adr al-Din, xvii-xix, 5, 83, 384n19 Real (al-~aqq), (defined), 132-133; (mentioned),
qur' an. See Koran. xii, 112, 121; created and uncreated, 133; con-
qurh, 151, 319, 365; qurh al-fara'iq, 325; qurb al- trasted with creation (creature), 59, 64, 102, 132,
nawafil, 325; qurha, 171 133, 137, 139, 149, 178, 225, 248, 340, 355, 357,
Qushayri, Abu'l-Qasim, 246, 284, 405n20, 407n18 380, 390n2, 398n19; contrasted with servant, 69,
Qiit al-quliih, 103, 413n17 73, 76, 135; contrasted with unreal, 132, 133; the
qutb, 371; qu(hiyya, 371 Real Through Whom Creation Takes Place, (de-
quwwa, 93, 109, 111, 118, 243; al-quwwat al-mufakkira, fined), 133-134; (mentioned), 127, 128, 137;
74, 160; al-quwwat al-mu!fawwira, 115; al-quwwat People (Folk) of the Real (ahl al-~aqq), 171, 225
al-mutakhayyila, 115; al-qaw1, 115 reality (~aqiqa), (defined), 37-38, 134-135;
(mentioned), 42, 319; elemental, 84; Muham-
rahb, 37, 60, 275, 303, 310; arhab, 45; rabbanl, 149, madan, 139; Universal, 135-139; Unseen, 394n5;
382n8; al-~aqa' iq al-rabbaniyya, 37; al-!!ifat the, 114, 260; of the perfect man, 139; of the Real,
al-rahbaniyya, 313, 366; al-!fuwar al-rabbaniyya, 342; of Realities, 135, 136, 139, 398nl9; longing
136; rabbaniyya, 366; rubiibiyya, 50, 60, 61; marhiib, for, 107-108; identical with Shari'a, 260; subtle
60, 275, 310 reality (latifa), human, 159; realities (~aqa'iq),
rabi(, 360 37-38, 105, 141, 146, 182, 248, 312; divine, xv,
raft' al-darajat, 12, 48 xvi, 100, 136, 150, 350, 363; intelligible, 41, 52,
raghha, 107 53, 141; lordly, 37; of the cosmos (things), 92,
ra~a, 120, 130; ra~at al-abad, 331; mustari~, 110; as they are in themselves, 116; confusion of,
331 373; discrimination among, 370; people of, 217,
ra~ma, 20, 65, 130; ra~im, 49, 130; ra~man, 230, 392n34; nullification (overturning) of, 76,
130, 330; al-ra~man al-raft1m, 390n17; nafas 205, 322; unchangeability of, 38, 41, 52, 65, 141,
al-ra~man, 19, 34, 127; ra~mani, 382n8; 312, 338; world of, 219
ra~im, 330; mar~iim, 130 realization (ta~aqquq), 245, 265, 272, 288, 317,
Rahman, Fazlur, 408nl 322, 372, 412n13
rain (matar), 45, 177, 249 reason (rational faculty) ('aql), (defined), 159-161,
rajul, 177, 395n16; al-rij"al, 395n16; rij"al Allah, 238; (mentioned), 147, 230, 231, 234, 237; as a
402n18; rqjiiliyya, 366, 395n16 follower of authority, 166, 167; acceptance by,
raki' iin, 315 74, 163, 164, 238-239, 255, 258-259; affinity of
Rama<;lan, 202 with incomparability (and rejection of similarity),
R:'imhurmuz, 390n17 29, 70, 74-76, 122, 123, 126, 163, 164, 181-182,
rank (makana), 134, 152, 350, 375; contrasted with 196, 231, 233-234, 277, 314, 340, 351, 381; be-
place (see place); ranking in degrees (of excellence) yond the stage of, 75, 111, 169, 203, 232, 236,
(tafaqul), 8, 12, 13-14, 51-52, 182, 247, 342, 314; denial by, 154, 243; destructive knowledges
347, 363, 366; of faculties, 203; oflevels, 51; of of, 269; disengagement of, 184; faith of in inter-
468 names, 47, 68; of the poles, 371; of stations, 281- pretation, 201; the god worshiped by, 201; inabil-
Index of Names and Terms

ity of to grasp Essence, 60, 163; inability of to ers (processes, thoughts) (ajkiir), xv, 111, 165,
love, 180, 238; interpretation by (see interpreta- 167, 168, 170, 219, 232, 236, 237, 351, 381. See
tion); intoxication of, 198-199; judgment of, 123, also consideration.
124, 160, 163, 166; light of, 196; limitations of, regret (~asra), 156
163, 165, 179-180, 218, 232; madness of, 406n15; rejoicing (fora~), of God (at repentance), 67, 72,
reception of knowledge from heart by, 112; scale 75, 76, 101, 181, 183, 187, 232, 287, 327; of the
of, 258; sight of, 223; sciences of, 169; servants of, names, 53, 86
115; six instruments of, 159, 160; soundness of, relationships (nisba), (defined), 35-36, 52, 104;
169, 179, 242, 347, 351; two modes of perception (mentioned), 42, 50, 52, 53, 59, 60-61, 65, 69, 81,
by, 160, 166, 167; worship by, 341, 351; con- 93, 95, 10~ 103, 115, 12~ 125, 135, 13~ 138,
stricts and delimits, 71, 107, 109, 111, 238, 337, 180, 187, 203, 208, 209, 210, 213, 218, 260, 275,
351; contrasted with eyes, 218, 231; contrasted 292, 299, 313, 321, 346, 350, 356, 357-358, 364,
with faith, 74, 75, 111, 341; contrasted with heart 365, 380, 398n17; divine, 37, 40, 57, 156, 165,
(see heart); contrasted with imagination (see ima- 236, 288; intelligible, 349; lordly, 284; two (of
gination); contrasted with knowledge from God, God), 64, 277; of father to son, 61; entification
255; contrasted with Law, 75, 156, 180, 181, 245, of, 126; infinity of, 156; nonexistence of (in con-
328, 337; contrasted with madness, 266-267; con- trast to entities), 36, 47-48, 61, 83, 136, 156, 278,
trasted with Nature, 271; contrasted with passion 388n1, 388n3; perceived only by proofs (not un-
(caprice), 160-161, 179; contrasted with senses, veiling), 233; temporal origination of, 50; con-
74, 115, 118, 121, 160; contrasted with unveiling trasted with Essence, 360. See also correlation.
(opening), 231, 232, 236; distinguishes between relativity, of noble character traits, 308; of cosmo-
Real and servant, 238; doubts vision of God, 215; logical terms, 13-15, 339; of existence and non-
governed by (gains knowledge from) reflection, existence, 7-8, 11
74, 162-163, 166; limited by imagination, 339; relief, giving (tanfis), 127, 130-131
needs to be taught by God, 163; not for acquiring religion (dtn), 160; as a cord, 122; religions (re-
knowledge, 163; perceives the Divinity, 59; per- vealed) (sharii'i'), 155, 171, 175, 180; divine, 182;
ceives the existence of God, 181, 233; perceives commonality of, 171, 186, 187, 303, 306; di-
Unity (Oneness), 232, 233-235, 339; pitied by versity of, 303, 347, 363; all contained in Mu-
God, 74; possesses one-half the knowledge of l).ammad's Law, 241; all from God, 303; all
God, 74, 184; takes far from God, 188; reason- followed by the Muhammadan, 377-378
ing (istidliil), 169 remembrance (dhikr), of God, 63, 265, 272. See in-
receiving joyfully (tabashbush), 72, 181, 187, 287, vocation.
327, 392n33 renunciation (zuhd), 157, 279, 280, 373; renouncers
reception, receptivity (qabiil, qiibiliyya), 91-93, 134, (zuhhiid), 316, 392n34
140, 141, 229, 257, 338, 360; contrasted with repentance (tawha), 272, 279, 280. See rejoicing.
preparedness, 261; receptacle, receiver (qiibil), (de- repetition (takriir), lack of, 99, 104, 105, 111, 219,
fined), 92; (mentioned), 38, 73, 97, 98, 128, 229, 229, 230; none in self-disclosure (see discllosure)
317, 338, 343; God as, 228 report(s) (khabar), (defined), 172, 256; (mentioned),
recitation (tiliiwa), 228. See Koran. 195, 392n35; divine, 164, 168, 188, 198, 1199, 312;
recollection (tadhakkur), 154, 155 prophetic, 197, 326; as source of knowledge, 188;
recommended (mandub), 172, 207, 261, 288, 308- people of, 207; sciences of, 169; two kinds of,
309 172; contrasted with rulings, 172, 251, 256, 261,
recompense (jazii', ujra), 150, 175, 179, 299 262; received by friends, 251, 261, 262; report-
reflection (.fikr, tafakkur), (defined), 62-63, 159- giving (ikhbiir), 156; divine, 180, 201, 207, 269;
160, 162-164; (mentioned), xiv, 111, 200, 258, report-giver (mukhbir), 213
259, 277, 345, 368, 403n18; corrupt, 203; sound, reprehensible (makruh), 172, 207, 261, 308--309
119; as a talisman on reason, 184; as a veil, 203; Resolve (himma), 279, 323, 331, 413n26; acting by,
chastisement of, 156; elimination of, 168; imagi- 252, 313
nation as the domain of, 162-163; inability of to resurrection (day of) (qiyiima), 239, 240, 248, 279,
gainknowlcdgeoftheEssence, 60, 62, 163;prohibi- 355; earth of, 225-226; God's self-transmutation
tion of on God's Essence (see Essence); prophets at, 38, 100, 101; knowledge at, 156
have none of, 215; purpose of in creation, 162, retreat (khalwa), xii, xiv, 1 f1, 159, 237, .383n12,
163, 184; scale of, 255; toil of, 219; contrasted 384n13
with reason's acceptance, 163, 238, 258; contrasted return (rujii', ma' iid), compulsory (contrasted with
with revelation, 76, 248; contrasted with sound voluntary), 20; to God, 19-21, 25, 164
knowledge, 170, 255; contrasted with unveiling revelation (wa~y), (defined), 403nl8; (men-·
(opening, tasting), xii, 169, 202-203, 224, 235, tioned), 34, 163, 224, 257, 258, 261, 262; law-
314; forbidden by Ibn al-'Arabi, 203; governs rea- giving, 403n18; through angels, 261; kinds of,
son, 74, 162-163, 166; not safe from error, 165, 172, 403n18; station of, 223
166, 200; possessed only by human beings (and reverance (i~tiriim), 106; for God, 272, 273; for
jinn), 159, 161; reflective faculty (al-quwwat al- the shaykhs, 271-273
mujakkira), 74, 160, 162, 163, 166; reflective pow- rt, 153, 220, 393n36 469
Index of Names and Terms

Ri' aya li IJuquq Allah, al-, 371, 413n17 ~aiJw, 197, 228, 370
ri4a, 104, 150, 280, 300 sa' ld. See sa' ada.
rifa, 48 saint (wall). See friend.
rijal. See rajul. ~ala, 343
risala, 261; rasul, 172; 'abduhu wa rasuluhu, 24, 310 Saladin, 393n37
riwaya ~aiJIIJa, 392n35 salaf, 277
riya', 373 ~alaiJ, 160; ma~aliiJ, 51, 171, 310; ~aliiJ,
riya4a, 110, 305 308, 409n18; ~aliiJun, 371; al-ru'ya al-~aliiJa,
riyasa, 270, 384n12 387n5
rizq, 60; razzaq, 53, 281 ~alat, 152, 343; iqamat al-~alat, 56; mu~alll, 343,
root (a~l), 37-38, 50, 62, 137, 317, 345, 346, 344
350; divine, 10, 38, 280, 283, 290, 314, 315; of salb, 9, 58, 60, 164, 345; salbl, 109; maslub al-
knowledge, 150; God as, 100, 102, 107, 114, 116, aw~af, 371
283, 291, 325, 350, 359, 361; contrasted with ~aliiJ. See ~alaiJ.
branch, 100, 152, 314, 315, 345 sallm, 169, 179, 242
rn', 169 sam', 182, 213; al-sam' al-wujudl, 182; al-sam'iyyat,
rububiyya. See rabb. 232; sama, 128,212, 213; ahl al-sama, 262; sami', 49;
rniJ, 17; al-rniJ al-i4afi, 17; al-rniJ al-kull, 'Abd al-Sami', 370
152; rniJ mudabbir, 40; rniJ al-qudus, 169; 'alam ~an'a, 45, 173; ~ani', 45; (name of God), 35, 82;
al-arwaiJ, 391n25; tajassud al-arwaiJ, 15; ma~nu', 45
rniJanl, xiii, 14, 309, 393n11; al-rniJaniyyun, sanctity (walaya), 4. See friendship.
400(a)n8; tarawiJun al-ajsam, 15 saraf, 108
ruju', 105, 154; ruju' i4(irarf, 20; ruju' ikhtiyarf, Satan, 267, 271, 299-300, 406n34; temptation by,
20 256; derives power from World of Imagination,
rukn: arkan, 13 202; does not imaginalize in form of a prophet,
ruling(s) (IJukm, pl. aiJkam), 249, 365; legal, 252; repelled by the name of God, 178-179; sa tans
236-237; of the Law (defined), 172, 256; (men- (shaya(ln), 26, 161, 271, 285; satanic
tioned), 149, 160, 161, 174, 181, 208, 219, 232, (shay(anl), tenuity, 262; satanity (shaytana),
236, 251, 252, 256-257, 260, 268-269, 288, 303, 330. See also Iblis.
307, 377, 406n7; the (five) categories of, 172, 207, satisfaction (ri4a), 104, 279, 280
308-309, 409n22; contrasted with reports, 172, sa(wa, 37; sa(awat, 402n18
251, 256, 261, 262 sawa', 318
Rummani (Abu'l-'Abbas 'Ali ibn 'Isa), 221 sayyid, 319
rust (rayn), on insight, 223 scale (mlzan), 172-173, 204, 237, 258-260, 330;
rusukh, 279; al-rasikhun fi'l- 'ilm, 56 divine, 160, 173; fundamental, 67; of affinities,
rusum. See rasm. 259; of (God's) knowledge, 178, 256; of the Law,
rutba. See martaba. xix, 27, 67, 161, 162, 166, 170, 173-174, 175,
ru' una, 373; al-ru' unat al-nafsiyya, 373 177, 178, 256, 257, 259, 268, 271, 275, 288, 289,
ru'ya, 85, 128, 215, 227, 228; ru'ya, 119, 120, 262; 293; of legal investigation, 236; of man, 319-320;
al-ru'ya al-~adiqa, 404n24; al-ru'ya al-~aliiJa, of meanings, 219; of practice, 259-260; of rational
387n15, 404n24; mar'l, 215, 217 thought (knowledge), 184, 236, 258-259; of rea-
son's acceptance, 258; of reflection, 255; at resur-
rection, 67, 124, 173; of speech, 219; not to be
sa'a. See wus'. dropped, 173, 174, 177, 257, 268
sa' ada, 111, 150; sa' ld, 55 Schimmel, A., 385n2, 411n9, 413n17
sabab, 44, 95; asbab, 44, 157, 175; mukawwin al- science ( 'ilm), 148, of the cosmos, xxi; of states,
asbab, 45; musabbib al-asbab, 44; musabbabat, 45 169, 198, 222; of tastings (see tastings); sciences
~abr, 280; ~abur, 22 ('u/Um), 252; blameworthy (contrasted with
Sa'd, 295, 388n27 praiseworthy), 175; considerative, 163; divine,
sadana, 49 219, 259, 370; God-given, 373; lordly, 223; of be-
~adiqun, 373 stowal, 259; of incoming thoughts, 271; of Law-
sadness (IJuzn), 280 giving, 257; of the mystery, 169, 187, 219, 270;
safar, 82 of Nature, 271; of the nonmanifest, 219; of sects
safsaf al-akhlaq, 286 and creeds, 110; of self-disclosure, 219; two kinds
sage (!Jakim), 174, 177, 203-204, 305, 314, 373; of, 200, 218; level of as determined by object,
divine sage, 177 218; three levels of, 169. See gnostic sciences,
~aiJib. See ~u!Jba. knowledge.
~a!Jifa, 402n2 scope (qffa), of names, 48
~aqfq. See #IJIJa. scripture (~a!Jifa), 402n2; Scriptures, 213, 244
SaiJIIJ, 210, 252, 277, 326; of Muslim, 100, sea (ocean) (ba!Jr), 85; shoreless, 345; (meeting
101, 197, 230, 251; of Bukhari, 176 place of the) two, 117, 123
Sahl (ibn 'Abdallah) ai-Tustari, 149, 272, 383n12, seal (khatam), of the prophets, 306; of the saints
470 407n18 (friends), 383n11
Index of Names and Terms

seeker (!iilib), 228, 250; of God, 158, 328; of shakiir, 22, 49; 'Abd al-Shakiir, 370
knowledge, 153 shame (~ayii'), 22, 168, 272, 348
self (nafi), of God, 63, 65, 171, 212, 213, 337, 366; shamm, 272
attributes of, 65, 101, 110 (see also positive); in- Shams al-D!n Isma '!l ibn Sawdakln al-Niirl. See Ibn
finity of, 345; knowledge of (see knowledge); as a Sawdakln.
veil, 105, 176. See attributes. sha 'n, 96; shu' iin, 18
self-evidence (qariira), 188, 234, 237; rational, shaqii', 108, 150; shaqiiwa, 74; shaq!, 55
188; of God's existence, 233, 234; self-evident shar', 27, 34, 35, 109, 170-171; shari' a, 170, 260;
(qariirl), knowledge, 194, 197, 250. See also in- sharii'i', 171, 175, 241, 292; 'ulamii' al-shart'a, 171;
controvertible. shar' !, 173; al-m!ziin al-shar' !, 67, 170; mashrii 'a, 303;
sense (perception) (~iss, ~iissa), 74, 95, 119, al-m!ziin al-mashrii', 161; shari', 53; tashrt', 251, 257;
120, 160, 236, 266, 403n18, 411(a)n3, 411(b)n1; Shari'a, (defined), 170-171; (mentioned), xii, xx,
nearness of to imagination, 122; presence of, 5; 27, 75, 161, 178, 219, 271, 387n6; rulings of (see
veills of, 223; contrasted with heart, 109, 173; con- rulings); contrasted with Tarlqa, 171, 270;
trasted with imagination, 123, 262; contrasted identical with ~aq!qa, 260. See Law.
with reason, 74, 115, 118, 121, 160; makes no er- sharaf, 48, 277, 368; shanf, 182; tashrif, 313
rors, 123, 160, 166; may be mistaken, 167 sharah, 306
sensory (~iss!, ma~siis), faculty, 74, 120, 163, shar~, 247
240; things (impressions, objects), 120, 163, 214, shari', shari' a. See shar'.
223, 304; world, 118, 185; contrasted with heart, sharif. See sharaf
259; contrasted with imaginal, 218; contrasted shar!k. See shirk.
with intelligible, 121, 198, 358-359; contrasted sharing (ishtiriik, mushiiraka), of attributes, 245, 312;
with meaning (or supra-sensory: see meaning, su- of names, 137, 183; of reality, 319; of states, 183;
pra-sensory); sensory domain (realm) (~iss), of terminology, 69, 73
100, 163, 262, 411(a)n3 sharr, 142, 290
Seraphiel (Isra£11), 122, 371, 412n12 shar(, 49
servant ('abd), (defined), 310; (discussed), 318, 321- shawq, 126, 222, 392n35
324; divine, 73; perfect, 277, 318, 329; nonde- shay', 12, 88; shay' wujiid!, 118; al-shay' al-thiilith,
limited, 370; universal, 371; assumed as a trait, 43; 139; Iii shay', 331, 364, 378; shay'iyya, 88
contrasted with Lord, 38, 220, 318, 327; con- Shaykh (al-Ash'ar!), 63; the Shaykh (see Ibn al-
trasted with master, 51, 56, 312, 319; never 'Arabl)
brought together with Lord, 319, 324; never shaykh (defined), 270-273; (mentioned), xii, 224-
transgresses station of Lord, 312-313; contrasted 225, 270, 279, 407n18; verified, 266, 274; kinds
with the Real (see Real) of, 272-273; knowledge of, 271; necessity of, 263,
servanthood ('ubiidiyya), (defined), 310-311; (men- 270; self-exaltation of, 273; shaykh of, 274; paired
tioned), 24, 64, 265, 309-312, 313, 316-319, 320, with disciple (see disciple)
322; compulsory (contrasted with voluntary), 56, shay(iin, awliyii' al-, 26; shaytiint, xiii
328, 330-331; essential (contrasted with acciden- Shehadi, F.A., 408n9
tal), 311; sheer, 372; of the cosmos, 61, 308; shell (qishr), 230, 238-239
toward the names, 369-372; divine root of, 43, Shi'ism, 199, 200, 402n13
314; forgetting of, 296; perfection of, 366, 370; shirk, x, 137, 195, 197, 233, 252, 312, 361, 396n23;
return of gnostic to, 317; seeing the Real in the awwal man sann al-shirk, 197; shirka, 205; shar!k,
form of, 318; witnessing of as highest waystation, 95; mushiiraka, 71, 183, 312; ishtiriik, 137, 245,
318; contrasted with Lordship, 50, 76, 321, 374; 312, 319, 402n19; ishtiriik .fi'l-la.f;;;:, 69; mush-
contrasted with servitude, 310-311, 329, 331 tarak, 73
servitude ('ubiida), (defined), 310-311; (mentioned), shubha, 163, 390n6
50, 312, 314, 318, 321, 326; divine root of, 314; shu~~. 307
eminence of, 316; contrasted with annihilation, shuhiid, 44, 50, 111, 168, 225, 226-227, 229, 322,
321; contrasted with Lordship, 322, 324, 329 352; 'iilam al-shuhiid, 114; wa~dat al-shuhiid, 226;
Seth, 142 ~aqra shuhiidiyya, 229; shahiida ( = visible
Seville, xi, xiii, 133, 383n11, 404n19 world), 14, 93, 339, 342, 360; ( = witnessing),
shad!d al-'iqiib, 20 113, 147; 'iilam al-shahiida, 114; mashhad, 44;
shadow (;;:ill), 118, 204; of shadow, 204; prostra- mashiihid, 227; shiihid, 227; mashhiid, 227;
tion of, 152, 204, 311; contrasted with darkness, mushiihada, 168, 225, 226, 227; mushiihid, 227
94; contrasted with light, 94, 215, 380 shukiik, 384n 12
shafii'a, 197 shurb, 109, 153, 220
sha.ffiif, 141 Slbawayh, 88
sha.f'iyya, 360 Side (janiib), 219; Divine, 39, 42, 43, 106, 182, 234,
shahiida. See shuhiid. 286, 287, 381; Exalted, 323; Highest, 201
shiihid. See shuhiid. ~ifa. See waif
shahwa, 160, 161, 223, 399n2 ~!ghat al-amr, 293
shajarat al-wujiid, 100 sight, seeing (ba~ar), immutable, 245; of God
shakh~: ashkhii~, 96, 129 through perfect man, 329; blindness of, 233; kinds 471
Index of Names and Terms

sight (continued) ing) of the creature, 128, 183, 213, 322; speech
of, 223; veil of, 223; paired with insight (see in- (~adfth), heard in heart, 403n18; rational speech
sight); the Real as the cosmos's sight, 127; the (see rational); Speaker (mutakallim), 34, 53, 292,
Real as man's sight, 167, 182, 325-329; sight 398n19
(ru'ya), of the cosmos by God, 85. See also vision. sphere (celestial) (jalak, sama'), 42, 68, 84, 91, 93,
sign(s) (aya), (defined), 164, 219, 326; (mentioned), 142, 198, 216; intelligible, 137; Supreme, 123; of
13, 89, 92-93, 137, 140, 150, 157, 246, 348, 359; the constellations, 359; of the fixed stars, 121; of
( = breaking habits), 99, 267, 268; of the Koran, life, 137; of the moon, 121; of the moon's man-
xv; in the soul, 141; "upon a clear sign (bayyina)," sions, 359
63, 188, 202, 249, 251, 379 spirit (rii~). (defined), 17, 359; (mentioned),
~iMa. 392n35; ~a~ll]. 250, 400(a)n4, 408n12; 152, 230, 326, 350; (=Gabriel), 251; angelic, 245,
riwaya ~a~t~a, 392n35 312, 371; attributed, 17; divine, 142, 400(a)n11;
silsila, 270 governing, 40, 217; high, 315; holy, 169,
simat, 62 400(a)n11; human, 262; pure, 245; universal, 152;
similars (amthal), 103, 104, 260, 286; similarity (the as fathers, 142; as light, 140; departure of from
profession or declaration of) (tashblh), (defined), body, 234; embodiment of (see embodiment);
69; (mentioned), 72-73, 186-188, 201, 217, 288 entities as, 89-90; entrance of into bodies, 350;
(see also incomparability); attributes of, 44; nega- God as in relation to cosmos, 93, 326, 359, 411n3;
tion of, 81, 125, 182, 233, 329; rejection of by rea- meaning as, 129; meeting of two, 262; names as,
son (see reason); becoming similar (tashabbuh), 40; return of to body, 234; self-understanding of
288; to God, 75, 265, 283, 326; rejected, 408n10 through body, 235; subtlety of, 14-15, 141;
sincerity (~idq, ikhla~). 250, 267, 283; in love, 284 world of, 4, 5, 142, 391n25; contrasted with body
#rat, 402n20; al-~irat al-mustaqtm, 300 (form, outward form), 17, 34-35, 40, 162, 179,
Sirhindi, Shaykh Ai].mad, 226 315, 359; contrasted with clay, 17; contrasted
sirr, 152, 201, 257; asrar, 100, 169, 342, 353; 'u/Um with Nature, 140, 142, 304: spiritual (rii~anl),
al-sirr, 270 400(a)n8; attribute, 262; being, 262; faculty, 236,
sitr, 65, 105, 176; mastur, 90, 266, 407n 15 276; contrasted with corporeal, 14, 309
sitting (istiwa'), of God (on the Throne), 73, 183, stability (tamkfn), 108, 219; stability in variegation,
313, 379. See Throne. 108, 209, 380
siwa, 60; ma siwa Allah, 4, 39 stage(s) (tawr), of creation, 246; of reason (see
Siwas, 384n12 reason)
slave. See servant. star(s) (najm), in the next world, 360; contrasted
sleep (nawm), 116, 120, 124, 251, 404n24; and with sun, 210-211; stars, fixed (thawabit), 121
death, 354 state (~a/), 173, 229, 261, 279; physiological de-
smell(ing) (shamm), 272 scription of, 262; vision of the form of, 252; states
sobriety (~a~w), 228, 286, 370; offaith, 198; (a~wal), (defined), 10, 220, 222, 263-269;
through God, 228; through self, 228; contrasted (mentioned), 17, 65, 66, 99, 100, 231, 313, 354,
with intoxication, 197-198 362; accidental, 93; of all things, 264; of the cos-
solicitude ('inaya), 372; beginningless, 245; divine, mos (comparable to the names of God), 183; of
238, 270, 376; of God, 71, 178, 197, 212, 248, God, 104, 120, 137; as the greatest veil, 267; of
383n12; people of, 238, 365 the heart, 212; of the immutable entities, 183; as
Solitary (mujrad,jard), 377, 413n23 imperfections, 263-264, 265, 267; change of (in
Solomon, 198 contrast to God), 137, 183; dangers of, 263, 266-
Somali, 386n4 267, 278, 320; discourtesy in, 268; madness of,
sorcery (si~r), science of, 270 266; possessor of, 262, 267, 272-273; science of,
soul (naft), 159, 162, 173, 218-219, 222, 252, 271; 169, 198, 222; tasting of, 203; contrasted with sta-
animate, 160; rational, 84, 120, 160, 163, 184; tions (see station); specify Allah, 302
Universal, 68, 140, 162, 198, 359, 360, 400(a)n5, station (maqam), (defined), 10, 222, 264, 278-283;
406n6; equilibrium of, 305; faculties of (see facul- (mentioned), xiii, 17, 220, 226, 229-230, 275,
ties); infinity of, 154; intermediary status of, 17; 320, 354, 366, 374; all-merciful, 282, 283; divine,
light of, 226; loss of knowledge by, 234; non- 320; greatest, 294; highest, 318, 354, 381; known,
manifestation of (though manifest in property), 294, 295, 299; lordly, 282, 283; praiseworthy,
135; signs within, 141 (see also signs); as domain 379; of abstinence, 282-283; of everlasting ease,
of imagination, 17, 116, 162; as governing the 331; of examination, 348; of friendship, 269,
body, 63; as seeking leadership, 270; supported by 407n18; of gnosis, 266; of longing, 107; of near-
manyness, 156 ness, 151; of no station, 376'-379; of repentance,
sovereign. See king. 279; of revelation, 223; of satisfaction, 104, 280;
Spain, 386n6 of servanthood, 322; of stability, 108; as steps of
species (naw', anwa'), 91, 95, 96, 97, 129, 216 ladder, 219-220; general rule of, 282-283; passage
speech (kalam, qawl, nutq), Divine, 183, 213; within, 219-220, 280; states of, 282; contrasted
Eternal, 364; of God, xv, 34, 128, 138, 242, 243, with states, 10, 176, 222, 229, 264, 265-266, 278,
245, 287, 292, 341; "breaking habits" through, 279-280, 281, 307, 372, 376; correspond to divine
472 313; connection of to the audition (hearing, listen- names, 377; never lost, 280
Index of Names and Terms

stillness (sukiin), 102 163; al-quwwat al-mu~awwira, 115; ta~awwur,


Stone, Black, 323 113, 122, 125, 225, 337
straightness (iqama, istiqama), 108, 301-302; abso- surmise (?ann), predominance of, 249, 251; con-
lute, 301; unqualified, 302; contrasted with crook- trasted with knowledge, 151, 155
edness, 301-302; contrasted with deviation, 347; ~uwar. See ~iira.
none in existence, 347. See also path. syllogism, 394n16
strata ((abaqat), 116
struggle (spiritual) (jihad, mujahada), 111, 211, 223, (Q'a, 307; (Q' at, 167
280, 305; bodily, 245; kinds ofstrugglers, 211 ta'ajjub, 392n33
sii' al-adab, xvi, 231 ta'akhkhur, 408n4
subbii~, 35 ta' alluh. See i/ah.
subjection (taskhlr), 368, 369 ta'a/lum. See 'i/m.
submission (islam), 219, 282 ta'a/luq, 48, 60; muta'allaq, 40
subsistence (baqii'), 219, 321 ta'awwul. See ta'wll.
substance (jawhar), 63, 137, 181; immutable, 127, ta'ayyun. See 'ayn.
362; Universal, 157; of the cosmos, 100, 128, 181- ta'b, 120
182; contrasted with form, 100; and accidents, 71, (ab', 139, 307; (abl'a, 139, 140, 160, 391n25,
74, 97, 103, 302; substantiality (jawhariyya), 407n17, 409n16; a/-iabl'at a/-'u?ma, 140;
106 (aba'i', 262, 391n24, 391n25, 393n11; al-(aba'i'
Substitutes (abdal), 370 al-arba'a, 141; (abti", 198
substratum (madda), 115, 184--185, 200; elemental, tabaddul. See tabdil.
356; existent, 379; world of substrata, 185; dis- (aba'i'. See (ab'.
engagement from (see disengagement) (abaqat, 116
subtle (Iatif), essence, 278; human subtle reality, tabashbush, 392n33
159; subtlety (luif), world of, 141; contrasted tabattul, 373
with density (see density); subtilization (tal!if), tabdfd, 272
of sensory things, 123 tabdll, 102; tabaddu/, 61, 97
Sufism (ta~awwuf), 283; criticism of, 289; Sufis tabi', 50, 256, 298
(~iifiyya), 166, 288, 373-374, 392n34 (abl'a. See (ab'.
sujll, 14 (ablb al-ilahl, a/-, 304
Suhayl, 250 ta'blr. See 'ubiir.
~u~ba, 271, 272; a~~ab, 149, 224; a~~ab tadadd. See didd.
al-'adad, 243; ~a~ib a/-~al, 265; a~~ab ta4ahl al-ilahl a/-khaya/1, al-, 338
'ilm al-kalam, 387n17; ~a~ib al-martaba, 50; tadakhul, 102
~a~ib al-na.fas, 212; a~~ab al-naql, 400(a)n4; tada/11, 342
~a~ib al-na?ar, 165; a~~ab al-na?ar, tadanl, 342
121; isti~~ab, 105 taqa'ul, 371
Suhrawardi al-Maqtiil, xviii tadblr, 162, 403n18; mudabbir, 40, 174, 324
sujiid, 152 tadhakkur. See dhikr.
sukr, 197, 393n36 taqyf' al-waqt, 150
sukiin, 102; maskan, 281 tafaqul. See .fa41.
sul(an, 53 tafakkur. See fikr.
suliik, 149, 176, 272, 295, 383n12, 408n10 tafaqquh. See fiqh.
sun (shams), 91-92, 104, 204, 304, 376; contrasted tafrlgh a/-mqha/1, 111
with moon, 217; contrasted with stars, 210-211 taftiqa. See farq.
sunna, 258; sunna ~asana, 401n8; Sunna, xix, 27, tafi.il. See fa~/.
112, 178, 258, 310, 314, 374, 384n13, 400n2; tafslr, 199, 244, 245
Book and (see Book) taghadhdhl, 61
supererogatory works (nawafil), 325-329, taghayyurat, 103
400(a)n9, 41 On12; of God, 325; contrasted with tahakkum. See hukm.
obligatory works, 55-56, 325, 329-331 ta~al/1, 43, 280," 322
support (mustanad), 37-38, 53, 340; divine, 10, 39, ta~aqquq. See ~aqq.
306; God as, 180, 188 tahawwul. See hiil.
supposition (taqdlr), contrasted with existence, 177, ta~ayyur. See ~~yra.
214 ta~klm. See ~ukm.
supra-sensory (ma'nawl), 73, contrasted with sen- ta~qlq. See ~aqq.
sory, 105, 122, 240, 290, 308, 369, 381. See also tahsil. See husiil.
meaning. (a;lfa al-' aliy~, al-, 400n15
~iir, 122 tajaddud. See tajdld.
~iira, 11, 16, 20, 34, 89, 122; ~uwar, 45, 122; taja/11. See jilwa.
~uwar jasadiyya, 184; ~iira ma~siisa, 115; al- tajassud. See jasad.
~uwar al-rabbaniyya, 136; al-wtljiid al-~iirl, 337; tajassum. See jism.
ta~wlr, 125; mu~awwir, 37; al-mu~awwira, tajdld, 154; tajdi"d al-khalq fi'l-anat, 18; tajaddud, 97 473
Index of Names and Terms

lajriba, al-~ukamii' min ah/ a/-, 409n16 tatjumiin, 67; mutatjim, 330
lajrld, 76, 120; mujarrad, 115 lark, 178; lark al-muriiqaba, 348
lajslm. See jism. tarkib, 142
lakabbur. See kabir. tartlb. See martaha.
lakalluf, 73 ta~arruf See ta~rlf
lakalhthur. See kathra. la~awwur. See ~ura.
lakawwun. See kawn. tasbi~, 71
Takeshita, M., 384n16, 398n21 ta~diq, 193
lakhal/i, 280 tashabbuh. See tashbm.
lakhalluq. See khuluq. tashakkul, 115, 134
lakhassus. See khusus. tashbih, 9, 58, 69, 110, 181; ~ifiit al-tashblh, 44;
laklif,..63, 110, 114,"210, 272, 400(b)n10, 402n20; mutashiibih, 201; tashabbuh, 75, 265, 283, 288, 328,
muka/laf, 173, 208; al-amr al-laklifi, 293 393n42
takriir, 96; Iii lakriir fi'l-tajalli, 18, 103 lashkik, 63
takwin. See kawn. tashn~. See shar'.
takyif. See kayf tashrlf See sharaf
talab, 183; talab al-ghayr, 50; talab al-qahr, tashrl~, 284
307 task (sha'n), 103; divine, (defined), 98-99, 100, 101,
taladhdhudh. See ladhdha. 104; (mentioned), 264, 297, 338
talaqqi. See liqa'. laskhir, 46
talbis, 256 laslim, 202
talisman (tilism), 184-185, 197; imagination as, la~rif, 50, 106; mu~arrif al-qu/Ub, 106; ta~arruf,
184-185; reflection as, 184, 197 99, 114, 265
talwin, 108; al-tamkin fi'l-lalwin, 108 tasting (dhawq), (defined), 220-222, 392n36; (men-
lamiim, 266, 296; itmiim, 305 tioned), xxi, 3, 44, 70, 72, 158, 169, 196, 215,
tamiinu'. See man!. 243, 245, 250, 261, 279, 370; considerative, 353;
tamaththul. See mithl. sensory, 353; of existence by nonexistent things,
tamayyuz. See tamyiz. 86, 87; of the mysteries, 353; of the states, 203;
ta'mir, 51 degrees of, 221; incommunicability of, 353; pos-
Iamkin, 62, 108; al-tamkin fi'l-lalwin, 108 sessor(s) of, 185, 186, 202, 228, 261, 281, 395n13;
tamthfl. See mithl. possessors of and of drinking, 226; science
tamyiz, 48, 163; tamayyuz, 36, 37, 183 (knowledge) of, 169, 218, 263, 328, 353; con-
taniifor, 141 trasted with drinking and quenching, 153, 220,
taniiquq, 188 392n36; contrasted with illusion, 328; contrasted
taniisul, 86 with knowledge, 222; contrasted with reflection,
tanawwu', 73, 105 202-203, 235; contrasted with unveiling, 221,
taniizu'. See nizii'. 383n13; derives from self-disclosure, 220
tanazzul. See nuzUI. ta~wir. See ~ura.
tanfls. See nafas. tatiibuq, 119
Tangri, 386n4 ta'lhir. See alhar.
lanzlh, 9, 58, 69, 110; munazzah, 370 tawahhum. See wahm.
taqiibul. See qabul. tawajjuh. See wajh.
taqaddum, 101 tawiijud. See wajd.
laqa/lub. See qalb. tawakkul, 222, 279
taqashshuf, 202 tawiilud, 359
taqdir, 61, 389n16 tawiiluj, 395n7
taqdis al-qalb, 111 tawaqquf, 48
taqlib. See qalb. tawassu'. See wus'.
taqlid, 166, 168, 389n11; muqallid, 202 tawba, 279; tawwiib, 22
taqwii, 70, 149, 232; muttaqi, 37 taw~id, x, xi, 29, 52, 79, 90, 113, 134, 147, 150,
taqwim, 336 155, 171, 197, 205-206, 227, 233, 235, 255, 312,
laqyid. See qayd. 356, 357, 396n23, 402n17, 411n9; of commanding
(arab, 106 to worship, 349; of the He-ness, 134; of the
laraddud, 162; mutaraddid, 60 1-ness, 171; knowledge of as salvific, 197;
taraf, 14; muta(arrif, 117 taw~id al-u/Uha, 235; muwa~~id, 356. See
taraqqi, 269, 342 also a~ad, wii~id.
taraw~un al-ajsiim. See rii~. ta'wfl, (defined), 199-202; (mentioned), xvi, 40, 44,
larbiya, 271 70, 73, 75, 124, 168, 182, 184, 187, 242, 243, 245,
la'rif. See ma'rifa. 259, 269, 277, 282, 401n11, 402n12; ta'wfl ba'id,
farlq al-muslaqim, al-, 285; tariqa, xii, 171, 270 121; ahl al-ta'wil, 74; ta'awwu/, 243, 247, 272;
latji~, 12, 82, 83, 185, 387n14; murajja~, 178; mula'awwil, 244
474 murajji~, 43, 53, 82 tawliya, 51
Index of Names and Terms

tawqif, 41 Tlemcen, xi
(awr, 246; a(war, 399n4; (wara') (awr al-'aql, Torah, 200, 213, 241, 244, 391n13, 397n3, 403n2
75, 169 totality, combined (majmii'), 327-328, 357
taw~ll, 125 training (tarbiya), 271, 272, 305, 375
tawwab. See tawba. traits (character, moral), (akhlaq), 104, 286·-287;
ta'yln. See 'ayn. base, 172, 306; divine, 287, 306; earned (con-
teaching (ta'l!m), by God, 232, 247-248, 262; teacher trasted with innate), 288; noble, 241; (contrasted
(mu'allim), as God, 170, 247, 252 with base), 175, 286, 288, 304-309; completion of
temperament (mizaj), 92 the noble, 306, 308; all are divine, 286, 287, 306;
temporal origination, temporally originated (things) all are noble, 286; assuming the traits (of the
(~uduth, ~adith, mu~dath), 42, 50, 62, 64, names) (takhalluq), (defined), 21-22, 283-288;
70, 71, 73, 75, 76, 93, 100, 176, 181, 183, 187, (mentioned), 23, 24, 27, 43, 44, 60, 71, 73, 95,
198, 206, 207, 208, 233, 313, 322, 338, 343, 345, 114, 149, 208, 209, 245, 265, 275, 289, 292, 304,
347; knowledge of, 154; proof of, 186; of knowl- 313, 314, 317, 318, 319, 320-321, 328, 350, 369,
edge, 156, 341, 349; contrasted with eternity 391n12, 393n42, 408n13, 412n13; (rejected), 287-
(eternal), 85, 121, 136, 137, 138, 163, 181, 182, 288, 312-313, 408n10; as the character of the
276, 387; temporal things, 62 Prophet, 241; as a danger, 328
tenuity (raqlqa), 261, 406n6; satanic, 262; spiritual, transcript(ion) (nuskha), 371; divine, 297
262; witnessing of, 262 translucent (shajfiij), 140, 141
term (tljal), 97-98 transmission (naql), ofHadith, 131, 250, 251; trans-
term(inology), technical, (i~(ila~). 118, 212, mitted knowledge (sam'iyyat), 232
245, 250, 353; shared terminology (laf;;; mush- transmutation (self-) (ta~awwul, isti~ala), (de-
tarak), 69, 73 fined), 100-102; (mentioned), 119, 142, 362; of
testing (ibtila', ikhtibar), of faith by God, 195; of ser- God, 38, 100, 101, 107, 108, 109-110, 111, 112,
vant by God, 106, 196, 211. See also trial. 118, 126, 230-231, 232, 297, 302, 336-3.37,
thabat, thabit. See thubut. 338, 340, 352
thana', 71 traveling (to God) (sayr, sajar, suluk), 82, 295;
thaqalan, 173, 295 traveler (salik), 38, 93, 256, 283. See also wayfar-
tharld, 296, 409n7 ing.
thawb, 205 treasure (kanz), unknown (hidden), 66, 126, 128,
theology (Kalam), 235; debate of theologians over 131, 204, 294, 391n14, 393n44
the acts, 205-211; dependence of upon reflection, treasury (khizana), 87, 96, 103; of Generosity, 103;
202; disagreement among the masters, 63-64; the- of imagination, 120, 184
ologian (mutakallim), 103, 237, 387n17; and philos- tree (shajara), 204; of existence, 100; and fruit, 237;
ophers, 113, 165, 269. See also kalam. and wind, 206
theomorphism, 22, 24, 30 trial (ibtila'), sending of messengers as, 196, con-
thing (shay'), (defined), 12, 88, 204; (mentioned), trasted with bestowal of honor, 262, 313
36, 354; ontological, 118, 158, 188; third, 139 Tribe (ta'ifo, qawm), 149, 151, 153, 157, 167,
thingness (shay'iyya), 88, 93; of existence (con- 168, 212, 220, 237, 249, 250, 257, 259, 260, 262,
trasted with that of immutability), 88, 322; of 264, 314, 315, 321, 354, 379; High, 176
immutability, 231; in nonexistence, 205 Trumpet (~iJr), 122, 412n12
thirst ('a(ash), 153 trust (amana), 175, 275-276, 317; trust (tawakkul),
thought, incoming (khatir), (defined), xiii; (men- 222, 279; tasting of, 222
tioned), 266, 338, 352; science of, 271; true, 271 truthful (~adiqun), 373
thrall. See divine. Tuba, 397n3
Throne ('arsh), 93, 96, 125, 134, 140, 406n6; in mi- Tunis, xi
crocosm, 107; sitting upon, 51, 73, 111; as cir- Turkish, 386n4
cumference of circle, 216; paired with Footstool, Tiisi, Na~ir al-Din, xviii, 22
93, 172, 359-360
thubiit, 85; thuhutl, 60; amr thubutl, 71; ~ifo nafsiyya 'ubbiid. See 'abd.
thuhutiyya, 58, 62; thabit, 84, 250; 'ayn thabita, 'ubuda. See 'abd.
12, 83, 84; al-a'yan al-thabita, 7; al-jawhar 'ubur, 119, 217, 245; 'ibara, 113, 119, 224, 245, 246;
al-thabit, 127; thabat, 102, 397n14; ithbat, 58, ta'blr, 116, 119, 245; mu'abbir, 119; i'tibar, 121, 165,
60, 113, 345; ma~w fi ithhat, 114 202, 217, 246
fib, 350 ubuwwa, 61
(ilism, 184 ula, 124
tilmldh, 209, 324, 371 'ulama'. See 'alim.
Time (al-dahr), 100, 107, 303, 395n7; time (zaman), ulfa, 221
395n7; end of, 377; eye of, 412n13 ulu '1-amr, 72
Tirmidhi, 114, 244 uliJha. See ilah.
Tirmidhi, al-I:Jakim al-, 109, 152, 240, 369, 'ulwt. See 'all.
396n25 'Umar (ibn al-Khanab), 270 475
Index of Names and Terms

umm al-' aliyat al-kubra, al-, 140; umm al-kitab, 240; with the Law, 230; compared with witnessing,
ummahat, 72 227; contrasted with courtesy, 175; contrasted
umma, 353 with interpretation, 182; contrasted with con-
umml, 235; al-'ilm al-umml, 235 sideration, proofs, reason, or reflection, 182, 197,
'umiim, ( = common people), 268, 387n17; ( = in- 231, 232, 235, 345; contrasted with self-disclosure,
clusiveness), 48; 'amm, 130, 131; wujiid 'amm, 354; 220; contrasted with tasting, 221, 383n12; con-
'amma, 72, 372, 387n17; a'amm, 149 trasted with transmission, 250; denies nothing,
umiir. See amr. 243; must be weighed by the Law, 256; paired
understanding (fahm), 119; eye of, 250, 252; from with finding, 203
God, 248 'uqiiq, 273
union (wa~l), 365 'urf, 46, 240, 288
unity (a~adiyya), 90, 278, 350; of each thing, 245; Utjiiza fi 'ilm al-kalam, al-, 62
of the Divinity, 260; of the Entity, 349; of the Es- 'uriij, 219
sence, 81; of God, 123, 195; of God alone, 244; of ustadh, 209; Ustadh (ai-Isfarayinl), 63
man, 235; in manyness, 243; of Manyness (con- u~iil. See a~l.
trasted with that of the One), 25, 260, 337-338, 'Uthman, 197
364; of the Named, 387n7; of relational many- 'Uzza, 343
ness, 260; of the Word, 360; God not worshiped
in respect of, 244; impossibility of self-disclosure variation (tanawwu'), 73, 105, 109, 231, 338-339,
in, 346; and multiplicity (see oneness and many- 343, 362, 379
ness); declaration (profession) of Unity variegation (talwln), 108, 219. See stability.
(taw~ld), 90, 169, 195, 205-206, 234-235, 312- vassal (marbiib), 60; contrasted with Lord (see Lord)
313, 356; of Divinity (contrasted with that of Es- vastness (tawassu', ittisa'), 376; divine, 19, 96, 103,
sence), 235; as the life of the soul, 234; proofs of, 104, 105, 111, 219, 343
235; accessible to reason, 232, 233-235; gives fe- veil (~ijab), (defined), 45, 230-231; (mentioned),
licity (without faith), 197, 235; unknown through 3, 4, 82, 89, 93, 104, 135, 142, 157, 185, 203, 207,
unveiling (tasting), 235. See also taw~ld. 215, 224, 246, 328, 337, 339, 343, 368, 374, 381;
Universal (kull, kulll), 248, 298; hyle, 302; names, dark and luminous, 214; divine, 328; sensory (con-
394n18; poverty, 158; Reality, 135-139; servant, trasted with supra-sensory), 105; of forms, 181; of
371; Soul (see soul); Spirit, 152; Substance, 157 insight, 223; as a mercy, 314; of sight, 223; of
universe (' alam), 5. See cosmos. things, 228; of unseen, 217; everlastingness of,
unlawful (~aram), 308-309. See lawful. 214, 231; God as, 364-365; perfect man as, 329;
unlettered (ummt), knowledge, 235-237; prophet, secondary causes as, 45, 46, 176, 179, 206; self
235 as, 105, 176; self-disclosure through, 230, 313
unreal (ba(il), contrasted with real, 127, 132, vengeance (intiqam), 287, 305. See Avenger.
133, 163, 315; none in existence, 236 verification (ta~q!q), (defined), 166, 168; (men-
uns, 67, 360 tioned), 93, 119, 120, 174, 175, 186, 259, 317,
unseen (ghayb), (defined), 388n3; (mentioned), 140, 392n34; of faith, 255; verified (mu~aqqaq),
176, 178, 228, 231; absolute, 165, 339, 411n3; in- Being, 118; existence, 91, 258; judgment, 328;
finity of, 156; veil of, 217; verified world of, 140; knowledge, 168, 243, 288; light, 380; negation,
world of, 218, 223, 361, 376, 394n15; contrasted 348; shaykh, 266, 274; world of unseen, 140; un-
with visible (see visible); unseen things (mughay- veiling, 98, 149; Verifier (mu~aqqiq), (defined),
yabat), 196, 213 4, 258, 389n11; (mentioned), 52, 67, 94, 99, 108,
'un~url, 308, 401n9; ~aqlqa 'un~uriyya, 84 111, 248, 273, 387n17, 395n13, 399n5
unveiling (kashf, mukashafa), (defined), 63, 166, 169, vicegerent (khalifo), 391n10; (mentioned), 24, 196,
220, 255; (mentioned), xii, xiii, xv, 70, 105, 106, 276, 296, 350, 367, 368; divine, 383n10; vice-
119, 120, 123, 153, 168, 178, 188, 202, 223, 245, gerency (khilaja), 286, 313
259, 263, 267, 272, 298, 299, 306, 312, 326, 341, vigils (sahar), 223
343, 373, 384n15, 390n1, 391n14, 403n18; divine, virtue (i~san), 219, 251, 282
197, 232, 345; imaginal (contrasted with true), visible (shahada), contrasted with unseen, 14, 93,
271; most complete, 355; none in taw~!d, 233- 129, 218, 342, 360, 376, 395n7, 411n3; world of,
234; perfect, 378; sound, 156, 255; verified, 98, 142; (contrasted with world of unseen), 218, 223,
149; visual, 165, 206; as deriving from light, 122; 361, 376, 394n15
as a means to all knowledge, 203; through the vision (ru'ya), of God, 215, 228, 342-343; (at resur-
meeting of two lights, 224, 226; as the only true rection), 215, 355; of God in the things (loci of
knowledge, 170, 220; as proof of Hadith, 250; as manifestation), 94, 155, 158, 225, 228, 378, 379;
vision, 233-234; being duped by, 257; fleeing of the things in God, 128, 215, 225; contrasted
from, 323; opening of, xii, 215, 224, 225; people with veil, 230; contrasted with witnessing, 227-
(folk, possessor) of, 46, 75, 98, 121, 162, 178, 228; none sees God but God, 215; takes place only
179, 206, 207, 233, 246, 251, 257, 258, 305, through qualities, 233-234; vision, dream- (ru'ya),
412n5; people of unveiling and finding, 3, 40, 119, 262; visions, heralding (mubashshira), xvii, 41,
203, 257; terrors of, 323; accords with faith, 255, 249, 251, 262, 404n24; contrasted with prophecy,
476 314; cannot alter the Law's rulings, 256; coincides 403n18. See sight, witnessing.
Index of Names and Terms

Visitation (ziyara), 379; Day of, 355 Wickens, G.M., 386n16


Void (khala'), 4, 7, 34, 129, 385n8, 385n11 wijdiin. See wajd.
will (mash!' a), of God, 293, 298, 299, 328, 409n10;
wa4', 44, 236, 292; wa4'1, 51, 311; wa4i', has free choice, 389n8; follows knowledge, 299
251; maw4u'a, 45 Wilson, P.L., 393n5
wadud, 22; 'Abd al-Wadiid, 370 wine (khamr), 172; drunk by reason, 199
wages (ajr), 55-56, 366 wisdom (~ikma), (defined), 174, 203; (men--
wahh, 141, 169, 231, 247, 259; mawahib, 222, 264; tioned), 12, 186, 210, 247, 347, 374, 376; divine,
mawhub, 200 92; of existence, 174; authority of, 103; connec-
wa~da, wa~daniyya. See wa~id. tion of to the secondary causes, 176; relation of
wii~id, 54, 244, 245; al-wii~id al-a~ad, with philosophy, 203; Wise (al-~aklm), 103,
390n17; al-wii~id al-kathlr, 25, 121, 140, 214; al- 174. See sage.
wii~id al-wujud, 412n3; al-'ayn al-wii~ida, 83, withdrawal (takhalli), 280
182; wa~dat al-shuhud, 226; wa~dat al-wujud, Withholder (al-miini' ), 66, 287
3, 79, 226, 393n1, 404n21; wa~diiniyya, 195, withness (ma'iyya, 'indiyya), of God with things, 72,
243. See a~ad, taw~ld. 76, 125, 181, 183, 216, 249, 302, 313, 327, 364-
wahm, 122, 209, 343; tawahhum, 328; mutawahham, 366, 380, 392n35; but not of things with God, 88,
98; imtidiid mutawahham, 385 364-365; follows from divine knowledge, 88, 365
wa~y, 163, 403n18 witness (shiihid), 227, 228
wajd, 212, 402n1; wijdiin, 212; tawiijud, 212. See also witnessing (shuhud, mushiihada), (defined), 225-228;
wujud. (mentioned), 44, 93, 99, 106, 109, 110, 111, 140,
wajh, 244, 247, 280; mu~tamaliit wujuh, 206; 157, 206, 212, 225, 243, 256, 266, 279, 305, 345,
tawcljjuh, 45, 48, 86, 101, 279, 280 368, 369, 379, 390n1; all-pervading, 111; of the
wiijib. See wujub. angel, 252; of creation in the Real, 225, 227 (see
wajlz, al-mukhta~ar al-, 296 also vision); of the Essence, 60; of the Essence's
wakefulness (yaq;;;a), 119; visions of contrasted perfection, 370; with the eye of the Real, 245; of
with dreams, 251, 252; as a dream, 120; con- God's withness, 365; of one's own possibility,
trasted with sleep, 404n24 185, 376-377; of the Real, 89, 185, 226, 342, 353,
waliiya, xvii; wall, xii, 24, 256; awliyii', 3; awliyii' 374, 376; of the Real in creation, 158, 185, 186,
al-shay{iin, 26; tawliya, 51 225, 226, 227, 315 (see also vision); of the Real's
Waq, 35, 386n4 self-disclosure, 366; of the Real without creation,
wiiqi'a, 404n24 227; of all realities, 312; people of, 238, 322; pre-
waqt, 38, 151, 243, 369; ta4yl' al-waqt, 150 sence of, 226, 229; compared (or juxtaposed) with
wara', 279, 282 existence (finding, Being), 226-227, 229-230,
wiirid, xiii, 198, 266 238, 378; contrasted with faith, 185; contrasted
wiirith, xiii with knowledge, 60, 184, 185; contrasted with
wasat, 87, 214, 362; wiisi{a, 293; mutawas- vision, 227-228; locus (place) of witnessing (mash-
si(un, 322 had), 44, 106, 185, 217-218, 227, 251, 318, 367;
waif iliihl, 138; waif kiyiinl, 138; waif nafsl, divine, 223; most elevated, 381; object of witness-
101; maslub al-awf!iif, 371; ~ifa, 35, 52, 73; ing (mashhiid), 230
~ifiit, 5; ~ifa na.ftiyya, 110; fiifa na.ftiyya Wolfson, H., 69, 382n8, 402n21
thubutiyya, 58, 62; al-~ifiit al-rabbiiniyya, 313; woman (imra'a), and husband, 273; paired with
~ifiit al-tashblh, 44; al-!!ifiitiyun, 391n10; man, 315, 320, 385n10. See female.
mawf!iif, 36; itti!!iif, 284 womb (ra~im), 152
wiisi(a. See wasa(. wonder (ta'ajjub), of God, 72, 181, 232, 287, 392n33
waf!l, 365, 390n21; itti~iil, 328, 329, 365; khayiil word(s) (kalima, laj;;;), all-comprehensive (see all-
muttaf!il, 117 comprehensive); divine, 34, 172; inexhaustible,
wa(an, 322; maw(in, 281, 314 102, 128, 153, 377; Unity of, 360; of God, 140;
water (mii'), 341-342, 350; walking on, 326 of the Presence, 102, 397n3; contrasted with
wayfaring (suliik), 149, 176, 272, 305, 383n12, meanings, 35; creatures as words of God, 19, 34,
408n10; no end to, 288. See also traveling. 127-130, 131, 180; division of God's one Word
waystation (manzil, manzila), 20, 29, 48, 217, 226, into two, 360
269, 278, 322, 366; highest, 318; of familiarity, works ('amal), 63, 151, 209, 367, 369; righteous,
221; of the Law, 252; substations of, 281; mutual 308; as a light, 194; creation through, 178. See
waystation(s) (muniizala), 278, 290, 342; con- practice.
trasted with waystation, 279, 281 world (' iilam), (defined), 4-5; (mentioned), 14; ani-
wazn, 172, 173; mlziin, 27, 172, 258; mlziin al-'ad/, mate, 119; corporeal (of corporeal bodies), 4, 5,
386n6; a/-mlziin al-as/1, 391n21; al-mlziin al- 134, 391n25; dense natural, 223; higher (con-
iliihl, 160; al-mlziin ~1-mashru', 161; al-mlziin al- trasted with lower), 406n6; imaginal (see imagi-
shar' I, 67, 170 nation); next (see next world); sensory (of sense
weighing (wazn), 173; by the Real, 178 perception), 118, 185; spiritual (of spirits), 4, 5,
weighty ones, two (thaqaliin), 173, 295, 408(b )n4 142, 391n25; three, 15, 17; two, 223; unseen (con-
whercness (ayniyya), 134, 135, 366 trasted with visible), 218, 223, 361, 376, 394n15; 4 77
Index of Names and Terms

world (continued) 393n6; wujud mu~aqqaq, 91, 118; al-wujud


visible, 142; of the barzakh, 125; of breaths, 205- al-qadim, 61; al-wujud al-raqami, 393n6; al-wujud
206, 402n18; of command (contrasted with that of al-.!iirl, 337; ~ikmat al-wujud, 174; istifiidat
creation), 142; of composition, 142; of curtaining, al-wujud, 90; ahl al-kashfwa'l-wujud, 3, 212, 226;
117; of delimitation, 109; of dominion, 223, 282, shajarat al-wujud, 100; al-wii~id al-wujud,
376; of the earth, 134; of elements, 142; of in- 412n3; mii huwa 'alayhi'l-wujud, 260; amr wujudi,
vincibility, 282, 408n8; of the kingdom, 282, 376; 233, 290; umur wujudiyya, 36; ~arf wujudl, 88,
oflight, 4; of purity, 305; of realities and dis- 204, 393n13; al-ijtimii' al-wujudi, 53; musammii
engaged meanings, 219; of substrata, 185; of wujudi, 95; al-sam' al-wujudi, 182; shay' wujudi, 118;
wretchedness, 226 mawjud, 7, 81, 227, 322; mawjudiit, 11, 214; 'ayn
worship (' ibiida), (defined), 311-312; (mentioned), mawjuda, 84; ijiid, 50, 86, 204; 389n16; mujid, 45.
171, 265, 301-302, 327, 363; commanded, 311; See wa~dat al-wujud, wujub.
conventional, 311; inherent or essential (contrasted wus', 107; sa'a, 107, 121; tawassu', 96; al-tawassu'
with accidental), 45, 207, 311-312, 367; natural, al-iliihl, 19; ittisii', 96
294; primary (contrasted with secondary), 312; by
command and prohibition, 312; in the earth, 159; yiibandagl, 403n3; yiift, 214, 403n3
by the lover of his own creature, 380-381; by Yahia, 0., xi, xxi, 382n3, 382n6, 408n11
perfect man, 321, 368; by the whole cosmos, 311- yaqm, 227, 405n23; 'ayn al-yaqin, 166, 251
312, 349 (see also glorification); of God in every Y athrib, 376, 379
state, 103; all things created for, 65, 150, 216; yawm, 18
none worshiped bnt God, 342-343; none wor- yearning (shawq), 72, 106, 126, 131, 222, 392n35
shiped but the Lord (not Unity), 244; none wor- yin and yang, 139, 140
shiped but self, 341-342; none worshiped but a Yiisuf ibn Yakhlaf al-Kiim!, 229
created god, 341, 349, 351; worshiper ('<ibid), 311,
373-374, 392n34; object of worship, worshiped ;;;iihir. See ;;;uhur.
(ma'bud), 151, 311, 349, 381 zahr. See zuhiir.
wrath (ghaqab), 23-26, 150, 183, 305, 327; di- ~amiin, 39Sn7; zamiin (zaman) ford, 97, 98; Iii tabqii
vine, 101 zamiinayn, 97
wretched(ness) (shaqi, shaqii', shaqiiwa), 74, 108, 150, ;;ann, 151; ghalabat al-;;;ann, 249
226, 315, 343. See felicity. ;;;arf, 129; ;;;arfiyyat al-makiin, 134
wujub, 130, 282; wiijib, 172, 325; a/-wiijib bi'l-ghayr, zawii/, 127
51, 393n3; wiijib al-wujud, 12, 80, 81-82, 212; ijiib, zawj, 360
50, 110 Zayd, 40, 101, 115, 362; and 'Amr, 84, 182, 320
wujud, (defined), 3, 6, 80-81, 133, 212, 226-227; zi/1, 94
(mentioned), xviii, 12, 13, 88, 95, 111, 132, 213- ~uhd, 157, 279, 373; zuhhiid, 316, 392n34
214, 216, 229, 322, 324, 337, 352, 358, 364, ;;;uhur, 16, 89, 91, 214; ;;;ahr, 363; ma;;;har,
403n3; wujud 'iimm, 354; al-wujud al-a~ll 16, 89, 220, 405n30; ma;;;iihir, 16, 49, 50, 60;
al-iqaft, 88; wujud al-'ayn, 61; a/-wujud al-'aynl, al-ma;;;iihir al-i/iihiyya, 216; ;;;iihir, 16, 89,
41, 48, 83; al-wujud al-dhihni, 83; al-wujud al- 120, 129, 152, 158, 186, 201, 218, 223, 245, 246,
~iidith, 61; al-wujud al-~aqiql, 118; al-wujud 257, 260, 272, 327, 338; ;;;iihiri, 259
al-~aqq, 116; wujud al-~aqq, 273; al-wujud zulm, 202
al-kha((t, 393n6; al-wujud al-khayiill, 118; ?ulma, 13, 213, 362; ;;;ulam, 58; ;;;ulmiini, 14
al-wujud al-kitiibi, 393n6; al-wujud al-laf;;;i, zur, 273

478
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