UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS

COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE
Beato Angelico Bldg., España Blvd., Manila, Philippines

METALS & METAL BY-PRODUCTS: FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS

METALS

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements in

ARC1112 : Building Technology 01

Submitted by:

Cervantes, Ticcia Kaye P.

Gaffud, Alyssa Rae N.
Macula, Lira Monica E.
Olea, Monaree Loi T.
Ylen, Christine Joyce G.

1AR-6

Submitted to:

AR. JOSE JR. F. SAGUINDAN

Instructor 5

1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
1.0 Ferrous Metals 3
1.1 Manufacturing Process 3
1.2 Environmental Effects 5
1.3 Application in Building Construction 6
1.3.1 Cast Iron 6
1.3.2 Wrought Iron 10
1.3.3 Galvanized Iron 11
1.3.4 Steel 14

2.0 Non-ferrous Metals 15

2.1 Common non-ferrous metals 15
2.1.1 Aluminum 15
2.1.2 Berrylium 15
2.1.3 Copper 16
2.1.4 Lead 16
2.1.5 Magnesium 17
2.1.6 Nickel 17
2.1.7 Precious Metals 18
2.1.8 Refractory Metals 18
2.1.9 Tin 18
2.1.10 Titanium 18
2.1.11 Zinc 20
2.1.12 Zirconium 20
2.2 Application in Building Construction 21
2.3 Metal Forming Processes 21
2.3.1 Bulk Deformation 21
2.3.2 Sheet Forming 25

References 28

2
 CHAPTER 1

FERROUS METALS

The name ferrous came from the Latin word ‘ferrum’ which means “iron”. Metallic

iron is extracted from iron ores. It usually comes in the form of magnetite (Fe3O4), hematite

(Fe2O3), goethite (FeO(OH)), limonite (FeO(OH).n(H2O)) or siderite (FeCO3).

Ferrous metals are metals who are mostly made from iron, specifically, pig iron, and

carbon. Pig iron is a reduced product of iron ore that underwent into a blast furnace in a process

called smelting. It comprises of 93% iron, around 3%-5% carbon, and percentage of other

elements. Having iron as one of the dominant components makes these metals magnetic. One

special characteristic of this kind of metal is that it can be modified through two different ways:

heat application or alloy elements addition, which helps it achieve the desirable property of the

metal. 5% of the Earth’s crust is made up of iron ore making this kind of metal as the most

abundant in commercial uses.

Addition of the following may change the property of the metal and enhance

performance:

 Nickel: improves toughness and hardness

 Silicon: improves hardness

 Vanadium: improves toughness, shock resistance, and strength

 Chromium: increases resistance to wear and tear; improves durability

1.1 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

a. Bessemer Process

Bessemer Process was invented in 1855 and was named after its

inventor, Henry Bessemer. Its invention was the pioneering inexpensive

industrial process for the mass-production of steel from molten pig iron. The

3
 main principle of the process is the removal of impurities from the iron through

oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron. Oxidation also

increases the temperature of iron mass and keeps it molten. The process is

carried out on in a large ovoid steel contained lined with clay or dolomite called

the Bessemer converter.

Figure 1 Bessemer Process. Retrieved from

https://makezine.com/2015/07/29/how-henry-bessemer-helped-forge-the-age-of-steel/

b. Steel Open Hearth Process

Open Hearth Process is also called Siemens-martin Process named after

William Siemens. A steel-making technique used mostly in the 20th century.

The process directing the fumes from the furnace through a brick checkerwork,

then heats the brick to a high temperature. It uses the same pathway to introduce

air into the furnace increasing the flame temperature.

Figure 2 Steel Open Hearth Process. Retrieved from

https://www.metalfurnace.ooo/2018/10/design-and-process-of-open-hearth.html

4
 c. Steel L D Process (Basic Oxygen Process)

Steel L D Process or Basic Oxygen Process is a steelmaking method where pure

oxygen is blown into a mixture of molten-blast furnace iron and scrap. The

oxygen initiates a heat-releasing reaction, including the oxidation of impurities

such as carbon, silicon, manganese and phosphorus. The basic oxygen furnace

is a vertical cylindrical vessel that has a closed bottom with an open upper cone

with a water-cooled lance.

Figure 3 Basic Oxygen Process. Retrieved from https://slideplayer.com/slide/4576642/

1.2 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS

The problem with the ferrous metals are the scraps as they may contain toxic chemicals

that may seep into the environment especially when dumped in waste dumps.

As a solution to this problem, recycling units collects scrap ferrous metals easily using

magnets, which will they now recycle through remelting, recasting, and redrawing processes.

Recycling scrap metals are considerably cheaper than creating a new metal from scratch. It has

also been proven in different studies that the strength if recycled metals are the same with new

metals.

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1.3 APPLICATION IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

1.3.1 CAST IRON

Cast Iron is a non- malleable iron-based alloy which has 2% to 4.5% of carbon and

0.5% to 3% of silicon. It may serve both structural and ornamental purposes. It is formed

through smelting which is the process of extracting ore through the process of melting and

heating, then pouring into a mold. However, this type of material cannot be bent or

stretched. Cast iron is commonly used in sanitary fittings such as manhole covers, sewer

pipes, and water pipes, as well as gates, lamp posts, metal columns, and metal staircases.

The following are the commonly used varieties of cast iron: (1) Grey Cast Iron, (2)

Malleable Cast Iron, (3) Nodular Cast Iron, (4) Chilled Cast Iron, (5) White Cast Iron, &

(6) Alloy Cast Iron

i. GREY CAST IRON

This type of cast iron is typically used in foundry work. The term “grey”

is coined because of its property of producing a fractured section of greyish

color if it is machined or broken. The presence of grey color indicates that

it possesses carbon in the form of free graphite. A good attribute of grey cast

iron is that the free graphite found in its structure acts as a lubricant. This is

appropriate for those component/products where sliding action is required.

Other properties are good machinability, high compressive strength, low

tensile strength, and no ductility.

Figure 4 Figure 4 Grey Cast Iron, Retrieved January 31, 2019,

from http://www.metals-china.com/blog.files/why-is-grey-cast-iron-so-
popular-properties-and-uses.jpg

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ii. MALLEABLE CAST IRON

From white cast iron, malleable cast iron can be produced from

it. Malleable cast iron is generated by placing white cast iron under suitable

heat treatment, i.e., annealing. This process separates the combined carbon

of white cast iron into free graphite. In addition, it is ductile and can be bent

without it being ruptured or breaking it into fractures. Its tensile strength is

higher compared to those other and has excellent machining qualities.

Malleable cast iron components are usually used in place of forged steel or

parts where there are sections that has forging issue. This material is

principally applied in rail, road automotive, and pipe fittings etc.

Figure 5 Malleable Cast Iron, Retrieved January 31, 2019, from

https://static.esska.de/shop/bilder/hauptbilder_neu/96_verschraubungen/
961_temperguss/9618/961896000000_700.jpg

iii. NODULAR CAST IRON

Also known as “spheroidal graphite iron” or “ductile/high-strength

cast iron”. This type of cast iron is produced from combining magnesium to

molten cast iron. The presence of magnesium allows graphite of cast iron to

transform from flakes into spheroidal or nodular form. In such a way, the

mechanical properties of the cast iron is remarkably improved. Strength is

increased, yield points are improved, and brittleness is reduced. Notable

properties of nodular cast iron are high fluidity which permits castings of

intricate shape. Nodular cast iron components are mainly utilized in castings
7
 where density as well as pressure tightness is highly required. The

applications include hydraulic cylinders, valves, pipes and pipe fittings,

cylinder head for compressors, diesel engines, etc.

Figure 6 Nodular Cast Iron, Retrieved January 31, 2019, from

http://www.metals-china.com/blog.files/comparison-of-nodular-cast-iron-and-
cast-iron-cast-steel.jpg

iv. CHILLED CAST IRON

The exterior of all casting gets chilled to a controlled depth about 1 – 2

mm during the process of pouring and solidification of molten metal after

encountering cool sand of mold. Chilled cast irons are utilized on any face

of casting which are required to be hard enough to withstand wear and

friction. Chilled castings are employed in producing stamping dies and

crushing rolls railway, wheels cam followers, etc.

Figure 7 Chilled Cast Iron Roll , Retrieved January 31, 2019, from
https://3.imimg.com/data3/DU/PV/MY-7422294/chilled-cast-iron-
roll-500x500.jpg

v. WHITE CAST IRON

White cast iron contains carbon in the form of iron carbide Fe C 3

(cementite). From an engineering perspective, white cast iron has limited

application because of its poor machinability, and possessing, in general,

relatively poor mechanical properties. However, it is still used in inferior

8
 casting and places where hard coating is needed, i.e., outer surface of car

wheels. In addition, white cast irons are used as raw materials to produce

malleable cast iron.

vi. ALLOY CAST IRON

Alloy cast irons are added as alloying elements to cast iron to improve

Figure 8 White Cast Iron, Retrieved January 31, 2019, from http://www.metals-
china.com/blog.files/comparison-of-nodular-cast-iron-and-cast-iron-cast-steel.jpg

inherent deficiencies in ordinary cast iron to provide the requisite

characteristic for specific purposes. It is extremely tough, wear resistant

and non-magnetic steel about 12 – 14% manganese should be added. The

following are the common alloying cast iron used in various industries:

1. Nickel: Enhances corrosion resistance, tensile strength, toughness, and

ductility

2. Chromium: Improves corrosion resistance, hardness, toughness, when

added to steel.

3. Boron: Increases hardenability; useful when alloyed with low carbon

steels.

4. Cobalt: Combined with high speed steels to improve thermal

resistance, toughness, hardness, tensile strength, and magnetic

properties. It acts as a grain purifier.

5. Tungsten: Improves toughness, hardness, shock resistance, wear

resistance, magnetic reluctance and ability to retain hardness at

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 elevated temperatures. Also provides abrasion resistance and hardness

properties to steel.

6. Molybdenum: Enhances hardness, wear resistance, thermal resistance,

ability to retain mechanical properties at high temperatures and aids

inhibit temper brittleness.

7. Vanadium: Improves elastic limit, hardenability of steel, tensile

strength, shock resistance, ductility and also acts as a degasser when

added to molten steel.

8. Niobium: Improves fine grain growth, ductility, decreases

hardenability and substantially improves the impact strength.

1.3.2 WROUGHT IRON

The meaning of “wrought” is that a metal retains sufficient ductility in order to permit

hot and/or cold deformation. Wrought iron is the purest iron with a small amount of slag

forged out into fibres. The typical composition suggests 99 percent of iron and traces of

carbon, phosphorus, manganese, silicon, sulphur, and slag. During the production process,

first all elements in iron (may be C, S, Mn, Si and P) are eliminated leaving almost pure

iron molten slag. In order to remove the excess slag, the final mix is then squeezed in a

press and reduced to billets by rolling milling. The resulting material would consist of pure

iron separated by thin layers of slag material. The slag characteristic of wrought iron is

beneficial in blacksmithy/forging operations and provides the material its peculiar fibrous

structure. Further, the non-corrosive slag constituent makes wrought iron resistant to

progressive corrosion and also helps in reducing the effect of fatigue caused by shocks and

vibrations.

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 Wrought iron is highly malleable which enables it to be fashioned through the heating

of the metal then using tools to help turn it to its final form. Wrought iron is tough,

malleable and ductile and possesses ultimate tensile strength of 350 N/mm2. Its melting

point is 1530°C. It can neither be hardened nor tempered like steel. The billets of wrought

iron can be reheated to form bars, plates, boiler tubing, forgings, crane hook, railway

coupling, bolts and nuts, chains, barbed wire, coal handling equipment and cooling towers,

etc. It is often found in objects such as pipes, gates, railings, and beams found in large

construction sites like high rise buildings and bridges.

Figure 10 Wrought Iron Gate, from
http://floridagolfhomepro.com/wp-
content/uploads/2018/05/wrought-iron-
gate-designs-uk-photos-malaysia-main-
design-mschool-info.jpg
Figure 9 Wrought Iron Railing, from
http://zoomrailings.com/wp-
content/uploads/2017/02/Wrought-
Iron-Railings-EXTERIOR-31.jpg
Figure 11 Wrought Iron, Retrieved from
http://nebula.wsimg.com/f6d5d86978eb148
19af2315c8c6fcdea?AccessKeyId=7C50B0541
70BDF73AB52&disposition=0&alloworigin=1

1.3.3. GALVANIZED IRON

Galvanizing involves the application of thin coating of zinc to a base metal to

provide the metal further protection from its environment. This process prevents the base

metal from rusting rapidly, which causes the life of steel to increase. Zinc is used in this

process since it weathers at a slow rate thus, making the coating last long. It also has greater

electro- negativity than iron which then also contributes to the lengthening of its life. The

most common type of galvanizing is called the “Hot Dip Galvanizing” wherein steel strips

are dipped in molten zinc. Galvanized Iron may be used in pipings for cold water plumbing,

roofing, sidewalls, partitions, partition walls, rolling shutters, false ceilings and paint coated

products.

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Figure 12 Galvanized Roofing, from Figure 13Galvanized Pipe, from https://cmeimg- Figure 14 Galvanized Iron Sheet, Retrieved from gi-
https://p.globalsources.com/IMAGES/P a.akamaihd.net/640/photos.demandstudios.com/getty/a sheets-500x500.jpg
DT/BIG/285/B1080721285.jpg rticle/64/229/488046197.jpg

1.3.4. STEEL

Steel is identified as an alloy of iron and carbon, although other alloying components

are also present in various types of steel. The main property of steel is that some alloys

can be reinforced by quench hardening. Moreover, steels are loosely grouped by carbon

content into low carbon steels (<0.35% carbon by weight, approximately) medium carbon

steels (0.35%–0.5% carbon by weight, approximately), and high carbon steels (0.5%–

1.5% carbon by weight, approximately). These numbers may seem to be small, but they

reflect the fact that carbon is a small, light element, while iron is a much larger, heavier

atom.

i. CARBON STEEL

Carbon steel is an unalloyed steel consisting of carbon and iron, wherein

remaining elements namely manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon are

controlled. The carbon content within the steel, determines the hardness of the

metal. The higher carbon content the steel

contains, the harder and stronger it

becomes. Exposure to moisture may also

cause it to rust and corrode. Carbon steel

Figure 15 Carbon steel, Retrieved from
may be used in making beams for https://5.imimg.com/data5/HX/QY/MY-40444195/carbon-
steel-pipes-500x500.jpg

12
 structural framework, rectangular tubing and even plates used in highway

construction.

ii. STAINLESS STEEL

A type of alloy steel containing a

minimum amount of 12% of chromium and

sometimes even nickel, manganese, or

molybdenum. These are added to help increase

its resistance to corrosion. Stainless steel is both Figure 16 Stainless Steel, Retrieved from
https://www.alro.com/Resources/WebResourc
es/AlroCom/GridPoint/Images/Materials/9%20
aesthetic and functional that it is often used in -%20Stainless%20Steel.jpg

creating curtain wall or roofing. It may also be used in providing support to a

structure as well as utilizing the material for safety measures through providing

stone anchors, bollards and railings.

iii. HIGH-STRENGTH ALLOY STEEL

High-Strength Low-Alloy steel or known as “Weathering Steel,” was

originally made for large-diameter oil and gas pipelines, with the intention of

creating a material that has higher strength and toughness compared to mild

carbon steel, as well as decent weldability. It was designed to create a material

that is resistant to atmospheric corrosion than the traditional carbon steel. It can

be used in gas pipelines, storage tanks, mines and power transmission towers.

13
 Zirconium, calcium and other rare earth elements are included to

enhance the formability of the steel.

Vanadium, niobium, copper and

titanium are added to provide more

strength meanwhile; the addition of

silicon, copper, chromium and

phosphorus increases the corrosion Figure 17 High Strength Alloy Steel , Retrieved from
https://ckyeungwlcom.files.wordpress.com/2016/02/hlsa.jpg
resistance of the material.

iv. WEATHERING STEEL

Weathering steel is described as a high strength and low-alloy steel. It

was originally designed to resist atmospheric corrosion and abrasion. Its

corrosion level is very low that bridges that uses this type of material can

probably last up to 120 years with

minimal maintenance. Its exposition to

water causes it to form oxide coating

which aids in the prevention of further

corrosion. Weathering Steel is often

Figure 18 Weathering Steel, Retrieved from
https://ktauniversity.com/wp-
content/uploads/2018/03/Figure-4-497x320.jpg used in steel exposed structures since

the material does not need repetitive repainting and recoating. However, it must

not be used in environments wherein a great amount of chlorine is present due

to the high amount of corrosives which the rust protective layer could possibly

not withstand. It is usually used in bridges, roofing and even open framed

buildings.

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v. MILD STEEL

Mild steel has low carbon percentage ranging from 0.1 to 0.3%. Low

carbon mild steel is more ductile, machinable and wieldable than other steels.

However, it is hard for mild steel

to be strengthened through

heating and quenching. Mild

steel is usually used for structural

steel, automobiles, wire, fencing

Figure 19 Mild Steel, Retrieved from
https://5.imimg.com/data5/OG/MU/MY-7423880/mild-steel-angle-bar- and nails.
500x500.jpg

15
 CHAPTER 2

NON-FERROUS METALS

Non-ferrous metals are metals that contain little to no amount of iron. This includes

metals such as aluminum, copper, lead, zinc, tin, gold, silver, etc. This type exhibit low strength

when under high temperatures. Its malleability, compared to ferrous metals, is considered an

advantage making it easier to fabricate than ferrous metals, i.e., casting welding, machining

and rolling.

2.1 Types of Non-Ferrous Metals

2.1.1 Aluminum

 Though light in weight, commercially pure

aluminum has a tensile strength of about 13,000

psi. Cold working the metal approximately

doubles its strength. In other attempts to

Figure 20 Aluminum, from
increase strength, aluminum is alloyed with https://www.metalmensales.com/images/aluminumextrusion
s.jpg

elements such as manganese, silicon, copper,

magnesium, or zinc. The alloys can also be strengthened by cold working. Some alloys

are further strengthened and hardened by heat treatments. Its high reflectivity of

infrared and visible radiation makes it used for headlights, light fixtures, and many other

insulations and also used as a paint pigment.

2.1.2 Beryllium

 Among structural metals, beryllium has a unique

combination of properties. It has low density (two-

thirds that of aluminum), high modulus per weight

(five times that of ultrahigh-strength steels), high Figure 21 Beryllium Rod, from
https://4.imimg.com/data4/FG/UV/MY-
6946166/beryllium-copper-rod-500x500.jpg

16
 specific heat, high strength per density, excellent dimensional stability, and

transparency to X-rays. Beryllium is expensive, however, and its impact strength is low

compared to values for most other metals. Available forms include block, rod, sheet,

plate, foil, extrusions, and wire. Machining blanks, which are machined from large

vacuum hot pressings, make up the majority of beryllium purchases.

2.1.3 Copper

 Copper conducts electricity at a rate 97% that of silver and is the standard for electrical

conductivity. Copper provides a diverse range of

properties: good thermal and electrical conductivity,

corrosion resistance, ease of forming, ease of joining, and

color. In addition, however, copper and its alloys have

relatively low strength-to-weight ratios and low strengths

at elevated temperatures. Some copper alloys are also

susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking unless they are

stress relieved. It is mostly used in kitchen products,
wiring and electrical applications, piping and tubing, and
others.
Figure 22 Copper pipe, from
data:image/jpeg;base64,/9j/4AAQSkZJRgABA
QAAAQABAAD/2wCEAAkGBxITEhUTEhMWFR
UXGBgYGBcXFxcXHRoYFRUXFxUVHRgaHSggG
B4lHRUVITEhJSkrLi4uFx8zODUtNygtLisBCgoK
Dg0OGxAQGy0lICUvLS0tLzAtLS0vLy8tLS0tLS0r
LS0tLS0tLS0tLS0tLS0tLS0tLS0tLS0tLS0tLS0tLf/
AABEI

2.1.4 Lead

 Lead is the most impenetrable of common metals and resists attack by many corrosive

chemicals, different types of soil, and

different environments. Lead is used

for its low melting point temperature,

good sound, and vibration absorption

Figure 23 Lead sheet, from https://encrypted-
tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcRw-QidzPfi8c7A9DJ7YqeRj0-
and etc. The natural lubricity and GEpGn5ody8xjoo3k15GhG91V_sg

17
 wear resistance it has makes it for a heavy-duty application like railroad-car journal

bearings.

2.1.5 Magnesium

 As the lightest structural metal available, magnesium’s combination of low density and

good mechanical strength results in a high strength-to-weight ratio. Because of their

low modulus of elasticity, magnesium alloys can absorb energy elastically. Combined

with moderate strength, this provides excellent dent resistance and high damping

capacity. Magnesium has good fatigue resistance and performs particularly well in

applications involving a large number of cycles at relatively low stress. Used with

alloys in extension ladders, aircraft, space vehicles, power tools, and similar

applications. The metal is sensitive to

stress concentration, however, so

notches, sharp corners, and abrupt section

changes should be avoided.

Figure 24 Magnesium

2.1.6 Nickel

 Structural applications that require specific corrosion resistance or elevated temperature

strength receive the necessary properties from nickel and its alloys. Some nickel alloys

are among the toughest structural materials known. Nickel is used as a plating material

and in magnets, heating elements, thermocouples, and rechargeable batteries. When

compared to steel, other nickel alloys have ultrahigh strength, high proportional limits,

and high moduli of elasticity.

Commercially pure nickel has good

electrical, magnetic, and magnetostrictive

properties.
Figure 25 Nickel pipe

18
2.1.7 Precious Metals

 Gold is a soft ductile metal that needs little work for hardening. Used mostly for linings

and electrodeposits.

 Silver is a very malleable, ductile and corrosion resistant metal with high electrical and

thermal conductivity.

 Platinum is an extremely malleable, ductile, and corrosion resistant silver-white metal.

It is used for high-temperature handling of high-purity chemicals and laboratory

materials.

2.1.8 Refractory Metals

 Refractory metals are characterized by their extremely high melting points, which range

well above those of iron, cobalt, and nickel. They are used in demanding applications

requiring high-temperature strength and corrosion resistance. The most extensively

used of these metals are tungsten, tantalum, molybdenum, and columbium (niobium).

They are mutually soluble and form solid-solution alloys with each other in any

proportion. These four refractory metals and their alloys are available in mill forms as

well as products such as screws, bolts, studs, and tubing.

2.1.9 Tin

 Tin is a white metal with a yellowish tinge. Melting at 240°C. Tin is malleable and

ductile and can be rilled in very thin sheets. Used in tinning copper and brass utensils

and copper wire before they are converted into cables. It is used as a protective coating

for iron and steel since it does not corrode.

2.1.10 Titanium

 Depending on the predominant phase or phases in their microstructure, titanium alloys

are categorized as alpha, alpha-beta, and beta. This natural grouping not only reflects

basic titanium production metallurgy, but it also indicates general properties peculiar

19
 to each type. The alpha phase in pure titanium

is characterized by a hexagonal close-packed

crystalline structure that remains stable from

room temperature to approximately 1,620°F.

Figure 26 Titanium sheet, from http://harrounglobal.com/wp- The beta phase in pure titanium has a body-
content/uploads/2017/07/stainless-steel-plate.jpg

centered cubic structure and is stable from approximately 1,620°F to the melting point

of about 3,040°F. Used in aerospace industry and in medical industry for instruments

and artificial joint replacements. It is also used as a pigment in paints.

2.1.11 Zinc

 Zinc has a bluish-white metal and uses ores like blende

and calamine. It melts at 420°C and boils at 940°C. It

has a very high corrosion resistance so it is used as a

protective coating for iron and steel. It is used for roof

covering and as a damp proof non-corrosive lining to Figure 27 Zinc roof

containers.

2.1.12 Zirconium

 In addition to resisting HCl at all concentrations and at temperatures above the boiling

temperature, zirconium and its alloys also have excellent resistance in sulfuric acid at

temperatures above boiling and concentrations to 70%. Corrosion rate in nitric acid is

less than 1 mil/year at temperatures above boiling and concentrations to 90%. The

metals also resist most organics such as acetic acid and acetic anhydride as well as

citric, lactic, tartaric, oxalic, tannic, and chlorinated organic acids. Zirconium is used in

nuclear reactor structures and fuel shielding because of its low neutron absorption.

20
2.2 APPLICATION IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Nonferrous metals are specified for structural applications requiring reduced weight, higher

strength, non-magnetic properties, higher melting points, or resistance to chemical and

atmospheric corrosion. They are also specified for electrical and electronic applications since

they possess good thermal and electrical conductivity. They are also used for having an

attractive colour and low density.

2.3 METAL FORMING PROCESSES

Metal forming process is a manufacturing process that converts metal into different

geometrical shapes, which are then used for different functions. Different tools are used

depending on each process the metal will undergo. It is divided into two categories: bulk

deformation and sheet metalworking.

2.3.1 BULK DEFORMATION

a. Rolling Process

As the name suggests, rolling process involves rotating

rolls that run over a thick slab or plate in order to make it

slimmer. When the process is complete, a final product of

sheet is produced.
Figure 28 Rolling Process

b. Forging Process

Forging is the process of using either impact load or hydraulic load die in

shaping a metal.

b.1 Open die forging

This forging method only uses two flat platens or dies in shaping a metal, hence,

the metal will only flow in a sideward direction, without any restrictions.

21
 Figure 29 Open die forging

b.2 Closed die forging

Also called as impression forging, is a forging method that involves a contoured

shape that the metal will follow once the load has been impacted.

Figure 30 Closed die forging

b.3 Flashless forging

In flashless forging, the metal follows the shape of the cavity of the die once

impacted with a load. Size of the material must always be taken into consideration

as a larger material will cause damage to the die, while a smaller material won’t

allow all the cavity to be filled.

It is also suggested to only use this type of forging process when working with

a simple and symmetrical pattern.

22
 Figure 31 Flashless forging

c. Extrusion Process

c.1 Direct extrusion

In direct extrusion, the material is placed in a container with an opening.

Strong pressure will then be put into the material forcing it to slide outward the

holes creating a material that follows the shape and size of the opening.

Figure 32 Direct extrusion

c.2 Indirect extrusion

In indirect extrusion, the material is placed on the ram, which will be the

one responsible in compressing it. It will then flow through the die hole,

opposite to the direction of the compression of the ram.

Figure 33 Indirect extrusion: solid billet (left) & hollow billet (right)

23
 c.3 Possible defects

Extrusion process may incur defects when done improperly. The

following are some of the common defects that can occur during this type of

process.

c.3.1 Centerburst

This defect mostly occur when used wither high

die angles, poor extrusion ratio, and poor metal material.

This occurs when there is an internal crack in the output

because of a high tensile stress in the center axis. Figure 34 Centerburst

c.3.2 Piping

Occurs when there is an evident sink hole at one end

of the material. Formation of this can be minimized by using

a dummy block.
Figure 35 Piping

c.3.3 Surface cracking

Results when there are inconsistencies with the

temperature of the workroom or with high extrusion

speed. Figure 36 Surface cracking

d. Wire and Bar Drawing

This process works by pulling wire, rod, and bar into a die hole smaller than its

original cross section area.

Figure 37 Wire and Bar Drawing

24
2.3.2 SHEET FORMING

Sheet metal forming involve forming and cutting done on metal strips, coils and sheets.

Tools include punch, die that are used to deform the sheets. This involves deformation like

deep drawing, cutting, bending, hemming, flanging, curling, stretching, stamping etc.

a. Bending

The sheet material is strained by the punch to give it a bend/angle shape. During

the bending the inner side of the metal is compressed while the outer side is stretched.

Bending does not cause any change in thickness of the sheet.

a.1 V-bending

The sheet metal is bent between the die

and a v-shaped punch.

Figure 38 V-bending
a.2 Edge bending

A pressure pad is used to apply

a force to hold the sheet against

the die while the punch yields and

bends the sheet from the edge.

Figure 39 Edge bending

b. Deep Drawing

It forms a hollow or concave shape of a flat metal sheet and is performed by

stretching metals in some parts.

25
b.1 Deep drawing

Blank holder is used to clamp the blank on the die

while the punch is pushed into the sheet metal.

Figure 40 Deep drawing

b.2 Redrawing

Redrawing has more drawing steps needed to be

completed for the drawing operation.

Figure 41 Redrawing
b.3 Reverse Drawing

The sheet part will initially face down and

drawing is done in the direction of the initial bend.

b.4 Drawing without blank holder Figure 42 Reverse drawing

Drawing without blank holder is

used mostly to reduce wrinkling in

sheets. The die must have a funnel or

cone shape for the material to properly

be drawn in the die cavity. Figure 43 Drawing without blank holder

b.5 Possible Defects

b.5.1 Wrinkling in flange and cup wall

The waviness developed in the flange.

Figure 44 Wrinkling in flange and cup wall

26
 b.5.2 Tearing

The crack in the cup near the base due to high tensile stress.
Figure 45 Tearing

b.5.3 Earing

The height of walls have peaks and valleys. There may be

Figure 46 Earing
more than four ears.

b.5.4 Surface scratches

Uses rough punch, dies and has poor lubrication that causes

scratches forming. Figure 47 Surface scratches

c. Shearing

Shearing is cutting of metal sheet by shearing action.

Figure 48 Shearing

27
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