SMA2173 CALCULUS II

COURSE OUTLINE:

Parametric and implicit differentiation including second and higher derivatives, and
application to equations of tangent and normal. Curve sketching and asymptotes.
Hyperbolic functions: their definition, differentiation and integration.

Techniques of integration: powers of trigonometric functions standard substitution

including trigonometric and hyperbolic functions and method, parts and partial fractions.
Solution of variables. Application of integration to kinematics including simple harmonic
motion, arc length, plane and surface area, and volume, in Cartesian co-ordinates.

Numerical integration: trapezoidal, mid-ordinate, Simpson's and prismoidal rules.

Explicit equations

Explicit equations are the type we are most familiar with eg y=f(x), y = 2x 2 + 3x -
5 etc. where y is expressed in terms of x or some other variable.

Implicit equations

Implicit equations have the structure of being a mix of x and y terms eg 2x 2+ 3xy -
3y2 = 5 , so y cannot be expressed in terms of x.

The method for solving equations of this type is to regard the whole expression as
a function of x and to differentiate both sides of the equation. Any power of y is
treated as a 'function of a function', as y is a function of x.

Example 1

1
Example 2

2
Example 3

Parametric Equations

Both x and y are given as functions of another variable - called a parameter (eg
't'). Thus a pair of equations, called parametric equations, completely describe a
single x-y function.

The differentiation of functions given in parametric form is carried out using the
Chain Rule.

Example 1

3
Example 2

Example 3

4
Exercise:

1. A curve has equation

x3  2xy  4x + y3  51 = 0.

Find an equation of the normal to the curve at the point (4, 3), giving
your answer in the form
ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are integers.

2. A curve has equation

x2 + 2xy – 3y2 + 16 = 0.

dy
Find the coordinates of the points on the curve where = 0.
dx

3. The curve C has equation 5x2 + 2xy – 3y2 + 3 = 0. The point P on the
curve C has coordinates (1, 2).

(a) Find the gradient of the curve at P.

(b) Find the equation of the normal to the curve C at P, in the form y =
ax + b, where a and b are constants.

4.

5
 1

–1 1

–1

The curve shown in the diagram above has parametric equations

x = cos t, y = sin 2t, 0  t < 2.

dy
(a) Find an expression for in terms of the parameter t.
dx

dy
(b) Find the values of the parameter t at the points where = 0.
dx

(c) Hence give the exact values of the coordinates of the points on the
curve where the tangents are parallel to the x-axis.

(d) Show that a cartesian equation for the part of the curve where
0  t < is

y = 2x(1 – x2).

(e) Write down a cartesian equation for the part of the curve where  t
< 2.

5. The function f is given by

3( x + 1)
f(x) = , x  , x  2, x  1.
( x + 2)( x − 1)

(a) Express f(x) in partial fractions.

(b) Hence, or otherwise, prove that f(x) < 0 for all values of x in the
domain.
6
6. A curve has parametric equations

π
x = 2 cot t, y = 2 sin2 t, 0 < t  2 .

dy
(a) Find an expression for in terms of the parameter t.
dx

(b) Find an equation of the tangent to the curve at the point where t =
π
.
4

(c) Find a cartesian equation of the curve in the form y = f(x). State the
domain on which the curve is defined.

8.
y

Q
O x

The diagram shows a sketch of part of the curve C with parametric

equations

7
 x = t2 + 1, y = 3(1 + t).

The normal to C at the point P(5, 9) cuts the x-axis at the point Q, as
shown in the diagram.

(a) Find the x-coordinate of Q.

(b) Find the area of the finite region R bounded by C, the line PQ and the
x-axis.

9. The curve C has parametric equations

π
x = a sec t , y = b tan t, 0 < t < ,
2

where a and b are positive constants.

dy b
(a) Prove that = cosec t.
dx a

(b) Find the equation in the form y = px + q of the tangent to C at the

π
point where t = .
4

CURVE SKETCHING
The following are definitions of relevant terms needed for curve sketching.

ASYMPTOTES:

We have three kinds of asymptotes: vertical, horizontal, and slant.

VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES

We define the line x = c as a vertical asymptote of the graph of f ( x ) , iff (if

and only if) f ( x ) approaches infinity (or negative infinity) as x
approaches c from the right or left.

The concept of an asymptote is best illustrated in the following example:

2x
Take the function f ( x) =
1−x
8
Here, we can see that x cannot take the value of 1, otherwise, f ( x ) would be undefined.
Also:

lim f ( x ) = ∞ and lim f ( x ) = −∞

x →1+ x →1−

In this case, we call the line x = 1 a vertical asymptote of f ( x ) .

Vertical Asymptote: x=1

-2 -1 1 2

-1

-2

The fact that f ( x ) is undefined at x = 1 is not enough to conclude that we have a

vertical asymptote. The function must also approach infinity or negative infinity as
x approaches the value at which f ( x ) is undefined.

Consider the following problem:

x 2 + 3x + 2
f ( x) =
x+2

The function f ( x ) is undefined at x = -2 but we do not have an asymptote.

Notice the following:

x 2 + 3x + 2 ( x + 2)( x + 1)
lim = lim = lim x + 1 = −2 = −1
x →−2 x+2 x →−2 x+2 x →−2

We conclude that f ( x ) approaches -1 as x approaches -2. This function has a

"hole", not an asymptote, at the value for which f ( x ) is undefined.

x 2 + 3x + 2
f ( x) =
x+2

9
 2

-2 -1 1 2

-1

-2

Once again, in order to have an asymptote at x = c, f ( x ) must have a

discontinuity at c and f ( x ) must approach infinity or negative infinity,
as x approaches c from the left or the right.

HORIZONTAL ASYMPTOTES

We define the line y = L as a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f(x), iff f(x)
approaches L as x approaches infinity (or negative infinity).

2x
For the function f ( x ) = the line y = −2 is the horizontal asymptote of the graph
1− x
of f ( x ) .The following limit shows why this is true:

2x 2 2 2x 2 2
lim = lim = = −2 lim = lim = = −2
x →∞ 1 − x x →∞ 1 − 1 and x →−∞ 1 − x x →−∞ 1 −1
−1 −1
x x

When x approaches infinity, f ( x ) approaches the line y = −2 , and when x

approaches negative infinity, f ( x ) also approaches the line y = −2 .

6
x =1
4

-2 2 4

-2 y = −2

-4

-6

10
A quick way to determine the position of the horizontal asymptote of a rational
function (having no common factors) is with the following method. Look at the
highest degree in the numerator and the highest degree in the denominator.

- If the highest degree is in the denominator, then the horizontal asymptote is y =

0.

- If the highest degree in the numerator and the highest degree in the denominator

are equal, the horizontal asymptote is the ratio of the coefficient of the highest

degree term in the numerator to the coefficient of the highest degree term in the
denominator.

2x
(In our previous example y = , the highest degree in the numerator is 1 and the
1− x
highest degree in the denominator is 1. The ratio of highest degree term coefficients
2
is . So the horizontal asymptote is y = -2.)
−1

- If the highest degree in the numerator is one degree larger than the highest degree
in the numerator, then the function has a slant asymptote.

OBLIQUE (SLANT) ASYMPTOTES

If the highest degree in the numerator of a rational function (having no common

factors) is one degree larger than the highest degree in the denominator, we say that
the function has a slant asymptote.

To determine the asymptote, rewrite the function in terms of a polynomial + another

rational function. For example, let

− x 2 + 3x + 3
f(x) =
x −1

Using long division, divide the numerator by x - 1 we get

5
f(x) = -x + 2 +
x −1

5
Since the fraction approaches 0 as x approaches infinity and negative infinity, the
x −1
function f(x) approaches the line y = -x + 2 as x approaches infinity and negative
infinity. y = -x + 2 is called a slant asymptote.

y = −x + 2

11
 6

− x 2 + 3x + 3
2 f ( x) =
x −1
-2 2 4

-2

-4

-6
x =1

Some remarks about functions with asymptotes:

- Vertical asymptotes are NEVER crossed by f(x). However, the

graph of f(x) may sometimes cross a horizontal or slant asymptote.

- Asymptotes help determine the shape of the graph.

- Polynomial functions never have asymptotes.

INCREASING AND DECREASING:

A function is increasing over an interval if, when tracing the graph

from left to right, the graph is going up. Likewise, a function is
decreasing over an interval when the graph is going down.

Mathematically, the function f(x) is increasing when f '(x) (the

slope of the tangent line to the curve) is positive and f(x) is
decreasing when f '(x) is negative.

Slopes of the tangent lines

f(x)
Are positive when x<c so

f(x) is increasing when x<c.

c x

A function f(x) can change from increasing to decreasing (or vice

versa) at values where f '(x) = 0 or f '(x) is undefined.

12
 f(x) f(x)
c

decr
asin x

g
decr

asin
easi
incre

easi
c x

incre
ng

ng
f '(x) = 0 when x = c f '(x) is undefined at x = c
f(x) changes from increasing f(x) changes from decreasing
to decreasing at x = c to increasing at x = c

To find where a function is increasing and where it is decreasing:

1. Compute f '(x)

2. Determine the value(s) of x where f '(x) = 0 or where f '(x) is undefined.

3. Order the values found in (2) in increasing order and plot them on a number
line.

4. For every interval between two consecutive values in (3) choose a test value in
that interval.

5. Determine the value of f '(x) at the test value.

6. If f '(x) > 0 at the test value, then f(x) is increasing on that interval. If f '(x) < 0
at the test value, then f(x) is decreasing on that interval.

For example: Let f(x)= 3x3 - 9x. Determine where f(x) is increasing and
where it is decreasing.

Taking the first derivative and setting it equal to zero, we obtain:

f '(x) =9x2 - 9 = 0

9(x2 - 1) = 0

9(x + 1)(x - 1) = 0 ----> x = 1 and x = -1

f '(x) is defined everywhere, so we have only 2 values where f(x) can change from
increasing to decreasing: x = 1 and x = -1.

Order the values found above on a number line as follows:

13
 -1 1 f '(x)

The intervals we need to test are (- ∞ ,-1), (-1,1) and (1, ∞ ):

1) For the interval (- ∞ ,-1) we will choose x = -2 as our test value.

f '(-2) = 9(-2)2 - 9 = 36 - 9 = 27

Since f '(-2) > 0, we know f(x) is increasing on the interval (- ∞ ,-1).

2) For the interval (-1,1) choose x = 0 as our test value.

f '(0) = 9(0)2 - 9 = -9

Therefore, since f '(0) < 0, f(x) is decreasing on the interval (-1,1).

3) For the interval (1, ∞ ) choose x = 2 as our test value.

f '(2) = 9(2)2 - 9 = 36 - 9 = 27

Again, f(x) is increasing on the interval (1, ∞ ), because f '(2) > 0.

Re-labeling our number line we have the following:

+ _ +
-1 1 f '(x)

Remember that values where f '(x) = 0 or f '(x) is undefined are only potential
places where the graph can change from increasing to decreasing (or vice versa).
It is possible, however, that the function may not change at those values.
f'(x) is undefined at x=0

f(x) is decreasing when x<0

f(x) is decreasing when x>0

F(x)

14
 x

CRITICAL/EXTREME POINT:

Another important concept needed in curve sketching is a critical point. If x = c

is in the domain of f(x) and either f '(c) = 0 or f '(c) is not defined, then x = c is
called a critical value of the function f(x), and (c,f(c)) is called a critical point. A
critical point may be a maximum point, minimum point, or neither.

A relative (or local) maximum point is a critical point where the function changes
from increasing to decreasing.

A relative (or local) minimum point is a critical point where the function changes
from decreasing to increasing.

The critical point is neither a maximum nor a minimum if the function does not
change from increasing to decreasing (or vice versa) at the critical point.

f(x) f(x)

(c,f(c))

c x

• (c,f(c)) is a critical point. • f(c) is defined and f'(c) is

• f(x) is increasing before x=c and undefined so (c,f(c)) is a critical
decreasing after x=c so (c,f(c)) is a point.
relative maximum. • f(x) is decreasing before x=c and
increasing after x=c(c,f(c))
so (c,f(c)) is a
f(c) is defined and relative minimum.
f'(c)=0 so

15
 x

• f(0) is defined and f'(0)=0 so (0,0) is a critical

point.
• f(x) is increasing before x=0 and increasing
after x=0 so (c,f(c)) is neither a max nor a min.
To locate the critical points on the graph:

1. Take the first derivative of the function and determine the values x = c
where f '(c) = 0 or f '(c) is undefined.

2. If c is in the domain of f(x), then (c,f(c)) is a critical point.

For example:

f(x) = 3x3 - 9x

Earlier we found that f '(x) = 9x2 - 9 = 0, when x = -1 and x = 1, and f '(x)

is defined everywhere. Since f(x) is defined for both x= -1 and x= 1, we
have found two critical values.

Substituting these values into our original function, we find that

f(1) = 3(1)3 - 9(1) AND f(-1) = 3(-1)3 - 9(-1)

=3-9 = -3 + 9

y = -6 y =6

Thus, we have found critical points at (1,-6) and (-1,6).

You can determine whether these points are maximum points, minimum
points, or

neither, using either the first derivative test or the second derivative test
(the second derivative test will be explained in the next section):

FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST

1. Determine where the function is increasing or decreasing.

2. If the function is increasing before the critical value and decreasing after
the critical
16
 value, the point is a maximum. If the function is decreasing before the
critical value

and increasing after, then the critical point is a minimum. Otherwise, the
critical point is neither a maximum nor a minimum.

For example: Earlier we found critical points for f(x) = 3x3 - 9x, at (1,-6) and
(-1,6). To determine whether these points are maximums or minimums, use
the first derivative test.

First determine where f(x) = 3x3 - 9x is increasing and decreasing.

The critical values found above were x = 1 and x = -1.

From our previous example we found that f(x) is increasing on (- ∞ ,1),

decreasing on

(-1,1) and increasing on (1, ∞ ). Thus, we had the following number line:

+ _ +
-1 1 f '(x)

At the critical value x = -1, the function changes from increasing to

decreasing. Therefore, (-1,6) is a maximum.

At the critical value x = 1, the function changes from decreasing to

increasing. Therefore, (1,-6) is a minimum.

maximum

(-1,6) f(x)=3x3-9x
f(x)
6

x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

-2

-4

-6

minimum (1,-6)

17
CONCAVITY:

Concavity describes the general "cupping" of a function at a particular point or

interval. When the slope of the tangent to the curve is increasing over an
interval (f '(x) is increasing, i.e. f ''(x) > 0) the function is concave up. When
the slope of the tangent to the curve is decreasing over an interval (f '(x) is
decreasing, i.e. f ''(x) < 0) the function is concave down.

f(x) Slope of tangent

lines is decreasing

concave down

Slope of tangent

Lines is increasing

(f"(x)>0)

Notice that the point A is a critical point (since the slope of the tangent line is
0 at A) and f(x) is concave up at A. We can see that A is a minimum. Also
the point B is a critical point (since the slope of the tangent line is 0 at B) and
f(x) is concave down at B. We can see that B is a maximum.

Concavity can help us determine if a critical point is a maximum or a

minimum. The following is the second method for determining whether a
critical point is a maximum or a minimum.

SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST

If (c,f(c)) is a critical point, then:

1. If f ''(c) < 0, the function is concave down at that point and thus (c,f(c)) is
a maximum point.

2. If f ''(c) > 0, the function is concave up at that point and thus (c,f(c)) is a
minimum point.

3 If f ''(c) = 0, then the second derivative test fails to determine if the point is a
maximum

or minimum. In this case, the first derivative test mentioned earlier

18
should be used.

Example: Let's go back to the function: f(x) = 3x3 - 9x

f '(x) = 9x2 - 9

f ''(x) = 18x

Our critical points were (-1,6) and (1,-6).

Using the second derivative test we obtain the following:

f ''(-1) = -18 Since f ''(-1) < 0, the function is concave down at (-1,6) is a
maximum.

f ''(1) = 18 Since f ''(1) > 0, the function is concave up at (1,-6) is a minimum.

We see that we get the same results using the Second Derivative Test as we
do using the First Derivative Test.

INFLECTION POINTS:

An inflection point is a point on a graph (in the domain of f) where concavity

changes from concave up to concave down, or vice-versa. Concavity can
change at values where f ''(x) = 0 or f ''(x) is undefined.

To find inflection points:

1. Determine where the function is concave up and where it is concave

down:

a) Determine the value(s) of x where f ''(x) = 0 or f ''(x) is undefined.

b) Order the values found above in increasing order and plot them on a
number line.

c) For every interval between two consecutive values, choose a test value
in that

interval.

d) Determine the value of f ''(x) at the test value.

e) If f ''(x) > 0 at the test value, f(x) is concave up on that interval. If f

''(x) < 0 at the

test point, then f(x) is concave down on that interval.

2. If the function changes from concave up to concave down (or vice-versa)

at x = c and

19
 f(c) is defined then (c,f(c)) is an inflection point.

Example: Earlier we found the second derivative of f(x) = 3x3 -9x which was

f ''(x) = 18x

f ''(x) = 0 when x = 0, and is defined everywhere.

Plotting this on a number line we get:

0 f ''(x)

For the interval (- ∞ ,0) choose x = -1 to be our test point: f ''(-1) =

-18

Since f ''(-1) < 0, f(x) is concave down on the interval (- ∞ ,0).

For the interval (0, ∞ ) choose x = 1 to be our test point: f ''(1) = 18

Since f ''(1) > 0, f(x) is concave up on the interval (0, ∞ ).

Labeling our number line we get:

_ +
0 f ''(x)

Since f(x) changes from concave down to

concave up at x = 0, and f(x) is defined at x =
0, the point (0,f(0)) = (0,0) is an inflection
point.f(x) f(x)=3x3-9x
6

4 concave

2 up
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3

-2
concave
inflection
-4
down
point
-6

20
Remember that values where f ''(x) = 0 or f ''(x) is undefined are only
potential places where the graph can change concavity. It is possible,
however that the function may not change concavity at those values. For
example: f(x) = x4 f '(x) = 4x3 f''(x) = 12x2 f''(x) = 0 when x = 0

Plotting this on a number line we get:

0 f ''(x)

For the interval (- ∞ ,0) choose x = -1 to be our test point: f ''(-1) = 12

Since f ''(-1) > 0, f(x) is concave up on the interval (- ∞ ,0).

For the interval (0, ∞ ) choose x = 1 to be our test point: f ''(1) = 12

Since f ''(1) > 0, f(x) is concave up on the interval (0, ∞ ).

Labeling our number line we get:

+ +
0 f ''(x)

In this example f(x) = x4 is concave up when x < 0 and concave up when x

> 0. Concavity did not change at x = 0 so the point (0,0) is not an inflection
point.

Examples:

1. Sketch: f(x) = x3 - 6x2 + 9x + 1

1. Look for any asymptotes: Polynomial functions do not

have asymptotes:

a) vertical: No vertical asymptotes because

f(x)
21
 continuous for all x

b) horizontal: No horizontal asymptotes

because

f(x) is unbounded as x → ±∞

2. Intercepts:

a) y-intercepts: f(0) = 1 y-intercept: (0,1)

b) x-intercepts: difficult to find - skip

3. Increasing/decreasing:

a) take the first derivative: f '(x) = 3x2 - 12x + 9

b) set it equal to zero: 3x2 - 12x + 9 = 0

c) solve for x: 3(x2 - 4x + 3) = 0

3(x - 1)(x - 3) = 0

x = 1, x=3

d) where is f '(x) undefined? nowhere

e) sign analysis:

Plot the numbers found above on a number

line. Choose test values for each interval

created and evaluate the first derivative

f '(0) = 3(0)2 -12(0) + 9 = 9 positive ⇒ f(x) increasing on (

−∞ ,1).

f '(2) = 3(2)2 -12(2) + 9 = -3 negative ⇒ f(x) decreasing on

(1,3).

f '(4) = 3(4)2 -12(4) + 9 = 9 positive ⇒ f(x) increasing on (3,

∞ ).

22
 + _ +
1 3 f '(x)

4. Critical points:

a) for which values of x (found above

in 3) is f(x) defined? x = 1 and x = 3

Note: The values of x found in steps 3a - 3c will always be in the domain of f(x)
(and therefore defined). However, values of x found in step 3d may or may not
be defined.

b) find corresponding values of y: f(1) = (1)3 - 6(1)2 + 9(1) + 1

=5

f(3) = (3)3 - 6(3)2 + 9(3) + 1 = 1

c) critical points: (1,5) and (3,1)

5. Test critical points for max/min:

SECOND DERIVATIVE TEST

a) take the second derivative: f ''(x) = 6x - 12

b) substitute x-coord of crit.pt(s): f ''(1) = 6(1) - 12

= -6 (negative ⇒ max)

f ''(3) = 6(3) - 12

=6 (positive ⇒ min)

c) label your point(s): max: (1,5)

min: (3,1)

or :

23
 FIRST DERIVATIVE TEST

a) f(x) is increasing before x = 1 and

decreasing after x = 1. (1,5) is a maximum

b) f(x) is decreasing before x = 3 and

increasing after x = 3. (3,1) is a minimum

6. Concave up/concave down:

a) set f ''(x) equal to zero 6x - 12 = 0

b) solve for x x=2

c) where is f ''(x) undefined nowhere

d) sign analysis:

Plot the numbers found above on a number

line. Choose test values for each interval

created and evaluate the second derivative

f ''(1) = 6(1) - 12 = -6 negative ⇒ f(x) concave down on (−∞, 2)

f ''(3) = 6(3) - 12 = 6 positive ⇒ f(x) concave up on

(2, ∞)

_ +
2 f ''(x)

7. Find any inflection points:

a) for which values of x (found in 6)

is f(x) defined? x=2

Note: The values found in steps 6a - 6b will always be in the domain of f(x)
24
(and therefore defined). However, values of x found in step 6c may or may not
be defined.

b) find corresponding value of y: f(2) = (2)3 -6(2)2 + 9(2) + 1

=3

c) f(x) changes from concave up to

concave down at x = 2, so (2,3) is

an inflection point. inflection point: (2,3)

8. Note in a chart your points obtained: x y

______

1 5 (maximum point.)

3 1 (minimum point.)

2 3 (inflection point.)

0 1 (y - intercept)

9. Plot all points on the coordinate plane, and sketch in the rest of the
graph. Be sure to

include all maximum points, minimum points, and inflection points:

f(x) = x3 - 6x 2 + 9x + 1
_5

_4

_2

_1

| | | | | | | | |
-3 -2 -1 _ -1 1 2 3 4 5 6

25
26
27
28
THE INTEGRATION FORMULA

The expression to be integrated is the derivative of some function eg f(x) called

the integrand.

When this expression is integrated the original function is restored plus a

constant (C) called the constant of integration.

This is called the indefinite integral when the integration is not between two
limiting values of x.

However when the integration is between two limiting values of x then the
integral is called the definite integral and the constant of integration is not
involved.

For any variable 'x' to the power of 'n' the integral is given by:

Rule #1

Any constant(eg C) multiplied by a function f(x) can be integrated by placing

the constant before the integration sign.

Example

Rule #2

The integral of two separate functions which are added together is the same as
each function integrated separately then added together.

Example

29
Rule #3

The addition of a constant to a variable doesn't change the form of the integral.
However, x must be in the first degree ie no higher powers of x are involved.
('a' is a constant)

Example

Rule #4

If 'a' & 'b' are constants then x can be replaced by 'bx+a' with the integral
remaining in the same form.

Example

The Substitution method (or 'changing the variable')

This is best explained with an example:

Like the Chain Rule simply make one part of the function equal to a
variable eg u,v, t etc.

Differentiate the equation with respect to the chosen variable.

Rearrange the substitution equation to make 'dx' the subject.

Substitute for 'dx' into the original expression.

30
Substitute the chosen variable into the original function.

Integrate with respect to the chosen variable.

Restate the original expression and substitute for t.

NB Don't forget to add the Constant of Integration(C) at the end. Remember

this is an indefinite integral.

Example 1

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 Example 2

Example 3

Integrals Involving Logarithms

Example: Evaluate the integral ln(2x + 1) dx

Solution to Example 1:Substitution: Let u = 2x + 1 which leads to du / dx

=2

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 or du = 2 dx or dx = du / 2, the above integral becomes

ln(2x + 1) dx = (1/2) ln u du

We now use integral formulas for ln x function to obtain

ln(2x + 1) dx = (1 / 2) [u ln u - u] + c

We now substitute u by 2x + 1 into the above to obtain

ln(2x + 1) dx = (1 / 2)(2x + 1) ln (2x + 1) - (1 / 2)(2x + 1) + C

= (1 / 2)(2x + 1) ln (2x + 1) - x - 1/2 + C

= (1 / 2)(2x + 1) ln (2x + 1) - x + k , where k = c - 1/2 and is a constant.

INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

In this section we consider integrals of trigonometric functions. Special

transformations and substitutions used for each of these classes allow us to
obtain exact solutions for these integrals.

1. Integrals of the form:

To find integrals of this type, use the following trigonometric identities:

2. Integrals of the form:

It's assumed here and below that m and n are positive integers. To find an
integral of this form, use the following substitutions:

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 • If the power n of the cosine is odd (the power m of the sine can be
arbitrary), then the substitution is used.
• If the power m of the sine is odd, then the substitution is
used.

• If both powers m and n are even, then first use the double angle formulas

to reduce the power of the sine or cosine in the integrand. Then, if

necessary, apply the rules a) or b).

3. Integrals of the form:

The power of the integrand can be reduced by using the trigonometric identity

and the reduction formula

4. Integrals of the form:

• If the power of the secant n is even, then using the identity

the secant function is expressed as the tangent function. The factor
is separated and used for transformation of the differential. As a result,
the entire integral (including differential) is expressed as the function of
tan x.
• If both the powers n and m are odd, then the factor sec x tan x, which is
necessary to transform the differential, is separated. Then the entire
integral is expressed through sec x.

• If the power of the secant n is odd, and the power of the tangent m is
even, then the tangent is expressed as the secant using the identity

. Then the integrals of the secant are calculated.

Example 1: Calculate the integral .

Solution. Let u = cos x, du = − sin xdx. Then

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 Example 2 : Evaluate the integral .

Solution. Making the substitution u = sin x, du = cos xdx and using the
identity , we obtain

Example 3: Find the integral .

Solution. Using identities and , we can write:

Calculate the integrals in the latter expression.

To find the integral , we make the substitution u = sin 2x, du =

2cos 2xdx. Then

Hence, the initial integral is

Example 4: Calculate the integral .

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Solution. We can write:

Transform the integrand using the identities

We get

Example 5: Evaluate the integral .

Solution. Transform the integrand by the formula

Hence,

Then the integral becomes

Example 6: Evaluate the integral .

36
 Solution. We use the identity to transform the integral. This
yields

INTEGRATION OF INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS.

Here are the integration formulas for some of the inverse trig functions:

Example1: Using the formula with

Example 2:

Example 3:

Example 4:

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 Example 5:

Example 6:

INTEGRATION 'BY PARTS' - FROM THE PRODUCT RULE

The integration of expressions where there are two separate functions

multiplied together, is essentially by an amended version of Leibnitz's Product
Rule.

38
How to Choose u and v
• Whatever you let be dv, you need to be able to find v.
• It helps if is simpler than du (or at least no more complicated than u).
• It helps if dv is simpler than (or at least no more complicated than dv ).

Example 1:

39
 Example 2: Evaluate the integral x ln x dx

solution to Example 2: Let f(x) = ln x and g ' (x) = x which gives f'(x) =
1 / x and g(x) = x 2 / 2. Using the integration by parts f(x) g '(x) dx = f(x) g(x) -
f '(x) g(x) dx , we obtain

x ln x dx = [ x 2 / 2] ln x - [ x 2 / 2 ] [1 / x] dx

= [ x 2 / 2] ln x - [ x / 2 ] dx =

= [ x 2 / 2] ln x - x 2 / 4 + c.

Practice: Differentiate [ x 2 / 2] ln x - x 2 / 4 + c to obtain the integrand x

ln x in the given integral.

Example 3: Integrate ∫lnx dx.

Solution: Let u=lnu and dv = dx = (1)dx so that: du = 1/x dx and v = x

Therefore: ∫lnx dx = x lnx - ∫x * 1/x dx

=xlnx - ∫1dx

=xlnx – x + C

40
Example 4:

Example 5:

Exercise:

1.

41
 2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

REDUCTION FORMULA FOR SINE AND COSINE

PROOF:

We get an equation. To solve it, we move the integral from the n-th power from
the right hand-side to the left:

42
Example:

Reduction Formula for Tangent:

43
 INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Before beginning this topic it is advised that you read and understand 'partial
fractions' in the algebra section first. The examples given here assume
knowledge of this.

Denominator 1st degree(x).

Example:

44
Denominator 2nd degree(x2).

Example

45
Denominator 3rd degree(x3)

Example

46
INTEGRATION BY SEPARATION OF VARIABLES:

Solution is by collecting all the 'y' terms on one side, all the 'x' terms on the
other and integrating each expression independently.

Example

47
Note how the constant of integration C changes its value.

The 'definite Integral' equation

If a function F(x) is the integral of the function f(x)

then an integral of the form:

is known as the definite integral, where a, b are called the limits of the
integral.

Example 1:

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Example 2:

Example 3:

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50