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THEORY OF PROBABILITY
By the classical definition the probability of event A is a number between 0 and 1 inclusive.
𝑛𝐴
The ratio must be less than or equal to 1.
𝑛
If an event is certain to happen, its probability is 1; if it is certain not to happen, its probability is 0.
Example, the probability of obtaining an 8 in tossing a die is zero. While the probability that the number
showing when a die is tossed is less than 10 is equal to 1.
SET THEORY
Types of Sets
1. Empty set: If a set contains no points, it will be called null set, or empty set and denoted by 𝜙 or { }.
Ex: The set of whole numbers less than zero.
Ex: A= { x : x is a composite number less than 4}
3. Disjoint Set: Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if they do not have any element in common.
Ex: A= {x : x is a positive integer} and B= { x : x is a negative integer}
Cardinal Number of a Set: The number of distinct elements in a given set denoted by n(A).
Ex: 𝐴 = { 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 < 5} Find n(A).
Ex: B= set of letters in the word ALGEBRA, Find n(B).
Subset: If every element of a set A is also an element of a set B, then A is defined to be a subset of B,
and we shall write 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 read as “A is a subset of B” or “A is contained in B”. It can also be written as
𝐵 ⊃ 𝐴 read as “B contains A.”
Ex: A= {2, 4, 6} , B= {6, 4, 8, 2} ; therefore 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵
Ex: 𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ}, 𝐵 = {𝑥 𝜖 ℝ}
Note:
1. Every set is a subset of itself.
2. Null set is a subset of every set.
Equivalent set: Two sets A and B are defined to be equivalent if they have the same amount of
elements or if the cardinality is the same. Usually denoted by ↔
Ex: A ={ 1, 2, 3} and B= {p, q, r}
Ex: A= { M, E, M, B, E, R} and B= { 𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 < 5}
Equal set: Two set A and B are defined to be equal if they have exact same element regardless of
order.
Ex: A= { 5, 3, 7} and B= {3, 5, 7}
Ex: A= {7, 7, 2, 1, 2} and B= { 1, 2, 7}
OPERATIONS ON SETS
Complement: The complement of a set A with respect to the space Ω, denoted by 𝐴̅, 𝐴𝑐 , Ω − 𝐴, is the
set of all points that are in Ω but not in A.
Ex: U= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} , 𝐴 = {6, 10, 4}, 𝐵 = {1, 3, 5, 7}
Find : A’ and B’
Union: Let A and B be any two subsets of Ω; then the set that consists of all points that are in A or B or
both is defined to be the union of A and B written as 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.
Ex: 𝐴 = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, 𝐵 = {0, 3, 6, 9, 12}, 𝐶 = {2, 4, 6, 8}
Find: ∪ 𝐵 , 𝐴 ∪ 𝐶, 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶
Note:
1. A and B are subsets of 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵
2. 𝐴 ∪ 𝜙 = 𝜙 ∪ 𝐴 = 𝐴, that is union of any set with the empty set is always the set itself.
Intersection: Let A and B be any two subsets of Ω; then the set that consists of all points that are in A
and B is defined to be the intersection of A and B written as 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝐵.
Ex: 𝐴 = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12}, 𝐵 = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15}, 𝐶 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
Find: ∩ 𝐵 , 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐶
Note:
1. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is a subset of A and B.
2. 𝐴 ∩ 𝜙 = 𝜙 ∩ 𝐴 = 𝜙, that is the intersection of any set with the empty set is always the null set.
Set Difference: Let A and B be any two subsets of Ω; then the set that consists of all points in A that are
not in B will be denoted by 𝐴 − 𝐵 and is defined as set difference.
Cartesian Product: Let A and B be any two subsets of Ω, then the set of all ordered pair from A and B is
defined as the Cartesian product of A and B. It can be written generally as 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑥, 𝑦)|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵}
Example: If 𝐴 = {7 , 8} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = {2 , 4 , 6},
1. Find 𝐴 × 𝐵
2. Find 𝐵 × 𝐴
3. Find 𝐴 × 𝐴