LSCD Biology 6

College of Teacher Education
LIST OF SCIENCE CONCEPTS TO BE DEVELOPED

Science 6: BIOLOGY (2nd Grading Period)
Subject Matter Science Concepts

Parts and Functions of the Muscular 1. Muscles
System  allow the body to move.
 are made of hundreds to thousands of long, thin cells or
muscle fibers.
 It is a bundle of tissue in the human and animal body that
can contract and produce movement or maintain the
position of body parts.
1.1 Types of Muscles

a. Skeletal Muscles
 the muscles that are attached to the bones of our
legs, arms, face, abdomen, and fingers.
 they are described as voluntary because we can
control their movement.
b. Smooth Muscles
 these are the muscles of the internal organs.
 they are described as involuntary because we
cannot control their movement.
 work slower, but they can continue working for a
long time without tiring.
c. Cardiac Muscles
 this muscle is found only in the heart. It is striated in
appearance, but is involuntary.
 are capable of working fast like the skeletal muscles,
but can work for a long time without tiring like the
smooth muscles.
1.2 How Muscles Work

a. Contraction of Muscle
 It is the shortening or tightening of the muscle.
b. Relaxation of Muscle
 When the muscle relax, the bone returns to its
original position.
Parts and Functions of the Skeletal 2. The Skeletal System

System  It is the internal framework of the human body. It is
composed of around 270 bones at birth – this total
decrease to around 206 bones by adulthood after some
bones get fused together.
2.1 Bones (tulang)

 is a rigid body tissue consisting of cells embedded
mostly in collagens, protein fibers which provide
strength, and calcium phosphate, a mineral which
helps build the bone.
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 Is a tough structure in the body that is made up of

connective tissues surrounded by minerals.
 Structures of Bones
1. Periosteum – it is tough white membrane that
covers the bone. It contains blood vessels and
nutrients.
2. Compact Bone – it is the dense, tough, inner layer
of the bone that contains the bone cells, blood
vessels, and proteins.
3. Spongy Bone – it is the layer of the bone mostly
found in the knob- like ends of long bone. It is full
of spaces and holes and contains red bone marrow
where blood cells are produced.
4. Bone Marrow – it is the jelly- like innermost layer
found in some bones. It is where new blood cells
are produced.
2.2 Types of Bone

1. Long bones – these are the bones of the arms, legs,
fingers, and toes. They are cylindrical,
long, and hollow.
2. Short bones – these are the bones of the wrists
hands, knees, ankles, and feet. They
are shot, spongy and almost cube
shaped.
3. Flat bones – these are the bones of the ribs,
shoulder girdle, pelvic girdle, and the sternum.
They are thin sheets of bone tissue with
broad surfaces that enclose and
protect internal organs.
4. Irregular bones – these are the bones that ae
elaborative shapes. These include the
bones of the vertebral column and
bones of the skull.
2.3 Cartilages
 are flexible connective tissues that cover the end of
some bones. They act as cushions to absorb shock and
reduce friction.
2.4 Joints - is the place where two bones meet.

2.5
a. Classification of Joints
1. Immovable or Fibrous joints
 these are joints where adjoining bones are not
capable pf movement. It is sometimes called
fixed or suture joint.
2. Slightly movable or Cartilaginous joints
 these are joints that allow little movement of
adjoining bones.
3. Freely movable or Synovial joints

 these joints provide for many different kinds of

movement.
b. Types of Joints
1. Ball and socket joints
 allow the greatest range of motion and in every
direction.
2. Hinge joints
 allow movement in one direction.
3. Pivot joints
 allow rotating and twisting movement.
4. Gliding joints
 allows gliding of bones over one another, this is
formed between bones that join at flat or
planar surfaces.
2.6 The Skeleton

a. Axial Skeleton - it is the part of the human skeleton
that consist of the bones of the head and the trunk.
1. The Skull
 the skull is mainly for the protection of the
brain.
 the skull is made up of 22 bones divided into
the cranium that protects and encloses the
brain, and the facial bones that make up the
structure of the face. All the bones of the skull
are immovable except for the mandible.
2. The Backbone
 this is also known as the vertebral column or
the spinal column. It is vertical column of
vertebrae that runs along the back. It provides
support for the head and the trunk and
protects the spinal cord.
3. The Ribcage
 the ribcage consists of the sternum or
breastbone and the ribs. The rib cage serves as
the protection for the vital organs, particularly
the heart and the lungs.
b. Appendicular Skeleton – it is the part of the human

skeleton that consist of the bones of the appendages of
the body.
1. Shoulder girdle
 the shoulder or pectoral girdle is formed by
four bones: two scapulae and two clavicles. It
provides the attachment of the arm bones to
the axial skeleton.
 The scapula is also known as the shoulder
blade. It is a triangular shaped bine where the
arms are attached.
 The clavicle or collar bone connects the
sternum with the scapula and keeps the

scapula in place.
2. Pelvic girdle
 the pelvic girdle is made up of two hip bones
that are fused.
 Each hip bone is also made up of three bones
fused together at joint called symphysis pubis:
ilium, ischium, and pubis.
3. Bones of the upper and lower limbs
 there are 30 bones on each upper limb. They
provide the attachment for the muscles of the
arm and the hands.
 there are also 30 bones on each lower limb.
They provide the attachment for the muscles
of the legs.
Mechanism of the Major Organs of 3. The mechanism of how the major organs of musculo-skeletal
Musculo-skeletal System system work together
4. A muscle cell is also known as a muscle fiber because of its
elongated shape. Muscle fibers are arranged into bundles.
These muscles bundles are connected to bones by tough
cordlike tissues called tendons. This connection allows muscles
to pull on the bones by contracting or shortening. As muscles
contract, they move the bones they are attached to, hence,
creating movement. When they relax, the bone returns to its
original position. However, the skeletal muscles of the body are
always partially contracted and do not relax entirely. This
partial contraction makes sure that the internal organs are in
place and the posture of the body is maintained. This is what
we call as muscle tone.
5. How Are Muscles Connected to the Bones?

 One of the cords is attached to the heel bone and the
other end is connected to the muscles of our leg. This cord
that connects the muscles to bone called the tendon.
 Tendons are made of tough fibers of protein called
collagen. When the muscles move, the tendon pulls the
bone, causing it to move. Tendons in the ankle are thicker
than tendons in wrist.
Healthful Habits that Promote Proper 6. Common Injuries and Diseases of the Musculoskeletal System
Functioning of Musculoskeletal 1. Arthritis – this disease is an inflammation of the joints they
System may be caused by infection, mineral deficiency, injury,
aging, or hereditary factors.
2. Fracture – is a crack or a break in a bone. It occurs when
you apply s force that exceeds the strength of the bone.
3. Dislocation – occurs when the end of the bone forced from
its normal position. It is accompanied by severe pain and
swelling.
4. Osteoporosis – occurs when the bones become brittle,
thin, and spongy due to decrease in bone minerals, like
calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus.

5. Cramps – are involuntary muscles contraction causing

tightening and pain in the area. Cramps commonly occur
when the muscles are overused and injured.
6. Muscle Strain – sudden force or pressure placed on a
muscle in the body could result to muscle strain or pull.
- overstretching the muscles could cause the
muscle fibers to tear.
7. Caring for the Musculoskeletal System

 Eat Right
 Exercise.
 Avoid smoking and drinking.
 Protect yourself.
Parts and Functions of the 8. Integumentary System

Integumentary System  It is the system of the human body that consist of the skin
and other accessory organs.
8.1 Structures of the Integumentary System

 Skin (kudil) - is the first protection against external
environment. The skin is the largest organ in the body
having a surface area of approximately 20 sq.ft.
1. Epidermis
 is the outermost, superficial layer of the skin. It is
made up of 40-50 rows stacked squamous epithelial
cells. There are five layers of Epidermis 9 from the
bottom) they are stratum basale, stratum spinosum,
stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum
corneum.
2. Dermis
 is the second layer of the skin. It is composed mostly
of collagen elastic fibers and fat cells. The dermis
provides flexibility, strength, resilience, and
protection.
3. Hypodermic / Subcutaneous Layer
the layer is made up of loose connective tissues and
fats (adipose tissues). It connects the skin to the
organs and tissues. It provides thermal insulation
and serves as cushion for underlying organs.
8.2 Accessory Structures of the Integumentary System

 Hair (buok) - the hair is composed of the hair shaft root,
hair follicle, arrector pili, and hair root plexus.
 Functions of the Hair
 The hair on the head protects it from sunlight and
injury.
 The eyelashes serve a s a protection for the eye.
 Body hair prevents heat loss from the body and also
serves as touch receptors.

1. Oil Glands (sebaceous glands)

 oil glands are connected to hair follicles and vary
in number throughout the body. They are not
present in the palms of the hand and the soles of
the feet. These glands are activated at the onset
of puberty due to hormonal changes in the body.
They secrete an oily substance called sebum
which coats the surface of the hair, prevents
excessive evaporation of water from the skin, and
keeps our skin and hair soft and pliable.
2. Sweat Glands
 there are two kinds of sweat glands eccrine and
apocrine sweat glands. Eccrine glands are found
all over the body. Their secretion is largely made
of water and small percent of dissolved salts and
nitrogen wastes and are released directly into the
skin through pores. Apocrine gland is in the
armpit and the pubic region. Their secretions
contain lipids and proteins which make them more
viscous. The secretion is released into the hair
follicles.
3. Nails (kuko)
nails are tightly-packed dead cells hardened by
dense keratin deposit.
nails are used for scratching, grasping, digging,
and manipulating objects.
Mechanism of the Major Organs of 9. Functions of the Integumentary System

Integumentary System 1. Protection – The Integumentary System functions primarily
to protect the body.
2. Thermoregulation – Evaporation of sweat has a cooling
effect on the body.
3. Excretion – The skin is also an excretory organ. Sweat
released by the body contains urea, ammonia, and salts
which are wastes and should be excreted from the body.
4. Sensation – The skin has numerous types of receptors that
receive external stimuli such as pain, pressure and
temperature.
5. Synthesis of Vitamin D – In the presence of sunlight, sterol
that is present in the skin is activated and converted into
Vitamin D, which plays an important role in the absorption
of calcium and regulations of calcium and phosphate in the
bones.
Healthful Habits that Promote Proper 10. Diseases of the Integumentary System
Functioning of Integumentary System 1. Contact Dermatitis
 Or sometimes called “rushes”.
 is mostly caused by allergens that come in contact with
the skin causing itchiness and rashes.
2. Athletes’ Foot
 It is a common fungal infection of the foot that causes
peeling, itching, and some cases, blisters and sores.

3. Warts
 these are small, grainy growths on the skin caused by
human papilloma virus. Warts are contagious and may
be transferred through skin contact.
4. Skin Cancer
 this is the most common form of cancer in humans. The
main cause of skin cancer is excessive and constant
exposure to ultraviolet radiation.
11. Caring for Our Integumentary System

 Drink lots of water to keep the body hydrated.
 Regularly check your skin, hair and nails for any
abnormalities.
 Use sunscreen to protect your skin from the damaging
rays of the sun.
 Eat food that are good for your body especially those
that are rich in antioxidants. These are known to be
good for the skin.
 Taking a bath every day keeps the skin, hair and nails
healthy.
 Keep your skin and hair clean and dry.
Parts and Functions of the Digestive 12. The Digestive System

System  is made up of groups of organs that work together to
digest food so it can be used by the body.
 It consist of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, and the accessory organs which
include the salivary glands, gallbladder, liver and
pancreas.
 Digestion - is the actual breakdown of food.
13. Structures/Parts of the Digestive System and their Functions

13.1 Mouth - is a part of the body where food enters and a
part where chemical digestion starts. Teeth and tongue
helps on the mechanical digestion of food in the
mouth.
The salivary glands are accessory structures in the
mouth that produce saliva, lubricates and softens the
food.
13.2 Esophagus - a long muscular tube that connects the

mouth to the stomach. The wall of the esophagus is
lined with smooth muscles that contract rhythmically
to move the food through the digestive system in the
process called peristalsis.
13.3 Stomach - The stomach is a macular J-shaped organ

found on the left side of the abdominal cavity.
 The stomach serves initially as the storage of the
food and is where protein digestion takes place.
 Glands in the stomach are responsible in

producing gastric juices that mix with the bolus

from the esophagus to form a semi-fluid, partly-
digested substance called chyme.
13.4 Liver - is the largest gland in the body. It secretes bile

that helps digest fats. The bile is stored in a small
pouch called gallbladder. Bile has substances that aid
in the digestion of fats or lipids.
13.5 Pancreas - produces pancreatic juices that neutralize

the acidic stomach contents before they are moved
into small intestine. It also secretes lipase, an enzyme
that breaks fat molecules.
13.6 Small Intestine – is where final digestion happens and

it’s the longest part of the alimentary canal. Small
intestine is the narrow-coiled tube connected to the
stomach.
- The villi (numerous small projections/folds)
and microvilli (very small ones) serves to
increase the surface area of the small intestine
for the absorption of nutrients.
Three regions of small intestine:
 duodenum - where most digestion of carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins completed;
 jejunum - is mostly where absorption of nutrients,
water, and salts happens; and
 ileum - it pushes the undigested materials into the
large intestine
13.7 Large Intestine – is also known as colon. This is a large

coiled tube attached to the end of the small intestine.
- It’s where undigested materials proceed but,
there is no digestion takes place here. It's
function is to absorb water into the blood
stream.
Defecation - is the excretion or release of waste
materials that are not absorbed by the body.
13.8 Appendix – is a small narrow tube located at the

junction between the small intestine and large
intestine. It’s not a vital organ and it's function is still
unknown. It’s susceptible to bacterial infection, which
causes condition called appendicitis.
Mechanism of the Major Organs of 14. Functions of the Digestive System

Digestive System a. Ingestion- is the taking in of the food through the mouth.
b. Propulsion-is the movement of food throughout the
alimentary canal.
c. Digestion- is the actual breakdown of food.
d. Absorption- involves the taking in of nutrients from the

digested food into the cells of the body.

 Defecation- is the excretion or release of waste materials
that are not absorbed by the body.
15. Digestive Process

a. Mechanical Phase of Digestion
 is the breaking of food by means of cutting, tearing,
grinding, and smashing of food into very fine mixture. It
involves chewing of food to break it down into smaller
pieces. Mechanical digestion is also done by the teeth
and tongue through the contraction of the stomach
and through the movement of the small intestine.
b. Chemical Phase of Digestion

 involves the breakdown of large molecules in food into
smaller substances by enzymes, are fluid that speeds
up the chemical reaction needed to break down starch
into simpler form called glucose, protein into amino
acids, fats into fatty acids, and glycerol.
Healthful Habits that Promote Proper 16. Common Disorders of the Digestive System
Functioning of Digestive System a. Peptic Ulcer – is caused by a kind of bacteria that invades
the stomach and damages the mucus lining of the
stomach. This causes abdominal pains.
b. Gastroenteritis – is the inflammation of the stomach and
small intestines. It could have a variety caused like
bacterial or viral infection, toxins, or allergies.
c. Constipation – this vowel movement difficulty is due to
hard, dry stool. The causes may range from lack of
water supply in the body, inactivity, drugs, or stress.
17. Good Eating Habits

 Consume those food that are fresh
 Avoid processed ones since they tend to contain more
salts and preservatives.
 Eat food with the right amount of fiber that will help the
digestion process.
 Make sure that the food you eat is properly prepared to
avoid any contamination and infection to your system.
 Avoid foods that cause irritation to your system.
 Wash up. Make sure to keep your hand clean before and
after eating.
 Avoid alcohol. Alcohol causes irritation damage to the
liver.
Parts and Functions of the  The Respiratory System

Respiratory System  the body system that helps you
inhale and exhale
 Respiration – the process where organisms
exchange gases with the environment
 Breathing – is an unconscious response. Its rate

depends on the activity level of the body
 The Upper Respiratory Tract

1. Nose and Nasal Cavity
 The nose has two openings called nostrils,
separated by a strong and flexible cartilage. Inside
your nose are hollow spaces called cavities.
 The nasal cavities are lined with the mucus and
hair-like structures called cilia. The hairs or cilia
filter and trap dust and dirt in the air.
 Nasal Cavities are pair of cavities separated by
septum.
2. Pharynx
 Pharynx is a tube about 13 centimeters long found
at the back of the throat. It connects the nasal
cavity with the trachea. It separates into two tubes
and it serve as the passageway for the air and food.
 The Lower Respiratory Tract

1. Larynx
 Located at the lower end of the pharynx and on the
top of the trachea is a boxlike structure called the
larynx. It is commonly known as the voice box, it
contains the vocal cords.
2. Trachea or windpipe
 It is a stiff tube about 11 centimeters long and 2
centimeters in diameter that leads to the lungs. It
also lined with mucus and cilia that trap the dirt
and dust and sweep them away from the lung by
coughing or sneezing.
3. Bronchi, Bronchioles and Alveoli
 The bronchi are short tubes that direct air into the
right and left lungs.
 Each bronchial tube branches into smaller tubes
called bronchioles. The bronchioles lead into tiny
air sacs called the alveoli.
4. Lungs
 Your two lungs which make up most of the space
inside the chest cavity are the major organs of the
respiratory system. The right lung is divided into
three parts, called lobes. The smaller left lung is
divided into only two lobes. Each lung is
surrounded by a thin membrane called the pleura.
They are protected by your rib cage
5. Diaphragm
 Beneath the lungs is the diaphragm, a dome-
shaped muscle that works with your lungs to allow
you to breathe in and breathe out. It separates the
chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. It is the
main muscle for breathing.

Mechanism of the Major Organs of 18. Mechanism of Breathing

Respiratory System  Inhalation – during inhalation, the diaphragm contracts or
moves down, which causes the chest cavity to expand,
allowing air to move into the lungs. The movement of your
rib cage and the diaphragm causes your chest cavity to
expand, lowering the air pressure in your lungs. As a result,
air rushes into your lungs, causing them to expand and fill
the chest cavity.
 Exhalation - during exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and

returns to its normal resting position. As you breathe out,
your chest falls and contracts. In breathing cycle, inhaling
and exhaling moves air into and out of the lungs. The outer
movement made by the diaphragm and the muscles in
between your ribs provide the mechanical energy for
breathing.
19. The Path of Air

a. Air in the Upper Respiratory Tract
 As you inhale, air enters the nose or mouth. The air is
filtered, warmed, and humidified in the different
parts of the upper respiratory tract.
 The air passes through the pharynx, larynx, then into
the lungs.
b. Air in the Lungs
 Inside the lungs, air enters through bronchial tubes to
the bronchioles to the alveoli.
 When air goes into the air sacs, oxygen goes to the
wall of the air sacs then through the walls of the
blood vessels and to the blood.
c. Air in the Blood
 Oxygen is now in the blood and the same time carbon
dioxide carried by the blood goes through the blood
vessel walls and into the air sacs.
 The carbon dioxide in the blood is exchanged or
traded with the oxygen in the air sacs.
 The blood then takes the oxygen to the rest of the
body cells while carbon dioxide that passes in the air
sacs leaves the body when you exhale.
Healthful Habits that Promote Proper 20. Common Disorders of the Respiratory System
Functioning of Respiratory System a. Pneumonia – a bacterial or viral infection of the bronchi or
alveoli that results to fluid in the lungs.
b. Emphysema – a gradual degeneration of the walls of the
alveoli
c. Asthma – people who have asthma attacks experience
difficulty in breathing because the passage of air to
the lungs has become narrow.
21. Healthful Habits for our Respiratory System

 Exercise regularly.
 Do not smoke.
 Avoid air pollutants.
Parts and Functions of Circulatory 22. The Circulatory System

System - A transport system of the body.
 3 Distinct Parts
1. Pulmonary Circulation (the lungs)
2. Coronary Circulation (the heart)
3. Systemic Circulation (the rest of the system)
23. Parts and Functions of the Circulatory System

23.1 Heart - The pumping organ of the circulatory system.
a. Parts of the Heart
 Superior vena canva & Inferior vena canva –
two large veins connected to the heart.
 Atria (atrium) – responsible for receiving used
blood coming from all parts of the body.
 Ventricles – pumping chambers of the heart.
 Valves – overlapping layers of tissue that allow
blood to flow in one direction.
b. Heartbeat - At rest, the average heartbeat is 60 to 100

times per minute. But as you exercise, your heart beats
faster. It is because you need more oxygen and energy
as you exercise. Therefore, your heart should contract
faster to deliver the oxygen needed by the body cells.
c. Heart sounds - As the chambers of the heart

alternately contract and relax, distinct sounds are
produced. The sound consists of a pattern of two
syllables: lub, dub.
23.2 Blood - The liquid medium that is constantly flowing

throughout the body. It is referred as the river of life.
Blood transports water, oxygen, nutrients, salts, hormones,
and other substances that sustain life.
a. Components of Blood
1. Plasma
 Is the liquid part of the blood. It is a clear
yellowish fluid that makes up the rest of the
blood’s volume. Plasma is made in the liver.
2. Platelets
 Platelets or thrombocytes are the smallest of
the formed components of the blood. They
help stop bleeding.
3. White Blood Cell
 White blood cells or leucocytes are irregular in
shape and are slightly larger than the red blood
cells. WBC are phagocytes and can produce
antibodies.

4. Red Blood Cell

 Also known as erythrocytes, are small,
spherical enucleated and biconcave cells. Red
blood cells transport gases (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) respectively to and from the cells. Red
blood cells pick up oxygen in the lungs and
transport it to all the body cells.
b. Blood Donation
 Blood transfusion – introducing blood of a blood donor
to the bloodstream of a recipient.
c. Blood Pressure - The force that blood exerts on the

walls of the arteries.
23.3 Blood Vessels - The vast networks of small tubes that

carry blood throughout your body. They are like water
pipes that carry water to different places.
a. Types of Blood Vessels
Arteries - Blood vessels that carry oxygen-rich
blood away from the heart.
Veins - Thin-walled and floppy blood vessels. They
carry oxygen-poor blood back to the heart.
Capillaries - The smallest blood vessels. They are so
thin that blood cells pass through them in a single
file. They serve as a connection between arteries
and veins.
Mechanism of the Major Organs of 24. Mechanism of Blood Circulation

Circulatory System 24.1 Types of Blood Circulation
a. Pulmonary Circulation
 Deoxygenated or oxygen-poor blood coming from
the organs and tissues of the body passes through
a major vein – the vena cava.
b. Systemic Circulation
 The systemic circulation starts from the left atrium
that receives the oxygenated blood from the lungs.
25.2 Special Circuits
 Portal Circulation – the path of blood from the
arteries to the digestive parts of blood returning to
the heart.
 Renal Circulation – the path of blood flows through
the capillaries to the kidney where water and
wastes are removed.
 Coronary Circulation – the path of blood within the
heart.
Healthful Habits that Promote Proper 25. Common Illness of the Circulatory System
Functioning of Circulatory System a. Atherosclerosis – this disease is characterized by thickening
of the blood vessels.
b.Hypertension - the increase of blood pressure in the blood.

c. Anemia – disease characterized by the deficiency of red

blood cells (RBC) in the body.
26. Keeping the Circulatory System Healthy

1. Exercise Regularly – It makes an individual less
susceptible to heart attack.
2. Eat a well-balanced and low-fat diet.
3. Live in a clean environment. – Do not play with
chemicals and avoid staying in a place with high
radiation. Do not stay outside when the sun’s rays are
intense.
4. Avoid smoking cigarettes or staying with smokers –
5. Have a positive outlook in life –Stress and tension may
cause heart failure.
Parts and Functions of 27. The Nervous System

Nervous System  is our body's command system.
27.1 Parts of the Nervous System

a. Central Nervous System - is considered the command
center of the body.
1. Brain - is a higly complex organ.
Parts of the Brain
 Cerebrum
is about two-thirds of the brain.
 Cerebellum
is located behind the cerebrum.
 Brain system
connects the brain to the spinal cord.
2. Spinal Cord - is a tube-like organ located inside

and protected by the vertebral
column.
b. Peripheral Nervous System - is composed of the

nerves that stem from the spinal cord and extend to
the entire body.
1. Nerves
 made up of neurons
 has a cell body and nerve fibers that extend
from it.
2. The Senses
 the body has different structures that are
sensitive to changes in the environment.
3. Somatic Nervous System
 includes all nerves controlling the muscular
system and external sensory receptors.
4. Autonomic Nervous System
 consisting of motor neurons that control
internal organs.
5. Sympathetic Nervous System

 is involved in the fight or flight response.

6. Parasympathetic Nervous System
 is involved in relaxation.
Mechanism of the Major Organs of 28. Mechanism of the Nervous System/The Reflex Action
Nervous System 1. Hand touches the side of a cup of hot coffee (stimulus)
2. The message travels through the sensory senses and
then to the spinal cord that sends it to the brain
(sensory nerves)
3. The brain processes the information and sends an
appropriate response to the motor nerves (brain and
motor nerves)
4. The hand is removed from hot objects (response)
29. Why Can You Perform a lot of Activities?

 Nervous system signals the release of hormones which
have longer-lasting effect, are flexible, and have
greater scope in their effect.
 Hypothalamus commands the pituitary gland to
release hormones that stimulate other endocrine
glands to release their hormones.
 Hormones - chemical substances that influence and
regulate body activities and are produced in one place
of the body and transported to another place by the
bloodstream.
Healthful Habits that Promote Proper 30. Diseases of the Nervous System
Functioning of Nervous System  Migraine - is characterized by intense pain typically
affecting one side of the head usually for a prolonged
period.
 Stroke - happens when the blood flow to the brain is
clogged, usually due to blood clots or broken blood
vessels.
 Epilepsy - is a disorder due to irregular electrical signals.
 Parkinson's disease - is characterized by shaking and
tremors and rigidity of the muscles in the face.
31. Caring for our Nervous System

 Eat a balanced diet
 Exercise
 Avoid harmful substances
 Get enough rest
 Stay positive
Animals That Are Commonly Seen in 32. Classification of Animals according to Food Eaten
The Community 32.1 Herbivores - animals that eat only plant materials or
plant tissues.
 Adaptions of Herbivores
a. Teeth - herbivores that feed on fruits and soft
plant parts of herbaceous plants usually have low-
crowned teeth.

b. Body adaptation - herbivores have grown body

adaptation that are used for defense against these
predators.
c. Chemical adaptation - the digestive tract of
herbivores produces different enzymes that
neutralized the toxins produced by plants.
32.2 Carnivores - are animals that eat meat. They are also
predators which are organisms that live by
hunting, killing and consuming their prey.
 Adaption of Carnivores
a. Teeth - all carnivores have sharp, razon-like teeth
that are suitable for piercing, cutting and tearing
away the fresh bones of other animals.
b. Body adaptation - most carnivores have
heightened senses for hunting.
c. Behavioral adaptation - enables them to defend
themselves such as horns, and strong hind legs for
kicking and running.
32.3 Omnivores - animals that eat both plants and

animals.
 Adaption of Omnivores
a. Teeth - they have long sharp teeth for piercing and
tearing meat and flat ones for grinding plant
materials.
b. Digestions - their digestive systems has gland that
can produce both acidic substances and alkaline
chemicals.
Common Characteristics of 33. Backbone - These are bones called vertebrae that are joined
Vertebrates and Invertebrates together by cartilage to form a flexible but supportive column.
 Vertebrates are animals with backbone.
 All vertebrates, without any reference to size, have highly
evolved and developed organs that are arranged in
different organ system.
34. Exoskeleton – This external skeleton serves as protection and

for muscle support and prevents water loss. Soft-bodied
invertebrates maintain their body integrity by maintaining their
internal pressure.
 Invertebrate’s species far outnumber all the vertebrates.
 Some invertebrates have an exoskeleton.
Classifications of Vertebrates 35. Vertebrates

35.1 Mammals
 Mammals are warm-blooded animals or
endothermic vertebrates. Their body temperature
does not change even when the temperature of
the environment changes.
 The bodies of mammals are partly or completely

covered with hair or fur. Mammals hair has several

functions,
 They can produce heat in their bodies.
Classification of Mammals
 Monotremes
are primitive egg-laying mammals.
considered the oldest living order of mammals.
 Marsupials
this are mammals that give birth to offspring that are
extremely immature.
 Placental Mammals
they are born at a more advanced stage.
Kinds of Placental Mammals
1. Insectivores or insect-eating mammals - The
insect-eating mammals include the mole, shrew, and
hedgehog.
2. Rodents - The largest family of mammals. They are
found to inhabit on all continents except in the very cold.
Have large incisor teeth and they gnaw on their food.
3. Flying mammals - They feed at night and rest
during the day. They rely on echolocation instead of their
eyes for locating and capturing food at night though they
are not blind.
4. Flesh-eating mammals- carnivores - Their main
method of getting food is to kill and eat other animals.
5. Hoofed mammals - Hoofed mammals can have
horns
6. Aquatic or semi-aquatic mammals - They are well-
adapted to life in the ocean. They have a poor sense of
smell but use sense of taste to detect chemicals on the
water currents and sense of touch for bonding or to
maintain order within the pod.
7. Primates - They have highly developed brains with
intelligence that enables them to develop language,
communicate, and work effectively in their environment.
35.2 Birds
 Birds are generally warm-blooded or endothermic.
They can generate their body heat internally by
their own metabolism.
 Birds are the only animals with feathers.
 Birds lay egg with shells. Their young are hatched
from eggs.
35.3 Fishes
 Fish are cold-blooded animals or ectoderms. A cold-
blooded animal’s body temperature changes when
the temperature of the air or water around it
changes
 Most fish have vertebral column, jaws, paired fins,
scales, gills, and a single loop blood circulation. Fish

breathes with gills. It takes water in through its

mouth.
 Fish lay eggs in water. Their young are hatched
from eggs.
Classification of fish
 Bony fish
 The largest group of fish.
 They are found both in fresh and saltwater habitats.
 they have a bony skeleton and a single pair of external
gills.
 They reproduce through external fertilization similar to
frog.
 Jawless fish - Considered as primitive in form. It is eel-like in
nature, lacking a true jaw.
 Cartilaginous fish
 This group includes sharks, skates, and rays.
 They are so named because instead of bony skeleton,
their internal skeleton consists entirely of tough and
flexible cartilage.
 Their bodies are covered with placoid scales.
35.4 Amphibians
 Amphibians are cold-blooded animals that spend
part of their lives in water and part on land.
 Young amphibians breathe through their gills.
 Amphibians have smooth, moist, and scale-less
skins.
 Amphibians lay eggs in water. Their eggs have no
shells.
Two major groups of amphibians:
1. Tailed amphibians
 The tailed amphibians have long bodies and tails, and have
two pairs of shorts legs for example of tailed amphibians is
the salamander
2. Tailless amphibians
 The tailless amphibians have short, squat bodies and lack
tails. Their large powerful legs are modified for jumping.
Examples of tailless amphibians are adult frogs and toads.
35.5 Reptiles
 Reptiles are cold-blooded vertebrates or
ectotherms.
 Reptiles are ectotherm animals.
 Reptiles are terrestrial animals. They are fully
adapted to life on land.
 Reptiles have dry scaly skin. Some have scales and
others have shell.
 Reptiles primarily breathe through their lungs for
respiration (except for turtles).
 Most reptiles use their legs and feet for
locomotion.

 Some reptiles are born alive and some are hatched

from eggs.
Classification of Invertebrates 36. Invertebrates - animals with backbone.

36.1 Poriferans
 pore bearer; they can produce sexually and
asexually
 It does not have any nervous, digestives, circulatory,
and excretory system.
 It includes: Sponge- can regenerate lost parts.
Regeneration is the ability to grow missing parts.
36.2 Coelenterates
 this group is composed of jellyfish, sea anemones,
corals, hydras, sea whips, sea fans and sea pansies.
 they are characterized with soft body animals with a
hollow central activity.
2 Basic Body Shapes:
1. Polyp - which I cylinder-shaped or vase-shaped
2. Medusa - umbrella-shaped with stinging
tentacles.
36.3 Echinoderms
 is a marine invertebrate characterized by spiny skip,
an endoskeleton, radial symmetry and a water
vascular system.
 most echinoderms have a mouth located on the
underside of their body along with their stomach,
intestines, and anus.
 they have tube-feet with suction pads located on
their tentacles.
 Include: starfish, sea urchin, sea cucumber, feather-
star, basket star, brittle star and crown-of-thorns.
36.4 Mollusks
 this group is composed of snails, slug, clams,
scallops, octopuses, and squids.
 are soft-bodied invertebrates that are often covered
or protected by hard shell.
 mollusks are coelomate animals with bilateral
symmetry, a soft internal body, a digestive tract with
two openings, and a muscular foot and and a
mantle.
 Mollusks are found in aquatic and moist land
environment.
 Some mollusks like squid and octopuses have a
closed circulatory system.
Common characteristics of Mollusks:

1. Mantle - it is the soft outer tissue layer responsible in the

formation of the shell of mollusks.
2. Visceral mass - this contains all the internal organs of the
mollusks such as those included in their circulatory,
reproductive, and digestive system.
3. Open circulatory system - this is characterized by the blood of
mollusks enclosed in vessels in selected places while it remains
open for free flowing in other places.
Classification of mollusks
1. Gastropods (Univalve sea shells) - has a singled shell. It is
represented by snails, conches, and slugs. They have head with
tentacles and a rasping tongue called radula.
2. Pelecypods (Bivalve sea shells) - has two shells. It is
represented by clams, oysters, mussels and scallops.
3. Cephalopods - includes nautiluses, cuttlefish, squids, and
octopuses. Has stirred the imagination of many people.
4. Polyplacophora (chitons) - has the most primitive mollusks.
These marine mollusks have eight overlapping plates. They
have a broad suction of foot which thy use to move slowly
while scraping algae with their radula.
5. Monoplacophora - This group of single-plated mollusks was
discovered only in 1952.
36.5 Worms - are invertebrates that can be found almost

anywhere. They can find in marine, freshwater, and land
habitats. Some worm species helps in improving the
condition of the soil.
Classification of Worms:
1. Flatworms (Platyhelminthes) - The worm of this group is flat
and parasitic. They only have the gut as body cavity- no anus-
and they take in and expel food using the same. They can
produce sexually and asexually.
Examples: planaria, turbellaria, and cestode.
2. Round worms (Nematoda) - Roundworms differ from
flatworms in that they have tube-like digestive system.
3. Segmented worms (Annelia) - This group represents by earth
worms, leeches and polyclaetes; Characterized by round bodies
different into ring light movements
36.6 Arthropods - have segmented bodies covered by a

skeleton called exoskeleton which is composed of chitin, a
tough material. They also have an endoskeleton.
Characteristics of Arthropods
 Segmentation: arthropods have segmented bodies allowing for
efficient and complex movement. They have 3 main body parts:
a head, a thorax, and an abdomen.
 Exoskeleton: arthropods have a hard exoskeleton on the
outside of the body. An exoskeleton provides framework for
support and protects soft body tissue.
 Jointed appendages: arthropods have jointed, and paired
appendages adapted for feeding, sensing, walking, swimming

and mating.
 Feeding habits and structure: the mouth part of most
arthropods includes a pair of appendages called mandible. The
mandible is adapted for chewing and biting. Depending on their
feeding habit, mouthparts of other arthropods have feathery
strainers, sucking straws and stabbing needles.
Classification of Arthropods
1. Arachnids - The bodies of the arachnids are divide into two
segments, namely; the cephalothorax, and the abdomen. The
head and the thorax of arachnids are fused together, hence,
the name, cephalothorax, also called prosoma
Characteristics:
 Arachnids have 4 pairs of walking legs.
 Arachnids have 2 body segments and no antennae.
Most arachnids live on land and a few live on water.
 Some possess spinnerets with which they spin threads
into webs, cocoon, and nests.
Examples: spiders, scorpions, mites, ticks
2. Crustaceans - Have two body regions: cephalothorax and

abdomen. The cephalothorax contains 2 pairs of antennae, 3
pairs of mouth parts and at least 5 pairs of legs.
Characteristics:
 Have 5 pairs of legs for swimming and walking.
 A crustacean’s body is made up of 50 segments, but
most crustaceans have only 19. The body is divided into
3 regions: head, thorax and abdomen.
 Crustaceans are characterized by the presence of two
pairs of antennae located on the head.
 The antennae are organs feet that touch, taste and
handle food. They can hunt food in total darkness using
the antennae.
Types of Crustaceans
1. Copepods - smallest crustaceans
2. Isopods - crustaceans that live on terrestrial
environment.
3. Decapods - Crustaceans with 10 pairs.
3. Myriapods - Means many feet. They have 15 or more pairs

of walking legs, one pair per segment. Their bodies are
covered in chitinous layer.
Examples: Chilopods (centipedes)
Diplopods (Millipedes)
Caring and Protecting The Animals in 37. Philippine Biodiversity

The Environment Rare animals in the Philippines
 their species is becoming few in number and now listed
as endangered or threatened.
1. Endangered species - is one having so few individual
survivors that the certain species of the animals soon

become extinct.
2. Threatened species - is still numerous but is declining
and in number and is likely to become endangered.
38. PAWS Primer - is a volunteer based-based non-government

organization whose goal is to prevent animal cruelty through
education, animal sheltering, and advocacy.
39. Protecting the Wildlife - is an instrument to improve the

economy protected area.
 Wildlife - source of beauty wonder, joy and recreational
pleasure for people.
Reproduction of Spore-Bearing Plants 40. Spore-bearing Plants

 they do not produce seeds but spores which are
reproductive cells that give rise to mature plants.
41.1 Fern Reproduction Cycle

 Fern spores form in a structure called sporangium (plural:
sporangia), and a cluster of sporangia form a surus (plural:
sori).
 If a spore land on damp, rich soil, it can grow and form a tiny
heart-shaped gametophyte called prothallus. Most prothalli
develop both antheridia and archegonia. Antheridia
produce flagellated sperm cells that need water to move to
archegonia.
 When rain wets the plant, the sperm swims to the egg cells.
A sperm fertilizes an egg cell. If fertilization occurs, a
sporophyte is formed. Initially, a sporophyte grows on the
prothallus and receives nutrition and support
 Later, the prothallus disintegrates or dies and sporophyte
develops fronds and a rhizome and the cycle of a fern
continues.
41.2 Moss Reproduction and Life Cycle

 Mosses are non-vascular plants
 Their life cycle undergo alternation of generations
 The dominant or larger generation in mosses is the
gametophyte generation. The gametophyte generation is
leafy and upright. The reproductive organs are formed at
the tip of the gametophyte. Just like ferns, water is needed
for fertilization to take place.
 The embryo formed from the gametophyte generation
consists of a foot that is embedded in the tissues of the
gametophyte stalk that holds the capsule which contains
the spores. The sporophyte is dependent on the green
gametophyte for food. The sporophyte dries off once the
spores are released by meiosis. Spores develop by mitosis
to form gametophytes which are the common green, leafy
and upright.

Reproduction of Cone-Bearing Plants 41. Cone-bearing Plants

 are primarily wind pollinated and bear seeds in an open
cone
41.1 Angiosperm
 these are flower-bearing plants. They have true roots,
stems, leaves, and flowers.
41.2 Gymnosperm
 these plants produce seeds in cone. Their seeds are
“naked seed”; they are not covered with fruits.
 examples: pines and firs
41.3 Life Cycle of the Conifer

 Conifer are vascular plants and are classifies as
nonflowering plants. Plants belonging to the
conifer division are called “evergreens” due to the
green needle-like leaves.
 The reproductive structure of conifers develops in
cones. Most conifers have male and female cones
on different branches of the same tree or shrub.
Conifers have two kinds of cones- pollen cone and
seed cone. A pollen cone is a male cone that makes
pollen grains. The pollen spreads through the air.
The seed cone is the female cone that produces an
egg cell.
 When conifer pollen grains land near the opening
of an ovule, it can be trapped in an sticky substance
called pollen drop. When this happens, pollination
occurs. A tube grows from the pollen grains into
egg cells in the cone. A sperm enters an egg cell
and fertilizes the egg and later forms a zygote. The
zygote undergoes cell division that results in the
formation of an embryo with one or more
cotyledons. As the embryo develops, the outside
layer of the ovule forms a seed coat. Seed
development can take as long as three years. When
seed matures, the female cone opens and releases
them. A seed that lands in a place with enough
water, soil, and sunlight can grow into a new plant.
This new plant will grow into a mature conifer and
produce more seeds.
Propagation of Plants 42. Asexual Reproduction

 Asexual reproduction does not require a sperm cell and an
egg cell.
 It is the formation of new plant that grow from existing
plant parts.
43. Plant Survival

 Plant adaptations are ways on how a plan can survive

the different environmental factors where it is

exposed.
1. Dispersal
 Dispersal or dissemination refers to the transfer of
fruits and seeds to far places where they can germinate
and continue their survival under favorable conditions
such as fertile soil and abundant sunlight.
Types of Dispersal
a. Wind dispersal- seeds distributed by the breeze or
wind are light and buoyant, thus, they are easily
carried of.
b. Water dispersal- Running streams and rivers and
even the sea help contribute the seeds to different
areas.
c. Animal dispersal- Animals including humans are
also agents of dispersal.
2. Tropism
 The turning or bending movement of a plant or a part
of a plant toward or away from an external stimulus,
such as light, heat, or gravity is called tropism.
Types of Tropism
a. Chemotropism - This is a movement caused by
chemical stimulus in organisms such as bacteria
and plants.
b. Gravitropism - It is a turning or growth
movement by a plant in response to gravity.
c. Hydrotropism - It is a growth response in
plants in which the direction of growth is
determined by a stimulus or gradient in water
concentration.
d. Heliotropism - It is the diurnal motion of plant
parts (flowers or leaves) in response to the
direction of the sun.
e. Phototropism - the direction of growth is
determined by the direction of the light source.
f. Thermotropism - It is the movement of a plant
or plant part in response to changes in
temperature.
g. Thigmotropism - It is the movement of a plant
in response to contact (touch) stimuli. It is
exhibited by climbing plants such as vine
tendrils when they cling to walls or around a
tree trunk or pole.
h. Nastic movement - It is nondirectional
response to stimuli as is exhibited by the
makahiya plant.
Components of An Ecosystem 44. Components of an Ecosystem

 Biosphere - is the region of the earth that supports life. It
extends from the deepest parts of the ocean to the highest
mountains.

 Ecology - is the study of these environment and organisms

they support.
 The living factors in an environment are called
biotic factors while the nonliving factors are called
abiotic factors. The interaction of the living and
nonliving factors in an environment makes up an
ecosystem.
44.1 Biotic Factors

 Biotic factors in an ecosystem include the plants,
animals and other living organisms. The existence
of biotic factors in an ecosystem depends greatly
on the conditions of the ecosystems.
 Every organism in an ecosystem is there for a
reason. They have a role to play in the ecosystem.
This role is called their ecological niche. All roles
are necessary for the ecosystem to survive.
Organisms could either be a producer, consumer
and decomposer.
a. Roles of Organisms in an ecosystem

1. Producers
 are organisms that are capable of making their
own food. They are also known as autotrophs (
auto – self:, troph - feeder ). Producers make
their food through a process called
photosynthesis.
2. Consumers
 also known as heterotrophs ( hetero – other;
troph – feeder ). As the name suggest, they eat
others because they are not capable of making
their own food. They rely on pre-formed food.
3. Decomposers
 These are the third group of an organisms in
ecosystems. They are the organisms that feed
on decaying matter by breaking down the
organic remains of the body into simpler
nutrients. Bacteria and fungi are common
decomposers.
b. Transfer of energy in ecosystem

 The ultimate source of energy is the sun. The
sun gives off heat and light energy.
1. Energy pyramid
 The amount of energy passed on in each
feeding level is seen in the energy
pyramid. As you can see, most of the
energy is at the producer’s level. As the
feeding continues organisms get less and
less of the original energy that entered the
ecosystem. The higher you are in the

energy pyramid, the lesser the energy you

will receive.
2. Food web
 A food web is a better representation of
eating and being eaten in an ecosystem.
 Producers like plant are the first part of
the food chain. Some of the energy of the
plant is passed on the caterpillar that has
eaten of its leaves.
45.2 Abiotic factors

 Nonliving factors in an ecosystem are very important
because they determine the kinds of organisms
perform vital functions like growth, feeding and
development.
1. Light
 is a primary source of energy in any ecosystem.
It is the form of energy used by producers such a
plants to manufacture food through
photosynthesis.
2. Temperature
One of the determining factors for the kinds of
organism living in an ecosystem is temperature.
Many plants require specific temperature to
germinate and develop.
3. Water
Water is essential to all living things. Organisms
thrive in an environment where they can
acquire sufficient water for their needs. Plants
and animals that live on land have body parts
that prevent their bodies from losing too much
water.
Ecological Relationships 45. Ecological Relationships

1. Mutualism
 is usually called a give and take relationship because
the organisms involved in this interaction both benefit
from relationship.
2. Commensalism
 One organism benefits while the other is neither
harmed nor benefitted.
3. Parasitism
 A parasite is an organism that causes harm to another
organism by living inside its body or on skin. They suck
the nutrients from the body of its victim, also called
host. The host is harmed in the process, while the
parasite benefits from the relationship.
4. Predation
 In predation, size does not really matter. This is a
relationship that involves a strong organism, the
predator, and a weak one, the prey. The predator hunt,

kills and eats the prey.

5. Competition
 This is a relationship where organisms have similar
needs and they compete to get them.
6. Cooperation
 Cooperation is an ecological relationship where
organisms work together for their survival. Some
species of ants show cooperation. They thrive in
colonies and work together to gather food and protect
the colony.
Interaction Between Living Things and 46. Tropical Rainforest Ecosystem

Non-Living Things in Tropical  Tropical rainforest are very dense, warm and wet forest
Rainforest located in the band of equator, mostly in the area of
tropic of cancer. Tropical rainforest are found in South
America, Australia, Southern India and Southeast Asia.
The Philippines has tropical rainforests.
a. Components of a Tropical Rainforest

1. Abiotic Factors – Physical Conditions
 The tropical rainforest has a climate that has
warm temperature and a large amount of
rainfall.
 The tropical rainforest has tall trees about 30
to 55 meters in height.
2. Biotic Components – Plants and Animals
 The tropical rainforest is most diverse of all
land biomes. Tropical rainforests are a haven
for millions of plants and animals in the world
are found in the rainforest.
 Plant Species - The tropical rainforest has a
complex structure with many levels of life.
 Animal Species - Most animals in the rainforest
live in different layers of trees. Some animals
like lemurs and monkeys spend their life in the
forest canopy. Birds live in emergent, and a
large population of insects live in the
understory.
b. Layers of the Rainforest

1. Emergent
 Tall giant trees that are much higher than the
average canopy height. The emergent trees are 130
to 180 feet tall. These trees takes up a lot of
sunlight but are also exposed to wind.
2. Canopy
 The canopy has tall slender trees from a dense
platform of vegetation with 60 to 130 feet off the
ground. Catching most of the sunshine, the canopy
is a home of large biodiversity of plants and
animals.

3. Understory
 The understory rises about 60 feet and consist of
trunks of canopy, shrubs, small plants and trees.
The understory has dark and cool environment
with very high humidity with constant shade.
4. Forest Floor
 The forest floor is deep shade, and plant life is thin.
The light from the sun is blocked by the upper layer
of the forest.
C. Interaction in the Tropical Rainforest

* Food Chain - A linear series of feeding relationship.
* Food wed - Interconnected food chain
- There are multiple interactions among the
different types of organisms.
d. Types of Interaction
1. Mutualism
 A type of symbiotic interaction of two organisms
living together wherein both benefit from the
association.
2. Commensalism
 One organism benefits while the other is neither
harmed nor benefitted.
3. Predation
 Is the consumption of one living organism, plant or
animal by another. It is also known as predator and
prey relationship
4. Competition
 This is a relationship where organisms have similar
needs and they compete to get them.
5. Cooperation
 Cooperation is an ecological relationship where
organisms work together for their survival. Some
species of ants shows cooperation. Each member
has specific task to do.
e. Threats in Tropical Rainforest

1. Deforestation
 The conversion of large forest areas into
agricultural land or for industrial and commercial
interest is one of the main reasons for the decline
in tropical rainforest. This is clearing of forest.
2. Logging
 Loss and degradation of the forest is attributed to
large scale logging. While they are many statistics
about the rate of logging, much of the logging are
undocumented and rapidly depleting forest
resources.
3. Hunting
 Hunting does not only decrease the number of

these organisms, but it destroys the ecological

balance in the forest. In the long run, this
imbalance may cause the entire ecosystem to
collapse.
Protecting and Conserving Tropical 47. Importance of Tropical Rainforest Ecosystems

Rainforests 1. The Forest provides habitat for animals and plants.
2. The Forest helps maintain global climate.
3. The Forest provides materials for construction
48. Protection and Conservation of Tropical Rainforest

1. Reforestation Program
Planting trees to vacant lots and replanting of land
abandoned by timber companies or settlers is a
strategy that can provide wood and other products for
present and future generations.
2. Advocacy Campaigns to fight Deforestation
The Youth for Environment Organization (YES-O) is an
organization in schools that help to protect the
environment and fight deforestation.
3. Ecosystem Approach
 This is an approach which establishes legally protected
wilderness areas and wildlife reserves. Republic Act
7586 or National Integrated Protected Areas System
(NIPAS) law has been enacted to maintain and protect
areas. This law prohibits any form of human disrupting
activities in the protected areas.
4. Strict Implementation of Law on Environmental
Protection
The government through the Department of
Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) is taking
its lead to protect and conserve the Philippines natural
resources. Several laws have been enacted to protect
and conserve environment particularly the rainforest.
P.D. No. 1152 “The Philippine Environment cod “ is a
law that states that government shall pursue a system
of careful use and conservation of wildlife resources.
P.D. 389 “The Forestry Reform Code” as amended by
P.D. 705, emphasizes the sustainable utilization of
forest resources.
P.D. No. 330 and P.D. 953 prohibit illegal cutting of
trees; prohibit illegal cutting of trees;
P.D. 331 requires all public forest to be developed on
sustained-yield basis.
Interaction Between Living Thing and 49. Coral Reef Ecosystem

Non-Living Things In Coral Reefs Coral reefs are part of the marine biome and sometimes
called “Rainforest of the Sea”. They are built of millions of
tiny animals called “coral polyps”. They live together in
colony or groups.
Coral reefs are home to a variety and an amazing number

of creatures.
 Tubbataha Reef
 Tubbataha reef is National Marine Park through
Proclamation No. 306 on August 11, 1988.
Commercial fishing an collecting of corals are
considered illegal within 33,200 hectares of their
reefs and surrounding areas. The reef is a home of
nearly 400 species of fish and bird species. The
Tubbataha reef is located in the middle of central
Sulu Sea, and 98 Nautical miles southeast of Puerto
Prinsesa, Palawan. It is composed of two large
shallow reef platforms enclosing sandy lagoon.
 Coral Reef
 is a marine biome.
 Marine Ecosystem
 Is composed of living and nonliving things. The living
part of ecosystem consists of the different species or
organisms. Each species is a part of an ecosystem’s
populations.
 Marine Community
 The different population makes up marine
community. The different populations in the
marine ecosystems interact with each other and
their environment.
50.1 Biotic Components - Such as fish, crustaceans

mammals, mollusks, cnidarians, echinoderms and sponges
50.2 Abiotic Components - -Like water and sand.
50.3 Factors that contribute to Reef Formation

1. Light Penetration
2. Temperature
3. Water Movement
4. Stable Salinity
50.4 Categories of Coral Reefs

1. Fringing Reefs
- Hug the shore of continents or islands.
2. Barrier Reefs
- Stand between the open sea and a lagoon. The
Great Barrier Reef which stretches for nearly
2,000 km off the northeast coast of Australia,
stands some distance off shore.
3. Coral Atolls
- are coral reefs enclosing a lagoon. They consist
of coral islet that built up from a submerged
oceanic island and a ring lagoon.
50.5 Interactions in Marine Ecosystem – Coral Reefs

1. Predation - Occurs between big and small fishes.

Big fishes are predators in the ecosystem. They eat

small fishes as their food
2. Competition - Occurs when two or more organisms

compete for resources like food and space. Algal
population compete space with young corals and
corals also compete among themselves.
3. Mutualism - Corals are indeed animals that they

depend survival on photosynthetic protists called
“zooxanthellae” that live on their tissue. Coral and
zooxanthellae show mutualism. Both organisms are
benefited. Mutualism also occurs in the coral reef
ecosystem where both organisms benefited.
4. Commensalism - Also occurs in marine organisms.

Barnacles are often found fixed to rocky surfaces,
even on the skin of whales and turtles. The
barnacles are commensals while the whales are the
host. Barnacles are benefitted while the host is
neither benefitted nor harm.
5. Parasitism - Is another symbiotic relationship

which one organism is benefitted while the other
one is harmed. Parasitism is evident between the
worm living in the fish and the fish itself.
Interaction Between Living Thing And 51 Mangrove Swamps Ecosystem

Non-Living Things In Mangrove  A mangrove swamp ecosystem has plants (mostly
Swamps mangroves) and animals like crustaceans and migratory
birds. Mangroves are an important part of the coastal and
marine ecosystem that includes sea grass and coral reefs.
 A swamp is a low elevation of fresh, brackish, or saltwater
wetlands that are dominated
51.1 Components of Mangrove Swamps Ecosystem

a. Biotic Components of Mangrove
 A variety of marine and terrestrial life are found
among the mangroves. Animals inhabit the
mangrove canopy like the egret and other birds.
Other animals like fish and crustaceans live in water
underneath the mangrove root system.
 Other animals living in mangrove swamps are the
mangrove monitor lizards, mudskippers and
crustaceans such as shrimp and crabs. Migratory
birds such as pelicans, spoonbills and bald eagles
are also found in this habitat.
51.2 Interactions in Mangrove Ecosystem

 The living things in mangrove ecosystem interact
with their environment. Mangrove plants have

structural and physiological adaptations. These

adaptations enable them to live successfully in a
mangrove swamp environment.
52 Importance of Mangroves
1. Mangroves serve as breeding or nesting grounds of different
species.
2. Mangroves are important habitats of different organisms.
3. Mangroves act as natural barrier and flood defense.
4. Mangroves provide a source of livelihood.
Protecting and Conserving Coral Reefs 53 Threats in Coral Reefs

and Mangrove Swamps Corals are being threatened in the world due to many factors. One
is bleaching. Corals turn white when they die. Due to increasing
environmental temperature, some of the world’s shallow water
corals die.
54 Importance of Coral Reefs

1. Coral reefs are the natural habitats for many sea animals like
sponges, mollusks, crustaceans and echinoderms.
2. Coral Reefs are the breeding ground of fishes and other
forms of marine life.
3. Coral reefs provide rich sources of marine food.
4. Coral reefs serve as a rich recreational area and provide
entertainment to people who enjoy exploring underwater
marine life
5. Coral reefs protect coastlines from strong waves and water
currents.
56. Threats in Mangrove Swamps

1. Muro-ami fishing
 Destructive activities of men. They use dynamite,
sodium cyanide and grenade.
 Illegal fishing method which involves bounding rocks on
the coral reefs catches a fish.
2. Coral Bleaching
 which is thought to be caused by rising water
temperatures is also cause of the coral reef
destruction.
57. Protection and Conservation of the Coral Reefs and Mangrove

Ecosystem
1. The Pollution Control Law
 Control of marine pollution must be priority
program of the government. Reusing, recycling and
safety collecting and treating waste can reduce
problems on pollution. It amended by executive
order 192 must be fully implemented to solve
pollution problems.
2. P.D. No. 704

 National policy the prevention of optimum

productivity of fishery resources through
conservation and protection.
3. Fisheries Code of the Philippines
 Defines the policies of the state in protection,
conservation, and effective management of fisheries
stock as well as identifying allowable fishing
methods in the Philippines coastal waters.
Protection and Conservation Of 58. Ecosystem Conservation

Ecosystem a. Strategies in Protecting and Conserving Ecosystem
1. Conserving the Needs and Living things
2. Soil Conversion
Soil conversion helps restore the nutrients of the
soil. Soil conversion involves employing agricultural
soil management methods.
3. Water Conservation
b. Protecting forests, coral reefs and mangrove swamps

ecosystems
 People cut down trees for several purposes; to acquire
lumber, to clear the land for farming and to build roads
and residencies. When trees are cut down, forest and
animals lose their homes. Protecting the forest is also a
way of protecting our wildlife.
c. Habitat Restoration
1. Building a man-made fish sanctuary will restore the
marine ecosystem. In addition, reducing over fishing
may restore the marine ecosystem.
2. Reforestation or replanting a forest will help restore
the forest ecosystem and the wildlife in it.
3. Mangrove Rehabilitation: Mangroves are cleared for
property development, waste dumping and
commercial fish farming. Mangroves should be
protected and conserved.
d. Wildlife Conservation
1. Protect Sanctuary
A sanctuary is a placed declared by the government
as a protected area, such as; The Calauit Game
Reserved and Sanctuary in Palawan, The Tubbataha
Reef, and San Salvador Island Marine Reserve an
Fish Sanctuary in the Municipality of Masinloc,
Zambales.
2. Support Projects of the government in protecting the

wildlife ecosystem, such as; The Pawikan
Conservation Project, The Philippine Tarsier
Conservation Project, and The Philippine eagle
Conservation Project

3. Visit captive breeding areas

 Captive breeding saves endangered species.
Captive is done in the zoo or in specialized
animals clinic.
4. Do not buy products made from animal parts.
5. Join Organization that conduct educational

campaigns and give information on how to protect
and conserve the wildlife ecosystems.
7. Help raise funds to support projects for wildlife

conservation.
References:
Adduru, M. Q., Valencia, N. G., Catris, L. V. (2015). Cyber Science: Worktext in Science and
Technology 6. Quezon City, Philippines: REX Prining, Company, Inc.
Padpad, E. C., Apolinario, N. A, Santos, G. C. (2017). The New Science Links: Worktext in Science and
Technology 6. Quezon City, Philippines: REX Prining, Company, Inc.
Castaneda, P. A. (2016). The Amazing World of Science 6. Makati City, Philippines: Don Bosco Press,
Inc.
Prepared by:
BALAURO, WENSLETTE IMEE C.

CARBONELL, MA. CRISTINA G.
DE GUZMAN, LOWEE ANTONETTE M.
FRANCISCO, CHERIES ANNE B.
LIMBAUAN, KRYSTEL FAE M.
MAMUAD, ASTRID D.
PIÑERA, SHANE ANDREA LEE D.
SALVACION, JACQUELYN E.
UY, NICOLE M.
YASAY, LORELEI E.
BEED – 2A
Checked by:
JULIUS C. PUMARAS
Subject Mentor, ELED100


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College of Teacher Education

LIST OF SCIENCE CONCEPTS TO BE DEVELOPED

Subject Matter Science Concepts

1.1 Types of Muscles

1.2 How Muscles Work

Parts and Functions of the Skeletal 2. The Skeletal System

2.1 Bones (tulang)

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 Is a tough structure in the body that is made up of

2.2 Types of Bone

2.4 Joints - is the place where two bones meet.

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 these joints provide for many different kinds of

2.6 The Skeleton

b. Appendicular Skeleton – it is the part of the human

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5. How Are Muscles Connected to the Bones?

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5. Cramps – are involuntary muscles contraction causing

7. Caring for the Musculoskeletal System

Parts and Functions of the 8. Integumentary System

8.1 Structures of the Integumentary System

8.2 Accessory Structures of the Integumentary System

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1. Oil Glands (sebaceous glands)

Mechanism of the Major Organs of 9. Functions of the Integumentary System

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11. Caring for Our Integumentary System

Parts and Functions of the Digestive 12. The Digestive System

13. Structures/Parts of the Digestive System and their Functions

13.2 Esophagus - a long muscular tube that connects the

13.3 Stomach - The stomach is a macular J-shaped organ

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producing gastric juices that mix with the bolus

13.4 Liver - is the largest gland in the body. It secretes bile

13.5 Pancreas - produces pancreatic juices that neutralize

13.6 Small Intestine – is where final digestion happens and

13.7 Large Intestine – is also known as colon. This is a large

13.8 Appendix – is a small narrow tube located at the

Mechanism of the Major Organs of 14. Functions of the Digestive System

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digested food into the cells of the body.

15. Digestive Process

b. Chemical Phase of Digestion

17. Good Eating Habits

Parts and Functions of the  The Respiratory System

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depends on the activity level of the body

 The Upper Respiratory Tract

 The Lower Respiratory Tract

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Mechanism of the Major Organs of 18. Mechanism of Breathing

 Exhalation - during exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and

19. The Path of Air

21. Healthful Habits for our Respiratory System

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Parts and Functions of Circulatory 22. The Circulatory System

23. Parts and Functions of the Circulatory System

b. Heartbeat - At rest, the average heartbeat is 60 to 100

c. Heart sounds - As the chambers of the heart

23.2 Blood - The liquid medium that is constantly flowing

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4. Red Blood Cell