5 6226395470327971993

GEOMETRIC DESIGN
1) Sight Distance
i. SSD → stopping sight Distance
ii. ISE → Intermediate sight Distance
iii. OSD → Overtaking sight Distance
2) Horizontal element
3) Vertical element
Sight Distance
1. Sight distance is the available distance to the driver for proper reaction like
stopping, overtaking, etc.
2. stopping sight Distance

OR Absolute min. sight Distance
OR Non passing sight Distance
(i) Lag Distance = V tR

= (0.278 V) tR
A/c to TRC, for stopping tR = 2.5 sec
(ii) Breaking Distance
V2
L = V is in m/s
2gf
V2
L = V is in km/h
254f
F = friction coefficient
NOTE:
1) Stopping sight Distance (SSD) depends upon frictional properly.
2) Stopping Sight Distance for the level ground
https://www.sirjionline.com/ Call 9999496232/42

V2
SSD = 0.278VtR +
254f
3) SSD for sloping ground
V2
SSD = 0.278VtR +
254(f ±s)
Where S = slope (without %)

+ → upgrade + -
- → downgrade
Overtaking sight Distance/ Passing Sight Distance
Assumptions
1) Assure slow vehicle move with uniform speed.
2) When the slow vehicle speed not given, then by IRC
Vb = V-16
V = Design speed of road in Km/hr
(i) Calculation of d1
d1 = 0.278 Vb .tr
A/c to IRC, for overtaking tr = 2 sec.
(ii) Calculation of d2 (by IRC)
d2 = 0.278Vb.T +2S
Where, S = standard gap b/w vehicles
by IRC, S = 0.2 Vb + l
L = 6 m or 6.1m (by IRC)

4𝑆
T = √
𝑎
where, a = acceleration in m/s2

s = in m
T = overtaking time
(iii) Calculation of “d3”

d3 = 0.278VA/. T
OR
= 0.278 V.T
OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
NOTE:
A/c to IRC, min. length & max. length of overtaking zone considered is 3 OSD and 5
OSD.
Horizontal Element
1) When a vehicle travel in a horizontal curve then it is subjected to centrifugal force
which act horizontally outward.
2)
P V2
= ➔ v → m/s
W gR
R → m
P V2
= → V → km/h
W 127R
R → mm
P
Where, = centrifugal ratio / Impact Factor / Stability Factor
W
P = Centrifugal force
W = Weight of vehicle

NOTE:
.
P 1
1) For Highway Engineering, is limited up to 0.25 or
W 4
.
P 1
2) For Railway Engineering, is limited up to 0.125 or
W 8
3) Effect of centrifugal Force
a) Overturning Effect
𝑃 𝑏
=
𝑊 2ℎ
Where, b = distance b/w both tyres.

h = distance of C.G. of the body from surface.
b) Translational Effect
𝑃
= f
𝑊
Where, f = lateral frictional coefficient.

NOTE: For preventing translational & overturning effect.
<
𝑃 b
& F
𝑊 2h
4) Extra widening
a) Extra widening is provided to avoid off tracking & psychological tendency.
b) A/c to IRC, We = Wm +WP
Where, We = extra widening

Wm = mechanical widening
WP = philological widening
nl2
+
𝑉
We =
2R 9.5√𝑅
where, l → in m
R → in m

V → in km/h
We → in m
n → no. of lane
c) A/c to IRC, extra widening provided (practically)

i. R > 300m ➔ Extra widening not considered.
ii. 50 ≤ R ≤ 300m ➔ Extra widening provided on inner & outer side.
iii. R < 50m ➔ Extra widening provided on inner side.
5) Super elevation / Banking of Road

a)
b) A/c to IRC
i. Max. value of super elevation
Urban areas = 4%
Plain & Rolling = 7%
Hilly areas = 10%
ii. Min. value of super elevation
 Camber slope
c) A/c to IRC, Super elevation calculated
V2
e + f =
127R
v
V
Where, e = super elevation ➔ e = tan 𝜃 =
H
h
f = friction coefficient
V = speed in km/h
R = Radius of curve in (m)
d) Equilibrium Super elevation means centrifugal force is fully counteracted by giving

super elevation (friction coefficient is assumed zero).

For Equilibrium Super elevation, (f=0)
𝑉2
e =
127𝑅
or
R1 = R2
R1 = Reaction of front tyres
R2 = Reaction of Rear Tyres
e) Design step for super elevation (by IRC)
(1) Calculate the value of e1

V2
e1 =
225R
(2) compare
e1 ≤ 0.07 ∴ Ans will be e1
if e1 > 0.07 move further
(3) Check f1
V2
e+f =
127R
V2
0.07 + f1 =
127R
(4) If f1 ≤ 0.15 (∴ OK) { ∴ super elevation = 0.07}
if f1 > 0.15 (Then it is not a/c to IRC)
(5) Calculate the max. Allowable speed by IRC.
Vmax = √27.94𝑅
R is in m
V = in km/h

6) Length of Transition Curve
1) Transition Curve is provided is the change of horizontal alignment from straight
portion to circular portion.
2) Purpose of Transition curve is to provide gradually centrifugal force & avoid
the sudden uncomforted condition.
3) In transition curve, radius of the curve continuously decreasing & cirvatire pf
the curve continuously increasing.
A/c to IRC, suitable shape for transition curve is considered clothoid or Euler
spiral.
l3
4) Generally, equation of clothoid curve is Y =
6RL
R → Radius of the curve.

L → Length of the Transition curve.
6) Length of the Transition Curve by IRC

A/c to IRC, length of Transition curve is considered max. of following 3 criteria:
(a) Based on comfort condition
V3
Lt1 =
CR
Where, V → in m/s
R → in m
80
C → { V = km/h}
75+𝑉
C → Rate of centrifugal acceleration

(b) Based on super elevation
= .07
𝑥
Super elevation ➔ slope = tan 𝜃 =
𝑊+𝑊𝑒
W = width of road
We = extra widening
A/c to IRC,
LT2 = 150 X 𝑥 in m (Plain & Rolling)
= 60 X 𝑥 in m (Hilly area)
(c) Based on Empirical Relation & Experiments
V2
LT3 = 2.7 (In plain & Rolling)
R
V2
in m (in Hilly )
R
NOTE: Shift of the Transition Curve
S = (𝐿 𝑇)2
24𝑅
Vertical Element
a) Grand slope along the road length is called Gradient of the road.
b) Type of Gradient
1. Ruling Gradient
It is also called as design gradient & designer wants vertical element of the
road.
2. Limiting Gradient
It is steeper than Ruling gradient & it is provided only when cost of construction
by ruling gradient is more as compare to limiting gradient.

3. Exceptional Gradient
It is provided only when situation is unavoidable & generally exceptional
gradient is provided for short stretch. Up to 100 m
NOTE:
1) Minimum Gradient considered with drainage point of view A/c to IRC,
Cement Road → 1 in 500

Earthern Road → 1 in 200
Bitumen Road → 1 in 250
2)
Terrain Ruling Limiting Exceptional

Plain & Rolling 3.3 5 6.7
Hilly 5 6 7
Steeper 6 7 8
3) Grade Compensation
A/c to IRC,
%
𝑅
Gc = 30 +
𝑅
min.
%
75
R
Where, R → Radius of curve

Grade compensation generally considered as more than 4% gradient
.
2) Summit Curve
1) These curves are vertical curves considering convexity upward & concavity
downward.
2) A/c to IRC, suitable shape is considered for summit curve square parabola.
3) Calculation of Deviation angle.

Case – 1
When the positive gradient meets another positive gradient.
N = (+n1) – (+n2)
Case -2
When +ve gradient meet the flat gradient.
N= (+n) – (n2 = 0)

Case -3
When the positive gradient meets another negative gradient.
N = (+n1) –(-n2)
4) Length of the summit curve by IRC
LS ≥ S.D. LS < S.D.

For SSD NS2
LS = 2s –
4.4
LS = N
4.4
For ISD/OSD NS2

LS = 2s –
9.6
LS =
9.6 N
3) Valley Curve
1) Valley curve are vertical curve having convexity downward & concavity upward.
2) A/c to IRC, suitable shape for valley curve is considered cubic Parabola /
Froude’s curve.
3) Length of the valley curve is considered as max. of following two criteria.
Criteria 1: Based on comfort condition
𝑁𝑣 3
LV1 =2 √
𝐶
Where, V → m/s

80
C →
75+𝑉
Criteria 2: Based on Headlight sight distance.

A/c to IRC, Headlight Sight Distance = SSD
LV ≥ S.D. LV < S.D.

𝑁𝑆 2 1.5+0.0.55
LV = LV = 2S -
1.5+0.0355 𝑁
UNIT -2
TRAFFIC PARAMETERS
Introduction
The objective of Traffic engineering is to achieve free & rapid flow of traffic with least
no. of accident.
Breaking Characteristic Test
By SSD Analysis L = Breaking Distance

𝑢2
L = U = Initial speed
2𝑔𝑓
a = acceleration of vehicle
a = g x f g = acc. due to gravity
f = friction coefficient

NOTE:
In Breaking characteristic
v = u- at
s = ut - at2
V2 = u2 – 2as
(1) Traffic Parameter

1) Traffic volume or Traffic Flow (q)
No. of vehicle passing at a particular section in unit time is known as Traffic

volume (q)
, , ,
Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle
Unit ➔
h day month year
2) Representation of Traffic volume Data

a) A.A.D.T - Annual Average Daily Traffic
No.of vehicle in 1 year

AADT =
365
b) AAHT – Annual Average Hourly Traffic
No.of vehicle in 1 year

AAHT =
365×24
𝐴𝐴𝐷𝑇
AAHT =
24
c) ADT – Average Daily Traffic

→ It is used for less than 1 year survey and min. consider 7 days.

d) Trend Chart
𝑟 n
A = P (1+ )
100
AADT
Year →
Where, P = Present Traffic Volume
r = Rate of growing traffic annually in %
n = no. of year
A = Expected traffic
e) 30th Highest Hourly Volume

It has been observed that 30th highest hourly volume gives the satisfactory
results in terms of economy & performance so that IRC considered 30th highest
hourly volume. As a Design volume & it is generally considered as 8% - 10%
of AADT.
(2) Traffic Speed

a) Spot Speed
I. It is the speed of the vehicle at a particular time instant in give location.
II. Spot speed measured by Endoscope or Doppler Radar.
b) Average Speed
I. Arithmetic Average
Case 1 ➔ When frequency are not given
𝑉1 +𝑉2+ 𝑉3+⋯
Vt =
𝑛
Case 2 → When frequency are given
𝑓1 𝑉1+𝑓2 𝑉2+ 𝑓3 𝑉3+⋯

Vt =
𝑓1 𝑓2 +...

II. Harmonic Average
Case- 1 When frequency are not given.
VS = n
+ +
1 1
𝑉1 𝑉2
Case -2 When frequency are given
VS = f1 + f2 + ……….
+
𝑓1 𝑓2
𝑉1 𝑉2
d) Modal Chart
Speed at which max. no. of vehicle running is known as Modal Speed
e) % cumulative frequency at speed chart
% cumulative
frequency
Speed →

98th percentile ➔ Design speed
85 th
percentile ➔ Safe upper speed
15 th
percentile → Safe Lover speed
3) Traffic Density (K)

i. Traffic Density means no. of vehicle present in a unit length (generally taken as 1
km).
Vehicle
ii. Unit →
Km
iii. Relation b/w Traffic Density (K), Traffic volume & Traffic speed.
=
Vehicle Vehicle Km
X
h Km hr
Q = kV
NOTE:
1) Traffic Density in terms of average space
1
(a) K =
Avg. speed (km)
= ________Vehicle/km
1000
(b) K =
Avg. space (in m)
2) A/c to Green – Shield Model
i) V = a + bK -------------(1)
Where, a, b → constant
(ii) Condition -1
V = Vf , K = 0
Vf = a + b x 0
a = Vf ------------------------(2)

Condition -2
K = KJ , V= 0
O = a + B + Kj
O = Vf = b x K j
−𝑉𝑓
b = ------------(3)
𝐾𝑗
V = Vf (1- )
𝐾
𝐾𝑗
(iii) Graph
Vf
V Kj
(iv) A/c to Green Shield
q = KV
𝐾𝑗 𝑉𝑓
qmax = ×
2 2
𝐾𝑗 𝑉𝑓
qmax =
4

NOTE:
1) A/c to IRC theoretical capacity of the road with Average Traffic Flow Speed (V) &
Average space b/w the vehicle (s)
1000V
C = V →Km/h
S
S → in m
C → veh/h
For S → A/c to IRC A/c to IRC

S = 0.2V + l l = avg. length of vehicle
6m or 6.1 m
OR
S = SSD + l
2) Capacity in terms of Average time taken by Vehicle:
3600
C = H(t) → Avg. time in sec.
H(t)
4) Extra Points
(i) Speed & Delay Analysis
→ It is generally carried out for Traffic density.
➔ Methods:
a) Interview Method
b) License Plate Method
c) Floating car Method
d) → in this method, 4 observers are used.
e)
(ii) Origin and Destination Analysis
➔ This analysis is used for selection of new route.
➔ Method:
a) Road side interview
b) Home interview

c) Return Post method
d) Design line
NOTE:
Design lines are the curve in the graph which is connected to origin & destination
point & width of design line is directly proportional to no. of trip in both circle.
(iii) PCU (Passenger car Unit)

It is the factor which is converting diff. vehicle classes into the common
standard vehicle.
S. No. Vehicle class PCU

1 Motorcycle, Scooter, Pedal cycle 0.5
2 Passenger Car, temp. autorickshaw 1
3 Cycle Rickshaw 1.5
4 Bus, Truck, Tractor 3
5 Horse drawn Vehicle 4
6 Hand Cart, small bullock cart 6
7 Large Bullock cart 8
(iv) Parking Facility
1) Parking Facility generally provided in Urban areas.

2) Min. no. of vehicle present in the 0 0 parking/ parallel parking.
3) Max. no. of vehicle present in the 900 parking.
4) A/c to IRC, best parking considered 450.
(v) Intersections
1) Intersection is the area shared by 2 or more roads & this area is designed for
the vehicles to turn diff. direction to reach their destination.
2) Main function of Intersection is to guide the vehicle their respective direction.

3) Control the intersection
a) Passive Control
When the traffic is less so that road user req. to abbey the basic rule of
the road e.g. Traffic signs.
b) Semi – Control
In semi – control, the driver gently guided by interchange, channelization etc.
e.g. Rotary, trumpet batten.
c) Active Control
Road users will be forced to the path suggested by traffic agencies.
e.g. Traffic signal.

UNIT -3
PAVEMENT TESTING
1) Soil Test
2) Aggregate Test
3) Bitumen
1) Soil Test
i) California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test
➔ This test is carried out for bearing properties of soil.
➔ CBR value is provided to relative strength.
➔ CBR value is defined as CBR%.
Load taken by sample

CBR % =
standard load
Standard load
Penetration Load (K.g) 10m/Kg/cm2

2.5 mm 1370 Kg. 70 Kg/cm2
5 mm 2085 Kg. 105 Kg/cm2
➔ In this test, 3 soil sample is taken.

➔ The average of 3 soil samples. CBR is considered for CBR value of the soil.
➔ In this test, undisturbed soil sample is considered.
➔ A/c to IRC, generally CBR2.5mm > CBR 5mm but some time CBR5mm >
CBR2.5mm.
This test is repeated at max. value of CBR is considered
➔ Max. variation 3% allowed in the CBR Value.
ii) Plate Bearing Test

➔ This test is mostly used in Rigid Pavement design.
➔ Plate Bearing test is carried out for calculating the modules of subgrade
reaction (K).
➔ A/c to Westergeard, Modules of subgrade reaction is defined as.

þ
K =
∆
where,
þ = Pressure in kg/cm2
∆ = deflection in cm
➔ Unit of K ➔ Kg/cm3
þ
K ➔ ➔ þ=K ∆
∆
Y = mx
þ Slope = tan𝜃 = K
➔ Generally, 75 cm dia plate used for this test

➔ A/c to Bousnesq:
1
K×
Diameter
const
K=
Dia
K1D1 = K2D2
2) Aggregate Test
(i) Crushing Test

➔ This test is carried out for crushing property of the aggregate.
➔ Crushing property means resistance against gradually applied load.
➔ In this test, dry aggregate passing passing through 12.5mm seive. & retained on
10mm sieve.
➔ Aggregate fill in a cylindrical apparatus of 11.5 cm dia & 18 cm height into 3
layers.

➔ Each layer is 25 times tampered.
➔ In this test, crushing load 40 Ton is applied @ 4 ton/min.
➔ After loading aggregate is sieved by 2.36mm sieve & weight.
➔ Result of this test is given in the form of Crushing value.
W2
CV = × 100
W1
Where, W2 = Crushed aggregate weight by 2.36mm sieve.
W1 = Total aggregate weight.
➔ A/c to IRC,
Surface course > 30%
other course > 45%
ii) Impact Test

➔ This test is carried out for Impact properly or Toughness properly.
➔ Impact properly means resistance against suddenly applied load.
➔ In this test, dry aggregate passing through 12/5 sieve & retained on 10 mm
seine.
➔ Aggregate filled in a cylindrical apparatus of 10.2 cm dia & 5 cm height into 3
layers.
➔ Each layer is tapered by 25 times.
➔ In this test, 13.5 -14kg load having a free fall from 38 cm height.
➔ No. of blows =15.
➔ After loading aggregate passing through 2.36mm sieve & weight.
➔ The result of this test giving in the form of Impact value.
W2
I. V = × 100
W1
Where, W2 = Weight of aggregate which is passing through 2.36 mm sieve.

W1 = Total aggregate weight.

A/c to IRC,
Other course > 40%

(iii) Abrasion Test
➔ This is carried out for Abrasion properly or Hardness properly of the aggregate.
➔ In this test generally 5-10 kg aggregate taken.
➔ Los Angeles Test is considered for Abrasion & Rubbing action b/w aggregate &
steel ball.
➔ Generally, steel balls are made by cast Iron & 48mm dia & 390-445 g & no’s
of steel ball (6-12).
➔ Aggregate filled in Los Angeles machine which is 70cm dia & 50 cm length.
➔ Aggregate filled in Los Angeles machine & rotated at 30-33 rpm for 500-1000
revolution.
➔ After revolution, aggregate sieved by 1.7 mm sieve & weight.
➔ Result of this test is given as Abrasion Value.
W2
AV = × 100
W1
Where, W2 = wt. of aggregate passing through 1.7 mm sieve.

W1 = Total aggregate wt.
A/c to IRC,
Other Course > 35%

𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑖𝑛 𝑔)
Coefficient of Hardness = 20 –
3
(iv) Soundness Test
➔ This test is carried out for Weathering action & resistance.

➔ In this test, 2 chemicals are used:
Sodium sulphate Na2So4

Magnesium sulphate MgSo4
➔ In this test, aggregate is immersed is immersed in above solution for 16-18
hour & dried in over @ (1050C -1100C) for 24 hours. This make 1 cycle & after
5-10 cycle.
loss in weight > 12 % → Na2So4
loss in weight > 18% → MgSo4
(v) Specific Gravity Test

A/c to IRC, Specific Gravity of aggregate is:
For Road construction → 2.6 to 2.9
(vi) Water Absorption Test

A/c to IRC, water Absorption should not be more than 0.6 % Weight.
Water Absorption > 0.6 % by wt.
(vii) Flakiness & Elongation Index Test
(a) Flakiness Index Test

➔ It is defined as percentage by weight of the aggregate particle whose least
3
dimension is less than 0.6 or times their mean size strip.
5
➔ Flakiness Index:
W2
FI = × 100
W1
Where, W2 = Weight of aggregate passing through.

0.6 times mean size strip.
➔ A/c to IRC,
FI > 15%

(b) Elongated Index Test
➔ It is defined as the percentage by wt. whose greatest dimension is 1.8 times/
9
5
times their mean size strip.
W2
× 100
W1
Where, W2 = wt. of aggregate retained by mean size strip.

➔ A/c to IRC, EI > 15%
Bitumen – Adhesion Test / static Immersion Test

➔ This test is carried out for Adhesion property of the aggregate.
➔ A/c to IRC, fully coated aggregate placed in the water for 24 hours & at water
maintain at 400C
➔ A/c to IRC, striping value > 25%.
3) Bitumen Test
i. Bitumen is the hydrocarbon.
ii. Bitumen is thermoplastic in nature; it means it becomes soft on heating.
iii. Bitumen is obtained by Petroleum crude.
iv. Bitumen is obtained by fractional distillation.
v. Bitumen is soluble in CS2 & Cl4.
vi. Tar
• Tar is obtained by coal.
• Tar is obtained by destructive distillation
• Tar is heavier than bitumen.
Test of Bitumen
1) Viscosity Test
i. viscosity of the Bitumen is imp. for mixing & spraying.
ii. Viscosity of the bitumen generally measured by furol viscometer & in this
apparatus 3-10 mm orifice is present & 50-200ml bitumen necessary.

2) Ductility Test
i. Ductility is measured by standard briquette of 1 cm 2 area & the rate of cooling
in this test is 5cm/min.
ii. The distance in cm that Briquette can be stressed before breaking the bitumen
is known as ductility.
iii. A/c to IRC, min. value of Ductility can have 50 cm.
3) Flash & Fire Point

i. flash point is the lowest temp. in 0
C when bituminous sample catch fire
immediately.
ii. Fire point is the lowest temp. in 0
C when bitumen sample is continuously at
least for 5 second.
iii. A/c to IRC, Flash & Fire point => 1600 -1750 & working limit for safe heating is
considered 500C below from the Flash & Fire point.
4) Spot Test
i. This test is carried out for bitumen or to detect the bitumen sample cracked or
not.
ii. 2g bitumen + 10ml Naphtha spot
5) Softening Point Test

i. This test is carried out for softness / hardness of the bitumen.
ii. In this test, bitumen sample attain standard condition (when bitumen sample
touches the plate at 2.54 cm)
iii. A/c to IRC, general consideration for softening point is 350C-700C.
6) Penetration Test
i. This test is carried out for grade of Bitumen.
ii. In this test, softness/harness of bitumen is chucked by penetration value
(Penetration measure in mm)
iii. In this rest, a standard needle weight (100g) used & penetration check after 5
sec.
iv. Grade of Bitumen = 10 x penetration in mm

7) Specific Gravity Test
Specific Gravity of Bitumen:
• Pure Bitumen → 0.97-1.02
• Mix Bitumen → G = 1.09
NOTE: (a) Bitumen Emulsion

Bitumen Emulsion consisting bitumen 40-60% & remaining is water & it is
used for soil stabilization, maintenance work etc.
(b) Cut-Back Bitumen
• It the viscosity of the bitumen is reduced by adding chemicals then it is
known as cut back bitumen.
• For rapid cut back ➔ Gasoline chemical.
• For medium cutback (Mc) ➔ Kerosene oil.
• For slow cutback (Sc) ➔ Gas oil.

FOR AE
PAVEMENT DESIGN
1) Introduction
2) Rigid Pavement
3) Flexible Pavement
Introduction
1) Pavement is the load bearing & load distributing component.
2) Important points for Flexible Pavement

i. In Flexible pavement, load distribution is assumed to Grade to Grade or layer to
layer.
ii. Initial cost is low but maintenance cost is high.
iii. Flexural Rigidity (EI) value is low.
iv. In Flexible pavement, no joint bar provided.
v. Generally, for designing purpose IRC – 37 code are used.
3) Important points for Rigid Pavements.

i. In Right pavement, load distribution is assumed by slab-Action.
ii. In Rigid Pavement, initial cost is high & maintenance cost is low.
iii. Flexural Rigidity (EI) value is High.
iv. In Rigid pavement, joint bars are provided.
v. Generally, for design purpose IRC-58 code are used.
4) Radius of Contact Area (a)

Imprint portion b/w tyres & pavement is known as Radius of contact area.
Unit of a ➔ in cm
5) Standard Axle Load by IRC

≃ 8200 Kg.
≃ 14968 Kg.
6) Number of standard Axle passing during the design file of the pavement.
)n-1
𝑟
= 365 A (1+ × UDF × LDF
100
(
𝑟
)
100
Where, VDF = Vehicle Damage factor

L1 4 L2 4
VDF = f1 ( ) + f2( ) +----------
Ls Ls
Where,
L1 , L2 , L3 ➔ Axle load in Ton
f1, f2, f3 → Frequency without %
Ls → Standard Axle loads in Ton
LDF = Lane Distribution Factor
A/c to IRC,
Single Lane ➔ LDF = 1
Double Lane → LDF = 0.75
r → R → Rate of growing traffic in %.

n → No. of years for the design life.
𝑟 x
A = P ( 1+ )
100
Where,
x = Construction period in years.

p = Present traffic (generally considered vehicle/day
A = Expected traffic after construction period.
Rigid Pavement Parameters

1) Relation b/w Modulus of subgrade corresponding to 75 cm dia plan & 30 cm dia
plate.
K75 ≃ K30cm
2) Radius of relative stiffness (l)
l = [𝐸ℎ 3 /12k(1-𝜇2 )]
Where,
E → Modulus of elasticity of cement concrete in kg/cm2.
h → Slab Thickness in cm.
k → Modulus of subgrade reduction in kh/cm3.
𝜇 → Radius of relative stiffness in cm
3) Equivalent Radius of Resisting zone

𝑎
Case I < 1.724
ℎ
b = √1.6𝑎2 + ℎ 2 − 0.675ℎ
Case II Otherwise
b=a
Where, a → radius of contact area (cm)
h → slab thickness (cm)
b → radius of resisting zone (cm)
4) Westergeard stresses or Load stress
i.
0.316P 𝑙
𝜎mt = 4 log10 ( )+ 1.069
h2 𝑏

ii.
0.572P 𝑙
𝜎𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = 4 log10 ( )
h2 𝑏 + 0.359
𝑎 2 0.6
iii. 1-( √ )
3P
𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 =
h2 𝑙
Where, p = Design load in Kg.

h = slab thickness in cm
l = Radius of relative stiffness in cm
b = Radius of resisting zone in cm
a = Radius of contact area in cm
𝜎= Stress In Km/cm2
5) Temperature stress due to Daily variation of Temp. OR Bradbury Stress OR

Warping stress.
𝜎𝑖𝑛𝑡 = E ∝( ∆T) CX + 𝜇. CY
2 1- 𝜇2
𝜎𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 = CX. E∝∆T & CY E∝∆T

2 1- 𝜇2
𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑢𝑙 = E∝ (∆T)
3( 1- 𝜇) √
𝛼
l
Where,
𝜇 = Poisson ratio
E = Modulus of Elasticity in Kg/cm2
∝ = Coefficient of thermal expansion in per0C.
∆T = Temperature difference in 0C.
Cx & CV = Coefficient given by IRC for unit condition.

𝛼 = Radius of contact area in cm
l = radius of relative stiffness in cm
𝜎 = Stress in Kg/cm2
6) Frictional stress by IRC
i. Frictional stress nature max. value present at the center of the slab & zero
at the corner.
ii. A/c to IRC, Frictional stresses is
𝑟 ×𝑙 ×𝑓
𝜎𝑓 =
2×104
Where, r = unit wt. of concrete (in kg/m3)

L = Length of the slab section (in m)
f = Factor considered by IRC ( f > 1.5 )
𝜎𝑓 = Frictional stress in kg/cm2
NOTE: (1) By Westgard
(i) Interior & edge
Due to loading or
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇
ii). corner
2). By Bradbury
Day
𝐶
𝑇
Night
𝑇
𝐶
3). Frictional stresses
• As expansion can take place, : The stresses in molecule resist expansion then
compression stress
• Reverse
Summer ➔ C
Winter ➔ T
Location Portion Westward Bradbury Frictional

Interor Top C C T C T
Bottom T T C C T
Edge Top C C T C T
Bottom T T C C T
Top T C T C T
Bottom C T C C T
Flexible Pavement Design Methods

1). Group index Method
i). It is the empirical method.

ii). Group index = 0.2 a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd
Where, a% ➔ P% -35% > 40%
b% ➔ P% -15% > 40%
c% ➔ WL% -40% > 20%
d% ➔ IP% -10% > 20%
&
IP% = WL-WP%
P% = % Finer by 75m sieve
Note:- 1) Rang of group index ➔ 0-20

2) High GI, Poorer Quality
2. CBR Method
(i). This method is also empirical method.
(ii). A/c to this method, thickness of the pavement in cm is given by
T(CM) = √𝐶𝐵𝑅% -
1.75𝑝 𝑝
Þ𝜋
Where, P = Design load in Kg

Þ = Contact pressure in Kg/Cm2
Note :- By Revised IRC

3). CRV Method (California Resisting Value)
I. it is also Empirical method.
II. A/c to this method, thickness of the pavement is given by:
T(CM) = √
0.166 (𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥)(90−𝑅)
𝐶 1⁄5
Where,
Traffic index = 1.35 (Avg. EWL)0.11
Avg.EWL = (EWL)Present + (EWL)Design Life
2
EWL = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 AADT x EWL Coefficient
R-value & c-value ➔ Parameter which is measured by stabliometer & cohisometer
4). Triaxial method

i). It is the semi-empirical method or semi theoretical method.
ii). A/c to this method thickness of the pavement is given by
Tp(CM) = √(2𝜋𝐸 𝛥)2 - a2 (𝐸𝑠 )1/3

3.𝑃 𝑥 𝑌 𝐸
𝑠 𝑝
Where, P ➔ Load in Kg
X & V ➔ Coeff given by IRC
Es ➔ Modulus of elasticity of soil sub grade in kg/cm2
Δ ➔ Design defection in cm.
a ➔ Radius of wntact area in cm
EP ➔ Modulus of elasticity of pavement in kg/cm2
5). Bur mister Method

I. this method is theoretical method
II. this method is based on elastic theory
III. Assumption
A. Material present in the layer is considered homogeneus & Isotropic
B. All layers are continuous contact
C. Order of modulus of elasticity:
Esurface Course > EBase Course > Esub base course > Esoil Subgrade
iv) surface layer is infinite in horizontal direction & finite in vertical direction.
Note :
I. Flexible plate Method

Δ = 1.5 Þ.a x F2
Es
ii). Rigid plate method
Δ = 1.18 Þ.a x F2
Es
Where, Þ = Allowabel pressure in kg/cm2
a = Radius of contact are a in cm.
F2 = Deflection factor
Es = Modulus of elasticity of soil subgrade in kg/cm2.
Δ = Design deflection
X = Traffic Coefficient
y = Rainfall Coefficient
Miscellaneous topics
1). Reaction Time (tR)
By TRC Stopping case ➔ 2.5 sec
Overtaking ➔ 2 sec
2). Friction
By IRC Longitudinal ➔ 0.35 to 0.40
Lateral ➔ 0.15
3). Skid Slip
i). translational > Rotational 1). Rotational > Translational
ii). When sudden break ii). When acceleration Is provided at smooth road.
Balance

Rotational = Translational
4). Terrain condition
Terrain % Cross Slope

Plain 0-10%
Rolling 10% -25%
Mountainous 25% - 60%
Steeper >60%
5). Design Speed

For plain & rolling areas & NH & Sh = 100Km/h
6). Unevenness index
I. This index measures the undulation of wood surface along the length of road.
II. Unevenness index measured by Bump-indicator.
III. A/c to IRC,
Pavement Unevenness index
Good < 1500 mm/km
Satisfactory 1500-2500mm/km
Bad 2500-3200 mm/km
Uncomforted >3200 mm/km
7). Camber
I. Transverse slope provided to the road surface (edge point 7 crown point ) to
drain off water is known as comber.
II. on horizontal curve, we don’t provide comber bcoz objective of comber is
fulfilled by giving super elevation.
III. type of camber
a). straight line camber.
Camber = tanϴ = y/(w/2)

b). Parabolic comber
Equation of parabolic camber ➔ y = 2x2/nw
c). Combination of parabolic 7 straight line comber

Note :- i). Purpose of drainage is considered comber road element.
ii). A/c to IRC, camber of the road depends upon type of pavement material & rainfall.
Pavement Heavy rainfall Light rainfall

Cement road & high type 2% 1.7%
bitumen road
Thin type bitumen road 2.5% 2%
WBM 3% 2.5%
Earthen road 4% 3%
8). Carriageway width

1). Width of carriageway depend upon no of traffic lane
2). Width of carriageway for single lane = 2.44 + 0.655x 2
= 3.75 m
or 3.8 m
Note:-
Lane Width of carriageway
Single 3.75m
Double 7m
Intermediate 5.5m
Multi lane (>2) 3.5m per lane
9). Width of Formation

I. it is the sum of divider, shoulders 7 width of carriageway.
II. A/c to IRC, width of formation fro NH & SH & plain & rolling
III. A/c To IRC, min width for shoulders in considered 2.5m
IV. A/c to IRC, desirable width of divider considered 5 m & it is reduced upto the
1.2m in urban area/bolt up areas
10). ROW (right of way) / Land width

(i). It is the width of land acquired for future development of the road.
(ii). A/C to IRC, for NH & SH in open area, Row is considered 45m or (30-60m)
11). General Layout Diagram For Road Width

A/C to IRC, Building line to building line, width for NH & SH in plain & areas
considered 80m & control line to control live width generally considered 150m.
12). Deok hour Factor

Peak hour factor = Max. available volume (forgiven time)
Max. Possible volume in (1 Hour)
Q Determine the peak hour factor for 15 min in following

9:00 – 9:15 1000 Veh
9:15 – 9:30 800 veh
9:30 – 9:45 600 Veh
9:45- 10:50 600 Veh
Peak hour factor = 3000

4000
= 0.75
13). Set back distance
It is the distance req. on the centre line of a horizontal curve to an obstruction on the
inner side o of the curve to provide adequate sight distance.
Case – 1
Length of the curse is greater than sight distance.
Lc > S.D.
Case – 2
Lc < S.D.
m = R(1- ) + (- ) sinα/z
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑆−𝐿𝑐
𝑧 𝑧
By angle, 2πR/360 = LC/α

14). Signal timing by Webster method
Step – 1: calculate the parameter ‘L’ & ‘Y’.
L = 2n +R y = yA+yB
where, L = Total time is sec. yA = qA/SA
n = No of phase yB = qB/SB
R = Normal red time in Where, qA & qB = Normal flow for raod A & B

Sec for pedestrian SA & SB = saturation flow for road A & B.
crossing
Step-2 :- Calculate the cycle length in sec by Webster.
Co = 1.5 L +5
1-Y
Step – 3 : Calcutate the green time insec by Webster
GA = YA/y (Co – L)
GB = yb/y (Co – L)
15). Orger of different department & institution

1. Jayaker committer ➔ 1927
2. Central road fund ➔ 1929
3. India Road congress (IRC) ➔ 1934
4. Motor vehicle Act ➔ 1939
5. Central Road research institute ➔ 1950
6. National highway act ➔ 1956
7. Highway research board ➔ 1973
8. National highway Authority of India (NHAI) ➔ 1988
9. National highway development programme (NHDP) ➔ 1998
16). Various plan for highway development of India

1). Nagpur road plan
I. Established year ➔ 1943-1963
II. It is based on mainly star & grid pattern
III. Development factor = 15%
IV. Road density almost considered 16km Per 100 km2
2. Bombay road plan
1). Established year ➔ 1961 – 1981
2). Development Factor ➔ 5%
3). 1600 km expressway considered
4). road density almost considered 32 Km per 100 km 21
3. Lucknow road plan
I. Established year ➔ 1981-2001

II. Development factor not considered
III. 2000 km Expressways considered.
IV. Road density almost considered 82 Km Per 100 km 2
V. Generally it is based on square & grid pattern.
17). for Lucknow road plan, length criteria
1. Length of NH (km) = A/50 (Area (A) = km2)
2. Length of SH = A/25
62.5 x no of population – length of NH
above 5000 Max
3. Length of MDR = A/12.5 90 x no of population above 5000 Max
4. Total road length = 4.74 x total no of villages & towns in area.
5. Rural Road = (total Road) – (NH + SH + MDR)

18). important Point for hill roads
1. Hill roads are also known as ghat roads
2. Classification of roads in hill
I. Motor road ➔ Width > 4M
II. Bride road ➔ width 1.5 to 2.5 m
III. foot Track ➔ Width ⋍ 1m
3. Super elevations in hill roads considered V2/225R
Where V = Design speed in km/h
R = Radius of the curve
4). Extra widening for hill roads
We = 18n + 0.1v
R √𝑅
where, n = no of lanes
R = Radius in m
V = Design speed in km/h
5). Resisting length in hill Roads
Total work done = F X L + W X h
= fWL = Wh F = Frictional force
= Fw (L+h/f) F = f.N

Resisting length
6). Min . Design Speed = 20 km/h
Min. radius = 15m
Min length of transition curve = 15m
7). Trace cut in hill road
Trace cut Is the narrow track (0.6-1m) along the alignment of hill road for
proper inspection.
8). bend in hill road.
I. Corner Bend
II. Hair pin Bend
19). Transportation system
It is the combination of fixed facility, flow entity, storage faultily, operational plants &
control system which permit People & goods.
20). Transportation Engineering

Transportation engineering deals with planning, designing, operation & mainter-ance of
transportation system.
Signs
prohibitory
circler /Back – white
Boundary-red
stop ➔ octahedral (r&W)
no overtaking speed limits
warning sign
triangular
back –while
bounding –red
informatory sigh rectangular


5 6226395470327971993

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

5 6226395470327971993

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

GEOMETRIC DESIGN

2. stopping sight Distance

(i) Lag Distance = V tR

A/c to TRC, for stopping tR = 2.5 sec

(ii) Breaking Distance

https://www.sirjionline.com/ Call 9999496232/42

3) SSD for sloping ground

Where S = slope (without %)

Overtaking sight Distance/ Passing Sight Distance

A/c to IRC, for overtaking tr = 2 sec.

(ii) Calculation of d2 (by IRC)

Where, S = standard gap b/w vehicles

L = 6 m or 6.1m (by IRC)

https://www.sirjionline.com/ Call 9999496232/42

where, a = acceleration in m/s2

(iii) Calculation of “d3”

https://www.sirjionline.com/ Call 9999496232/42

Where, b = distance b/w both tyres.

Where, f = lateral frictional coefficient.

Where, We = extra widening

https://www.sirjionline.com/ Call 9999496232/42

c) A/c to IRC, extra widening provided (practically)

5) Super elevation / Banking of Road

c) A/c to IRC, Super elevation calculated

d) Equilibrium Super elevation means centrifugal force is fully counteracted by giving

https://www.sirjionline.com/ Call 9999496232/42

e) Design step for super elevation (by IRC)

(1) Calculate the value of e1

(5) Calculate the max. Allowable speed by IRC.

https://www.sirjionline.com/ Call 9999496232/42

R → Radius of the curve.

6) Length of the Transition Curve by IRC

(a) Based on comfort condition

C → Rate of centrifugal acceleration

https://www.sirjionline.com/ Call 9999496232/42

(c) Based on Empirical Relation & Experiments

NOTE: Shift of the Transition Curve

https://www.sirjionline.com/ Call 9999496232/42

Cement Road → 1 in 500

Terrain Ruling Limiting Exceptional

Where, R → Radius of curve

https://www.sirjionline.com/ Call 9999496232/42

https://www.sirjionline.com/ Call 9999496232/42

4) Length of the summit curve by IRC

LS ≥ S.D. LS < S.D.

For ISD/OSD NS2

Criteria 1: Based on comfort condition

https://www.sirjionline.com/ Call 9999496232/42

Criteria 2: Based on Headlight sight distance.

LV ≥ S.D. LV < S.D.

Breaking Characteristic Test

By SSD Analysis L = Breaking Distance

https://www.sirjionline.com/ Call 9999496232/42

(1) Traffic Parameter

No. of vehicle passing at a particular section in unit time is known as Traffic

2) Representation of Traffic volume Data

No.of vehicle in 1 year

b) AAHT – Annual Average Hourly Traffic

No.of vehicle in 1 year

c) ADT – Average Daily Traffic

https://www.sirjionline.com/ Call 9999496232/42

e) 30th Highest Hourly Volume

(2) Traffic Speed