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NERVOUS TISSUE
Nervous tissue originates from ectoderm and is specialized for receiving stimuli(Excitability or Inrritability), transmit
message (conductivity) and co-ordination which is the process through two or more organs interact & complement the
functions of one another.
NERVOUS TISSUE
Neuron Neuroglia
Dendron Axon
NEURON
Unit of Nervous tissue - nerve cell(neuron)
Neurofibril
Cytoplasm Myelin sheath
Neurofibril Nucleus of
Nissl bodies Schwann cell
Cell body or Nucleus
perikaryon Nucleolus Neurilemma of
Schwann cell
Mitochondrion
Axon or axis
cylinder
Axon
hillock Node of Ranvier
Axon or axis
cylinder Telodendria
Myelin sheath
of Schwann cell
Neurilemma of
Schwann cell
Node of Ranvier
Nucleus of
Schwann cell
Nerve cell is made up of cell body & cell process – (Dendron and Axon = Neurites)
(i) Cell body or Cyton or soma or perikaryon:-
* It contains uninucleated cytoplasm.
* Except centriole, all cell organelles are found in cytoplasm.
* Centriole is absent or immaturely present in the nerve cell thus cell division is absent.
* Some other cell organelles like Nissl's granule and Neurofibril are also found in nerve cell.
Nissl's granules :
* Endoplasmic reticulum & ribosome form granules like structure called as Nissl's granules or Tigroid body.
* It is the centre of protein synthesis.
* Chemically – Ribonucleoprotein containing Iron.
* Site – Cyton & dendron (Rod shape)
* Many small fibrils are found in the cytoplasm called neurofibrils, these help in internal conduction in the
cyton.
Axon Dendron
Axon is covered by a layer of phospholipids (sphingomyelin) which is called as medulla or myelin sheath.
* Medulla is covered by thin cell membrane, which is called as neurilemma or sheath of schwann cells.
* The neurilemma is composed of schwann cells.
* Schwann cell takes part in the deposition of myelin sheath (myelinogenesis).
* Myelin sheath acts as insulator and prevent's leakage of ions.
Myelinogenesis in the Peripheral nervous system (PNS) :–
In the peripheral nerves, myelinogenesis begins with the deposition of myelin sheath in concentric layer around
the axon by schwann cells.
* Myelin sheath is discontinuous around the Axon. These interruptions where Axon is uncovered by myelin
sheath are called node of Ranvier
Myelinogenesis in the Central nervous system (CNS) :– Neurilemma or schwann cells are not present
therefore myelinogenesis process occurs with the help of oligodendrocy tes (Neuroglia)
* Neurons in which myelin sheath is present, are called medullated or myelinated neurons. In some nerve
cells where myelin sheath is absent, called as non medullated or non myelinated neurons.
Collaterals of Axon –
These are small process or branches of axon. It's structure is similar to axon. It help in the conduction of nerve
impulse in more area.
Gray matter :– It is composed of nerve cells. It consist of cytons & nonmedullated nerve fibres (Grey fibers).
White matter – It contain myelinated nerve fibres (White fibres).
Nuclei - term use for CNS (Brain and spinal cord)
Collect ion of c y tons (Group)
Ganglia - outside the CNS term use for PNS
Tract — CNS
Collection of nerve fiber
Nerve — PNS
Single process arises from cyton. Two process arises Neuron which have one
(1 Axon) from cyton axon but many
(1Axon & 1 dendron) dendrons.
e.g. Nervous system of embryo e.g. Retina (Rod & cones) e.g. Most of neurons
Olfactory epithelium of vertebrates.
cell.
Unipolar Biipolar Pseudo-Unipolar
Pseudounipolar :– In this type, nerve cell has only axon but
a small process develop from axon which act as dendron. eg.
Dorsal root ganglia of spinal cord Multipolar
Electrical Chemical
Conduction Fast Slow
Synaptic cleft 0.2 nm > 20 nm
Neurotransmitter Absent Present
Synaptic delay Absent Present
Blocking Can not be controlled Controlled by neurotransmitter
Blood brain barrier : The blood-brain barrier is formed by capillary endothelial cells, which are coupled
by tight junctions with extraordinarily high electrical resistance. Astrocytes are required to produce the barrier
which prevents the entry of neurotoxins.
Neurotra nsmit ter s or Neurohumor s or Neurohormone s
Stimulatory Inhibitory
Low K+ concentration
Outside 2K+ High Na+ concentration
Cell surface
membrane Na–K
of axon pump K+ Na+
carrier
protein
ATP ADP + Pi
Active transport
Active and passive ion movements across the cell surface of an axon.
Passive diffusion through
ion channel protein The movements are responsible for the generation of a negative potential
(facilitated diffusion)
inside the axon. This is called the resting potential. Active transport
takes place through the sodium/potassium pump. Ion channels (proteins)
allow the passive movement of ions down their electrochemical gradients.
Voltage gated Na+ channel opens
Na+ floods into neuron + +
Na and K ion
+ channels
Na
}
+ +
K Na
Repolarisation :-
* After a fraction of second, the sodium gates closed, Repolarisation of the axon membrane causes potassium
gates to open, potassium therefore diffuse out of cell.
* Since potassium is positively charged, this makes the inside of cell less positive, or more negative and the
process of repolarization or return to the original resting potential begins.
* The repolarization period returns the cell to its resting potential (–70 mV). The neuron is now prepared to
receive another stimulus and conduct it in the same manner.
* Sodium pump starts working to maintain the normal resting membrane potential by expelling Na+ and intaking of
K +.
The time taken for restoration of resting potential is called refractory period, because during this periods the
membrane is incapable of receving another impulse.
* Nerve impulse travels as action potential which passes along axon as a wave of depolarization.
* The whole process of depolarisation and repolarisation is very fast. It takes only about 1 to 5 milli second (ms).
Voltage gated K+ channel opens
+
K exists neuron
Sodium Na+ and K+ ion
potassium pump Sodium voltage gated
channels
channel closed
}
+30
+20
0
-20
Repolarisation
-40 Depolarisation
Threshold
-60
level -70
{
-80 Hyperpolarisation
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
milli seconds
Depolarisation × 3 3 × Neutral
Open/Operating 3 Closed ×
Neuron conducts the impulse in the form of electro chemical wave.
* Conduction of nerve impulse is unidirectional.
* It follow all or none law. Magnitude of response will always be same irrespective of strength of stimulus
above threshold stimulus.
* Velocity of nerve impulse Diameter of neuron.
* In mammals, the velocity of nerve Impulse is 100 to 130 meter/sec.
* This velocity is affected by physical & chemical factor, such as pressure, cold, heat, chloroform and ether etc.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
* System which regulate the various activities of the body through nerve- impulses is called the nervous -
system. Through this system the messages are transmitted at a faster rate.
* The nervous - system controls and also co-ordinates the various activities of the organs of the animals.
* Whole nervous - system of human being is derived from embryonic Ectoderm.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Brain and spinal cord
Integrative and control centers
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Cranial nerves and spinal nerves
Communication lines between
the CNS and the rest of body
Sensory (afferent division) Motor (efferent division)
Somatic and visceral sensory Motor nerve fibres
nerve fibres Conducts impulses from
Conducts impulses from receptors CNS to effectors
to the CNS (muscles and glands)
Sympathetic division
Mobilizes body systems during Autonomic Nervous Somatic Nervous
emergency situations Sysmtem (ANS) Sysmtem (SNS)
Involuntary (visceral motor) Voluntary (somatic motor)
Parasympathetic division Conducts impulses from the Conducts impulses from the
Conserves energy
CNS to cardiac muscles CNS to skeletal muscles
Promotes nonemergency
smooth muscles and glands
functions
BRAIN :
It is situated in cranial box which is made up of 1 frontal bone, 2 parietal bone, 2 temporal
bone, 1 occipital bone. The weight of brain of an adult man is 1400 gm and of female is 1250 gm.
BRAIN MENINGES :
Brain is covered by three membranes of connective tissue termed as meninges or menix.
Cranial venous sinus
Endosteal
Duramater Arachnoid villi
Meningeal
Subdural space
Arachnoid
Subarachnoid
Piamater
space
Cerebral cortex
Meningeal layer
(1) Duramater :
This is the first and the outermost membrane which is thick, very strong and non- elastic. It is made up of
collagen fibres. This membrane is attached with the innermost surface of the cranium.
* It is double layer–outer Endosteal layer which is closely attached with inner most surface of cranium & no
space is found between skull & Duramater (No Epidural space). Inner meningeal layer which is related with
other meninges of brain, both are vascular. Generally both layers are fused with each other, but at some
places these are separated from one another & form a sinus called cranial venous sinus. These sinuses are
filled with venous blood.
(2) Arachnoid :
It is middle, thin and delicate membrane, made up of connective tissue. It is found only in mammals.
It is non vascular layer. Infront of cranial venous sinus, it becomes folded, these folds called Arachnoid villi.
T he se v i lli reabsorb the cerebrospi nal fluid (CSF) from sub arachnoid space & pour it i nto cranial
venous sinuses.
(3) Piamater :
It is Inner most, thin and transparent membrane, made up of connective tissue.
Dense network of blood capillaries are found in it, so it is highly vascular.
It is firmly adhere to the brain. Piamater & arachnoid layer at some places fuse together to form leptomeninges.
Piamater merges into sulci of brain & densely adhere to it. At some places it directly merges in the brain and
called telachoroidea
Tela choroidea form the choroid plexus in the ventricles of brain.
Sub Dural Space :–
Space between duramater & arachnoid. It is filled with serous fluid.
Sub Arachnoid Space :–
Space between Arachnoid & Piamater is filled with C.S.F. Cranial nerves also pass through this space
Meningitis : Any inflammation of menix is called as meningitis. It may be caused by viruses, bacteria or
protozoa.
Cerebrospi nal–fluid (CSF) :–
This fluid is clear and alkaline in nature just like lymph. It has protein (Albumin, globulin), glucose, cholesterol,
urea, bicarbonates, sulphates and chlorides of Na, K. Protein & cholesterol concentration is lesser than
plasma & Cl – conc. is higher than plasma.
* In a healthy man, in 24 hrs, 500 ml of C.S.F is formed & absorbed by arachnoid villi. At a time total volume of
C.S.F. is 150 ml.
* CSF is present in ventricle of brain, subarachnoid space of brain & spinal cord.
Formation :- Mainly in choroid plexus of lateral ventricles, minor quantity is formed in III rd ventricle & IV th
ventricle.
Collection of CSF for any investigation is done by lumbar puncture (LP). It is done at L 3–L 4 region.
Spinal anaesthesia is also given by L.P.
Functions of C.S.F. :–
* Protection of Brain :- It act as shock absorbing medium and work as cushion.
* It provides buoyancy to the brain, so net weight of the brain is reduced from about 1.4 kg to about 0.18 kg.
* Excretion of waste products.
* Endocrine medium for the brain to transport hormones to different areas of the brain.
Huma n brai n div ided i nto three par t s –
(1) Fore brain – Cerebrum, Diencephalon.
(2) Mid brain – Optic lobes and Crura cerebrai.
(3) Hind Brain – Pons, Cerebellum, Medulla
During embryonic stage, brain develops from three hollow vesicles –
Rhinencephalon (Olfactory lobe)
Cerebr um :–
Central sulcus or rolandic sulcus
Parietal lobe
Frontal lobe
Parietooccipital sulcus
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe
Corpus-callosum
Genu
Fornix
Splen Thalamus
Mid brain -ium V-ventricle or pseudocoel
Hypothalamus (Covered by septum lucidum)
Epithalamus
Pineal body Optic chiasma
Pituitary gland
Cerebellum
Mammillary body
IV-ventricle Pons
M.Oblongata
Spinal cord
Corpus Callosum :–
It is large st commissure of Brai n.
Exclusive feature of mammals. Curved thick
Corpus callosum Thalamus Parital lobe
band of white nerve fibre situated between Pineal gland
two cerebral hemisphere in the median
fissure. Anterior truncated part of corpus Occipital lobe
Frontal lobe
callosum is called Genu while posterior
truncated part is called splenium.
A oblique band is formed by body of corpus
callosum & it goes towards Genu called
fo r n i x . Mid brain
Temporal lobe
A small cavity is developed among body of
callosum, Genu & fornix called as V t h Optic chiasma
Pitutary gland Cerebellum
ventricle or pseudocoel. This ventricle is
Hypothalamus Medulla oblongata
covered by a thin membrane called as
septum lucidum.
Fig. : Saggital section of brain
Diencephalon :–
It is small and posterior part of fore brain. It is covered by cerebrum. It consists of Thalamus, hypothalamus,
Epithalamus & Metathalamus.
(i) Thalamus : It forms upper lateral walls of Diencephalon. It forms 80% part of Diencephalon. Gate keeper of brain.
It acts as a relay centre. It receives all sensory impulses from all part of body & these impulses are send to the
cerebral cortex.
(ii) Hypothalamus : It forms lower or ventral part of Diencephalon.
A cross like structure is found on anterior surface of hypothalamus called as optic chiasma.
Pituitary body is attached to middle part of hypothalamus by infundibulum.
Cor pous mammi l lare or Cor pus albica ns or mammi lar y bo dy is found on the posterior par t of
hypothalamus. It is a character of mammalian brain.
Epithalamus –
It forms the roof of diencephalon. Pineal body (Epiphysis cerebri) is found in epithalamus.
Metathalamus – It consists of medial geniculate body & lateral geniculate body. It is located in floor of
Diencephalon.
Mid brain –
It is small & contracted part of brain. Anterior part of mid brain contains two longituidnal myelinated nerve fibres
peduncles called Cerebral peduncles or crus cerebri or crura cerebri. On the posterior part of mid brain
are found four spherical projection called colliculus or optic lobes. Four colliculus are collectively called as
corpora quadrigemina (2 upper & 2 lower)..
Only 2 colliculus or optic lobes are found in mid brain of frog called as corpora bigemina.
Posterior
Optic lobe or colliculi
or corpora quadrigemina
Iter or Aqueduct of
sylvius or cerebral
aqueduct
Crura cerebri or
crus cerebri or
Anterior cerebral peduncle
Hind Brain :
3 Parts –
(1) Pons (2) Cerebellum (3) Medulla Oblongata (M.O.)
(1) Pons or Pons varolii :
It is small spherical projection, which is situated below the midbrain & upper side of the M.O. It consists of many
transverse & longitudinal nerve fibres. Transverse nerve fibres connect with cerebellum (Leteral lobes of cerebellum).
Longitudinal fibres connect cerebrum to M.O.
(2) Cerebellum :
Made up of 3 lobe [2 lateral lobe & 1 vermis (divide in 9 segments)].
Both lateral lobes become enlarged & spherical in shape, so lateral lobe of cerebellum are also called as
cerebellar hemisphere. Due to this reason, regulation & Coordination of voluntary muscle is more developed
as compared to other animals.
Three cerebellar peduncle are formed, superior cerebellar peduncle attach with mid brain. Middle cerebellar
peduncle attach with pons and Inferior cerebellar peduncle attach with M.O.
(3) Medulla Oblongata (M.O.) :
Posterior part of brain is tubular & cylindrical in shape.
Mid brain, pons & medulla are situated in one axis and called as Brain stem.
Internal Structure of Brain –
One pair of olfactory lobes are small spherical & solid in human brain. No ventricle is found in it. Both olfactory
lobe are separate with each other & are embedded into ventral surface of the both Frontal lobe of cerebral
Hemisphere. Olfactory centre is situated in temporal lobe.
Paracoel
or
Lateral ventricle
Interventricular foramen Cerebrum
or foramen of monro
Third ventricle
Diencephalon
or diocoel
Cerebral aqueduct Midbrain
or aqueduct of sylvius or Iter
Cerebellum
Medulla oblongata
Olfactory lobe
Olfactory tract
Frontal lobe
Optic chiasma
* Except Midbrain, Cerebellum, Pons & olfactory lobe complete brain is internally hollow. Its cavity is lined
by ependymal epithelium. (Ciliated Columnar Epithelium)
* Cavities of brain are known as ventricles, filled with cerebrospinal fluid (C.S.F.).
* In Rabbit, Cavity of olfactory lobe is hollow called as 1 st ventricle or Rhinocoel. Both Rhinocoel
continue in cavity of cerbral hemisphere, known as 2 nd ventricle or paracoel or lateralventricle.
* In human 1st and 2nd verntricles are considered as paracoel or Lateral ventricle.
* On the posterior side, both paracoel combine with each other & open into cavity of Diencephalon through an
aperture known as Foramen of Monro.
* Cavity of diencephalon is known as 3rd ventricle or Diocoel.
* A tent shape space or cavity present between anterior pons, medulla & posterior cerebellum called IVth ventricle
* 3 rd and 4 th ventricle are connected with each other through a hollow tube known as Iter or Aqueduct of
sylvius. IV th ventricle continues in the metacoel and metacoel continues in the cavity of spinal cord called
neurocoel or central canal.
* One aperture is found on dorsal surface of metacoel known as foramen of Magendie.
Two apertures are found on lateral sides of metacoel know as Foramen of Luschka.[1–1]
* The CSF of brain comes out from the foramen of Magendie & Luschka & is poured into sub-arachnoid space.
HISTOLOGY OF BRAIN :-
G - Gray matter
W - White matter
Cerebrum
Diencephalon Spinal cord
Cerebellum Brain stem
* On dorsal surface of cerebral hemisphere, gray matter becomes more thick, this thick layer of gray matter is
known as Cerebral cortex/Neopallium/Pallium.
* Outer part of cerebellum is made up of gray matter while inner part is of white matter. White matter projects
outside & forms a branched tree like structure known as Arbor Vitae.
Choroid plexus : Tela choroidea (Piamater which is merge in ventricle)
+
Blood capillaries + Ependymal epithelium
Site : Two major plexuses in lateral ventricles.
2 minor plexuses in IIIrd ventricle
1 minor plexus in IVth ventricle
Function : Formation of CSF by secretion of plasma.
Some time (Congenitally or Infection) Iter or aqueduct become blocked therefore improper circulation of CSF or
blockage of CSF circulation occur therefore Intra cranial pressure increases, head becomes enlarged, this
condition called Hydrocephalus.
Circulation :- From the ventricles CSF comes into subarachnoid space through foramen of Magendie & foramen
of Luschka.
In sub arachnoid space, CSF is absorbed by arachnoid villi which pour it into cranial venous sinus. From venous
sinus CSF enters in blood circulation.
Choroid plexus Lateral ventricle Foramen of Monro
Diocoel
Iter
IVth ventricle
Metacoel
Blood Cranial Arachnoid Arachnoid Foramen of Magendie
circulation venous villi space and Foramen of Luschka
sinus
Limbic System :– It is visible like a wish bone, tuning fork or liplike.
Limbic lobe (area of temporal Lobe)
+
Hippocampus + Hypothalamus including septum + Part of Thalamus + Mammalary bodies + Amygdaloid complex
Functions of Limbic System :
(1) Behaviour, Emotion, rage and anger (Hypothalamus, amygdaloid body)
(2) Recent memory & short term memory converts into long term memory. (Hippocampal lobe)
(3) Food habit (Hypothalamus)
(4) Sexual Behaviour (Hypothalamus)
(5) Olfaction (Hippocampal lobe and Limbic lobe)
Premotor area
Motor area
Gustatory area
Occipital
area
Olfactory area Auditory area Wernicke's Lateral
area (Sylvian sulcus)
1. Olfactory lobe :– It is supposed to be centre of smelling power. Its size is small in mammals comparatively
because most of its parts become a part of cerebrum (including olfactory tract) some animals like sharks and
dogs have well developed olfactory lobes.
2. Cerebral hemispheres :– It is the most developed part in mammals. It is the most important part of brain
because it controls and regulates different parts of brain. This is the centre of conscious senses, will power,
voluntary movements, knowledge, memory, speech and thinking, reasoning etc.
Different sense organs send impulses here, and in this part of brain analysis and coordination of impulses is done
then messages are transferred according to the reactions through voluntary muscles. All the voluntary actions
are controlled by cerebral hemispheres.
3. Diencephalon :– Its dorsal side is called epithalamus in which pineal body is situated, that controls the sexual
maturity of animal.
* Thalamus – Act as relay centre for sensory stimulation. In lower animal, Cerebral cortex is not developed then
Thalamus act as sensory centre.
It is related with RAS.
It is also act as limbic part
* Functions of Hypothalamus –
(1) Thermoregulation
(2) Behaviour and emotion
(3) Endocrine control
(4) Biological clock system
(5) ANS control.
These are found centres of animal feelings/ Emotions like sleep, anger, intercourse (Male sexual behaviour -
libido), hate, love, affection, and temperature control emotional, pain, hunger, thirst and satisfaction in the
hypothalamus.
* The regulatory hormones of hypothalamus control the activity of endocrine glands. Modern scientists praposed
that hypothalamus is the "master gland" not the pituitary.
* Optic chiasma found in the hypothalamus carry optic impulses received from eyes to the cerebral hemispheres.
Animal becomes blind if this part is destroyed by chance.
Metathalamus – It is related with MGB & LGB. MGB related with hearing & LGB related with vision. Nerve
fibre of concerning place go through Metathalamus.
4. Mid - Brain :–
* Four optic lobes or colliculus present, superior optic lobes are the main centres of pupillary light reflexes.
Inferior optic lobes are related acoustic (sound) reflex action.
* Crura cerebri controls the muscles of limbs.
5. Cerebellum:- By this portion of hind brain, impulses are received from different voluntary muscles, joints and
then controlling of the their movements. Their regulation and coordination is the main function of this part of
brain i.e. cerebellum maintains the body balance of persons which take alcohol in excess, their cerebellum gets
affected,as a result of that they can not maintain their balance and their walking is disturbed.
Thus It is related with fine & skillful voluntary movement & also related with body balance,
equillibrium, posture & tone
6. Pons :- It regulates the breathing reaction through pneumotaxic centre.
7. Medulla Oblongata:- It is the most important part of brain which controls all the involuntary activities of the
body e.g. heart beats, respiration , metabolism, secretory actions of different cells rate of engulfing food etc.
Except this it acts as conduction path for all impulses between spinal cord and remaining portions of brain.
It is also concerned with Reflex– Sneezing reflex , salivation reflex, coughing reflex, swallowing reflex, vomiting
reflex, yawning reflex.
SPINAL CORD
Medulla
cord. It extends from base of skull to lower vertebra
C1
of lumbar. (L1)
* Its upper part is wide while lower most part is narrow
known as conus-medullaris.
Conus medullaris present upto L1 vertebra. Terminal
part of conus medullaris extend in the form of thread
like structure made up of fibrous connective tissue
called filum terminale.
* Filum terminale is non-nervous part Metacoel also
continues in spinal cord where it is known as
neurocoel or central ca nal.
* Spinal cord is also covered by Duramater, Arachnoid
& piamater. A nar row space is found bet ween
vertebra & duramater known as Epidural space.
S2
Filum terminale
Coccyx
Posterior median septum
Ramus dorsalis
Ramus communicans
White (form ANS)
matter Lateral horn
Grey matter
S Mixed nerve
Interneuron
M Ramus ventralis
Ventral horn Motor fibre
Intervertebral foramen
Anterior median fissure
(IVF)
* The outer-part of spinal cord is of white matter while inner-part contain gray matter.
* On the dorso-lateral & ventro-lateral surface of spinal cord, the gray matter (butter fly like) projects outside
& forms the one pair dorsal & ventral horn.
* Due to formation of dorsal & ventral horn white matter is divided in 4 segments & segment is known as
Funiculus or white column.
* Dorsal & ventral horn continue in a tube like (bundle of never fibres) structure known as root of Dorsal &
Ventral Horn. In root of dorsal horn, ganglia is present called Dorsal root ganglia
* Both root are combined with each other at the place of Intervertebral foramen.
* Sensory neurons are found in the dorsal root ganglia which is pseudounipolar in nature & near to inter-
vertebral foramen. its axon extend & gets embedded into gray matter of spinal cord & sensory nerve fibre
come from ganglia & make synapse with ventral root neuron.
* Motor neurons are found in the ventral root. Cyton is found in ventral horn while its dendrons are embedded into
gray matter of spinal cord where they make synapse with axon of sensory neuron.
* Axon of motor neuron extends upto intervertbral foramen.
* Both sensory & motor nerve fibers combindly come out from intervertebral foramen & form spinal nerve.
* In some part of spinal cord on both side lateral horns are also found. Lateral horn cells are found in these horn.
There nerve fibre come through ventral root & further come into intervertebral foramen. These fibre called
Ramus communicans.
* The group of spinal nerve at the terminal end (L1) of spinal cord form tail like structure called cauda equina
(horse tail).
* Ramus communica ns forms ANS.
* Spi nal ner ve & it s bra nche s are mixed t ype except Ramus communica ns.
Functions of spinal cord :-
(1) It acts as bridge between brain & organs of the body.
(2) It also provides relay path for the impulses coming from brain
(3) Spinal cord regulates and conducts the reflex action.
REFLEX ACTION –
* “Marshal Hall” first observed the reflex actions.
* Reflex actions are spontaneous, automatic, involuntary. Mechanical responses produced by specific stimulating
receptors.
* Reflex actions are involuntary actions. Reflex actions are completed very quickly as compared to normal
actions. No adverse effect.
* It is form of animal behaviour in which the stimulation of a sensory organ (receptor) result in the activity of some
organ without the intervention of will.
Reflex actions are of 2 types :-
(A) Cranial reflex :
These actions are completed by brain. No urgency is required for these actions. These are slow actions e.g.
watering of mouth to see good food.
(B) Spinal reflex :
These actions are completed by spinal cord. Urgency is required for these actions. These are very fast actions
e.g. Displacement of the leg at the time of pinching by any needle.
Classification of reflex actions on the basis of previous experiences :-
(A) Conditioned reflex :
Previous experience is required to complete these actions e.g. swimming, cycling, dancing, singing etc. These
actions were studied first by Evan Pavlov on dog.
Initially these actions are voluntary at the time of learning and after perfection , these become involuntary.
(B) Unconditioned reflex :
These actions do not require previous experience e.g. sneezing, coughing, yawning, sexual behaviour for
opposite sex partner, migration in birds etc.
REFLEX ARCH :
* The path of completion of reflex action is called reflex arch.
* Sensory fibres carry sensory impulses in the gray matter. These sensory impulses are converted now into motor
impulses and reach up to muscles. These muscles show reflex actions for motor impulses obtained from motor
neurons. Reflex arch is of two types.
(1) Monosynaptic :
In this type of reflex arch, there is a direct synapse (relation) found between sensory and motor neurons, thus
nerve impulse travels through only one synapse. eg. – Stretch reflex
(2) Polysynaptic :
In this type of reflex arch, there are one or more small neurons found in between the sensory and motor
neurons. These small neurons are called connector neuron or inter neurons or internuncial neurons e.g. with-
drawal reflex.
Nerve impulse will have to travel through more than one synapses in this reflex arch.
A B C
Diagrammatic representation of reflex
A = Bicepse tendon reflex, B = Knee jerk, C = Triceps tendon reflex.
Afferent Sensory White
pathway neuron Dorsal root matter
ganglion
Muscle spindle
(Receptor)
Motor Gray
neuron matter
Stimulus
Efferent pathway
– Inhibition
Response – Stimulus
Withdrawal Reflex – Sensory neuron supplied the sensation through dorsal root ganglia & terminal branches
of axon divide in the gray matter & one is supplied agonist muscle & other is supplied antagonist muscle. EPSP
develop in synapse between motor fibre of agonist muscle. When ever due to interconnection of interneuron
with antagonist muscle neuron, IPSP develop in synapse between colateral branch of sensory fibre and antago-
nist muscle. Therefore, contraction of agonist muscle and relax the fibre of antagonist muscle.
Foot withdrawn
Response
With drawal Reflex
1. No any involvement of interneuron. Role of interneuron is important.
2. It is an example of monosynaptic reflex. It is an example of polysynaptic reflex.
* In rabbit, there are 37 pairs of spinal nerves, while in frog there are 9 or 10 pairs of spinal- nerves.
* In Human only 31 pairs of spinal - nerves are found.
* Each spinal nerve is mixed type and arises from the roots of the horns of gray matter of the spinalcord.
In dorsal root only afferent or sensory fibres and in ventral root efferent or motor fibres are found.
* Both the roots after moving for distance in the spinalcord of vertebrates combine with each other and come out
from the Inter verterbal foramen in the form of spinal nerves.
* As soon as the spinal nerves come out of the inter vertebral foramen they divide into 3 branches :-
(i) Ramus- dorsalis
Somatic nerve
(ii) Ramus ventralis
Sympathetic nervous system
(iii) Ramus communicans A.N.S.
Parasympathetic nervous system
There are 37 pairs of spinal nerves in rabbit. These are divided into 5 groups according to place:-
Rabbit
1. Cervical spinal nerves - 8 pairs – I to –VIII
2. Thoracic spinal nerves - 12 pairs – IX to –XX
3. Lumbar spinal nerves - 7 pairs – XXI to –XXVII
[In human 21 to 25 (5 pair)]
4. Sacral spinal nerves - 4 pairs – XXVIII to –XXXI
[In human 26 to 30 (5 pair)]
5. Caudal spinal nerves - 6 pairs – XXXII to –XXXVII
(In human-1pair coccygeal nerve)
* Only 31 pairs of spinal nerves are found in human. Caudal spinal nerves are absent because human is a tailless
animal and only 1 pair coccygeal nerve are present.
Involuntary muscles, Exocrine glands, Blood vessels, skin (Pilomotor muscles, Blood vessels, Sweat glands)
There are the two division of the autonomic nervous system the sympathetic (SNS) and the parasympathetic
(PNS)
(i) Sympathetic system is related with such visceral reactions. which increase the protection of body in
adverse atmospheric conditions along with calorie consumption (Causes loss of energy).
(ii) Parasympathetic system is related with those reactions in which energy is conserved.
In this way, autonomic nervous system controls the activites of visceral organs double sided i.e. antagonistic
to each other.
Sympathetic NS Parasympathetic NS
1 . Thoracico lumbar outflow (T1 to L3) (Ramus 1 . Cranio sacral outflow (cranial nerves) 3, 7,9,
communicans of T1 to L3) 10 and sacral's ramus communicans 2,3,4)
2 . Just lateral to vertebral column sympathetic 2 . Ganglia are situated separately either near the
trunks are there on both sides organ or surface of organ.
(each made up of 22 ganglia) (Rabbit = 18 ganglia)
3 . Preganglionic nerve fibres (Ramus 3 . Preganglionic nerve fibres are longer than
communicans of spinal nerves) are smaller postganglionic nerve fibres.
than post ganglionic nerve fibres (arises from
sympathetic trunk or ganglia to organs)
4 . Preganglionic nerve fibres are cholinergic 4 . Both pre and post ganglionic nerve fiber are
(filled with acetylcholine). and post ganglionic cholinergic
nerve fibres are adrenergic (filled with
noradrenaline)except sweat gland which have
cholinergic postganglionic nerve fibres.
5 . Preganglionic nerve fibres are made up of
white ramus communicans
and postganglionic nerve fibres are made up
of gray ramus communicans .
Table of Ner vous Control of Visceral Orga ns
Name of Visceral Affect of sympathetic nervous Affect of parasympathetic
Organs system nervous system
3. Tear glands or Stimulates secretion of lachrymal glands Inhibits secretion of lachrymal
lachrymal glands glands
4. Heart Increases the rate of cardiac contraction i.e. Inhibits the rate of cardiac
accelerates heart beat contraction i.e. retards heart beat.
6. Salivary secretion Inhibits the secretion of salivary and digestive Stimulates the secretion of salivary
glands and digestive glands
7. Blood vessels Constricts cutaneous blood vessels, which Dilates all blood vessels
causes increased blood pressure but dilates decreasing blood pressure
blood vessels of brain, lungs, heart, striated
muscles.
Increases RBC count in blood.
8. Lungs, trachea and Dilates trachea bronchi & lungs for easy Constricts these organs during
bronchi breathing normal breathing.
9. Alimentary canal Inhibits peristalsis of alimentary canal. Stimulates the peristalsis of
alimentary canal
1 0 . Digestive glands. Inhibits the secretion of these glands Stimulates the secretion of the glands
1 1 . Sweat glands Stimulates secretion of sweat. Inhibits secretion of sweat.
1 2 . Arrector pilli Stimulates contraction of these muscles of Relaxes Arrector pilli muscles.
muscles skin, causing goose flesh
1 3 . Urinary bladder Relaxes the muscles of urinary bladder. Contracts the muscles for ejaculation
of urine (Micturition).
1 4 . Anal sphincter Closes anus by contracting anal sphincters. Relaxes anal sphincter and opens the
anus (Defaecation).
1. Olfactory lobe
Position Attached distinctly to anterior end Attached indistinctly as part of cer-
of cerebrum. ebral hemisphere embedded in
frontal lobe.
Shape and size. Small, elongated Small, occur as olfactory bulb.
Rhinocoel Present Absent and solid lobe
2. Cerebr um Surface bears fissures and divided Surface is folded having gyri and
into lobes. sulci, bearing fissures and divided
into lobes.
Pallium Developed. Highly developed.
Corpora striata Comparatively less developed. Developed.
Pituitary body Infundibulum and hypophysis from Same as in rabbit but intermediate
pituitary body also having an lobe vestigeal.
intermediate lobe.
3. Cerebel lum
Divisions Divided into 5 lobes - a Divided into two cerebellar hemi-
median vermis, two lateral lobes spheres, connected by median
each terminating into a flocculus. vermis, cerebellar peduncle also
37 pairs - 8 cervical, 12 present.
4. Spinal nerve thoracic, 7 lumbar, 4 sacral and 6 31 pairs - 8 cervical, 12 tho
caudal or coccygeal pairs. racic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and 1
coccygeal pairs.
SPECIAL POINTS
1. In the brain of frog only 2 meninges are present. The middle meninge that is the Arachnoid is absent.
2. In rabbit, man and mammals- 3 meninges are present.
3. Increase in the amount of cerebro- spinal fluid is a diseased condition termed as the Hydrocephalus
4. "Meningitis". It arises due to infection or inflammation or injury in the meninges. Infection may be due to virus
or bacteria or both.
5. Piamater is the most vascular and conducting and provides nutrition.
6. The power of regeneration is very less in a neuron.
7. The optic lobes of frog are hollow and in them optocoel cavity is found.
8. In frog, 2 optic - lobes are present. These are hollow and termed as Corpora- bigemina. In mammals, 4 solid
optic - lobes are present.
9. Around the brain of fishes, only one menix is found called "Menix- primitiva".
10. The valve of vieussens joins the optic- lobes with the cerebellum.
11. Cerebral - cortex is made up of gray - matter and is divided into 3 areas:-
(i) Sensory area (ii) Motor area. (iii) Associated area
12. The sensory and associated areas determine the shape, colour, sound, taste and smell of any object.
13. Motor area regulates muscular - contraction.
14. Broca's area:- It is known as motor speech area.
15. Broca's area is present in the lateral part of the frontal- lobe of the cerebrum. This area translates the
written words into speech.
16. If Broca's area gets destroyed the animal becomes unable to speak.
17. The temporal- lobes of cerebrum regulates the mechanism of hearing.
18. Cerebrum is the centre of following:-
(1) Intelligence (2) Emotion (3) Will- power (4) Memory
(5) Consciousness (6) Experience (7) Knowledge
(8) Voluntary control (9) Laughing and weeping(10) Defaecation and micturition.
19. Diencephalon is the centre of carbohydrate - metabolism and fat- metabolism.
20. In rabbit , "Swammerdam's glands " are absent. These glands are present at the origin place of spinal -
nerves in vertebrates & present in frog. It provide extra supply of Ca++ for synaptic transmission.
21. Cerebellum made up of three layers and In the middle of cerebellum of brain lobes of flask- shaped cells are
found called the "Purkinje- cells".
22. In the nerve- cells , " centrosome" are absent so once formed in development, the nerve-cells do not divide and
remain in Inter- phase stage throughout their life ; and grow in size with the growth of the body.
23. The velocity of nerve- impulse is 5 to 50 times more faster in Myelinated nerve - fibres than in Non- myelinated
nerve -fibres.
24. In mammals the speed of nerve impulse is 100 - 130 m/sec (maximum). In frog, the speed of nerve impulse
is 30 m/sec. In reptiles the speed is 15 to 35 m/sec.
25. Acetylcholinesterase enzyme helps in the dissociation of Acetylcholine.
26. In the form of inhibitory neuro- hormons, - GABA is present.
GABA- gamma amino butyric -acid.
27. Acetylcholine is synthesized by the Mitochondria.
28. For the conduction of nerve- impulses, Na + is necessary.
29. The marking of brain- waves is done through E. E. G i.e Electro- encephalo gram.
30. In embryonal - stages inside the brain the layer of gray- matter is towards inside and that of white -matter is
towards outside. In adults, this arrangement continues in the spinal-cord but during the development of the wall
of the brain the gray- matter is transferred outside.
31. In 1 minute 750 ml of blood is conducted to the human- brain.
32. Corpus callosum is the largest commissure of the brain.
33. Largest cranial venous sinus is cavernous venous sinus which is situated in the middle cranial fossa.
34. All pre ganglionic sympathetic nerve fibres are myelinated while post ganglionic nerve fibre are non myelinated.
35. In PNS myelinogenesis process is occured by neurilemma (Schwan cells) while in CNS myelinogenesis process is
occured by oligodendrocytes (Neuroglia)
36. Alzheimer's disease – In this disease, the cerebral cortex is atrophied and ultimately the ventricle enlarges.
Symptoms consist loss of memory particularly recent memory. Alzheimer disease is more common in down
syndrome.
Treatment – No effective treatment.
37. Stroke – May be caused by haemorrhage into the brain.
Symptoms – Unconsiousness.
Treatment– Intravenous tissue plasminogen activator.
38. Epilepsy – Epilepsy is characterized by short, recurrent periodic attack of motor, sensory or psychological
malfunction.
Cause – due to abnormal discharge of cerebral neurons.
Symptons – seizures, unconsiousness, Involuntary contraction of muscle.
Treatment – Anti epileptic drugs.
39. In human brain more than 100 billion neurons are present.
40. Each neuron cell connect with 25,000 other cell.
41. Phrenic nerve is branch of cervical plexues which supply diaphragm.
42. Malathione :- This substance is used as insecticide and it destroy the acetyl cholinesterase in synapse area.
43. Botulism :- It is food poisoning disease and it produces by Clostridium botulinum bacteria.
This bacteria release neurotoxin.
44. Curare : - is drug which blocks acetylcholine receptor on skeletal muscle, so that it can be used by a surgeon for
keeping a muscle relaxed during operation.
45. Corpus striatum regutales planning and execution of stereotyped movement.
46. The region between the thalamus and spinal cord is referred to as brain stem.
47. All impulse traversing a given neuron have the same amplitude, differing only in the frequency of impulse.
48. Glycine is neuro inhibitory hormone present in spinal cord.
49. Glutamate is excitatory amino acid.
50. Trigeminal nerve is also called "the dentists nerve" because the dentists desensitizes this nerve with some
anaesthetic before pulling out the troubling tooth.
geniculate ganglion
mental age
Intelligency quotient (I.Q) = 100
chrono log ical age
Idiot – 0–24%
Imbecile – 25–49%
Moron – 50–69%
Borderline – 70–79%
Low normal – 80–89%
Normal – 90 –1 09 %
Superior – 110– 119%
Very superior – 120– 139%
Genius – 140–More
52. Basal Nuclei/ Basal ganglie :
Situated in the wall of cerebral hemisphere.
Putamen
Corpus striatum Caudate nucleus + lentiform nucleus + Amygdaloid + Claustrum
Globus pallidus
Caudate nucleus
Claustrum
Lentiform nuclei
Amygdaloid body
(Complex)
BASAL NUCLEI
Function :
(1) It maintains muscle tone.
(2) It regulates automatic associated movement like swinging of arms during walking
(3) In lower animals, when cerebral cortex is not developed basal nuclei acts as motor centre.
Lesion in basal nuclei leads to a disease called as parkinsonism (Rigidity, Tremor at rest, mask like face)
(4) Regulate stereotypic movements.
(5) Releated to initiation & termination of movements.
53. Reticular activating System :–
It is special sensory fibre which is situated in Brain stem & further go into Thalamus. It is related with
consiousness, alertness & awakening. Therefore it is also called gate keeper of consiousness.