BLACKBODY RADIATION

All objects with a temperature above absolute zero (0 K, -273.15 oC) emit energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
A blackbody is a theoretical or model body which absorbs all radiation falling on it, reflecting or transmitting none. It is a hypothetical object which is
a “perfect” absorber and a “perfect” emitter of radiation over all wavelengths.

The spectral distribution of the thermal energy radiated by a blackbody (i.e. the pattern of the intensity of the radiation over a range of wavelengths
or frequencies) depends only on its temperature.

Blackbody radiation curves at several different temperatures.

Credit: Swinburne

The characteristics of blackbody radiation can be described in terms of several laws:

1. Planck’s Law of blackbody radiation, a formula to determine the spectral energy density of the emission at each wavelength (Eλ) at a particular
absolute temperature (T).

2. Wien’s Displacement Law, which states that the frequency of the peak of the emission (fmax) increases linearly with absolute temperature (T).
Conversely, as the temperature of the body increases, the wavelength at the emission peak decreases.
 3. Stefan–Boltzmann Law, which relates the total energy emitted (E) to the absolute temperature (T).

In the image above, notice that:

The blackbody radiation curves have quite a complex shape (described by Planck’s Law).
The spectral profile (or curve) at a specific temperature corresponds to a specific peak wavelength, and vice versa.
As the temperature of the blackbody increases, the peak wavelength decreases (Wien’s Law).
The intensity (or flux) at all wavelengths increases as the temperature of the blackbody increases.
The total energy being radiated (the area under the curve) increases rapidly as the temperature increases (Stefan–Boltzmann Law).
Although the intensity may be very low at very short or long wavelengths, at any temperature above absolute zero energy is theoretically emitted
at all wavelengths (the blackbody radiation curves never reach zero).
In astronomy, stars are often modelled as blackbodies, although it is not always a good approximation. The temperature of a star can be deduced
from the wavelength of the peak of its radiation curve.

In 1965, the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) was discovered by Penzias and Wilson, who later won the Nobel Prize for their work.
The radiation spectrum was measured by the COBE satellite and found to be a remarkable fit to a blackbody curve with a temperature of 2.725 K and
is interpreted as evidence that the universe has been expanding and cooling for about 13.7 billion years. A more recent mission, WMAP, has
measured the spectral details to much higher resolution, finding tiny temperature fluctuations in the early Universe which ultimately led to the large-
scale structures we see today.

Coriolis EFFECT
The Coriolis effect (also called the Coriolis force) is defined as the apparent deflection of objects (such as airplanes, wind, missiles, and ocean currents) moving in a straight path
relative to the earth’s surface. Its strength is proportional to the speed of the earth’s rotation at different latitudes but it has an impact on moving objects across the globe.

The “apparent” portion of the Coriolis effect’s definition is also important to take into consideration. This means that from the object in the air (i.e an airplane) the earth can be seen
rotating slowly below it. From the earth’s surface that same object appears to curve off of its course. The object is not actually moving off of its course but this just appears to be
happening because the earth’s surface is rotating beneath the object.

Causes of the Coriolis Effect

The main cause of the Coriolis effect is the earth’s rotation. As the earth spins in a counter-clockwise direction on its axis anything flying or flowing over a long distance above its
surface is deflected. This occurs because as something moves freely above the earth’s surface, the earth is moving east under the object at a faster speed.

As latitude increases and the speed of the earth’s rotation decreases, Coriolis effect increases. A pilot flying along the equator itself would be able to continue flying on the equator
without any apparent deflection. A little to the north or south of the equator, however, and our pilot would be deflected. As the pilot’s plane nears the poles, it would experience the
most deflection possible.

Another example of this idea of latitudinal variations in deflection would be the formation of hurricanes. They don’t form within five degrees of the equator because there is not enough
Coriolis rotation. Move further north and tropical storms can begin to rotate and strengthen to form hurricanes.

In addition to the speed of the earth’s rotation and latitude, the faster the object itself is moving, the more deflection there will be.
The direction of deflection from the Coriolis effect depends on the object’s position on Earth. In the Northern Hemisphere, objects deflect to the right while in the Southern Hemisphere
they deflect to the left.

Impacts of the Coriolis Effect

Some of the most important impacts of the Coriolis effect in terms of geography are the deflection of winds and currents in the ocean. It also has a significant effect on man-made
items like planes and missiles.

In terms of affecting the wind, as air rises off of the earth’s surface, its speed over the surface increases because there’s less drag as the air no longer has to move across the earth’s
many types of landforms. Because the Coriolis effect increases with an item’s increasing speed, it significantly deflects air flows and as a result the wind.

In the Northern Hemisphere these winds spiral to the right and in the Southern Hemisphere they spiral to the left. This usually creates the westerly winds moving from the subtropical
areas to the poles.

Because currents are driven by the movement of wind across the water of the ocean, the Coriolis effect also affects the movement of the ocean’s currents. Many of the ocean’s largest
currents circulate around warm, high pressure areas called gyres. Though the circulation is not as significant as that in the air, the deflection caused by the Coriolis effect is what
creates the spiraling pattern in these gyres.

Finally, the Coriolis effect is important to man-made objects in addition to these natural phenomena. One of the most significant impacts of the Coriolis effect is a result of its deflecting
planes and missiles.