Zusammenfassung Civilisation

Susanne Haidler SS 2015
VO CIVILISATION OF THE BRITISH ISLES

1. INTRODUCTION
What is Civilisation?
OED:
 Action/act of turning a criminal case/process into a civil one
 Assimilation of features of civil law into common law
 Action/process of civilizing/becoming civilized/being made civilized by external force
civilized:
Advanced stage of social & cultural development, marked by existence of organized
communities and an adherence to established conventions of behavior, highly developed,
refined, sophisticated in manner or taste, educated, cultured, people bringing cultural
development to other countries
Civilization:
Romans brought some civilisation to British Isles in the first four centuries AD (architecture,
agriculture, city planning, some cases of Roman civilization still visible), later attempts
carried out by British to civilize other people, motto of David Livingstone (19 th ct missionary)
“civilisation, commerce, Christianity”
OED: Civilisation = state or condition of being civilized, human cultural/social/intellectual

development as advanced and progressive, with modifying word: culture, society, way of life
of a particular group, epoch, country, region
What is culture?
OED:
 Cultivation of land and derived senses
 Refinement of mind, taste, manners, artistic and intellectual development = arts and
other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively
 Distinctive ideas, customs, social behavior, products, way of life of a particular nation,
society, people, period = society or group characterized by such customs etc.
Last 2 definitions correspond with Arnold & Williams, Matthew Arnold (1822-1888): culture
is the best which has been thought and said (people argue about this sentence), Raymond
Williams (1921-1988): culture as a whole way of life (includes popular culture)
British?
OED:
 Of or relating to Brittonic-speaking people originally inhabiting all of Britain south the
Firth of Forth before and during the Roman occupation
 Of or relating to Britain, its people and its language, the British Empire (no longer valid),
the British Commonwealth
Britishness?
OED: Quality or state of being British or embodying British characteristics (but what are
British characteristics, values & beliefs about Britishness & culture)
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Storry and Childs: no straightforward, uncomplicated term, has long been diverse, highly
contested, varied label
Bradley: difficult to define Britishness, three ways of approaching it:

 In ethnic terms: emphasis on ancestry, birth, bloodline
 In terms of civic identity: emphasis on legal and political construct of British
citizenship
 Through myths, values, customs
The government’s concern with establishing tests and ceremonies for those wishing to
become British citizens raised the profile of British identity and prompted a national debate
about British values, beliefs, culture
Contemporary British Culture:

Typical stereotype is that British people live in the past and their history & heritage is very
important to them also in everyday life, e.g. many films and TV series about history, e.g. The
Tudors, The Book of Wolf Hall, Downton Abbey (dealing with events in British history), novel
by Ian Mewan Atonement, traces of history in popular culture
Storry & Childs: CBC = mixture of all cultures of past that influence people, certain figures,
symbols, narratives control the current life of British people, approach of Britishness from
different angles, certain symbols from past represent what it means to be British
3 traditional ways of understanding Britishness:

 The English Countryside:
Self-image as rural society despite industrialization and urbanization, TV series with
rural settings (especially detective, crimes, e.g. Death and Dust: set in fictional
village), magazines (Ideal Home, Country Life – it’s traditional to have a country
house), love to keep rural aspect, most people life in towns but countryside is
important to them, weddings, gardening, large number of bookmaker’s shops
connected to horseracing, beer of countryside in city pubs, Ploughman’s Lunch as
typical meal, tradition of pastoral poetry: countryside idyll, shepherds speaking to
their beloved ones, people who wrote poetry from aristocracy, e.g. Come with me
and be my love
 British National Character:

Importance of regional and local identities: regional accents (kept by TV presenters
since 1980s), people identify with region they come from which is expressed through
language, since 1980s identification gets more important, wide variety of dialect and
slang, regional lexical variety (different words for same thing), myth of British
Character: reserve vs. eccentricity – clash of stereotypes: British as fair-minded,
outward-looking, tolerant OR close-minded, insular, conventional, backward-looking,
historical and traditional people
 The British as an Island Race:

People discuss whether Britain’s insular status made them suspicious or tolerant to
foreigners, 48% of Britons don’t see themselves as Europeans, Europe as opposed to
Britain, it’s not seen as part of Europe because it’s removed from main continent,
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Storry and Childs: British are considered as island race because of their imperialism,
cultural isolation, international policies, some of this can be explained historically –
Britain’s ethnic mix didn’t change greatly between 11th & 20th ct.
Mythical Representations of British Identity:

 Britannia: mythical personification of country, woman as warrior on coins, name
derived from Roman name for country, nostalgic image of noble, sea-faring Britain,
still present in everyday life as statues, on coins, Brit Awards, as brand name
 Albion: may have been Celtic name for Britain, more probably from Latin albus =
white (cliffs of Dover), associated with English aspirations and high sentiments – with
country and its features, Drake wanted to call California “New Albion”, Babyshambles
album “Down in Albion”
 John Bull: images of stubborn but kindly farmer, robust Englishman fighting for the
country, patriotic, invoked in times of national crisis, thinking in a commercial way,
dating from 18th ct
 Arthurian Britain: St.George, King Alfred, Avalon, Knights at Round Table, King Arthur
at Camelot made popular by Malory’s Morte d’Arthur (15th ct), legends rather than
real knights, images of them express Britishness and tradition today, expresses
uniqueness
National Representatives:
 Royalty: most stereotypical vision of Britain is monarchy, has a very long tradition,
idea of royal family as ideal British family derives from Victoria and Albert (19 th ct),
today monarchy stresses rural and regional base – they have titles expressing their
responsibilities and show themselves in rural surroundings very often
 Politicians: Margaret Thatcher (PM 1979-1990) associated with Thatcherism, revived

British nationalism, focus on individual and society doesn’t matter, and Tony Blair
(PM 1997-2007) associated with New Labour – we all have to work together to make
society work
 Authors: William Shakespeare (1564-1616), Jane Austen (1775-1817), Bronte Sisters

(early 19th ct), Charles Dickens (1812-1870), marketing and commemoration of these
authors as part of heritage industry, e.g. you can visit Shakespeare’s birthplace,
Shakespeare online shop, often films made out of novels
 Military Leaders: Francis Drake (1540-1596), Admiral Nelson (1758-1805), Duke of

Wellington (1769-1852) who defeated Napoleon, military men and explorers show
national responsibility, destiny, identity, image of Britannia
 Contemporary Heroes: David Beckham, Steven Fry (comedian), J.K.Rowling, Amy

Winehouse, Jamie Oliver (wants to make food in schools healthier)
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Conclusions by Storry & Childs: traditional images of Britain no longer as important as they
used to be, Britishness is much debated, anxiety around British cultural identity more among
English rather than Irish, Scots, Welsh, because the others are more secure in their cultural
status since devolution, no special celebrations of English national holiday (St. George’s Day,
23 April) compared to e.g. St. Patrick’s Day, 17 March, many tourists come to Britain for its
celebrations (Glastonbury, Nottinghill Carnival, Edinburgh Fringe) instead of castles &
cathedrals
Attempts at redefining Britishness:

Tony Blair & Cool Britannia: attempts at redefining Britain as fashionable country under
New Labour, new feeling of optimism in 1990s, Britain as cool (fashion, pop), opposed to
conservative British countryside
Current Attempts: Royal Wedding 2011 as epitome of Britishness – it promoted Britishness,

organization “British Future” dealing with immigration, how do we incorporate the cultural
values of people coming here, issues facing Britain today: unemployment, economy,
migration, education, terrorism, NHS, Olympics 2012 in London brought up questions of how
do we compare us to other countries, what kind of nation are we, lots of articles about
Britishness, current developments: Brexit (exit of Britain from EU) and Scottish
Independence Referendum 2014 – people are concerned with Britishness, many people see
themselves as other nationality and British only secondarily, so it’s about plurality
2. PEOPLE AND GEOGRAPHY

Geography and politics:
Britain:
 Geographical term: The British Isles consist of 2 islands, namely Great Britain and
Ireland
 Political term: 2 states on the BI, namely the Republic of Ireland (Éire, Ireland, the
Republic, poetic: Erin) and the United Kingdom of GB and Northern Ireland (Great
Britain, the UK, poetic: Albion)
Insularity:
Geographical factors: surrounded by Atlantic Ocean, North Sea, Irish Sea, no place in Isles is
further than 75miles from the sea – very close to sea as barrier against others
Psychological factors: insularity and British identity/British history, the island as protection
from others and from infections, others can be jealous of such a happy country
Britain’s neighbours:
Britain and the Continent: distance Dover – Calais 22miles across the English Channel/the
Strait of Dover – not far apart, successive invasions from Europe, splendid isolation (late 19th
ct, did not interfere unless it was really necessary), balance of power
Britain & Ireland: attempts at conquering and ruling Ireland, fear of invasion starting from
Ireland
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Britain & USA special relationship, Britain is closer to US than to Europe, shared history and
language, close military allies, close relationships in terms of trade and finance
The political divisions inside Britain:

 The UK: England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland
 Special status of Isles of Man and Channel Islands (self-governing Crown
Dependencies – UK is responsible for defending them, they are not entirely
independent, own legislature, not part of UK)
 Overseas territories like Saint Helena, Falklands (inhabitants didn’t want to become
part of Argentina or independent, they wanted to stay with UK), Gibraltar (not part of
UK but of Spain, but everything is very British there, very crowded, mostly own
internal government but not independent)
Political bodies:
The Commonwealth of Nations: 53 member states, organization mostly of former colonies,
now independent states, united by shared history, language, culture, accept Elizabeth II as
Head of Commonwealth (in several states she is also Head of State)
Further divisions:
The regional division in England:
 The South East: commuter land, most tightly populated area in UK, little heavy
industry, dominance of trade
 South West/West Country: image of rural beauty, popular holiday area, English
Riviera, dairy products
 East Anglia: rural, flat, arable farming, fens from sea (Moore)
 Midlands: heavily industrialised area, large towns like Birmingham, potteries
 Northern England: deposits of coal – industrial revolution, large towns like
Manchester (formerly famous for cotton), Liverpool (formerly large seaport, slave
trade), Sheffield (steel), Newcastle (shipping industry), heavy decline in 2 nd half of
20th ct, away from industrial areas sparsely populated e.g. Lake District
The counties: e.g. Kent (the garden of England – white cliffs of Dover, Canterbury Cathedral),
Cornwall (Land’s End, St. Michael’s Mount, Rosamunde Pilcher, formerly popular with
smugglers and mining), Yorkshire, after region, the largest area with which British identify
themselves is their county – a geographical fusion of landscape, culture, administration
affecting people in its natural scenery and historic landmarks, language variety
The North-South Divide:

Stereotypes and prejudices: South as place of rural beauty vs. industrialised North,
Southerners = posh, Northerners = honest, hard-working, unemployment bigger in North,
life expectancy lower in North, poorer North and richer South
Physical features:
British Isles: 242 842km², 63 181 775 inhabitants (2011), many different landscapes, no huge
distances, all in all few mountains
England: population 50mio, 130 000km², mainly flat lowland countryside dominated by
enclosed meadows (especially south, west) and fields (especially east), low hills like Moors,
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Cotswolds, North Yorkshire, highland zones: Western Highlands (Dartmoor, Exmoor) and
north-western mountain region like Northern Highlands (Lake District, Cumbrian
Mountains), Pennines , concentration of population: London (1/5 of UK population) and
south-east, West Midlands (Birmingham), Yorkshire cities (Leeds, Sheffield, Bradford), north-
western industrial area (Liverpool, Manchester)
Wales: 3mio, 20 000km², mainly highland country with moorland plateaus, hills, mountains
with deep valleys, highest mountain: Snowdon (1085m), small lowland coastal belt and low
river valleys in south Wales also chief areas of settlement (Cardiff, Swansea, Newport),
capital: Cardiff
Scotland: 5mio, 77 000km², largely mountainous country (90%), Southern Uplands and
border country, Central Lowlands: Midland Valley contains ¾ of Scottish population including
Edinburgh (capital) and Glasgow, Northern Highlands – highest mountain Ben Nevis
(1343m), famous lake = Loch Ness, islands: Hebrides, Shetlands, Orkneys
Northern Ireland: 1,7mio, 13 500km², smallest distance to Scottish coast (21km – migration),
South central fertile plain, mountainous areas in west, north-east, south-east, dominantly
rural country, largest city and capital = Belfast
Climate:
Mainly temperate climate (influence of Gulf stream) influences clothing and houses (heating
not well developed, students don’t war many warm clothes), West: oceanic climate, North:
cooler, East: drier, little frost or snow, weather as national institution – rain and the British
weather, weather influences farming
Farming and forestry:

Scotland, Northern Ireland, Wales, Northern & South-West England: dominance of dairy
farming, beef cattle, sheep herds, only 1-5% of total workforce are farmers, lots of import
from outside
Southern & Eastern England, Eastern Scotland: arable crops (Acker)
Only 10% of Britain is woodland, few extensive forest areas include New Forest in Hampshire
and Sherwood Forest in Nottinghamshire, import much wood
The people:
Englishness vs. Britishness: historical dominance of Englishness – Wales conquered by
England since 13th ct (1284 Statute of Wales, under control of English monarchy), Scotland
Union of the Crowns since 1603 (1707 Act of Union), Northern Ireland beginning of English
dominance in 12th ct (Ulster Plantations start 1607), after prolonged struggle independence
of Irish Republic in 1922, NI remained with UK
Devolution: Parliament in Edinburgh (1998), assemblies in Belfast (2007) and Cardiff (1998)
The English: flag: St. George’s Cross, national plant: rose, emblem; lion, Patron
Saint: St. George (military man, 23rd April)
The Welsh: languages spoken: English & Welsh (19%), flag: dragon of
Cadwallader, national plant: leek/daffodil (Lauch, Narzisse), emblem: dragon,
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national saint: St. David (Welsh king who was not dominated by English), typical Welsh
names: Lloyd, Jones, national anthem: Land of my Fathers, language represents nation
The Scottish: languages spoken: English, Scots (30%), Scottish Gaelic (1%, part of
Scottish national heritage), flag: St. Andrew’s Cross, national plant: thistle, emblem:
unicorn, national saint: St. Andrew, typical names: Mc-, Mac-, not national anthem
but popular song: Flower of Scotland (about Scottish against English)
The Irish: languages English, Irish Gaelic (3%), flag formerly St. Patrick’s Cross,
today tricolor, national plant shamrock, national saint St. Patrick (17th March),
typical names with O-
Flag of GB (alle Flaggen vereint) & Royal Coat of Arms (Wappen des
UK): flag as fashion statement, associated with being cool, shield
represents 4 countries
GB National Anthem: God save the Queen, but what is the English
National Anthem? - Land of Hope & Glory, Jerusalem, Rule Britannia?
Last Night of the Proms: last in a series of summer concerts, takes place at Royal Albert Hall,
starts with popular classics followed by patriotic music
Holidays & Days of Celebration:

Christmas Day (Dec 25), Boxing Day (Dec 26, people don’t have to work, give presents in
boxes), Easter/Shrove Tuesday (Pancake Day), Bonfire Night (Nov 5, remembering past),
Remembrance Day (Nov 11, end of WWI to remember soldiers), Hogmanay (Scottish New
Year, gift giving after midnight, Christian tradition), Hannukah/Diwali (celebrated by Indian
population)
3. THE HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN – THE BEGINNINGS

Early Settlements:
700 000-500 000 BC, maybe earlier (bones found), earliest settlers probably European
nomads, land bridge to Europe cut around 6500 BC, warmer temperatures – ice melt, sea
levels rose  fixed settlements and farming, settlers from central Europe  Eastern Britain,
settlers from Iberian areas  Cornwall, Ireland, Wales, western Scotland, Isle of Man
Celtic Britain:
Celtic culture emerged ca. 800 BC, spread to Britain, not a unified group but different
languages and tribes, replaced older culture (e.g. Stonehenge), hierarchical society with
elaborate religion, highly developed system of music, art, literature, oral culture – would
count as civilization
Britain and the Romans:

55-54 BC Caesar invades Britain not very successful, 43 AD conquest by Emperor Claudius,
Scotland only occupied briefly and Ireland not conquered at all, Romans rule through local
elite, centralize rule, found towns like Londinium and Lindum (Lincoln), revolts against
Roman rule e.g. Boudicca 61 AD, 120s construction of Hadrian’s Wall, 2 nd ct AD first
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introduction of Christianity (380 AD Roman state religion), around 400 BC withdrawal of

Romans, Britain plunged into Dark Age, Romans took civilization with them
Roman Britain – Remains and Remembrance: Lullingstone Roman Villa in Kent, statue of
Boudicca in front of Houses of Parliament, place names ending in –caster, -chester
Post-Roman Britain: vaccum of power created after Roman withdrawal, invasions of Jutes,
Saxons, Angles, Celtic people attempt to withstand invasion (King Arthur), adapt to invading
culture or withdraw to Celtic Fringe (Scotland, Wales, Cornwall), division of England into
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Celtic culture survives intact in Ireland, remains of Anglo-Saxon
Britain: findings from 7th ct – ship burial in Suffolk (people were buried inside their ships)
Christianity in the British Isles:

Christianity suffers under pagan (heidnisch) Anglo-Saxons, Christianity first successful in
Celtic fringe 5th ct (e.g. St. Patrick became first bishop of Canterbury, St. David), 6th ct St.
Augustine sent from Rome – bishop of Canterbury, 664 Synof of Whitby = Roman Catholic
Church Model adapted in 7th ct, one physical remain of early Christian tradition was Book of
Kells in Trinity College, written in Medieval Latin about gospel, aspect of Irish identity, dating
to 9th ct
Early Medieval Politics – Beginnings of Centralisation:

How England came to dominate rest of island, Many little kingdoms after Roman
withdrawal, 7th ct 7 larger kingdoms (e.g.Kent, Wessex, Sussex, Essex, East Anglia), slowly
emerging idea of high king (also in Wales, Ireland, Scotland, one king rules everywhere) –
dominance of Wessex 9th ct
Viking Invasions:
8th ct Viking raids (Angriffe), 9th ct Viking settlements particularly in East Anglia – Danelaw
(dänisches Recht), 878 King Alfred the Great (of Wessex) defeats Vikings and enlarges his
power, 973 Edgar (his grandson) becomes king of all England, 10th ct new Viking attacks &
Danegeld (Danish tax), 1016 Cnut/Canute becomes King of England, Denmark, Norway,
Danes rule England until 1042, then Wessex returns to throne (Edward the Confessor, he
was not competent in political terms – arguments and disagreements who should be king)
Viking remains today: Vikings founded Cork, Dublin, Limerick, place names –by, -scale,
-thorpe, towns marked in blue have Viking foundation
1066:
Disagreements over inheritance of English throne: Harold II vs. William of Normandy, 1066
Battle of Stamford Bridge, Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror becomes William I of
England, last successful invasion of England, Scotland not conquered, Wales and Ireland later
conquered, Anglo-Saxon elite substituted for Norman elite, introduction of feudalism
(system of lords, vassals, serfs) and beginning of English class system, centralization of
English rule, system of revenues introduced, Domesday Book as basis for taxation (detailed
info about how many people lived where, extremely valuable), many risings and revolts
against William I, myth of Norman Yoke (against traditional Saxon freedom), Norman French
replaces Anglo-Saxon as language of elite – simplification of Anglo-Saxon language, Norman
Castles as signs of Norman power (Tower of London, Dover Castle)
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The Norman Conquest and European Politics:

Close relationships with France (protection of Normandy), English kings as vassals
(Dienstmänner) to French king, disputes over land ownership on continent, landmarks an
remains from that period (e.g. Durham Cathedral)
The Norman Invasion and Ireland: England becomes a centralized and strong nation –
conquests of other parts of Isles, 1167 conquest of Ireland begins when exiled Leinster chief
asks for help, arrival of Strongbow (later king of Leinster), Henry II fears strong rival –
conquest of parts of Ireland, all Irish kings submit to English king, Irish culture stays
dominant and only partly ruled
The Norman Invasion and Scotland: fights for borderlands, changing fortunes, 1296 Scots
defeated by Edward I, 1314 Battle of Bannockburn – Scottish independence regained (cf.
Flower of Scotland)
The Norman Invasion and Wales: campaigns of Edward I (13th ct): death of Llywelyn (Prince
of Wales), Edward makes his son Prince of Wales, Normans rule Wales through series of
castles (Harlech Castle, Beaumaris Castle, Caernarfon Castle), 1400-08 failed revolt by Owain
Glyndwr against English
English Politics – checks to centralized power:

Magna Carta (1215) and King John (in need of money for unsuccessful foreign wars but he
wasn’t given money, instead Magna Carta): no punishment without trial, guarantees rights
of Church of England, restricts power of sheriffs, Barons’ War under Simon de Montfort
against Henry III - stabilizes his rule by summoning a parliament in 1265
Edward I: rules increasingly with early form of parliament, parliament of 1295 as model for
following centuries (representation of counties and boroughs), parliament develops as
monarchs need money for foreign wars, 1407 House of Commons becomes responsible for
taxation, similar developments in Scotland and Wales
England & the continent – The 100 Years’ War (1337-1453):

Edward III claims on French throne, victories: Crécy, Poitiers, Agincourt, English were
outnumbered by French but English were stronger (play of Shakespeare and patriotic film
about that), in popular memory: Henry V, after death of Henry V and with help of Joan of
Arc: slow expulsion of English from continent, last possession (Calais) lost in 1558, England
becomes insular power, this war as means of strengthening English identity, e.g. English
language back in use, the Black Death spreads through Europe from 1340s onwards, fatal to
30% of population, conflicts over royal inheritance and War of the Roses (1455-1487): the
Houses of York and Lancaster fight for English throne
The Tudors (1485-1603):
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Henry VII = Victor of the War of the Roses, 1st Tudor King (Battle of Bosworth against Richard
III), Tudor Myth: Tudors as peace bringers, unite Houses of York and Lancaster through
marriage, centralization of power (death of many nobles in civil wars), Tudors consist of
Henry VII, Henry VIII and his 6 wives, Edward VI – a boy king, Mary I (Bloody Mary, wife of
Philipp II of Spain), Elizabeth I
England under the Tudors:
Black Death stopped, time of rapid population growth, urban growth and growing division
rich-poor, growing cultural production, literacy and printing, founding of schools, growing
market economy, growing royal power (Tudor Absolutism), printing presses established to
spread works of literature, religion, ideas
The Tudors and the BI: Wales: 1536 and 1543 two Acts of Union, administrative integration,
introduction of English law, Ireland: partly ruled through Anglo-Irish families, influence of
English crown dwindles over centuries, 1494 Poynings’ Law = Irish parliament now depends
on English, Henry VIII attempts to tighten control, declares himself King of Ireland, fear of
foreign invasion which might start from Ireland (constant in Anglo-Irish politics), Scotland:
remains independent country
Tudors in popular memory: Tudors still fuel 20th and 21st ct imagination, TV series The
Tudors, Wolf Hall and Bring up the bodies by Hilary Mantel (novels, awarded Booker Prize)
4. THE HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN – THE EARLY MODERN AGE

The Early Modern Period:
The Age of Discovery (America, seaway to India – important for trade), the Renaissance and
Humanism – classical writers, importance of individual, the Reformation – political questions
Henry VIII and the Reformation:

Henry VIII (convinced Catholic, defended it against Martin Luther (Fidei Defensor, defender
of the faith), Henry VIII needs a male heir, Henry VIII wanted a divorce but pope didn’t allow
it, so he broke with church and established Church of England, reformation started because
of this, Act of Supremacy 1534 (monarch as supreme head of the English Church,
strengthens power of English monarchy), dissolution of monasteries, use of bibles in English
Reformation and the BI:

Wales: reformation successful, Ireland: no success, religion as new dividing line between
conquerors and conquered, Scotland: reformation from below, more radical, Calvinist
Protestantism takes hold, weakens Scotland’s strong ties with France, Highlands and Mary
(Queen of Scots) remain Catholic
Reformation in England:
Reformation from above, initial revolts against changes (e.g. Pilgrimage of Grace),
radicalization under Edward VI, return to Catholicism under Mary I, return to moderate form
of Protestantism under Elizabeth I, she declared herself supreme governor of the English
Church, England becomes a protestant nation in a predominantly Catholic Europe
The Elizabethan Religious Settlement:
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Elizabethan settlement as integrative (see 39 articles of 1563), she tried to offend as little as
possible, but still problematic, Catholics and Dissenters: Gunpowder Plot 1605 with Guy
Fawkes as reaction to Catholic suppression, rebellions in Ireland, first plantations in Munster
Elizabeth I: a cult developed around her, she was a stable monarch, The Virgin Queen,
Gloriana, The Elizabethan Age as time of growing protonationalism, literature got more
important (Shakespeare, Marlowe,..), her politics: question of succession – Elizabeth I vs.
Mary, Queen of Scots (cousins), England and European Politics: 1570 excommunication by
Pope Pius V, conflicts with catholic Spain (Philip II), 1588 defeat of Spanish Armada, aiding
the Protestant expansion , friendly relationship with Protestant Netherlands, England and
Colonial Expansion: conflicts with other colonial powers, Elizabethan discoverers and
privateers (e.g. Sir Francis Drake), chartered companies (e.g. East India Company) and
unsuccessful settlements in Virginia (Sir Walter Raleigh), in popular memory: defeat of the
Spanish Armada, beginnings of England’s rise to world power, celebrations in 1988, Elizabeth
as champion of Protestantism against Spain and the Inquisition
England under the Early Stuarts:

1603 Union with Scotland, James VI of Scotland (son of Mary Stuart) inherits English throne
and becomes James I, King James Bible (he retranslated the bible and he was unpopular),
1605 Gunpowder Plot as reaction to Catholic suppression, he was Protestant although his
family was Catholic and people wanted him to do sth for Catholics, therefore Gunpowder
Plot, they wanted to kill him but couldn’t
Charles I: conflict over religion - moderate Anglicanism vs. more radical Calvinism
(Puritanism), conflict over power - King vs. Parliament, Charles I tries to rule without
parliament despite chronic need for money, conflict with Scotland – feels neglected, dislike
of King’s attempts to impose Anglicanism, revolt
Gunpowder Plot in popular memory: 5th Nov = Guy Fawkes-Day, fireworks to celebrate
explosion which was never the case, masks worn as showing your faith
The Path to Civil War:

Charles needs money and calls parliament, long parliament demands reforms: limits power
of king, only parliament can vote for money, regular sittings of parliament, pro clear-cut
Protestantism, Charles doesn’t give in and uses force
The English Civil War and Commonwealth: English Civil War 1642-48: King vs. Parliament,
Cavaliers vs. Roundheads, victory of parliamentary forces, 1649 execution of Charles I,
monarchy abolished, England becomes a Commonwealth, 1653-58 Oliver Cromwell rules as
Lord Protector
England in the Interregnum:

Puritan Rule: Oliver Cromwell was a violent ruler, religious tolerance for Jews and radical
Protestant sects, but not for Catholics, Christmas and football banned, closing of theatres,
extension of franchise, radical reforms suggested
Interregnum and BI: Ireland: 1607 after failed rebellion ‘Flight of the Earls’ and Ulster
Plantations, 1641 rebellion in Ireland, brutal conquest of Ireland under Cromwell, much land
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taken away from Irish owners, Scotland: Scots loyal to Stuart Kings, invade England under
Charles I, Cromwell conquers Scotland, land placed under English rule
The Restoration:
After Cromwell’s death: Puritan rule collapses, Richard Cromwell 1658-59, 1660 restoration
of Stuart monarchs, Charles II (the Merry Monarch, the Kind of Bling) returns to status
before interregnum, restoration as time of cultural reaction against Puritanism and time of
science, enlightenment, philosophy (foundation of The Royal Society 1660)
Problems: fear of Catholic leanings of Charles II, 2 Test Acts exclude Catholics from army,
parliament, variety of offices, measures taken against Dissenters/Puritans (excluded from
office, forbidden to preach without license), 1665 Plague in England, 1666 Fire of London
1688/89 – the Glorious Revolution:

James II - a Catholic monarch with absolutist leanings tries to obtain religious tolerance of
Catholics, 1688 birth of male heir, fear of Catholic succession, deposition of James II, William
of Orange and his wife Mary invited to occupy throne jointly
1689 Bill of Rights: signed by William III and Mary II when they accepted the throne,
parliament meets frequently, free elections, freedom of speech, parliamentary consent
necessary for taxation, legislation, standing army in peace time, England becomes a
constitutional monarchy
A glorious revolution? Revolution nearly bloodless in England but not just glorious,
constitutional parliamentary monarchy, Toleration Act 1689 grants religious toleration to
Dissenters, not to Catholics, Scotland and Ireland: suppression of James II’s supporters, 1690
Battle of the Boyne (William of Orange defeats troops loyal to James II), Treaty of Limerick
(confiscation of Catholic property, penal code against Catholics introduced, sign of
Protestant power)
1707 Union with Scotland: many conflicts with Scotland, but Act of Union 1707 creates UK
of GB (Union of Crowns becomes Union of States), dissolution of Scottish parliament in
exchange for free trade with England and her colonies, but Scotland retains own systems of
education and law, England strengthens control
The Glorious Revolution and the Problem of Succession:

Queen Anne inherits throne after William III’s death, none of her children survive, to avoid
Catholic succession  Act of Settlement 1701: no Catholics may inherit English throne, no
monarch may leave England without consent of parliament, no foreign wars without consent
of parliament, then Hanoverian Succession 1714 under George I to secure succession for a
longer time period, today’s monarch is still a successor of him, emphasized Britain as island
Scotland and the problem of succession: loyalty to Stuart dynasty, 1715 Jacobite Rebellion
(The Old Pretender, son of James II wanted to claim the throne back and bring Stuarts to
throne), 1745 Jacobite Rebellion (The Young Pretender, “Bonnie Prize Charlie” after initial
victories beaten in Battle of Culloden, Highland clearances, end of traditional Highland
culture, Gaelic language, kilts and bagpipes prohibited), The Skye Boat Song about this
Scottish traditional fighting, it never happened that the Stuarts came back to throne
12
Ireland in the 18th century:

Anti-Catholic penal laws: laws punishing Catholics, many restrictions for them e.g. Catholics
banned from positions in administration, law, parliament through Test Act, attempts to get
education under control of Anglican Church, Catholics not allowed to educate their children
abroad, Catholic schools prohibited, Catholics not allowed to buy land from Protestants,
mixed marriages prohibited, special inheritance laws for Catholics (land goes to all children
in equal parts)
1780s worst restrictions against Catholics removed, Irish Parliament strengthened, French
Revolution influences foundation of United Irishmen under Wolfe Tone (patriotic group
fights for Irish, insurrection with French support was put down, England strengthens control
over Ireland), 1801 Act of Union reached through bribery (Bestechung): parliamentary union
between UK and Ireland, UK of GB AND Ireland formed
Beginnings of the English Empire:

Britain as late arrival in colonial expansion in comparison to Spain and Portugal, initial
success in areas not claimed by others: discoveries of John Cabot in Newfoundland, futile
attempts at founding a North American colony under Elizabeth I, early 17 th ct colonies in
Caribbean (sugar plantations)
Early colonialization mainly through chartered companies like East India Company, North
America (settler colonies): 1607 foundation of Jamestown by Virginia Company, 1620
foundation of Plymouth by Pilgrim Fathers, other colonies in North America follow
Rivalries against the Netherlands: Anglo-Dutch Wars in 17th ct, e.g. New Amsterdam  New
York, struggles with India end with Glorious Revolution, which brings peace between
countries
Rivalries against France: main rival in 18th ct, e.g. North America (Britain takes over New
France after Seven Years’ War), India (wars from France against Army of East India Company,
France had to leave)
The 1st British Empire (1583-1783):

Dominant world power after Seven Years’ War, Britain and the slave trade: 3.5mio slaves
shipped to America, slave trade made country wealthy, slaves were shipped to US, Triangle
of Trade and Middle Passage = traders from Europe bring goods to Africa in exchange for
slaves who are brought to Middle Passage where they were again exchanged for goods,
Mercantilism = state-regulated trade, not free trade with all countries to strengthen the own
nation and not giving others the power when trading with you, American colonies didn’t
want to be ruled by British anymore
End of the 1st Empire, Independence of American Colonies: The Seven Years’ War, French
threat removed, Mercantile politics and American economy – in American colonies it wasn’t
allowed to produce many goods but they had to buy from other countries which was
expensive, attempts to collect money (e.g. Stamp Act to collect taxes), tradition of local self-
rule, American War of Independence/American Revolutionary War  loss of the 13 colonies
13
The 2nd British Empire / Period of Free Trade:

Loss of American colonies, shift from Mercantile Protectionism to Free Trade (Adam Smith,
making economy not state-regulated anymore), shift towards Asia and Pacific: exploration in
Pacific since 17th ct, 1770s Captain James Cook, penal colony at Botany Bay (=prisoners
shipped to Australia, they were transported instead of sentenced and had to work on
plantations)
England & European Politics in 17th & 18th ct: after 1688/89 strong ties between England
and Dutch Republic (France as common enemy), after 1714 English Kings were also Electors
(Kurfürsten) of Hanover, France as main rival, 1701-14 War of the Spanish Succession (Duke
of Marlborough becomes a military hero), War of the Austrian Succession 1740-48, Seven
Years’ War 1756-63 (parallel war in colonies of India and North America, result: Britain gains
French parts in NA)
Britain and the French Revolution:

French Revolution 1789, French Revolution in England: influence of nationalism and
liberalism, people where enthusiastic and thought to gain a certain freedom which led to a
revolution, London corresponding society, Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792-1815):
French revolutionary spirit exported into Europe, Britain and her allies fight France and
French expansionism so that Napoleon wouldn’t gain more of Europe, result was victory of
UK, Prussia, Russia, Austria, UK gains Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, Malta, Mauritius, British
Foreign Politics in early 19th ct: UK as dominant power of Europe and leading colonial
power
Domestic Politics in 18th ct: England as Constitutional Monarchy, ruled by wealthy

landowners, emergence of early political parties: Whigs (Protestant values, sympathetic to
Dissenters and Glorious Revolution) and Tories (respect for powers of monarchy and
Anglican Church), political system based on patronage (influence if you had money), bribery,
family loyalties, Robert Walpole as first PM very influential
18th Century Society:

Hierarchical society (power with landowners, peasants: 75% of population, had nothing to
say in parliament), economy developed: rise of Middling Sort, growing prosperity (Bank of
England founded), rich merchants, system of finance, population growth, rapid growth of
trade, towns, transport system, enlightenment and learning (Newton, Smith, Locke), growth
of public sphere (newspapers, coffee houses, novels), rise of literacy, Gin Lane = many
people were drunk because gin was cheap and popular
The Beginnings of Industrialization:

Industrialisation = an agrarian society becomes an industrial one, technical innovations
change production to systematize it, high point of changes 1770-1830 but started earlier,
production moves to factories and becomes mechanized and industrialised, artificial energy
(steam, gas, electricity) used, initial industries (textile, iron, steel industries, coal mines),
transport and industrial revolution (steam ships, first railway line 1825 Stockton –
Darlington), Britain becomes ‘workshop of the world’, industrialization started in Britain and
came then to other countries
14
Pre-conditions: Agrarian Revolution  higher yields (enclosures, better seeds, new crops,..),
population growth  growing market (results of falling death rate are better food and
hygiene, higher birth rates, earlier marriages), transport revolution (stage coaches, canals),
political union  common market, worldwide trade: accumulated wealth that could be
invested, worldwide markets, mentality (upper classes invest in mines, canals), colonies with
cheap raw materials and markets, proto-industrialisation in 18th ct (home industry e.g.
weavers), technical innovations (Flying Shuttle – Kay, Spinning Jenny – Hargreaves, Steam
Engine – Watt, Locomotive – Stephenson), industrial revolution starts in rural areas where
coal, iron, fast-floating waters were available
5. THE HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN – 19th & 20th CENTURIES
Industrialization and its Consequences:
Growth of industrialised towns like Manchester, Newcastle, Birmingham  change of
society - slums, poverty, long working hours, low wages, bad working conditions, machines
dominate rhythm of work, large workforce available, cash nexus (Zusammenhang) replaces
personal relationship between employer & employee, changes in British society (emergence
of two new classes: factory owners and factory labourers = new urban working class), the
social question as dominant problem in the 19th ct, children had to work in mines and
chimneys because they were small enough, many died – bad conditions also talked about in
poems, e.g. William Blake
Political and Social Reforms in the 19th Century:

Necessary through changes caused by Industrial Revolution (changes structure of society),
new class = working class, working classes found political organisations (unions, friendly
societies) to improve their living conditions, violent uprisings and demonstrations, one of the
most famous uprisings = Peterloo Massacre where a speaker wanted rights for working class
and the authorities brought the demonstration under control by killing many, political
influence French Revolution (fear of social upheaval), 1829 Metropolitan Police founded
(Robert Peel – Bobbies), Factory Laws reduce working hours of women and children, Poor
Law Amendment Act 1834 to regulate social security – poor people were given money and
got a living space but the working houses were very crowded, Reform Acts extend franchise
and reorganize constituencies
The Reform Acts:

Situation before 1832: representation of counties and boroughs, 40-shilling-freeholder
qualification, problem of unequal representation (rotten boroughs wher no one lived had to
send a person to parliament), political corruption (pocket boroughs), unequal representation
of different parts of UK
1832 Reform Act: extends franchise (Lizenz) from 500 000 adult males to 800 000, total
population 24mio, new voters mostly middle class, working classes still excluded, 1838:
Chartist movement founded, demands: equal constituencies, universal male suffrage
(Wahlrecht), secret ballot and payment for MPs, 3 attempts to submit Charta to parliament
(1839, 1842, 1848)
1867 and 1884 Reform Acts: further extension of franchise, redistribution of constituencies
Further Attempts at Reforms:
15
The Catholic Relief Act (1829): restrictions against Catholics removed, able to attend
parliament, take offices, part of gradual disestablishment of Anglican Church, agitation for
Home Rule in Ireland, slavery & slave trade: 1807 end of slave trade in British Empire, 1833
slavery abolished in BE
The Victorian Era (1832/37-1901):

Early Victorian Era (1830s and 1840s): time of social unrest and political agitation, The
Hungry Forties, Corn Laws (British corn expensive to make the export profitable but British
people couldn’t afford it and were starving), Victorian Poor Laws and Work Houses (cf.
Charles Dickens Oliver Twist)
The Irish Famine: failure of potato harvest in successive years since 1845, British
government reacts slowly and inadequately, 1 mio Irish dead, 1 mio emigrants to
England/US, decline of Gaelic language use
High Victorian Era (1859s and 1860s): Age of Equipoise (balance), high farming
(industrialized farming), Realist novel (e.g. George Eliot), Britain as leading world power
(economically and politically), 1851 the Great Exhibition
Late Victorian Era (1870 until 1901): time of economic crisis, 2nd phase of industrialisation
(other countries threaten British dominance), aestheticism and decadents’ feeling (produce
art to enjoy it), Age of New Imperialism (new way of spreading empire), Suffragette
Movement (women were standing up for their rights)
Victorian Era: moral conservatism vs ‘the other Victorians’, domesticity vs growing

emancipation movement, belief in progress and technology vs nostalgia for the past, science
vs religion, 1859 The Origin of the Species, technical and medical improvements vs
continuing poverty, new reforms and scientific discoveries, poverty was not abloished
Before the Age of New Imperialism:

1783 loss of American colonies, end of 1st empire, 2nd empire: Britain as dominant imperial
power, dominion status granted to Canada and other white settler colonies, free trade as
most profitable strategy, but British government moves in where necessary (e.g. 1857-58
Indian Mutiny – takes over control, Victoria becomes Empress of India 1876)
The Age of New Imperialism (1870-1914):

New competitors for remaining land (Germany, Japan, US), Germany as new aggressive
power in Europe, 2nd Anglo-Boer War shows British weakness, British Empire 1900: UK
controls 20% of world’s land surface and rules 25% of world’s population
Britain in the Early 20th Century:

Britain and the Empire, domestic politics: poverty and affluence, 1908 introduction of Old
Age Pension for those over 70 by Liberal Party, 1911 National Insurance Act – attempt to
introduce medical insurance, 1914 series of strikes and violence, after failure or ‘People’s
budget’ (tax for affluent and landowners to finance pension) in 1911 reduction of power of
House of Lords by Liberals
16
Agitation for Home Rule in Ireland: opposed by Protestants in NI (fear of losing privileged
position), 1913 Ulster Volunteer Force and Irish National Volunteers founded, violence, fear
of civil war
The Suffragette Movement: situation of women was bad – reform and conservatism,
women campaigned violently, many imprisoned
The Way to WW1:

Ottoman Empire and Russian-Austrian rivalries, German-French antagonism, Germany &
Britain: British Navy vs. Kaiser, creation of alliances, Triple Alliance (Austria-Hungary,
Germany, Italy) vs. Triple Entente (France, Russia, UK), militarist ideology: war as legitimate
means of politics, war as remedy against decadents, war and 100 years of peace in UK, arms
race (who has best weapons, competition)
WW1 Outbreak:
1914 death of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife in Sarajevo by Serbians,
Austro-Hungarian ultimatum to Serbian government, break-off diplomatic relations Austria-
Serbia, declaration of war, mobilization of Russia in support of Serbia and automatic
mobilization of France in support of Russia and Germany in support of Austria, Germany
invades Belgium and Luxemburg, GB joins war to protect ‘little Belgium’
WW1 (1914-1918):
Facts and figures: worldwide: 70mio soldiers mobilized, 9.4mio dead soldiers, 30mio dead
civilians, UK: 6mio soldiers mobilized, 700 000 dead
Allies (France, GB, USA, Serbia, Italy) vs central powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey,
Bulgaria), names: The First World War, The Great War
Important theatres of war:

 the Western Front: main theatre of war, dominated by static trench warfare,
artillery, poison gas, barbed wire, modern total war, central events for British Army
at Western Front: initial stages – the Schlieffen Plan, First Battle of the Marne, Race
to the Sea, 1915 Second Battle of Ypres – 1st use of poison gas by German army, 1916
Battle of the Somme starts (over 57000 British died in first day, first use of tanks),
1918 German spring offensive initially successful
 war against Ottoman Empire: 1915 ANZACs and Gallipoli campaign – attempts to
open the Dardanelles, War in Arabia
The Home Front: WWI as total war, Home Front as producer of shells, food, machinery,
arms, Home Front as victims (food shortages, aerial attacks)
Myths of WWI: War as development from innocence and enthusiasm to experience and
disillusion, Western Front – mud, rats, stagnation, lost generation, war to end all wars or war
without aims?, remembering WWI: Remembrance Sunday, tomb of the unknown soldier in
Westminster Abbey, Menin Gate at Ypres, poetry to show enthusiastic feelings among
soldiers
17
Political results of WWI: new political situation in Europe (e.g. Germany, Austria-Hungary
lose its territories, emergence of new independent countries), Britain gains new territories in
Arabia and Africa, British Empire reaches its largest expansion, yet weakness of BE becomes
obvious (1931 Statute of Westminster - legislative independence to parliaments in white
dominions), BE becomes British Commonwealth of Nations
Suffrage: suffrage for all men over 21, all women 30 and over who are householders, wives
of householders, university graduates, 1928 suffrage to all women over 21
Britain in the Inter-War Years:

WWI promises and expectations (a country fit for heroes), the economy: stagnation and
success, 1926 General Strike, 1929 Great Depression, 3mio unemployed, domestic politics:
growth of Labour Party, time of changing majorities, emergence of radical parties
(Communist Party and British Union of Fascists – Oswald Mosley), British culture in 1920s:
bright young things, music?
Ireland – Steps to Independence:

Agitation for Home Rule (postponed in 1914), WWI and Easter Rising (cf. Yeats Easter 1916):
1600 volunteers occupy sites in Dublin on Easter Monday, British troops sent, rising ends
bloodily, leaders executed
1918 Sinn Féin wins large majority of seats in Southern Ireland: refuse to go to
Westminster, set up parliament of the Irish Republic in Dublin, Irish volunteers renamed Irish
Republican Army, attack Royal Irish Constabulary and British Army, War of Independence
with violence on both sides, Northern Ireland Unionists prefer to stay with UK
Ireland – Independence: 1922: 26 southern counties from Irish Free State (retains dominion
status in BE), 6 Northern counties (Home Rule with parliament in Belfast), 1922-23 Civil War
in Ireland between pro-Treaty group and those who wanted total independence, result:
Treaty accepted, 1937: new constitution (Ireland becomes a republic in all but name, NI
claimed part of the nation), 1949: Ireland becomes republic and leaves Commonwealth,
Ireland Act by British government (North stays with UK as long as majority in favour)
European Politics: GB and Treaty of Versailles – appeasement politics: Italy & Ethiopia,
Neville Chamberlain Germany, Sudentenland and Munich Conference, Germany and invasion
of Czechoslovakia
Britain and WW2:

1939 Germany invades Poland, Britain declares war on Germany, 1939-1940 ‘The Phoney
War’ – failed campaign in Norway, little impact of the war on Home Front, 1940 Dunkirk
evacuation after German invasion of Low Countries, Belgium, France, Winston Churchill
replaces Chamberlain as PM and refuses to negotiate ‘Finest Hour Speech’, Battle of Britain
(fighter pilots): German invasion plans fail, beginning of the Blitz: bombing of towns and
military targets, evacuation, stop in 1941 as Germany prepares to attack Soviet Union
The Home Front – a people’s war: all men between 19 & 41 called to fight, all unmarked
women between 20 & 30 conscripted (work in land army, hospitals, factories), beginning of
rationing (sinking of supply ships)
18
1941 Britain is joined by Soviet Union and US, war in Pacific against Japan, fall of Singapore,
war at sea, 1942/43 British army in control of German army in North Africa, allied landing in
Sicily, taking of Rome, bombing of Germany by British and American air force, June 1944 D-
Day, V1 & V2 flying bombs, 8 May 1945 VE (Victory in Europe) Day, August 1945 VJ (Victory
in Japan) Day
End of WW2: Britain as one of the victors: occupation of Germany and Austria, member of
security council in UN, Britain decides to build atomic bomb, British economy and the war:
bread rationing, costs of German occupation, Marshall Plan – Britain receives $13.3bill, the
Cold War (NATO and Warsaw Pact)
Britain – The Welfare State: WW2 – a fair share for all vs continued rationing and poverty,
1942 Beveridge Report suggests remedies for poverty, sickness, unemployment, 1944
Education Act provides for meals, free milk, medical education, 1945 Labour victory, building
of council houses 1940s and 1950s, National Health Service 1948 financed mainly through
taxes, nationalization of coal mines, iron and steel industries
Britain after WW2:

1950s migration from former colonies, continued rationing, 1960s time of growing
prosperity, consumerism, swinging sixties, 1970s time of economic problems, oil crisis, minor
strikes, inflation, Winter of Discontent (strikes, cold winter with many economical problems),
independence movements in Wales and Scotland with referendums, 1979 Margaret
Thatcher becomes PM (policy of liberalization, privatization, monetarism, fighting the
unions), 1982 Falklands War, 1984/85 Miners’ Strike, 1990 John Major becomes PM, 1997
Labour victory under Tony Blair (New Labour, devolution, NI, reform of House of Lords, War
in Iraq, reforms in education and NHS)
Britain and the European Community:

Strong ties to US and Commonwealth, 1950 Britain refuses to join European Coal and Steel
Community, economic fears in 1960s – Britain wants to join EEC, French refuse, Britain
finally joins in 1973 but retains a problematic relation with EC/EU, 1994 Channel Tunnel
opened, today great success of UKIP FIGURES, Tory referendum on leaving EU (Brexit) –
survey on referendum about leaving EU: 76% voted yes
Britain – The Loss of the Empire:

WW2 and BE – loss of colonies, 1947 independence of India, 1950s and 1960s various
African states become independent and join Commonwealth, 1956 Suez Crisis (humiliation
of UK and France), 1997 Hong Kong handed over to China, Ireland split in NI & Republic of
Ireland
Northern Ireland:
NI Catholics political, social, economic disadvantages, 1967 civil rights movement ends in
violence, 1969 British army sent in to establish peace, soon violence starts between IRA and
British army, 1972 Bloody Sunday: civil rights marchers killed by British army (cf. U2 Sunday,
Bloody Sunday), NI parliament suspended, 1973 Sunningdale Agreement: attempt to
introduce power-sharing and Council of Ireland with Irish co-operation, Irish republic
concedes – NI only part of Republic if majority wants
19
1980s time of sectarian violence, IRA bombings in London, 1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement: NI
stays with UK as long as majority of population wants, regular consultations between Irish
and British government on NI, 1993 Downing Street Declaration of Irish and British PMs,
announce intention of solving NI question together, 1994 ceasefire (Waffenstillstand)
announced, 1998 Belfast Agreement: create Northern Ireland Assembly, a power-sharing
executive and Council of Ireland, agreed on referendums in North and South, conflicts over
disarmament, 2002 suspension of Assembly by British parliament, 2007 government formed
including Ian Paisley (DUP, first minister) and Martin McGuiness (Sinn Féin, deputy first
minister), still conflict today but fairly peaceful
Britain Today:
Opening of the Channel Tunnel and Britain joined the EU although France didn’t want it and
Britain first wanted to have closer relation to US not EU, 2007 Gordon Brown becomes PM,
2010 general election: Conservatives and Liberal Democrats form coalition (David Cameron
PM), 2011 UK riots, 2012 Queen’s Diamond Jubilee, 2014 Scottish Independence
Referendum (55% against Scottish independence), 2015 general election
Issues today: EU and Britain, succession (Thronfolge), Falklands decided to stay in UK

(referendum 2013), immigration, multiculturalism, radicalism, financial crisis and economy
education
6. EDUCATION
British Education:
On 3 levels – schools (state or independent schools), higher education, further/adult
education, no common educational organization, schools are important to form shared
cultural identity, different types of schools (grammar schools, secondary modern schools,
state and independent schools)
Quality of education:
Ofsted (Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills) has criticized
standards in schools, international comparison: quality of British secondary schools not
among high-ranked countries, situation better in universities
PISA ranking 2014: in relation to other countries, the UK has slipped across all three
disciplines since 2006 (24th Maths, 17th reading, 14th science)
School history:
5th & 6th ct: first schools founded by church, high school/grammar school/public school
founded by monarchs, rich individuals, mostly only sons of rich people attended them,
restricted access to education over long time periods, majority no formal education at all
and high rates of illiteracy
Illiteracy today: less than 1% of adults illiterate, 16% of adults functionally illiterate = they
have basic reading and writing skills, 5% of adults literacy levels below those expected of an
11-year-old
20
More schools founded by churches (independent from state), charity schools, schools
founded by voluntary societies and workhouses, by 19th ct some kind of school structure but
no state-funded system for education of new working classes, 1833 some new schools were
built
1870: Elementary Education Act (Forster’s Act): schooling for all children between 5 and 13,
establishment of local school boards, establishment of state-funded elementary schools,
financing of new schools and buildings, independent of churches (non-denominational
training), by 1880: free and compulsory schooling in most parts of country for children
between 5 and 10
1902 Balfour Act: school boards abolished, local government becomes responsible for
education, new secondary and technical schools established, 1918: state education for all up
to 14 years, basic skills offered in state education, profound education mainly in
independent schools
1944 Education Act (Butler Act): reorganization of state primary and secondary education,
free and compulsory state school up to 15 years, 3 stages (primary, secondary, post-school
training), policy guidelines provided by Ministry of Education, establishment of LEAs (Local
Education Authorities), establishment of tripartite school system
Tripartite School System:

Grammar schools, secondary modern schools (less academical), technical schools (prepared
for a profession), placement based on Eleven-plus exam
Problems of this school system: perceived as socially divisive, grammar school associated
with better and more academic education, from mid 60s onwards Labour Party wanted to
abolish 11+ exam and school divisions and introduce non-selective comprehensive schools
instead, but Conservatives came to power and some schools from old system remain, LEAs
were able to choose secondary education best suited for local needs, some decided for
comprehensives and others retained selection and grammar schools, you are better suited
for higher education when you go to grammar school
State School Sector:

State education is free and compulsory from 5-16, about 94% attend state schools, 87%
attend comprehensive schools, best national results in grammar schools, Scotland: state
school system comprehensive (only state school system!), non-selective, NI: state schools
Catholic and Protestant
Independent School Sector:

Around 2600 independent schools, some of them called public schools, cater for 625 000
pupils (7%), financed by investments and fees, famous public schools are Eton, Harrow,
Winchester, often boarding schools, important role in British education, entrance
competitions, criticized for being elitist, many leading figured educated there (e.g. Eton –
Prince Harry, David Cameron)
Facts about school life:
21
School day 9am to 4pm, three terms: autumn, spring, summer, results of exams are
published, types of exams: introduction of national standardizes curriculum as system of
examinations, GCSEs, GCA (A-Levels), Vocational GCSEs, NVQs
Higher Education:
You need good results in your finals to apply for uni, 2005 44% proceeded to higher
education, 2013 40% of 19-year-olds in higher education, 1960 22 universities and now
around 116, 2009 about 2 mio students, 38% of working-age adults have a degree, Higher
Education Statistics Agency
4 types of universities:
 Ancient Unis: Oxford, Cambridge (13th ct, 15th ct Scottish Uni), access was restricted
to men for a long time, many famous graduates
 Redbrick/Civic Unis: Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester (19th, 20th ct)
 Unis founded after WW2: Sussex, York, East Anglia, mostly in semi-rural areas
 New Unis: founded in 1992, polytechnical schools with university status, e.g. Uni of
Huddersfield
Facts about university life: strong competition to enter unis, Bachelor’s Degree at end of 3 rd
year, Master’s Degree at least one year, PhD at least 3 years, teaching in lectures, tutorials,
seminars, accommodation in halls of residences, student houses, open university:
established in 1969, distance learning important, video and radio broadcast learning, very
successful
Recent developments: closing of language departments, since 2004 no longer compulsory

for pupils aged 14-16 to study a foreign language, 1990s Student Grant (would finance your
studies) abolished, students have to pay for tuition and accommodation, student loans for
housing, food, books (which you have to pay back once you earn money), 1998 tuition fees
introduced, many students live at home now instead of halls because it’s so expensive
Nick Clegg and the ‘Vote for Students’ pledge: ‘Vote for Students’ pledge to vote against
tuition fee increases signed by over 1000 candidates of UK elections in 2010, including many
members of the Labour Party who originally introduced fees and all LibDem members
including Clegg, coalition lifted tuition feed to £9000 a year, Clegg apologized for breaking
pledge, only 6% of finalists at leading unis planned to vote for LibDems in 2015 (in 2010 23%)
7. THE BRITISH POLITICAL SYSTEM

UK Parliament Elections:
Every 5 years, 650 constituencies, each elects 1 MP, first past the post-system (simple
majority)
Political Parties:
17th ct development of organized political parties, dominant ones were Whigs (Mainly
Cromwellian Protestants) and Tories (supporters of Royals), traditional two-party system
weakened over past years, emergence and growing popularity of other parties like Green
Party with leader Natalie Bennett, UKIP leader Nigel Farage, Scottish National Party leader
Nicola Sturgeon
22
The Conservatives: 1830s Tories became known as Conservatives, belief in established

values, preservation of traditions, supporters of business and commerce, strong links with
Church of England, opposition to radical ideas, leader David Cameron
The Whigs/Liberal Democrats: in the 19th ct they became a progressive force, wanted social
reform and economic freedom without government restrictions, developed into Liberal
Party, decline at beginning of 20th ct, 1980s merged with Social Democratic Party 
LibDems, leader Nick Clegg
The Labour Party: founded in 1906, supported by trade unions, working class, some middle-
class voters, 1924 first Labour government, 1945 majority power for first time, radical
programmes of social and economic reform, foundations for welfare state, leader Ed
Milliband
The UK Government (“Her Majesty’s Government”):

Executive arm of the political system, around 100 ministers chosen from both Houses of
Parliament, appointed by monarch on advice of PM, PM: appointed by monarch, historically
link between monarch and parliament, has great governmental power
The Cabinet: small executive body, about 20 senior ministers e.g. Chancellor of the
Exchequer (finance minister), Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs,
weekly meetings, initiates and decides government policy
Hung Parliament: if not one party controls a majority of Houses of Commons (norm), there
is a need for coalition, procedure: former PM may try and form majority or rule without one,
if not PM will resign, 2010 election Tory-LibDem coalition
Results of general election 2015: Conservatives in front of Labour, the current Cabinet are
the Conservatives, the current opposition the Labour Party, after the election the parliament
returned on 18 May 2015, elected a House of Commons Speaker, 27 May: State Opening of
the parliament
Important and Recent Prime Ministers:

Winston Churchill (Tory), Clement Attlee (Labour, radical reform programme which lay
foundation of welfare state), Margaret Thatcher (Tory, the Iron Lady, politics of privatization,
conflict with unions, Falkland War), John Major (Tory), Tony Blair (Labour, devolution,
Northern Ireland Peace settlement, war against Iraq, New Labour), Gordon Brown (Labour,
previously finance minister under Blair), David Cameron recent PM (Tory, re-elected, formed
a Conservative majority government)
The British Political System:
23
Important terms: shadow cabinet = senior group of opposition spokespeople, frontbencher

= government minister or opposition shadow spokesperson, backbencher = MP who is
neither a minister nor spokesperson for his party, whips = MPs appointed to maintain party
discipline, divisions = results of votes, aye and no-lobbies = do the voting
Parliament:
 Monarch: Head of State, Head of the Executive, Judiciary, Legislature, expected to be
politically neutral, appoints and chooses PM
 Non-elected House of Lords: Lords Spiritual, Lords Temporal (hereditary peers, life
peers appointed by political parties and independent Appointments Commission),
receive no salary, amending function – power to delay government legislation
 House of Commons: 650 members, meets every weekday afternoon, Chief Officer =
the Speaker, motions (proposals) are debated, decisions made by simple majority
vote, question time = PM subjected to questions from leader of the opposition and
MPs, 14 Select Committees monitor administration and policy of main government
How are laws created? Bills must pass both Houses before they become law, House of Lords
can amend and revise, Monarch has to give royal assent
Both Houses open to public (public and visitors’ galleries), debates are televised, live or
recorded radio broadcasts, published daily in Hansard
Declaration of Rights 1689:

Strengthened parliament, monarchs could not reign without parliament’s consent, division
of power: executive branch (monarch, Privy Council), parliamentary legislative branch
(House of Commons, House of Lords, monarch), judiciary branch (judges independent of
monarch and parliament)
The Political System in the 18th Century:
24
Parliament gains influence as Hanoverian Kings show little interest in British politics, Robert
Walpole as 1st PM (1720-42)
Developments in the 18th/19th ct: ministers gradually become responsible to parliament,

Parliamentary Cabinet develops out of the Privy Council, largest minority party becomes
official opposition, growing influence of House of Commons as opposed to House of Lords
Privy Council: originally group of royal advisers, 18th/18th ct functions transferred to Cabinet
and ministries, today about 500 Privy Counsellors advise monarch
Devolution: parliament in Edinburgh (1999), assemblies in Belfast (1998) and Cardiff (1998),
local institutions responsible for education, health, transport, home affairs, UK parliament
for defence, foreign politics, social security, taxation, immigration, unlike Scottish Parliament
& National Assembly of Wakes has no taxing powers
UK parliament  UK government  Scottish/Welsh/NI Assembly  Scottish/Welch/NI/

English local government
8. MEDIA
The British Media:
Consists of print media, television, broadcasting media
Print Media – History:

Development of newspapers and magazines since 18th ct, e.g. The Tatler and The Spectator
by Addison & Steele, circulation restricted by transport problems, illiteracy, censorship, e.g.
stamp duty on newspapers until 1855 as tool against radical press, large growth of print
media in 2nd half of 19th ct (1870 Education Act), emergence of popular newspapers cause by
growing political awareness, literacy, cheap printing techniques, consumerism,
advertisements
National Newspapers:
Available all over UK on same day emerged in 18th ct (e.g. The Times 1785, The Observer
1791), popular national papers as product of late 19th ct, usually Sunday papers (e.g. People
1881, Daily Mail for lower middle class 1896, Daily Mirror for working class and supportive of
Labour by Harmsworth 1903), early 20th ct fierce competition between press barons, e.g.
Alfred Harmsworth and Arthur Pearson, newspaper competition between Daily Mirror and
Daily Herald (1911, later named Sun) – initially both pro-Labour, competition between
papers until today, growth newspaper market in early 20th ct (5mio daily sales in 1920,
17mio in 1973, but decline since 1970s)
The National Press in the 20th/21st Centuries:

Concentration in London, but no longer in Fleet Street, underrepresentation of rest of the
country?, problems: costs, trade union practices, change in printing technologies, alternative
media like internet, heavy competition between newspapers – oligopoly by Rupert Murdoch
(The Times, The Sun)
25
National press – popular vs quality: quality: traditionally broadsheet, today mostly

published in compact format, in-depth news and analysis, educate reader, more words, e.g.
The Times, popular: tabloid, superficial and sensationalist, large headlines, many pictures,
sex and scandal dominate, e.g. The Sun, mid-market: e.g. Daily Mirror, Daily Express
Quality newspapers: The Times (daily), The Sunday Times (weekly), founded 1785/1822,
independent paper originally conservative, developed Times Roman, owned by Rupert
Murdoch, The Guardian (formerly Manchester Guardian), daily, founded 1821, left-of-centre
position, The Independent, daily, founded 1986, independent but slightly leftish paper, The
Daily Telegraph, daily, founded 1855, readers mainly conservative, still published as
broadsheet
Popular newspapers: The Sun, daily, owned by Murdoch, contains sex, celebrities, scandals,
Page Three Girl, highest circulation of any daily English-language newspaper in the world,
The Daily Mirror, daily, consistently pro-Labour, founded 1903 by Harmsworth
Regional newspapers: more than 80 all over UK, larger ones usually appear in evening as not
to clash with national papers, London Evening Standard daily tabloid, The Scotsman, The
Herald
Periodicals & magazines: Private Eye, New Statesman, Q
The Broadcasting Media:

Public sector (BBC, financed by licence fee) vs independent sector (funded mainly by
advertising), 1922 British Broadcasting Company formed under John Reith, radio licenced by
fee, no ads, monopoly in broadcasting, public service broadcaster, 1932 BBS World Service,
1936 BBC start broadcasting television, 1953 Coronation of Elizabeth II as important event
for TV, 1954/55 BBC’s monopoly in TV ended due to Independent Television Authority that
supervises programmes financed by adverts, 1950s news start to appear on TV, more radio
and TV programmes created in 1980s and 1990s (Tories enhance competition), Ofcom
controls quality of TV
BBC: recent reforms, alternative finances, slimmer administration, include independent

productions, 1991 BBC World Servise Television, traditionally conservative, RP – changes
today, neutral politically, channels: BBC1, BBC2, BBC3, BBC4, BBC Prime, BBC World Service
TV
Independent TV Channels: competition to the BBC: ITV, launched in 1955 as Independent

Television, oldest commercial network in UK, other independent TV channels: Channel 4
since 1982, Channel 5 since 1997
Trends in Television:
1955-70 Realism: factual programmes on everyday life, documentaries, news, e.g.
Panorama (on current affairs), dramatisations on everyday life, e.g. Coronation Street (since
1960), 1960-70: fantasy dramas, exotic locations, spying, escapism, e.g. The Avengers,
Dr.Who, 1965-70: The Golden Age of Popular Television, sitcoms e.g. Dad’s Army, Fawlty
Towers, 1970-90: Conservatism, nostalgia, Brideshead Revisited, Merchant Ivory and
Heritage Films (e.g. The Remains of the Day), East Enders, crime series e.g. Inspector Morse,
26
Miss Merple, 1980s Politics (e.g. Yes, Minister), 1990s: everyday life, docusoaps, costume
drama (Austenmania, e.g. Pride and Prejudice), comedy (e.g. Men Behaving Badly, One Foot
in the Grave)
Popular sitcoms and soaps: Coronation Street (ITV, 1960-): daily lives of working class and
lower middle class folks, set in imaginary northern town near Manchester, East Enders (BBC,
1985-): East End working class, Dad’s Army (BBC, 1968-77): set in WW2 about Home Guard,
Fawlty Towers (BBC, 1975-79): created by John Cleese, set in southern English seaside hotel,
Blackadder (1983-89), Black Books (2000-04)
Recent successful series: Miranda (BBC, 2010-, old-fashioned sitcom), Downton Abbey (ITV,
British costume drama, 2010-, many awards, set 1912ff), Call the Midwife (BBC, period
drama, 2012-, set in east London in 1950s, hailed as BBC1’s biggest new drama for over a
decade)
Popular radio series and soaps: The Archers (radio soap opera, BBC, 1950-, longest running
radio soap, a contemporary drama in a rural setting), Desert Island Discs (1942-, interviews
of VIPs, choose 8 records, 1 book, 1 luxury)
Media in UK: average adult watches about 4h/day TV, popularity of British TV abroad vs
criticism at home (dumbing down, reality TV)
9. POPULAR CULTURE AND FOOD

Culture & Cultural Studies:
Culture formerly meant state/habit of mind and body of intellectual and moral activities
(high culture), but now it means also a whole way of life, cultural studies = focus on TV, film,
romance novels, ads, museums, art, sports, new religious groups,..
Recreation & culture: includes TV sets, computers, newspapers, books, electronics, leisure
activities (e.g. trips to cinema, football matches), package holidays
Freetime Activities 2011/12:
People spend most of their time on watching TV, has now shifted to internet consumption,
meeting friends & family, music, then follows cinema, theatre, museums, sports, shopping,
eating out, transport, diversity of life reflected in different leisure activities, they are often
connected to class and identity, economy, income
What is Popular Culture?

Popular culture as a term in 19th ct separated culture of the subordinate classes and the
urban and industrial centres, culture had 2 main sources: a commercially oriented culture &
a culture of/for the people associated with commercial mass media (press, radio, TV,..),
‘popular’ indicated that sth (person, product,..) was commonly liked or approved by a large
audience, popularity was indicated by ratings, sales
Popular = well-liked by many people, in contrast between high & popular culture, used to
describe a culture made by people for themselves, meaning the mass media imposed on
people by commercial interests
27
TV as dominant medium for cultural exchange: TV as dominant medium for cultural

exchange in Britain, though for teenagers web is taking over, TV provides topics of
conversation, allows them to get to know each other’s tastes and explore current social and
cultural pre-occupations
Cinema: decline in Britain as popular form of mass entertainment since 1940s, annual
cinema visits 2010 150mio, lack of investments and government help for domestic British
film industry, few British films made in Britain
British Popular Music:

It increased hugely and influentially, led the world from the 1960s and was an economic and
cultural phenomenon, since Beatles and Rolling Stones, the domestic market for music sales
has multiplied more than sixfold, music more popular than film
Popular music has musical and socioeconomic characteristics, hybrid of musical traditions
and economic product, tension between essential creativity of making music and
commercial nature of production and dissemination (Verbreitung)
1980s/1990s: dominance of techno and trance, e.g. The Chemical Brothers, The Prodigy,
rave and club culture, Britpop (name coined by music press rather than a genre) emerged:
guitar-based, catchy melodies, social observation, more optimistic than techno and grunge,
nostalgia, influenced by earlier British bands such as The Kinks and The Beatles, Blur vs Oasis
(peak 1995, partly created by media), other bands such as Pulp, Supergrass, Trip-Hop
(originated in Bristol, e.g. Portishead) emerged
The Barclaycard Mercury Prize: promotes best of UK and Irish music and artists who
produce it, done through celebration of the 12 albums of the year, music equivalent to
Booker Prize in literature and Turner Prize in art, past winners include Portishead, Franz
Ferdinand
British Popular Music today: it still represents a huge amount of British exports, 81% of
Britons between 16-24 spend their leisure time listening to music at least once a week and
more attend live performances than football matches, British artists account for one in eight
albums purchased by fans around the globe, music industry income in 2013 first rise since
2009, many illegal downloads, also exports like clothing, books of bands etc.
British Theatre:
Around 300 commercial/professional theatres, large number of amateur dramatic clubs,
fringe and pub theatres, London and suburbs around 100 theatres (West End),
theatre/ballet/opera give Britain a high cultural profile with overseas tourists, even though
they remain minority pursuits in Britain
Culture for and by the people:

Millions of Britons engaged in amateur music, art, literature, around 500 professional arts
and cultural festivals a year, funding: private (donations, sponsorship) and public (local
authorities and regional arts councils), many tourists combine their visit with going to
musicals, theatres
28
British Museums: around 1800 museums and art galleries, majority financed by local
authorities, some are commercial and you have to pay for them, entry to most is free
Leisure market in Britain: the creative and cultural industries that service the leisure market
(cinema, theatre, publishing..) are an important part of Britain’s social and economic life,
they generate substantial annual revenue and export earnings and employ many people,
arts & cultural life supported by Department for Culture, Media and Sport
Football:
Is the most watched and popular sport in Britain and transcends its earlier working class
associations, long history – dates back to at least 12th ct, 1863 The Laws of Football
published by Football Association, 1888 creation of the Football League with organized
competitions, no UK national team, safety in stadiums improved after Hillsborough Disaster
in 1989, you express your identity with sports (you are a fan of a special team)
Other popular sports: Rugby, Cricket, many sports contributed to institutionalized features
of British life and provide national identity, e.g. Wimbledon is tennis in England, the Football
Association Cup Final is football in England, St. Andrews is golf in Scotland, Ascot is horse
racing
Going to the pub:

Pub short for public house, visiting the pub is a very important part of British life, 7 out of 10
adults visit pubs and 1/3 go once or more a week, pub licensing hours (had to close at 11)
liberated in 2005, in 2009 52 pubs closing every week, huge commercialization of pubs (they
are taken over by companies)
Background facts & concerns:

Britain imports 70% of its food due to seasonal demand, quality of food (particularly that
from farming) is of concern, also standards and hygiene for farming industries are
concerning, BSE scare led to dropping demand of beef, 2000-01 food and mouth outbreak
further raised questions about quality of food and methods of farming
Food in Britain:
1949: on continent good food and in Britain good table manners, in 1977 food in Britain
improved, table manners sunk, many people think food in Britain is bad, eating out is
popular, much of household budget goes to restaurants and hotels, quality of food in
restaurants improves, also the number of available cuisines, chefs gained wide TV exposure
and raised awareness among public
Popularity of cooking: rise in popularity due to cooking shows on TV, cookbooks are
bestsellers
Food & class: almost every item of food comes with class label, you are what you eat, when,
where, in what matter you eat, what you call it, how you talk about it, e.g. prawn cocktails =
indicate lower middle class, egg & chips = working class
29
Meals: traditional English breakfast = full English (tea, toast, marmalade, eggs, bacon,
sausages, tomatoes, mushrooms) is good and filling and praised by foreigners, few of British
people eat it regularly, but tourists do, tradition maintained at top and bottom of social scale
rather than in the middle
National dishes = fish & chips, haggis, Irish stew (meet & vegetables), cawl (lamb and beef)
Tea: often tea with milk, popularity dates back to 17th ct, almost two kg of tea consumed per
person/year, tea = light meal taken at 4pm consisting of the drink and scones, cakes,
biscuits, sandwiches,.., working classes call this afternoon tea (different from evening tea
that the rest calls supper/dinner)
Changes in British Food: food in Britain revolutionized through cuisine from around the
world, turns into high-quality gastronomy in hotels, restaurants, pubs, many Indian and
Chinese restaurants, takeaways, celebrity TV chefs (e.g. Ken Hom – Chinese, Anjum Anand –
Indian), exotic food in domestic diet, popular Indian food: chicken tikka masala
10. MULTICULTURAL BRITAIN

Multicultural:
Of or relating to a society consisting of a number of cultural groups, especially in which the
distinctive cultural identity of each group is maintained
The British People:

Contemporary Britain is not homogeneous but unstable nation of four old nations, Great
Britain 1707 is only slightly older than the USA, the UK 1801 is younger, relationships
between 4 nations are not good, English treated Celtic often unequal, Englishness became a
powerful strand in Britishness because of the dominant role the English played in the
formation of Britain
Internal Migration:
Irish, Welsh, Scottish  England, some English  Wales, Scotland, English & Scottish
settlements in Ireland, ethnic minorities (white and non-white) in Britain who use multiple
identities (e.g. define themselves as Black British, British Indians,..) and may also embrace
religious identities such as British Muslims, British Hindus, British Jews, internal migration as
well as immigration from abroad
Ethnic: OED: Originally: of or relating to people with regard to their actual or perceived
common descent, now: of or relating to national or cultural origin or tradition
Ethnicity: highly complex and contentious concept, can be defined as patterns of behavior,
cultural values, political affiliations shared by certain individuals who come together to form
a group within a larger population, OED: status in respect of membership of a group
regarded as ultimately of common descent (Herkunft) or having a common national or
cultural tradition, ethnic character
Immigration:
30
Huge issue in Britain, Migration Statistics Quarterly Report 2015: long-term migration to the
UK (immigration more than emigration) in 2014 318 000, significant increase since 2013, 614
000 people immigrated to UK in 2014, also increase from 2013, 323 000 people emigrated
from UK in 2014, but emigration figures relatively stable since 2010
David Cameron on immigration: Conservatives pledged before 2010 election to reduce

numbers of immigration to less than 100 000, which failed
Migration: people have been migrating to and from Britain for centuries (Dutch, Vikings,.)
and since that, natives and immigrants constantly reviewed their relations, in 1596 the
parliament of Queen Elizabeth I wanted to limit number of black people entering England as
first of many measures taken by British governments to define which people have right to
enter the country and claim citizenship
Immigration: due to religious and political prosecution, trade, business, employment,

significant impact of immigrants on British society, contributions to financial institutions,
commerce, industry, agriculture (e.g. Jewish moneylenders – Norman Conquest, Hansa
Merchants, Lombard bankers from Italy, 1330s Dutch and Flemish weavers helped transform
the country into major nation for sheep farmers), historically immigrants had relatively free
access to Britain but could be easily expelled, no legal rights to protect them, 1871: 157000
out of 37mio British inhabitants born outside BE
Since 19th ct: Black, Chinese, Indian communities in Britain, especially in London and bigger
seaports (Liverpool, Cardiff), early 20th ct Jews, Poles from Eastern Europe settled mainly in
East of London, 1905 Aliens Act – ineffective to restrict immigrants, after WW2 refugees
from Eastern Europe and other political refugees from all over the world, post-war period:
new immigrants from West Africa, Caribbean, Hong Kong, India, Pakistan, New
Commonwealth (former colonized countries), all Commonwealth Citizens relatively free
access, from 1962 onwards most Commonwealth immigrants treated as aliens
Immigration Acts to restrict number of immigrants, Race Relations Act to protect rights of
immigrants already settled in Britain, 2002 British citizenship test, Immigration Act 2014,
since end of WW2 immigration became issue of increasing public and political concern in
Britain, some British people consider multicultural society as threat
1958 Notting Hill Race Riots, Caribbean black people were attacked by British, many British
arrested as sign that racism is wrong, 1967 National Front was founded (a right-wing, whites-
only political party), 1968 Rivers of Blood Speech by Powell, he worried that too many
people from Commonwealth come to Britain 1970s Black Power Movement as movement
against nationalists, 1981 Brixton Riot as result of police harassment, uprising in many British
towns, 1980s time of new racism under Thatcher, 1989 Rushdie Affair, death threat by
Muslim community due to making fun of Muslims, 1997 New Labour and ethnic diversity,
ideal vs reality
How do we talk about issues of multicultural Britain and immigration? When you are an
issue or problem before entering a country implicates how the ethnic community is related
to the state and Britishness, aside from cultural benefits – only by welcoming migrants will
31
European countries be able to increase their long-term rate of growth and also pay for
future pensions
Immigration and economy: from 1950s onwards many people from New Commonwealth
came to Britain, often invited by governments agencies as workforce for expanding
economy, people from West Indies (Jamaica, Trinidad,..) were actively recruited for British
labour market after war when business recovered and unemployment was low
Immigration and identity: identity of Indian and other people in Britain is complicated by a
history of colonial relations, people from Commonwealth in Britain identified with their
mother country but uncertainty of status, racism experiences and displacement from
familiar places makes them wish to preserve and emphasize their ethnic identity
Representations of Multicultural Britain in Literature and other Arts:

Influence of immigration not only on country’s economy but also on artistic, cultural,
political developments, some examples from literature, music, TV, film, festivals, often
renegotiations of identity, stereotypes, relations between different cultures
Linton Kwesi Johnson (Inglan is a bitch, If I woz a tap-natch poet): born in Jamaica, moved to
UK, representative of dub poetry = form of performance poetry, often poem performed to
music, often political content, first black poet to have selected poems published by Penguin
Classics
Jamaican Creole – Language and identity: kind of separate language for members of the
West Indian community who speak it to signal their lack of identity with British culture
Hanif Kureishi The Buddha of Suburbia: he is born in England with Pakistani father, growing
up in Britain without British background, one of the best comic novels, one of the sharpest
satires on race relations in Britain, Zadie Smith White Teeth: Do you think anybody is really
English, it’s a fairy-tale, Jamaican background in Britain, we are all different, Marina Lewycka
A Short History of Tractors in Ukrainian: fusion of Ukrainian incomers with conventional
English Midland life, Alia Bano Shades: Muslim Bridget Jones diary, young Muslim woman
wants to find British husband
Music: in the past rock ‘n’ roll and blues, ethnic and crossover music – mainstream, e.g.
Dizzee Rascal, Tinie Tempah (nominated for Mercury Prize), annual MOBO (Music of Black
Origin) awards, since 1980s experiments by Asian musicians in Britain with rap, dub
technology, jungle breakbeats, traditional Indian music, rock, late 1990s Anglo-Asian artists –
charts, with sitars, guitars, decks, e.g. Cornershop, Asian Dub Foundation, huge stylistic
influence of Afro-Caribbeans on youth and mainstream culture (Rasta, hip-hop)
Asian Dub Foundation Fortress Europe: asylum is a right, Cornershop Brimful of Asha
(cornershops are shops in Britain where only Indians go inside, Asha is an Indian girl)
Films: Goodness Gracious Me (TV Series): parodies cultural stereotypes, features 4 British
Asian actors, familiar scenarios often reversed, Bend it like Beckham (2002): comedy dealing
with a girl from a sick family who wants to be a professional football player and convinces
her traditional parents that this is right for a girl
32
Celebrations: Chinese New Year as major event in social and cultural life of Liverpool, tourist
attraction, Notting Hill Carnival since 1966 in August by members of British West Indian
community to show that there is not just violence, more than 1mio participants
Complex question of what is and is not British, many similarities and differences between
British and others cover every area of life (religion, politics, work,..)
33

Zusammenfassung Civilisation

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Susanne Haidler SS 2015

VO CIVILISATION OF THE BRITISH ISLES

OED: Civilisation = state or condition of being civilized, human cultural/social/intellectual

Bradley: difficult to define Britishness, three ways of approaching it:

Contemporary British Culture:

3 traditional ways of understanding Britishness:

 British National Character:

 The British as an Island Race:

Mythical Representations of British Identity:

 Politicians: Margaret Thatcher (PM 1979-1990) associated with Thatcherism, revived

 Authors: William Shakespeare (1564-1616), Jane Austen (1775-1817), Bronte Sisters

 Military Leaders: Francis Drake (1540-1596), Admiral Nelson (1758-1805), Duke of

 Contemporary Heroes: David Beckham, Steven Fry (comedian), J.K.Rowling, Amy

Attempts at redefining Britishness:

Current Attempts: Royal Wedding 2011 as epitome of Britishness – it promoted Britishness,

2. PEOPLE AND GEOGRAPHY

The political divisions inside Britain:

The North-South Divide:

Farming and forestry:

Holidays & Days of Celebration:

3. THE HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN – THE BEGINNINGS

Britain and the Romans:

introduction of Christianity (380 AD Roman state religion), around 400 BC withdrawal of

Christianity in the British Isles:

Early Medieval Politics – Beginnings of Centralisation:

The Norman Conquest and European Politics:

English Politics – checks to centralized power:

England & the continent – The 100 Years’ War (1337-1453):

The Tudors (1485-1603):

4. THE HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN – THE EARLY MODERN AGE

Henry VIII and the Reformation:

Reformation and the BI:

The Elizabethan Religious Settlement:

England under the Early Stuarts:

The Path to Civil War:

England in the Interregnum:

1688/89 – the Glorious Revolution:

The Glorious Revolution and the Problem of Succession:

Ireland in the 18th century:

Beginnings of the English Empire:

The 1st British Empire (1583-1783):

The 2nd British Empire / Period of Free Trade:

Britain and the French Revolution:

Domestic Politics in 18th ct: England as Constitutional Monarchy, ruled by wealthy

18th Century Society:

The Beginnings of Industrialization:

Political and Social Reforms in the 19th Century:

The Reform Acts:

Further Attempts at Reforms:

The Victorian Era (1832/37-1901):

Victorian Era: moral conservatism vs ‘the other Victorians’, domesticity vs growing

Before the Age of New Imperialism:

The Age of New Imperialism (1870-1914):

Britain in the Early 20th Century:

The Way to WW1:

Important theatres of war:

Britain in the Inter-War Years:

Ireland – Steps to Independence:

Britain and WW2:

Britain after WW2:

Britain and the European Community:

Britain – The Loss of the Empire:

Issues today: EU and Britain, succession (Thronfolge), Falklands decided to stay in UK

Tripartite School System: