Asim Sharif Thesis

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Potential of Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash for the Reduction

of Alkali-Silica Reaction in Mortar Bars Incorporating
Reactive Aggregates
Asim Sharif
MS Civil (Structural Engineering)
2018
Advisor
Dr. Safeer Abbas
Co-Advisor
Dr. Shahid Ali
National University of Computer & Emerging Sciences

FAST-NU, Lahore
Certificate of Approval
It is certified that the research work presented in this thesis was conducted by Asim Sharif
under the supervision of Dr. Safeer Abbas. No part of this thesis has been previously submitted
for assessment in any other institution.
Asim Sharif Signature:
Roll Number: 15L-5152
Advisor:
Dr. Safeer Abbas Signature:
U.E.T Lahore,
Examination Committee:
Co-Advisor:
Dr. Shahid Ali Signature:
HOD, Department of Civil Engineering
FAST-NU, Lahore
Dr. Ali Ahmed
External, Signature:
U.E.T Lahore,
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Abstract
Alkali silica reaction is a deleterious reaction occur between silica of aggregates and hydroxyl
ion of pore solution. The product of this reaction is hygroscopic ASR gel. ASR gel swell in the
presence of moisture and cause cracking in the concrete. Factor affecting ASR are reactive
aggregates, alkali content, temperature and humidity. Sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) is by-
product of sugar industry. SBA is dumped in the land fill which cause health and environmental
problem. Alternative solution is to use SBA as partial replacement of cement in concrete.
Cement is the second largest CO2 emitting industry behind the power generation. Each ton of
cement produces one ton of CO2 which is one of the important greenhouse gases as the global
warming reason.
In this research aggregates are collected from Chak 110 SB Sargodha. Their alkali silica
reactivity was checked by petrographic examination and accelerated mortar bar test. Sugarcane
bagasse ash was collected from the local sugar mill and its particle size was reduced by using
ball mill apparatus. Pozzolanic properties of SBA are checked through strength activity index.
Accelerated mortar bar test was performed to check the alkali silica reactivity of aggregates
and role of SBA in mitigating alkali silica reaction. SBA was replaced 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%
and 40% with cement. Compressive strength of mortar cubes was tested at the age of 7, 14,
28, and 56 days. The expansion of mortar bar was measured at the age of 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28
days.
Petrographic examination of Chak 110 SB Sargodha aggregates confirmed the presence of

reactive minerals (i.e. quartzite and slate). Water demand of mortar mixtures incorporating
SBA increase as the replacement of SBA increase. The increase in the water demand was due
to hydrophilic nature and high specific surface area of SBA. Compressive strength of cubes at
10% SBA replacement was more than control sample due to pozzolanic reaction and large
surface area of SBA which provide additional nucleation site for the hydration of cement.
Compressive strength of cubes decreases at 30 and 40% SBA replacement because of high
water to cement ratio and dilution effect due large replacement of cement with SBA. The
strength activity index (SAI) value of 10% SBA was more than control sample. The strength
activity index value decreases at 30 and 40% SBA replacement. The expansion of mortar bar
decreases with the increase of SBA replacement due pozzolanic reaction and dilution effect.
Keyword: Sugarcane bagasse ash, petrographic examination, alkali silica reaction, mortar bar
expansion and strength activity index.
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Acknowledgements
Praise to Almighty Allah, the most generous and merciful. Without His blessings and guidance
thesis accomplishment would have never been possible.
The author wishes to express deep gratitude and profound thanks to Dr. Safeer Abbas for his
motivation encouragement and tremendous support and without whose encouragement and
guidance this work would has not been possible. Acknowledgement of special support is also
extended to Dr. Shahid Ali throughout the research work. Author is also thankful to the lab
assistants in the laboratories of Civil Engineering Department FAST-NU, Lahore.
I would like to acknowledge Kadium Stone Crusher for suppling aggregates for this research
and lab assistant Ahsan Siddique helping during experimental program. I am also thanks to lab
supervisor Hassan Nawaz for providing access to the environmental lab for collecting distilled
water and preparation of sodium hydroxide solution.
Last but not least, author wishes to thanks and extends appreciation and gratitude to the
members of the loving family and friends who loved, supported and encouraged the efforts
throughout this study.
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Table of Contents
Certificate of Approval ............................................................................................................ii
Abstract ................................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. iv
Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... ix
List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... x
Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1
1.1 General Introduction ................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement ...................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Research Objectives .................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Scope ........................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Research Significance ................................................................................................. 3
1.6 Thesis Structure ........................................................................................................... 3
Chapter 2 Literature Review .............................................................................................. 5
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 5
2.2 Structure Affected by ASR ......................................................................................... 5
2.3 Mechanisms of Alkali-Silica Reaction ........................................................................ 6
2.4 ASR Chemical Reaction.............................................................................................. 6
2.5 Formation of ASR Gel ................................................................................................ 7
2.6 Development of ASR Cracks ...................................................................................... 8
2.7 Common Symptoms of ASR ....................................................................................... 9
2.7.1 Map or Pattern Cracks ......................................................................................... 9
2.7.2 Longitudinal Cracks ............................................................................................. 9
2.7.3 Joint Misalignment............................................................................................. 10
2.7.4 Exudation ........................................................................................................... 10
2.7.5 Pop-out ............................................................................................................... 10
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2.7.6 Corner Crushing ................................................................................................. 10
2.8 Factors Affecting Alkali-Silica Reaction in Concrete............................................... 11
2.8.1 Reactive Aggregates .......................................................................................... 11
2.8.2 Alkalis Content .................................................................................................. 12
2.8.3 Sufficient Moisture Content ............................................................................... 13
2.9 Testing Methods (Test for Potentially Alkali Silica Reactivity of Aggregates) ....... 14
2.9.1 Petrographic Examination of Aggregates ASTM C295 .................................... 15
2.9.2 Chemical Test ASTM C289............................................................................... 15
2.9.3 Mortar Bar Test ASTM C 227 ........................................................................... 15
2.9.4 Accelerated Mortar Bar Test ASTM C 1260 ..................................................... 16
2.9.5 Concrete Prism Test ASTM C 1293 .................................................................. 17
Chapter 3 Material Preparation and Experimental Program ....................................... 18
3.1 Material Preparation .................................................................................................. 18
3.1.1 Collection of Aggregates ................................................................................... 18
3.1.2 Washing and Drying Aggregates ....................................................................... 18
3.1.3 Sieving Aggregate .............................................................................................. 18
3.1.4 Aggregates Gradation ........................................................................................ 19
3.1.5 Preparation of NaOH Solution ........................................................................... 19
3.2 Testing Materials ....................................................................................................... 20
3.2.1 Normal Portland Cement ................................................................................... 20
3.2.2 Sugarcane Bagasse Ash ..................................................................................... 20
3.2.3 Water .................................................................................................................. 21
3.3 Testing Equipment .................................................................................................... 21
3.3.1 Mortar Mixer ...................................................................................................... 21
3.3.2 Digital Length Comparator ................................................................................ 22
3.3.3 High Pressure Autoclave.................................................................................... 23
3.3.4 Flow Table ......................................................................................................... 23
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3.3.5 Mortar Bar Mold ................................................................................................ 24
3.3.6 Cubes.................................................................................................................. 24
3.3.7 Compression Machine ....................................................................................... 24
3.3.8 Oven ................................................................................................................... 25
3.3.9 Sieve Shaker....................................................................................................... 25
3.3.10 Distillation Apparatus ........................................................................................ 26
3.4 Properties of Cement ................................................................................................. 27
3.5 Properties of Aggregates ........................................................................................... 27
3.6 Petrographic Examination ......................................................................................... 28
3.7 Flow Table Test ......................................................................................................... 28
3.8 Mortar Bar Test ASTM C 1260 ................................................................................ 29
3.8.1 Quantities Required for Samples ....................................................................... 29
3.8.2 Preparation of Samples ...................................................................................... 29
3.8.4 Storage and Examining Procedure ..................................................................... 31
3.9 Compressive Strength ............................................................................................... 32
3.9.1 Quantities Required for Samples ....................................................................... 32
3.9.3 Storage and Testing Procedure .......................................................................... 34
3.9.4 Calculation ......................................................................................................... 34
Chapter 4 Results and Discussions ................................................................................... 35
4.1 Chemical Analysis of Cement ................................................................................... 35
4.2 Chemical Analysis of SBA ....................................................................................... 36
4.3 Physical Properties of Cement and SBA ................................................................... 37
4.4 Properties of Fresh Cement Paste.............................................................................. 37
4.5 Properties of Aggregates ........................................................................................... 39
4.5.1 Physical Properties of Aggregates ..................................................................... 39
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4.5.2 Mechanical Properties Aggregates .................................................................... 39
4.6 Mach Hills Chak 110 Sargodha ................................................................................ 40
4.6.1 Slate.................................................................................................................... 41
4.6.2 Quartzite............................................................................................................. 42
4.6.3 Vein Quartz ........................................................................................................ 43
4.7 Flow Table Test ......................................................................................................... 43
4.8 Strength Activity Index and Compressive Strength .................................................. 44
4.9 Mortar Bar Expansion Results .................................................................................. 47
Chapter 5 Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................... 49
5.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 49
5.2 Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 50
References ............................................................................................................................... 51
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List of Tables
Table 3.1 The gradation of aggregates for mortar cube and mortar prism .............................. 20
Table 3.2 Material required for three bars ............................................................................... 29
Table 3.3 Material required for three cubes ............................................................................. 32
Table 4.1 Chemical analysis of cement ................................................................................... 35
Table 4.2 Chemical composition of sugarcane bagasse ash .................................................... 36
Table 4.3 Physical properties of cement and SBA .................................................................. 37
Table 4.4 Fresh properties of cement ....................................................................................... 38
Table 4.5 Properties of aggregates ........................................................................................... 40
Table 4.6 Result of petrographic examination ........................................................................ 41
Table 4.7 Result of flow table test ........................................................................................... 44
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List of Figures
Figure 3.1 Aggregates crushing plant ...................................................................................... 19

Figure 3.2 Mortar mixer ........................................................................................................... 21
Figure 3.3 Digital length comparator ....................................................................................... 22
Figure 3.4 High pressure auto clave expansion apparatus ....................................................... 23
Figure 3.5 Cubes molds ........................................................................................................... 24
Figure 3.6 Two gang prism molds ........................................................................................... 25
Figure 3.7 Electric oven ........................................................................................................... 25
Figure 3.8 Sieve shaker ............................................................................................................ 26
Figure 3.9 Water distillation apparatus .................................................................................... 27
Figure 3.10 Flow of mortar ...................................................................................................... 28
Figure 3.11 Mixing of mortar ................................................................................................. 30
Figure 3.12 Preparation of mortar bar prism .......................................................................... 30
Figure 3.13 Mortar bar prism in NaOH solution ..................................................................... 31
Figure 3.14 Storage in water container ................................................................................... 32
Figure 3.15 Casting of cubes ................................................................................................... 33
Figure 3.16 Curing of cubes in water container ...................................................................... 33
Figure 4.1 Mineralogical composition of slate ........................................................................ 42
Figure 4.2 Mineralogical composition of quartzite.................................................................. 43
Figure 4.3 Compressive strength for different replacement of SBA ....................................... 45
Figure 4.4 Strength activity index of mortar ............................................................................ 46
Figure 4.5 Graph between expansion and age in days ............................................................. 47
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Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 General Introduction

Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is commonly occurring problem in the concrete structure. In the
alkali-silica reaction alkali content from cement react with reactive silica of aggregates and a gel
is formed which itself is not harmful for the concrete. The alkali-silica gel expands when absorb
moisture. The cracking in concrete occurs because of tensile stress due to expansion of concrete
[1]. Factor affecting ASR are reactive aggregates, alkali content, temperature and humidity.
Elgeseter bridge in Norway was affected from the ASR [2]. Tarbela Dam, Mangla Dam, Warsak
Dam and Jinnah Barrage in Pakistan are affected by ASR [3]. ASR also decrease the mechanical
properties of concrete [1, 4].
Alkalis present in the concrete form hydroxyl ions. These hydroxyl ions react with reactive silica
of the aggregates and produce alkali-silica gel. Large amount of alkalis generates more hydroxyl
ions and cause a relatively fast reaction with silica. When the amount of alkalis are less, then this
reaction will be slow [5]. Some strategies to protect concrete from ASR have been suggested like
avoid use of reactive aggregates, use of low alkali cement and use of supplementary cementous
material as cement replacement. Mostly SCMs (fly ash, silica fume and slag) are used to mitigate
the distress due to ASR. Replacement of supplementary cementous material depends on the alkalis
available from the Portland cement, alkalis from the SCMs, CaO/SiO2 of the SCMs and reactivity
of the aggregate [6]. Pozzolanic material decrease the amount of alkalis in the pore solution
because of dilution effect due to slow reactivity of pozzolanic material. Low migration of alkali
ion toward the reactive aggregates due to low permeability of the blended concrete. Alkali binding
capacity of hydration product of blended cement is more than the Portland cement due to low
calcium to silica ratio. Supplementary cementous materials increase the strength which decrease
the dissolution of silica from the surface of reactive aggregates [7].
Mostly cement is used in the concrete as a binder material. The production of cement release
carbon dioxide which is important greenhouse gas because of global warming. One tone of carbon
dioxide released during the production of one tone cement. After power generation cement
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industry is highest CO2 releasing industry [8, 9]. The consumption of cement in the construction
industry can be reduced by using supplementary materials as cement replacement which also
reduce the CO2 emission in the environment due less production of cement.
Pakistan is agricultural country and produce a large amount of sugarcane every year. Sugar
industry use sugarcane bagasse to generate heat and energy which result in the production of
sugarcane bagasse ash [10]. Sugarcane bagasse ash is dumped in the landfill or return to the land
by mixing with the mill mud which cause environmental and health problem [11]. The process of
grinding and classification of SBA is done to increase the specific surface area and reduction of
particle size. The rate of pozzolanic reaction of SBA increase by increasing the specific surface
area. We can achieve good packing density by using ultra-fine pozzolanic material with cement in
mortar or concrete mixture due filler effect [12].
1.2 Problem Statement

Alkali-silica reaction (ASR) is commonly occurring problem in the concrete structure. It causes
cracking in the concrete and also reduce mechanical properties of concrete. Production of cement
contribute to the greenhouse gas due to emission of carbon dioxide gas. One ton production of
cement release one ton of carbon dioxide gas. Sugarcane bagasse is produced in large quantity in
the sugar industries. SBA is disposed by dumping to the land fill or mixing with mill mud to use
as low-level fertilizer. The disposal of SBA causes environmental and health problem. The
alternative method to use SBA as cement replacement which increase the compressive strength
and durability problems. There is a lot of research on pozzolanic behavior of SBA. But, there is
less data available on the effect of SBA in ASR mitigation. Here in this research, role of sugarcane
bagasse ash in the reduction of alkali-silica reaction (ASR) of concrete will be studied along with
pozzolanic behavior of SBA.
1.3 Research Objectives

Overall goal of this research is to investigate alkali-silica reactivity of aggregates source and role of
sugarcane bagasse ash in mitigation of ASR. Find the effective dosage of SBA by strength activity
index test. The objectives of this research project are:
1. To identify the alkali-silica reactivity of Sargodha aggregates by petrographic analysis.

2. To investigate the effect of different dosage of SBA on compressive strength of mortar.
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3. To use accelerated mortar bar test to determine the alkali-silica reactivity of Sargodha
aggregates.
4. To study the effect of sugarcane bagasse ash in accelerated mortar bar test to mitigating
alkali-silica reaction.
1.4 Scope
In this research aggregates are collected from Chak 110 SB Sargodha. Their alkali silica reactivity
is checked by petrographic examination and accelerated mortar bar test. Sugarcane bagasse ash is
collected from the local sugar mill and its particle size is reduced by using ball mill apparatus.
Pozzolanic properties of SBA are checked through strength activity index. Role of SBA in
mitigating alkali silica reaction was investigated by accelerated mortar bar test. SBA is replaced
0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% with cement. Mortar cubes are tested at the age of 7, 14, 28, and 56
days. 60 mortar cubes of size 2x2 inches are casted. Three cubes for each replacement of SBA and
each age of testing. 15 mortar prisms are casted for the accelerated mortar bar test. Three bars for
each percentage replacement of SBA. The expansion of mortar bar is measured at the age of 3, 7,
14, 21, and 28 days.
1.5 Research Significance

This research is of international interest because sugarcane bagasse ash is produced worldwide and
dump in land which reduces agriculture land and create environmental effect. After this research,
SBA will be used as partial replacement of cement in concrete to mitigate ASR. Cement
consumption will be reduced ultimately production of CO2 will be reduced which causes
greenhouse problem. Source of non-reactive aggregates are limited. So, we can use reactive
aggregates in concrete along with preventive measures such as SCMs. The alkali silica reaction in
concrete will be reduced which save repair and replacement cost of the structure and also increase
the life of structure.
1.6 Thesis Structure

This thesis has five chapter covering the scope of this study “Potential of Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash
for the Reduction of ASR in concrete incorporating Potential Reactive Aggregates”.
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Chapter 1 provides the overview of alkali-silica reactivity, use of supplementary cementous
material to mitigate ASR in concrete, problem statement, research objective, scope and research
significance.
Chapter 2 provides mechanism of alkali-silica reaction, factor affecting ASR, structure effected
by ASR, test method to evaluate ASR and mitigation technique of ASR.
Chapter 3 deal with the material preparation and experimental program, laboratory apparatus
used, testing methodology and proportion of material were discussed.
Chapter 4 present physical and chemical properties of material, effect of SBA replacement on
fresh properties of cement paste, petrographic examination of aggregates and ASR-induced
expansion of ASTM C 1260. Disuse the effectiveness of SBA to mitigate expansion of reactive
aggregates.
Chapter 5 deal with conclusion of research investigation and recommendation for the future
related studies.
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Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
The demand of construction work has been increased due to increase in population and
urbanization. The concrete is widely used material for construction in the whole world. The
availability, abundance and economy of material used in the concrete construction are of great
concern. Alkali silica reaction mostly occur in concrete structure specially in the hydraulic
structure. It may cause deterioration, cracking, spalling of concrete and reduction in mechanical
properties. The reaction happened between the alkali content of cement and reactive silica of
aggregates. The reactive silica may come from fine or coarse aggregates. The reaction between
alkalis and reactive silica produces ASR gel which expand in the presence of moisture. ASR is a
time dependent process it mostly occurs in first 5-10 year after the construction of structure. The
cracks due to ASR usually do not occur after the fixed number of years. The ASR in the concrete
structure may be displayed after 30- 50 years.
2.2 Structure Affected by ASR

All the siliceous are not reactive in alkali-silica reaction only glassy form of silica, poorly
crystalline form of silica and amorphous silica are reactive. The aggregates use in the construction
of dams on the Himalayan River are river bed aggregates. Because of abundance, availability, low
transportation cast and economy of the project [3]. Warsak dam was constructed on the Kabul
River in NWFP. It was a multi-purpose project for generation of power and irrigation. Petrographic
analysis of core of concrete was performed which indicate the cracking and deterioration of dam
was due ASR in concrete. The result also showed 38% of total coarse and fine aggregates used for
the construction of dam were reactive in ASR. The aggregates mainly consist of greywacke,
quartzite, slate, phyllite and gneiss minerals. This study concludes that the greywacke, quartzite,
slate and phyllite were the major contributor to alkali silica reaction in the dams [13]. Tarbela
dam was constructed on the Indus River. The coarse and fine aggregates used for the construction
of dam was collected from Indus River downstream of dam site. After three years of construction
of dam, alkali-silica reaction was reported by melienze. After eleven years, complete study of dam
was conducted and the result of petrographic analysis of core revealed that the cracking and
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deterioration in concrete was due to ASR [13]. Mangal dam was constructed on the Jhelum River.
The aggregates used for the construction of dam was derived from the river bed. Bothe fine and
coarse aggregates was tested on mortar bar NBRI test and these aggregates declared harmless on
the basis of this test. The visual survey of concrete was performed during many periodic
inspections. During these surveys, no signs of cracking and symptom of ASR was observed [13].
2.3 Mechanisms of Alkali-Silica Reaction

The alkali silica reaction form two type of gel; one is a swelling alkali-silica-hydrate and second
is a non-swelling calcium-alkali-silicate-hydrate. When ASR occurs in concrete, first non-swelling
calcium-alkali-silicate-hydrate component is always produced. The calcium-alkali-silicate-hydrate
form a layer around the reactive silica. During the further reaction, the ratio of calcium to alkali
outside the layer is more important. If this ratio is more then non-swelling calcium-alkali-silicate-
hydrate will produce. If this ratio is less then swelling alkali-silicate-hydrate will produced. The
structure is safe if only non-swelling calcium-alkali-silicate-hydrate gel is formed during ASR. If
both type of product is formed then the structure is unsafe. The swelling reaction mechanism
develops between siliceous material of aggregates and alkali hydroxides of the pore solution in
the concrete [14].
2.4 ASR Chemical Reaction

The chemical reaction of ASR take place in different stages. The reaction starts at the surface of
particle in high alkaline solution. The hydroxyl ion attack on the siloxane bridge (Si-O-Si) and this
reaction converts siloxane bond to silanol band. The silanol group are already present in the
reactive aggregate. They are acidic in nature and react with hydroxyl in basic pore cement fluid.
During this reaction 𝑆𝑖𝑂− negatively charged particle are produced. They attract positively
charged 𝑁𝑎 + and 𝐾 + ions present in the cement paste pore solution.
Si − O − Si + OH − → Si − OH + Si − OH
Si − OH + OH − → SiO− + H 2O
SiO − O − Si + 2NaOH → 2SiO− − Na+ + H 2O
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This process is slow in the crystallized silica and negligible. The hydroxide of sodium and
potassium penetrate into siliceous particle and further attack on the disorder lattice structure of
amorphous and cryptocrystalline silica. This attack breakdown the structure of silica. The
breakdown of lattice structure due to alkali hydroxides is fast in cryptocrystalline and amorphous
silica. The breakdown of lattice structure in well-crystallized silica due to alkali hydroxides is very
slow or negligible [15].
In the alkali silica reaction mass transport is a necessary process. The aggregate particle in the
cement paste having alkali silica content are thermodynamically unstable. Series of reaction take
place due the transport of alkali ions and hydroxyl ions. The pore solution is the contact media
between the reactive aggregates and hydration products of cement [15].
The ASR gel is surrounded by the cement mortar. The ASR gel expand and generate pressure in
the concrete. When this pressure due to swelling of concrete is more than the tensile strength of
the concrete then cracks occurs. These cracks are the source for the further water migration and
absorption in the concrete. The ASR gel further expand with this water and generate more cracks
in concrete. The ASR gel not always expand and cause distress in the concrete. The expansion of
ASR gel depends on the alkali content present in the cement mortar and chemical composition of
gel [16].
Some ASR gel have low expansion or swelling properties. They do not expand so much because
the pressure is less than the tensile strength of concrete. So, they do not create cracks in the
concrete. The temperature and movement of pore solution at the aggregate interface also effect the
swelling pressure.
2.5 Formation of ASR Gel

The composition of alkali silica gel varies mostly. It depends on the reactive aggregates type,
moisture content and temperature at the reaction sight, nature of pore solution and concentration
of alkalis [15]. The alkali silica gel has different viscosity. The ASR gel have high followability
which have more amount of calcium hydroxide and fills the air voids in the concrete. Some gel
has low followability and partially fill the air voids. The alkali silica gel mostly consist of SiO2,
CaO Na2O and K2O [17].
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The concentration of calcium ion is more on the outer side of ASR gel layer. Its concentration
decreases towards the inner side of the gel layer. The calcium ion replaces the sodium and
potassium ion from the ASR gel which form calcium-alkali-silicate-hydrate gel. So, the alkalis are
available for balance the silanol group for the production of swelling alkali-silicate-hydrate gel.
The concentration of alkalis (𝑁𝑎+ , 𝐾 + ) increase toward the inner side of ASR gel layer [14].
The ASR gel exposed to air, carbonated with time and become white. It produces cracks on the
surface of concrete same that are produced in the dry mud layer. The alkali silica gel expands when
it absorbs water. ASR gel do not cause cracks in concrete until it swells in the presence of moisture.
Cracks are produced in the concrete when the pressure generated by the ASR gel exceeds the
tensile strength of concrete. The cracks propagate in random direction in the concrete due to ASR.
So, ASR produce in concrete structure is identified by map cracking in the concrete.
2.6 Development of ASR Cracks

Drying shrinkage and thermal stress cracks are different from the cracks due to alkali silica
reactivity. The cracks occur in the horizontal direction due to alkali silica reactivity while the
cracks in concrete structure due to thermal stress occur in the vertical direction. The cracks due to
alkali silica reactivity increases as the age of structure increase and depend on the alkali silica
reactivity of aggregates. In case of RC structure, the cracks due to alkali silica reactivity produce
in the main reinforcement direction. Some cracks also occur in the opposite direction of main
reinforcement in concrete structures [18]. The cracks in the concrete structure with little or no
reinforcement are irregular. The map cracks are observed at the free end of beam which have less
reinforcement. The temperature and humidity have effect on the alkali silica reaction. The increase
in temperature and humidity also increase expansion due to alkali silica reaction. The concrete
section subjected to direct rain and sunshine have more cracks as compare to sheltered portion of
the same structure. The cracks produce due to ASR may be of different patterns. These cracks are
observed in concrete structure having different types of reactive aggregates. When the ASR
reaction starts at the outer zoon of aggregate particle some cracks produce due the expansion of
alkali silica gel. As the ASR reaction proceed the aggregate particle are dissolved from inside. The
alkali silica reaction occurs inside the aggregate particle. Such type of ASR reaction may cause
pop-out or breaking of aggregate particle in the concrete [15].
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2.7 Common Symptoms of ASR
The cracks in concrete structure may be caused by dry shrinkage, sulfate attack, freeze and thaw
action, corrosion of reinforcement and alkali silica reaction. The main symptom of alkali silica
reaction is the presence of ASR gel in the concrete cracks. The petrographic analysis of hardened
concrete core sample is most efficient method to identify ASR [19]. Petrographic examination of
hardened concrete sample is mostly used method for measuring ASR in concrete. This test
identified the presence of ASR gel around the aggregate particle and in the voids. This test also
identified the cracks around the peripheral of aggregate particle and the cracks which extend away
from the aggregate particle. Alkali silica reaction cause cracking in the whole concrete structure.
There are disused some common symptoms of structure affected by alkali silica reaction [20, 21].
2.7.1 Map or Pattern Cracks

The ASR occur in the concrete which form alkali silica gel. The expansion of gel cause cracking
in the concrete. As the alkali silica reaction proceed more gel is formed and more cracks are
produced. These cracks reach the surface of concrete and combine with each other to make map
or pattern cracking. The map cracking is not distributed uniformly. The map cracking is more
where the alkali silica reactive of aggregates is more. The crack density on the surface of concrete
may vary from a fewer cracks to closely spaced sever map cracking.
2.7.2 Longitudinal Cracks

The restraint in concrete effect the development of cracks in the concrete. The cracks don’t
distribute equally if restraint forces are more than the expansive forces. The cracks will not produce
in the direction of restraint. When the concrete column is subjected to pre-existing compression
stresses then the expansion of ASR gel will not produce cracks in the direction of pre-existing
compression but occur in the opposite direction. When the existing compression is removed then
map cracking will be produced in the concrete column if it goes to further alkali silica reaction.
The steel reinforcement in the concrete also provide restraint to the ASR expansion. The presence
of steel reinforcement in one direction also effect the distribution of cracks in that direction because
steel restraint the expansion of concrete along the longitudinal direction.
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2.7.3 Joint Misalignment
The expansion of alkali silica reaction closes the expansion joint in the concrete. The joint sealant
may compress due to the compressive forces. The misalignment may occur due the further
expansion. The expansion due to the alkali silica reaction is uneven because of uneven distribution
of alkali silica relativity of aggregates. The misalignment of joint may also occur due to unequal
expansion of ASR gel.
2.7.4 Exudation
ASR gel is transported to the concrete surface through cracks and pore in the concrete. ASR gel
exudation is not very common. It only occurs when there is enough moisture to move the alkali
silica gel to the surface of concrete. The exuded ASR gel is mostly grayish white in color and its
color become white on carbonation when exposed to the atmosphere.
2.7.5 Pop-out
Pop-out occur at the surface of concrete due to the expansion of alkali silica gel. A conical type
depression produces in the concrete surface when a pop-out occur. In pop-out a chunk of concrete
remove from the surface of concrete and sometimes a portion of aggregate particle also removed
along with concrete. Pop-out in concrete not only occur due to alkali silica reaction but it may also
occur due to freeze and thaw action. Pop-out is not specifically ASR indicator.
2.7.6 Corner Crushing

The crushing of concrete at the corner joint is also symptom of ASR. Spalling of concrete also
occur at the corner of concrete joint. D-cracking is mostly caused by the freeze and thaw action.
D-cracking occur close to the joint and parallel stress are produce. The cracking due to D-cracking
mostly occur within one or two feet away from the joint. In spalling chunks of concrete are
separated from the concrete structure. Spalling is not a typical ASR symptom. The blow-up
buckling, heaving, discoloration around concrete cracks, concrete crushing at joints, misalignment
of joint sections and aggregate cracks filled with gel have also observed in concrete structure and
rigid pavement affected by alkali silica reaction.
The symptoms of ASR are similar with other mechanisms. The symptom describe in this section
are only preliminary evidence of ASR in concrete structure. The petrographic examination of
hardened concrete and laboratory testing is required to conform ASR. The role of mixing
10
proportion, age and climatic condition are considered before the other mechanisms such as freeze-
thaw, sulfate attack, carbonation, leaching and corrosion of steel which generate stress in concrete.
Initial cracks formed by freeze-thaw or shrinkage can generate better access for moisture to migrate
deeper and thus increase the risk of further damage [21].
2.8 Factors Affecting Alkali-Silica Reaction in Concrete
Three components are required in concrete to take place alkali silica reaction. If one component is
missing, then ASR reaction will not take place. The following component are given below:
1. Reactive aggregates
2. Alkalis content
3. Moisture content
The increase in temperature of concrete increase the rate of ASR reaction.
2.8.1 Reactive Aggregates

In the ASR reaction silica or silicates are provided by the reactive aggregates. Alkali-hydroxide
react with the reactive aggregates in the presence of high alkaline pore solution to make ASR gel
which expand to cause expansion in the concrete. The potential reactivity of aggregates depends
aggregate rock type, mineralogy, degree of crystallinity of silica. The solubility of the aggregates
silica in high alkaline pore solution in the concrete also effect the potential reactivity of aggregates
[22]. The grain size of the aggregates also affects the ASR expansion in the concrete. The grain
size is inversely related to the surface area of the silica available for alkali attack. The coarse
aggregates are less susceptible to ASR than fine aggregates because of their less surface area. The
porous aggregates are more susceptible to ASR when porous aggregates are present near the
surface they cause pop-out in the concrete [23]. The aggregates have two types of silica. The
crystalline and non-crystalline silica. The aggregates which have lack of crystalline structure and
have disarray structure are opal, tridymite, cristobalite, volcanic glass and artificial glass. The
aggregates of these rocks are extremely reactive. The second category of rock and mineral which
have crystalline silica. The crystallinity of silica ranges from microcrystalline to cryptocrystalline.
The strained quartz is also present in these rocks. These rocks include chalcedony, chert, vein
quartz, quartzite, schists, phyllite and argillites. The ASR reactivity level of these rocks ranges
from mild to highly reactive [20, 24].
11
The silicates consist of basic unit of silicon tetrahedron. The silicon tetrahedron consists of Si4+ at
the center and four oxygen atoms at the corner of the tetrahedron. The three-dimensional
orientation of silicon tetrahedron makes the crystalline structure of silicates. In the quartz structure
each oxygen atom link with two silicon atoms to get the electrical neutrality. At the surface
complete electrical neutrality is not achieved because three oxygen atoms are linked with the
structure instated of four atoms of oxygen. They are chemically unstable at the surface and react
only at the surface. The silicon tetrahedron also makes the structure of amorphous silicates. The
silicon tetrahedron are not connect in regular three-dimensional pattern. They are connected in the
disorder manner. The voids and empty spaces are generated in the amorphous structure due
disorder arrangement. The amorphous silicates have more surface area for the alkali silica reaction
[25].
2.8.2 Alkalis Content

The pores of concrete are filled with the alkaline pore solution. The alkaline pore solution consists
of sodium, potassium and hydroxyl ions. The ASR expansion in the concrete increase as the alkali
level in the pore solution. The alkali level increases the PH of pore solution. The equivalent sodium
oxide represents the amount of alkali in the cement. The amount of equivalent sodium oxide in the
cement is calculated by adding the percentage of 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂 plus 0.658 times the percentage of 𝐾2 𝑂
of the cement.
Na2Oeq = Na2O + 0.658K2O
The alkali content in the concrete are contributed by all the ingredients of the concrete. The
Portland cement contribute the largest amount of alkalis in the concrete. The alkali content in the
cement ranges from 0.2% to 1.1% [26]. The alkali content of cement less than 0.6% Na2Oeq prevent
the occurrence of alkali silica reaction. The expansion due to alkali silica reaction in the concrete
can be reduced and controlled due to reactive aggregates by using low alkali cement. The
deleterious expansion not occur in the concrete when cement of total alkali content less than 3
kg/m3 of concrete is used with reactive aggregates. From the past experience it was observed that
limit of total alkali content less than 3 kg/m3 of concrete not provide sufficient protection against
severely reactive aggregates. The limit of total alkali content less than 1.8 kg/m3 of concrete is use
against severely reactive aggregates to prevent ASR expansion [27]. The expansion due to ASR is
also affected by the fineness of cement. The fine cement causes more expansion than coarse cement
12
because it releases alkalis faster. The mortar bar casted with the cement of higher Blaine value
showed more expansion [28]. The fineness of cement has no effect on the expansion of mortar
bars when moderately reactive aggregates are used for the preparation of mortar bars. The
significant effect of fineness of cement on the mortar bar expansion was observed when highly
reactive aggregates are used [29].
A pozzolan is a siliceous material which reacts with calcium hydroxide formed by hydration of
cement and convert to calcium silicate hydrate. Pozzolanic materials are used as a partial
replacement of cement to modify or improve the properties of concrete. They are occasionally
used in concrete for economical purpose. The pozzolanic materials also consume alkali when they
react with calcium hydroxide. The pozzolanic materials increases the strength and reduces the
permeability of concrete. The amount of alkali ions is also reduced by the pozzolanic materials
which are required for alkali silica reaction. They reduce the expansion of concrete due to alkali
silica reaction [30].
Alkali bearing aggregates release alkali content when subjected to saturated calcium hydroxide.
The leached amount of alkali is more at 80°C temperature than 38°C. When the aggregates are
subjected to such treatment before using in the preparation of mortar bar. Significant reduction in
the expansions of mortar bars was observed due to alkali-silica reactivity. The aggregates
containing feldspar, volcanic glass, micas and alkali-bearing sand release alkali in the concrete.
The alkali released by these aggregates provide additional alkali for further ASR [30].
Alkalis may be present in the mixing water. The alkali content of concrete may be increased by
deicing salt, ground water and seawater. The seawater increases the hydroxyl ion concentration in
the pore solution due to which ASR expansion in the concrete also increase [31]. When the
concrete is cracked or have high permeability then the alkali from the external source penetrate
into the concrete. Deicing salt is the common source of external alkalis in the concrete. The use of
deicing salt increases the amount of alkali in the concrete which result excessive expansion in the
concrete due to ASR.
2.8.3 Sufficient Moisture Content

Water is required to start the alkali silica reaction in concrete. It is also required for the movement
of alkali and hydroxyl ions. ASR gel absorbed water and expand which cause cracking in the
13
concrete. When the concrete is dry ASR gel do not cause any expansion and cracking in the
concrete. Sufficient moisture is required for the expansion of ASR gel to induce pressure on gel
and surrounding cement paste which leads cracking of concrete and aggregates particle. In the dry
environment concrete having reactive aggregates and cement with high alkali content cause no or
little expansion. The expansion is high in the concrete structure when the relative humidity is high
in the environment. The percentage relative humidity (RH) of the concrete have direct relation
with the expansion due to alkali silica reaction. The expansion due to ASR is less or negligible at
relative humidity (RH) less than 70%. The expansion due to ASR increases drastically when the
relative humidity is higher than 80% [15]. The moisture content should be available for ASR
reaction to continue. The ASR reaction will cease when the internal relative humidity of concrete
is less than 80%. In dry service conditions of ordinary concrete some mixing water is available for
large period of time. But when the water to cement ratio is low then most of water is used by the
hydration of cement. When the external source of water is available then ASR reaction will
continue until one of the reactive component is used up [23].
The expansion due to ASR decrease as the amount of mixing water decrease. The ASR expansion
increase as the amount of mixing water increase. Two water cement ratios were used 0.35 and 0.47
for the casting of mortar bar. The ASR expansion was less for 0.35 water to cement ratio as
compare to 0.47 for the rest of condition were similar [32]. The deleterious effect ASR can be
reduced by reduce the permeability of concrete. When the water to cement ratio is decrease then
the amount of cement increases which increase the strength of concrete and decrease the pore
spaces. The rate of expansion become slow. The rate of ASR increases as the temperature increase.
The alkali silica reaction take place more quickly under the high temperature. The temperature of
concrete only effect the rate of ASR [23].
2.9 Testing Methods (Test for Potentially Alkali Silica Reactivity of Aggregates)
Since, alkali silica reaction was discovered different test method have been developed to detect
alkali silica reactivity of aggregates. These test methods are used for the screening of reactive
aggregates and modification to these test methods have also been developed to check the efficiency
of mitigating materials. ASTM standard test methods to detect alkali silica reactivity of aggregates
and their potential for deleterious expansion in concrete are given below:
14
• Petrographic examination of aggregates
• Chemical test method
• Mortar bar test
• Accelerated mortar bar test
• Concrete prism test
2.9.1 Petrographic Examination of Aggregates ASTM C295

This test is most reliable indicator for alkali silica reactivity of aggregates. It is fast screening test
for reactive aggregates. Experience petrographer is required for conducting the inspection of
aggregates. This test involves inspection under optical microscope to identify types and amounts
of minerals present in an aggregate specimen. SEM, XRD and DTA test can also be used if
required. This test identifies reactive minerals present in aggregate sample and doesn’t gives
potential expansion in the field performance evaluations. Petrographic examination together with
accelerated mortar bar test is recommended for slow reactive aggregates. The results of this test
can be helpful in selecting the accelerated test for further evaluation of alkali silica reactivity of
aggregates. Petrographic examination requires interpretation. The result of this test tells which test
should be used for further evaluation of alkali silica reactivity of aggregates [33].
2.9.2 Chemical Test ASTM C289

In this test 25 gram of aggregates passing 300-micron and retain on 150-micron sieve are used.
This sample is placed in 1 N NaOH solution at 80°C temperature. The amount of dissolved silica
is calculated by the filtration of solution. The reduction of alkalinity in the reaction of the alkali
solution is measure by titration method. The reactivity of aggregates is determined from the graph
between the dissolved silica and reduction in alkalinity. The results of this test are not reliable
alone for the screening of aggregates. This test must be used along with other test method to
identify the alkali silica reactivity of concrete [34].
2.9.3 Mortar Bar Test ASTM C 227

Since 1950s, In United States mortar bar test ASTM C 227 has been widely used ASR test to
detect alkali silica reaction in cement aggregate combination [35]. This test method determines the
susceptibility of cement-aggregate combination by measuring the change in the length of mortar
bar. This test uses mortar bar of 25 x 25 x 285-mm size. Mortar bar are prepared with aggregate to
15
cement ratio of 2.25 and with water to cement ratio that gives flow in the range of 105-120
according to ASTM C 1437. They are stored in water at 38°C temperature up to one year [36].
ASTM C 227 indicate aggregates reactive if expansion is greater than 0.05 % at three months and
0.1% at six months [37]. The leaching of alkalis from the mortar bar when they are stored in water
cause reduction in expansions [24]. This test has been declared unreliable to detect ASR. For slow
reactive aggregates this test method is not suitable to predict the alkali-silica reactivity of
aggregates.
2.9.4 Accelerated Mortar Bar Test ASTM C 1260

National building research institute (NBRI) was develop accelerated mortar bar test (AMBT)
ASTM C 1260 in South Africa [38]. This test need only 16 days to determine the reactivity of
aggregates because of sever testing condition. This test requires less time as compare to one year
of CPT test method because of high temperature and alkaline solution. According to this test 25
x 25 x 285-mm mortar bars are casted with specific aggregate gradation, aggregate to cement ratio
of 2.25 and 0.47 constant water to cement ratio. After moist curing of 24 hours, the bars are
demolded, their length are measured using a length comparator and placed in water bath at 80°C
for one day. The mortar bar removed from the water bath, change in length are measured with
comparator and then submerged in 1 N NaOH solution at 80 °C temperature. The ratio of volume
of solution to the volume of mortar bar should be 4±0.5 in the storage container. The bars remain
in the 1 N NaOH solution for 14 days. Alkali content of cement don’t affect the expansion of bars
because bars are submerged into the alkaline solution. According to ASTM C 1260 14 days
expansion of bars after placement in 1 N NaOH is less than 0.1% then the aggregates are innocuous
and if expansion is more than 0.2 % then aggregates are potentially deleterious. If expansion is
between 0.1% and 0.2% then the aggregates may be regarded as slow reactive or innocuous based
on the result of concrete prism test (CPT) or on the basis of field performance of aggregates [39].
The expansion of mortar bars are measured up to 28 days. Slow reactive aggregates continue to
expand beyond 14 days immersion in alkaline solution. So, this additional time gives information
about the expansion behavior of mortar bars after 14 days. Limitation of this method is only
applicable to fine aggregates fractions. Reactivity of coarse aggregates may change when
converted to fine aggregates.
16
2.9.5 Concrete Prism Test ASTM C 1293
This test was standardized first in Canadian standard association in 1950. This test was published
in America as ASTM C 1293 in 1995 and now reapproved in 2015. This test is considered effective
method to predicted the field performance of aggregates. The CPT is known as reliable test for
ASR. Three concrete prism of 75 x 75 x 285-mm are casted with alkali content of 1.25% by weight
of cement. Equivalent alkali content in the concrete mix are achieved by adding sodium hydroxide
in mixing water. After casting prism are cured in moist control room for 24 hours. Their initial
lengths are noted using length comparator after demolding and then they are stored at 38°C
temperature in air tight container which is filled with water. The storage time is one year for alkali
silica reactivity of aggregates with concrete and it increases to two years when we check the
mitigation effect of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). If the average expansion of
concrete prism is more than 0.04% at one year then aggregates are reactive. To test the mitigation
behavior of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). We select the minimum amount of
SCMs in combination with reactive aggregates to produce average expansion of prisms less than
0.04% at two years [40].
17
Chapter 3
Material Preparation and Experimental Program
The aim of this chapter to describe material preparation, determination of material properties,
testing equipment used during the investigation. Testing methodologies used to evaluate reactive
aggregates and method to mitigate the alkali silica reaction.
3.1 Material Preparation

This step includes preparation of material to produce mortar cube and mortar bar prism specimens
such as collecting, washing, oven dry, sieving, grading of aggregates and preparation of NaOH
solution.
3.1.1 Collection of Aggregates

Aggregates source Mach Hill is located at Chak 110 SB Sargodha. Large rock fragments have
been obtained through blasting from Mach Hills. These rock fragments are then crushed into
aggregates at crusher plants (Figure 3.1) by using dry technique. The aggregates used during this
study have been collected from a crusher plant named as “KHADIM STONE CRUSHING
COMPANY”. The crusher plant was located at “Market 110 SB Pull No 111 Faisalabad Road
Sargodha”. Two types of aggregates fine and coarse were collected from the source.
3.1.2 Washing and Drying Aggregates

During washing, the coarse aggregates were soaked in tray filled with water. After that they were
washed with gloves hand and placed in tray. The fine aggregates were place in large tray and pipe
of water supply was put in the tray so that water can over flow from the tray. Continued this process
until dust was removed from the aggregates and then fine and coarse aggregate were placed in
steel trays. The steel trays were put in electric oven for 24 hours at 105±5ºC temperature and after
removal from oven aggregates are stored in the clean tray. Now, aggregates are ready for the sieve
analysis.
3.1.3 Sieving Aggregate

The aggregates were graded according to ASTM C 136.The coarse aggregates were sieved on 1in,
¾ in, ½ in, 3/8 in and #4 sieves. The aggregates passing form 1in sieve and retained on ¾ in sieve
18
were used for petrographic analysis of aggregate. The aggregates retained on ½ in and ¾ in sieves
were used for loss angles abrasion test. The aggregates retained on sieve ¾ in and passing from ½
in were used for aggregate impact value and aggregate crushing value test. The fine aggregates
were separated on #4, #8, #16, #30, #50 and #100 sieves. The sieved aggregates were stored in
plastic bags. The fine aggregates were used for the preparation of mortar cubes and mortar bar
prisms.
Figure 3.1 Aggregates crushing plant

3.1.4 Aggregates Gradation
The fine aggregates were used for the preparation of mortar cubes and mortar bar prisms were
graded according to the Table 3.1.This gradation of aggregates was according to the ASTM C1260
standard [39].
3.1.5 Preparation of NaOH Solution

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was collected in 1 kg pack box which contain white pellets of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH). Sodium hydroxide pellet are soluble in water and generate heat when mix with
water. Distill water was collected through distillation process. To make 1 N NaOH solution 40
gram of sodium hydroxide pellet was added in distill water to make total solution of one litter.
19
Table 3.1 The gradation of aggregates for mortar cube and mortar prism
Sieve Size
% Weight of
Aggregates (gm)
Passing Retained
4.75 mm 2.36 mm 10
2.36 mm 1.18 mm 25
1.18 mm 600 µm 25
600 µm 300 µm 25
300 µm 150 µm 15
3.2 Testing Materials

Locally available materials are used for the preparation of cubes and mortar bars and following
materials are given blow.
3.2.1 Normal Portland Cement

A locally available brand of ordinary Portland cement (Bestway Cement) is used throughout this
study. It is one of the commonly used cement in Pakistan. Chemical test was performed to find out
the composition of cement. Portland cement primarily consists of calcium, silica, aluminum, and
iron oxides. The calcium oxide and silica oxides are essential, whereas alumina and iron oxides
are mainly used to decrease the temperature of manufacturing. Portland cement properties are
influenced by these compounds. According to ASTM C 1260 alkali content of Portland cement
should less than 0.6% Na2Oeq. In this study, Portland cement having alkali content of 1.48%
Na2Oeq was used in preparing the mortar prism and cube specimens.
3.2.2 Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

Tandlianwala sugar mill sugarcane bagasse ash was used in this study. Sugarcane bagasse ash
(SBA) was crushed in bill mill apparatus for one hour and then sieved through 38 µm sieve. So,
the maximum particle size of SBA was 38 µm. The chemical analysis was performed on the SBA
with the help of chemical department of UET Lahore. The chemical analysis was done to find the
chemical composition of SBA.
20
3.2.3 Water
Ordinary tap water has been used to prepare mortar bar prisms and cubes of size 2x2 inches. Cubes
were placed in tap water for curing of cubes. Distilled water was used to prepare sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) solution. Distilled water was collected through distillation process.
3.3 Testing Equipment

The equipment used for the preparation of a distill water, storage of sample, casting of cubes and
prisms are given blow.
3.3.1 Mortar Mixer

Electric mortar mixer shown in the Figure 3.2 was used in this study. The mortar mixer consists
of paddle, bowl and electric motor. The paddle of mixer has different speeds of rotation low,
medium and high. Mortar mixer was used to make cement paste according to ASTM C 305.
Cement mortar was also mixed with mortar mixer for the casting of cubes and mortar bars
according to ASTM C 305 [41].
Figure 3.2 Mortar mixer
21
3.3.2 Digital Length Comparator
It is used for measuring the length of specimen with different lengths made of cement and mortar.
The reference rod is used to calibrate the apparatus. It has adjustable anvil according to the length
of specimen at the top of two steel rods. The digital length comparator is used to measure the
variations in length of mortar bars, fit with a digital gauge 12.5x0.001 mm. The length change of
hardened cement paste, mortar and concrete is determinate by using ASTM C 490 (standard
practice for using this apparatus) [42]. The length comparator apparatus used in this study is shown
in the Figure 3.3. The change in length value for each bar was calculated to the nearest 0.0001 and
the average of three samples was reported to the nearest 0.001. The calculation of the length change
at any age was done using the Equation.
Lx − Li
L= 100
Lg
Where:
𝐿= change in length at x age, %
𝐿𝑥 = specimen readings at x age
𝐿𝑖 = Initial reading of specimen. Usually taken before storing in the test environment
𝐿𝑔 = gage length, 250mm
Figure 3.3 Digital length comparator
22
3.3.3 High Pressure Autoclave
The apparatus shown in Figure 3.4 was used for autoclave expansion of cement. This apparatus
work according to ASTM C 151 standard [43]. The safe pressure for this apparatus is 2.4 MPa but
it can go up to 4 MPa. It consists of a high-pressure steam vessel and inside the steam vessel a rack
is placed which can hold up to 10 specimens. The internal dimension of stream vessel are 154 mm
diameter and 430 mm height.
Figure 3.4 High pressure auto clave expansion apparatus

3.3.4 Flow Table
The flow table as shown in Figure 3.10 can be used to measure the flow of cement pastes, hydraulic
cement mortars and mortar containing other cementitious materials. The size of flow table test
mold was according to ASTM C230 standard [44]. It has top diameter 70 mm, height 50 mm and
bottom diameter 100 mm. Place the mold at the center of dry clean flow table and fill the mold in
two layers. Fill the mold with cement mortar up to 25 mm height in first layer and tamp the mortar
20 time with tamper. Completely filling the mold with mortar in second layer and then tamp as
23
specified for the first layer. Remove the extra mortar and smooth the surface with the help of
trowel. Lift the mold away from the mortar and drop the flow table from 12.5 mm height 25 times
in the time interval of 15 seconds. Measure the diameter of mortar in millimeter along the four lies
on the tope of flow table.
3.3.5 Mortar Bar Mold

Mortar bar mold produce standard sized specimen of 25x25x285 mm and having a gauge length
of 250 mm to evaluate potential alkali silica reactivity of aggregates under different test condition.
In this study two gang prism mold was used which have gauge length of 250 mm that is distance
between the inner edge of studs. Gauge studs extends 17.5±0.5 mm in to the specimen. The size
of two gang prism mold was according to ASTM C490 standard [42].
3.3.6 Cubes
The cubes of size 2x2 inches are used to find compressive strength of Portland cement mortar,
cement paste and other cementitious material. These cubes are also used to find the strength
activity index of pozzolanic materials. In his study, 2 by 2-inch or 50 by 50-milimeter cubes ware
used to find the compressive strength of control cement and blended cement.
Figure 3.5 Cubes molds

3.3.7 Compression Machine
In the design of structures compressive strength is most important mechanical property of concrete.
The Plot 4 (compression and flexural testing machine) was used to measure compressive strength
of mortar cubes. The capacity of this machine in compression was 200 KN. The spherical platens
24
of machine were wiped clean. Specimen the of cube were placed at center of lower platen and then
subjected to uniaxial compression.
Figure 3.6 Two gang prism molds

3.3.8 Oven
The oven showed in the Figure 3.7 was used in this study. Inside dimensions of oven used in this
study was 4 ft (length) x 2 ft (wide) x 2.5ft (height). It has external and internal stainless-steel
lining along with 60 mm thick insulation sheet. The digital temperature control panel located on
the right side of oven display inside temperature of oven. It can be used to set the required
temperature that we want to maintain. The display changes the temperature value as the inside
temperature of oven changes. Forced convection airflow system was used for uniform temperature
throughout the oven chamber. It has maximum temperature range 200°C and supplied complete
with three grid shelves.
Figure 3.7 Electric oven

3.3.9 Sieve Shaker
The electro-mechanical sieve shaker shown in the Figure 3.8 was used in this study. The sieve
shaker has both circular and vertical motion for efficient sieving action. It has manual control to
25
run the apparatus manually and timer control to turn on the apparatus for specified time. This
apparatus has emergency stop button to stop the apparatus quickly. The shaker was fixed to the
floor through the four holes at the base. The dimension of shaker was 660 mm length, 500 mm
diameter and 1510 mm height. It can be used for sieve up to 450 mm diameter.
Figure 3.8 Sieve shaker

3.3.10 Distillation Apparatus
The distillation apparatus used in this study is shown in the Figure 3.9. The distillation involves
boiling of impure water and then collecting the condense water into a clean container. Tap water
have mineral and ions which will be drastically reduced by distillation process. Turn on the water
supply and observe the water circulating through condenser coil into boiler and drain pipe. After
ten minutes turn on the power supply. Connect the distillate outlet into a container to store distill
water. When you collect the desired amount of distill water turn off power supply and wait for the
boiler to cool then turn off water supply.
26
3.4 Properties of Cement
To determine the properties of cement, following tests were performed according to the procedure
described in these ASTM standards.
1. Standard consistency of cement test according to ASTM C 187

2. Initial and final setting time test according to ASTM C 191
3. Fineness of cement by sieve analysis according to ASTM C 184
Figure 3.9 Water distillation apparatus

3.5 Properties of Aggregates
To determine the properties of aggregates, following tests were performed according to standards.
1. Bulk density and voids content of aggregates according to ASTM C 29

2. Specific gravity and water absorption test according to ASTM C 127
3. Aggregate impact value test according to BS-812
4. Aggregate crushing value test according to BS-812
5. Lose angles abrasion value test according to ASTM C 535
27
3.6 Petrographic Examination
Petrographic examination of aggregate sample was done according to ASTM C 295 [33]. The
aggregate sample was consisting of 8 kg crushed aggregates of 19 mm size. Petrographic
examination was performed by the Geology Department of Punjab University, Lahore.
Petrographic examination helps to identify and quantify the rock type and minerals of aggregate
sample. This test was used for identification of potential reactive aggregates.
3.7 Flow Table Test

Flow table test is used to determine flow of hydraulic cement mortar and mortar containing other
cementitious materials. This test finds the required water content that will produced specific flow
value. In this study, flow table test was used to find the water content for constant flow when
cement is replaced with different percentage of SBA. Flow table test was performed for 0%, 10%,
20%, 30% and 40% replacement of cement with sugarcane bagasse ash. Mixing of mortar was
done in electric mortar mixer shown in the Figure 3.11 according to ASTM C 305. First water was
placed in the bowl and then cement was added. Then wait for 10 second so that cement can absorb
water. The mixer was started at a slow speed (140 rev./min) for 30 second during slow speed
mixing the graded aggregates as mentioned in Table 3.1 were added in the bowl at a proportion of
1:2.25. After 15 second, material was mixed at medium speed (285 rev./min) for 60 seconds [41].
Carefully clean the flow table and at the center of flow table mold is placed. Fill the mold in two
layers. First fill the mold about 25 mm and tamp 20 times.
Figure 3.10 Flow of mortar
28
Tam as specified for the first layer after completely filling the mold in the second layer. Top surface
of the mold is planed with trowel and lift the mold vertically up. Drop the flow table 25 times in
15 second. Flow diameter of mortar is measured at the table top along four lines with the measuring
tape as shown in the Figure 3.10.
3.8 Mortar Bar Test ASTM C 1260

Alkali silica reactivity of aggregates source can be measured by this standard test method. This
test also known as accelerated mortar bar test. This test is most suitable for slow reactive
aggregates. This test used to detect potential of aggregates undergoing alkali-silica reaction and
internal expansion.
3.8.1 Quantities Required for Samples

15 bars were casted (3 bars for each percentage of SBA). The quantity of material used has been
described in Table 3.2. The proportion used for cement and aggregates was 1:2.25. The water to
cement ratio for control sample was 0.47. Aggregates have been graded according to ASTM C
1260 and their grading details are given in Table 3.1.
Table 3.2 Material required for three bars
Sr. No Sample Cement SBA Water Aggregates

(gram) (gram) (gram) (gram)
1 control 440 0 207 990
2 10% SBA 396 44 224 990
3 20% SBA 352 88 242 990
4 30% SBA 308 132 264 990
5 40% SBA 264 176 290 990
3.8.2 Preparation of Samples

Mortar bar molds are two gang prism molds having effective gage length 250 mm. The gauge studs
are extended out 17.5±0.5 mm. Measure the gauge length of mortar bar prism inside the gauge
studs. The gauge length should be 250±2.5 mm. After measuring the material in required quantity
as shown in the Table 3.2. Mortar was mixed according to ASTM C 305, as mentioned in (Section
3.7). After mixing, the material was filled in the mortar bar molds in two layers (Figure 3.12). Fill
29
half thickness of the mold and tamp the mortar. Each layer was well compacted with the help of
tamper. During tamping, give special care around the gauge studs and edges. The samples were
left covered with sheet to avoid the loss of moisture for 24 hours.

Mortar bar molds are two gang prism molds having effective gage length 250 mm. The gauge studs
are extended out 17.5±0.5 mm. Measure the gauge length of mortar bar prism inside the gauge
studs. The gauge length should be 250±2.5 mm.
Figure 3.11 Mixing of mortar
Figure 3.12 Preparation of mortar bar prism
30
After measuring the material in required quantity as shown in the Table 3.2. Mortar was mixed
according to ASTM C 305, as mentioned in Section 3.7. After mixing, the material was filled in
the mortar bar molds in two layers (Figure 3.12). Fill half thickness of the mold and tamp the
mortar. Each layer was well compacted with the help of tamper. During tamping, give special care
around the gauge studs and edges. The samples were left covered with sheet to avoid loss of
moisture for 24 hours.
3.8.4 Storage and Examining Procedure

Each time, before measuring the length, reference bar was used to calibrate the comparator. After
24 hours, length comparator is used to measure the initial length of each bar as mentioned in ASTM
C 490. Rotate the sample and note the lowest reading if rotation cause change in reading of sample.
Clean the bottom hole of length comparator before and after every reading. After measuring the
length, samples were shifted in an air tight container having water such that the samples were not
touching the base of the container as shown in the Figure 3.14. Containers having samples were
then kept in an oven at 80°C for 24 hours. After 24 hours, readings were again taken with the help
of length comparator. These readings are called zero readings of samples. Then the samples were
immersed in 1N NaOH solution (Figure 3.13) at 80°C for 28 days. The length of samples was
taken at the age of 3, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days after immersion in 1N NaOH solution. Take one prism
out of immersion, clean the gauge studs with cloth and record the reading. The specimen should
be return to oven within 10 minutes after removal from the oven for reading. The readings are
measured to nearest 0.001 mm and represent the expansion nearest to 0.01%.
Figure 3.13 Mortar bar prism in NaOH solution
31
Figure 3.14 Storage in water container
3.9 Compressive Strength
Compressive strength of mortar was measured by cubes of size 2x2 inches. Mortar bar were casted
and tested according to ASTM C 109.
3.9.1 Quantities Required for Samples

60 cubes were casted (12 cubes for each percentage replacement of cement with SBA). The
proportion of cement and aggregates was kept 1:2.25 whereas water cement ratio was kept 0.47
by mass for control sample according to ASTM C 1260. The quantity of material required for the
preparation of three cubes are shown in the Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Material required for three cubes
Sr. Sample Cement SBA Water Aggregates

No (grams) (grams) (grams) (grams)
1 Control 310 0 146 698

2 10% SBA 279 31 158 698
3 20% SBA 248 62 170 698
4 30% SBA 217 93 186 698
5 40% SBA 186 124 205 698
32
First tight the nut of cubes. We used lubricating oil on the interior face and at the base of mold as
release agent. After measuring the material in required quantity, they are mixed according to
ASTM C 305, as mentioned in Section 3.7. Start molding of spacing within 2 minutes and 30
second after completion of mixing. After mixing, the material was filled in the cube molds in two
layers (Figure 3.15). Cube molds having dimensions 25x25x25 mm. Each layer was well
compacted by tamping 32 times with the help of tamper in four rounds and each round tamp the
mortar 8 times. The orientation of tamping change in each round. After the compaction of second
layer, straight edge of trowel was used to plane the surface of mortar. The samples were left
covered with sheet to avoid loss of moisture for 24 hours.
Figure 3.15 Casting of cubes
Figure 3.16 Curing of cubes in water container
33
3.9.3 Storage and Testing Procedure
After 24 hours, cubes were cured by placing in the containers having fresh water (Figure 3.16).
Compressive strength test was performed at the age of 7, 14, 28 and 56 days after casting. Three
cubes were tested for each percentage replacement of cement with SBA at every age of testing.
Remove a sample from water and wipe the specimen to surface dry condition. Place the sample at
the center of bearing block of machine. Testing was done by compressive testing machine at a
loading rate of 1000 N/sec. Note the maximum applied load showed at the display of machine.
3.9.4 Calculation
Compressive strength was measured by using the following equation.
P
F=
A
where:
F = Compressive Strength (MPa)
P = Maximum Load (N)
A = Area of loaded surface
34
Chapter 4
Results and Discussions
This chapter shows the results of the different tests performed according to the procedures
described in chapter 3. The results of different chemical and physical properties of aggregates and
cement are presented. The results of petrographic examination were also presented in this chapter.
This chapter also covers compressive strength results of mortar cubes of blended cement with
different replacement of SBA i.e. 0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%. The results of strength activity
index and mortar bar expansion were mentioned in this chapter.
4.1 Chemical Analysis of Cement

The results of chemical analysis of cement are shown in Table 4.1. Results show that all chemical
compounds are present according to the limits stated in ASTM C 114. The amount of alkalis is
higher than that recommended by the ASTM standard. Amount of alkalis in cement should be less
than 0.6 % to prevent alkali silica expansion.
Table 4.1 Chemical analysis of cement
Characteristics % age of Cement ASTM C 114 Limits

CaO 62.28 _
MgO 1.86 6 Maximum
SiO2 19.36 20 Minimum
Al2O3 6.52 6 Maximum
Fe2O3 2.89 6 Maximum
SO3 2.46 3 Maximum
L. O. I (Loss on Ignition) 3.15 3 Maximum
Na2O 0.1 _
K2O 0.64 _
Na2Oe 1.42 0.6 Maximum
IR (Insoluble Residue) 0.69 0.75 Maximum
The amount of alkalis in cement depends on the nature of raw materials of cement. To reduce the
alkali content, whole system of cement manufacturing may be required to change, which will
35
increase the cost of cement. Results of chemical analysis are similar to that in the past researches
[45]. It is appropriate to use cement having alkali content higher than 0.60 % for accelerated mortar
bar test (ASTM C1260).
4.2 Chemical Analysis of SBA

The result of chemical composition of SBA are shown in the Table 4.2. The similar results were
also reported in the past research. The SiO2 content were 78.34%, LOI was 0.42, and Al2O3 content
was 8.55% which are similar to the result as shown in Table 4.2 [45]. The LOI value of SBA was
0.381 which is less than 6% according to ASTM C 618. The loss on ignition (LOI) of SBA decrease
with increase in the burning temperature [46]. The SiO2 content are 80.45% which are suitable for
pozzolanic material.
Table 4.2 Chemical composition of sugarcane bagasse ash
Characteristics SBA (%) ASTM C 618 Limits

(SiO2+ Al2O3 + Fe2O3) 90.02 >70
CaO 2.73 _
MgO 1.08 _
SiO2 80.45 _
SO3 0.872 <4
Al2O3 7.19 _
Fe2O3 2.387 _
Cr2O3 0.638 _
BaSO4 0.018 _
Cl 0.028 _
K2O 3.65 _
Na2O 0.14 _
L. O. I (Loss on Ignition) 0.381 <10
TiO2 0.423 _
The value of (SiO2+ Al2O3 + Fe2O3) should be higher than 70% for pozzolanic material according
to ASTM C 618. So, SBA is suitable for use as supplementary cementitious material in concrete
36
[47]. Similar chemical composition of SBA was reported in previous research [48, 49]. Alkali
content of pozzolanic material show no effect on the performance of pozzolanic material against
ASR [50].
4.3 Physical Properties of Cement and SBA

Table 4.3 showed the physical properties of cement and SBA. The specific gravity of cement was
3.12. The value of specific gravity of SBA was 1.96 which is less than cement. The low specific
gravity of SBA due to fibrous carbon particles as reported in past research [51]. The value of unit
weight of cement and SBA are 1431 and 461 respectively. The value of unit weight of SBA is
lesser than cement. So, the use of SBA in the concrete structure result in to lighter structure. The
limit of autoclave expansion of cement was 0.12% for sounded cement, the autoclave expansion
should be less than 0.8% according to ASTM C151. According to ASTM C1260 autoclave
expansion of cement should be less than 0.2%. So, we can use this cement for the casting of mortar
bars for accelerated mortar bar test.
Table 4.3 Physical properties of cement and SBA
Property Cement Limits SBA Standard
Specific Gravity 3.12 3.1 -3.25 1.96 ASTM C188

Unit Weight (Kg/m3) 1431 830-1650 461 ASTM C29
Fineness (passing No. 200) >90% ASTM C204
Fineness (Blain air permeability) >2250 cm2/g ASTM C184
Autoclave expansion 0.12% <0.8% - ASTM C151
4.4 Properties of Fresh Cement Paste

The fresh properties of cement containing different replacement of SBA are shown in the Table
4.4. The normal consistency of cement was 24.6 %. The normal consistency was 31.2, 37.7, 43
and 49.5 for cement containing 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% replacement of SBA respectively. The
water requirement of blended cement for normal consistency increase with the increase of
replacement of SBA with cement. The similar performance was also detected in the previous
search water requirement for normal consistency of cement increase when cement is replaced with
SBA. The higher water demand of sugarcane bagasse ash for same consistency is due to its high
37
specific surface area and hygroscopic nature. The specific surface area of SBA is almost three time
of cement [46]. Similarly, Arif et al. [49] reported cement paste normal consistency increased from
30% to 43% when 20% SBA was replaced with cement.
The initial and final setting time corresponding to the different percentage replacement of SBA are
shown in the Table 4.4. The initial setting times for 0%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% replacement of
SBA are 115, 135, 162, 210 and 245 minutes respectively. The final setting times for 0%, 10%,
20%, 30% and 40% replacement of SBA are 210, 240, 275, 310 and 355 minutes respectively. The
increase in the initial and final setting time was detected 113% and 60% for 30% SBA sample.
Fatemeh et al. [52] reported 100% increase in initial setting time and 50% increase in the final
setting time when 30% sea shell powder was replaced with cement. The initial setting time
minimum of 45 min and final setting time maximum of 375 min are recommended by the ASTM
C 150 [53]. The initial and final setting time also increase with increase of SBA replacement due
to decrease in the cement content. The setting time of the blended cement increase due to decrease
in surface area of cement [54]. The same behavior of initial and final setting time was also reported
in the previous research [46, 49].
Table 4.4 Fresh properties of cement
Sr. No Sample Normal consistency Initial Setting time Final setting time
(%) (minutes) (minutes)
1 Control 24.6 115 210
2 10 % SCBA 31.2 135 240
3 20 % SCBA 37.7 162 275

4 30 % SCBA 43 210 310
5 40 % SCBA 49.5 245 355
38
4.5 Properties of Aggregates
Table 4.5 shows the results of properties of aggregates. The physical and mechanical properties of
aggregates were discussed. Results show that some properties of aggregates are within the range
and some properties are more than specified by the standards.
4.5.1 Physical Properties of Aggregates

The physical properties of aggregates are unit weight, water absorption and bulk density. The bulk
density of aggregate mostly depends on the particle size distribution and shape of aggregates [55].
The bulk density of aggregate generally ranges from 1200-1760 kg/m3.The aggregate source has
bulk density 1387 which is within the range [56]. When the bulk density of aggregate is higher
then less cement paste is required for same volume of concrete. So, the higher bulk density of
aggregate reduces the cost of concrete. Voids content and bulk density of aggregate have inverse
relation. Voids content are used to calculate the angularity of aggregates. The voids content of
aggregate mostly ranges from 33-42 %. The aggregate of this source has voids content more than
this range because the aggregate was angular, flaky and elongated.
Specific gravity of aggregate effect the compressive strength of aggregate. Specific gravity of
aggregate depend on the pores in the concrete [55]. The specific gravity of aggregate source is
2.56 which is greater than 2.5. The water absorption of aggregate depends on the permeable pores.
The water absorption less than 1% have less effect on the properties of concrete. If the water
absorption is more than 2% then the aggregates are susceptible to freeze and thaw action. The
water absorption has effect on the freeze and thawing, resistance to abrasion and chemical stability
[55].The aggregates have water absorption 2.43 %. So, the aggregate may have less resistance to
freeze and thawing action [55].
4.5.2 Mechanical Properties Aggregates

Mechanical properties of aggregate have more effect on high strength concrete than physical
properties of aggregate. Aggregate crushing value (ACV) is resistance of aggregate to crushing
when it is subjected to gradually applied compression load. It is mostly ranges 14-30% [55]. The
ACV of Sargodha aggregate was less than Margalla aggregate as stated in the previous result [56].
The aggregate impact value (AIV) of aggregate is the resistance of aggregate against impact
loading. AIV of aggregate should not be more than 25%. The AIV of the aggregate source is 23%
which is less than 25%. The AIV of Chak 110 SB Sargodha aggregate is greater than the Margalla
39
aggregate as stated in the previous result [56]. The loss angles abrasion value is the resistance of
aggregates against rubbing and pounding action of steel balls. The loss angles abrasion value was
27% for the aggregate source which is less than 30% limit. The results of physical properties
aggregates are according to the previous research. They can be used in the construction of buildings
and roads.
Table 4.5 Properties of aggregates
Property Standard Value Limits
Impact Value BS-812 23% <25
Crushing Value BS-812 26% <30
Abrasion Test ASTM C 535 27% <50
Specific Gravity ASTM C 127 2.56 >2.5
Water Absorption (%) ASTM C 127 2.43 <1
Bulk Density (Kg/m3) ASTM C 29 1387 1200-1760
Voids Content (%) ASTM C 29 45.66% 33-42
4.6 Mach Hills Chak 110 Sargodha

The Table 4.6 shows the results of petrographic examination of Mach hills source (Chak 110 SB
Sargodha). The aggregates are mainly composed of three types of rocks slate, quartzite and vein
quartz. The relative proportions of these rocks by weight percentage of sample are slate 74 %,
quartzite 24% and vein quartz 2% as shown in the Table 4.6. The presence of quartzite in the
aggregate source indicate that aggregate may cause alkali silica reaction in concrete. The result of
petrographic examination of previous research shows that 20.4 % quartzite in the Indus River
aggregates. The accelerated mortar expansion Indus River aggregates was 0.21% at 14 days and
0.35% at 28 days which indicate that the aggregates are highly reactive [57]. The result of previous
research shows quartzite have deleterious potential to cause alkali silica reaction in concrete
[58].
40
Table 4.6 Result of petrographic examination
Main Group Minerals Percentage
Quartz 52
Hydromica 19
Slate Feldspar 14
Chlorite 12
74%
Hematite 3
Quartz 77
Chlorite 8
Feldspar 6
Quartzite Mica / Pelitic 4
Calcite 2
24%
Iron Oxide 2
Hydromica 1
Vein Quartz Quartz crystals 100
2%
4.6.1 Slate
Pieces are medium to dark grey in color. Some pieces are tinged reddish brown by iron stain. The
rock is fine grained and thinly foliated and foliation is evident in all the pieces of the slate.
Individual mineral grains are not detectable under low magnification. In thin section the slate
pieces are streaked with diagonally cutting greenish grey narrow streaks. Mineralogically the slate
is composed of quartz 52%, hydromica 19%, feldspar 14%, chlorite 12%, hematite 3%. Quartz
grains are polycrystalline in the form of tiny irregular lenses, hydromica is in the form of small
irregular scales and chlorite forms greenish grey flakes.
41
Figure 4.1 Mineralogical composition of slate
4.6.2 Quartzite
The quartzite pieces are reddish brown in color. The rock is composed of fine grained matrix and
relatively coarser framework fragments and may be termed as metagraywacke. The quartz is most
dominant constituent of rock. Almost all the grains of quartz are polycrystalline. Rock fragment
are of pelitic and pssamatic composition and plutonic composition. Detrital mafic mineral grains
are chloritized. Feldspar grains are cloudy and saussaritized. The matrix comprises iron-oxide and
cryptocrystalline pelitic silica. The overall modal composition of the rock pieces is quartz 77%,
chlorite 8%, feldspar 6% rock fragment (quartz dominated monocrystalline grains with traces of
mica and some pelitic rock fragments) 4%, calcite 2%, iron oxide 2% and traces of hydromica.
The aggregates contain quartzite mineral are potentially slow reactive in alkali silica reaction.
These aggregate should be tested before use in the construction [59].
42
Figure 4.2 Mineralogical composition of quartzite
4.6.3 Vein Quartz

The pieces are milky white to light grey in color and entirely composed of quartz crystals which
show undulatory extinction.
4.7 Flow Table Test

This test finds the required water content that will produced specific flow value. Flow table test
was performed for 0% ,10%,20%, 30% and 40% replacement of cement with sugarcane bagasse
ash. The results of flow table test are shown in the table 4.7. The behavior of results indicates that
with the increase in amount of SBA also increase the required w/c ratio for the same flow. SBA
have hydrophilic nature. The SBA particle have irregular and porous structure. As result they
absorb a lot of water inside their structure [45]. For example, mortar containing 40% SBA have
high water demand than control mortar. As the replacement of SBA with cement increase water
requirement of mortar for the same flow also increase. The higher water requirement of mortar
43
containing SBA for the same flow was due to high surface area and porous nature of the SBA
particle [60]. Christopher [61] reported 70% reduction in the mortar flow when 25% biomass ash
was replaced with cement due to porous nature of particle and high specific surface area. Arif et
al.[49] reported water to cement ratio increase from 0.5 to 0.6 for constant flow value of cement
mortar when 20% SBA was replaced with cement. The density of SBA was 1.92 which is less than
density of the cement 3.12 and we calculate replacement of cement by weight. So, same weight of
SBA has large volume than cement. The large volume of water is required to lubricate greater
volume of material.
Table 4.7 Result of flow table test
Flow table test

Sr. Sample Cement SBA Aggregates Water W/C Flow Dia
No (grams) (grams) (grams) (grams) Ratio (mm)
1 Control 220 0 495 103.4 0.47 113
2 10% SBA 198 22 495 112.2 0.51 113
3 20% SBA 176 44 495 121 0.55 113
4 30% SBA 154 66 495 132 0.6 113
5 40% SBA 132 88 495 145.2 0.66 113
4.8 Strength Activity Index and Compressive Strength

Result of compressive strength of mortar cubes of cement with different replacement of SBA are
displayed in Figure 4.3. It was observed that hydration process of cement increases the strength of
mortar cubes with age. For example, compressive strength of control sample was 34.2 MPa at 7
days whereas 47.8 MPa strength was observed at 56 days. Decrease in the compressive strength
was observed with the increase in replacement of SBA. For example, 28-day strength of control
sample was 44.2 MPa whereas strength of 40% SBA replacement sample was observed 22.5 MPa.
The compressive strength higher than control sample was observed for 10% SBA replacement at
the age of 56 days [46, 60]. The increase in compressive strength of cubes is due to proper
proportion of silica from the SBA and calcium hydroxide from the hydration of cement to make
calcium silicate hydrate [62]. The increase in the strength mortar cubes was firstly due to
pozzolanic reaction between silica of SBA and calcium hydroxide from the cement hydration
process.
44
Figure 4.3 Compressive strength for different replacement of SBA
Secondly due to the large surface area of SBA which provides additional site for the nucleation of
hydration products [46]. The compressive strength of 20% SBA replacement was observed close
to the control sample at 56 days. The decrease in the compressive strength of cubes was observed
for 30% and 40% SBA samples. For example, 35% and 47% reduction in the compressive strength
of cubes was observed for 30% and 40% replacement of cement with SBA. The compressive
strength of mortar cubes for 30% and 40% replacement of SBA were low due to high water to
binder ratio and low pozzolanic reaction due to SBA [49, 60]. The deduction in strength of blended
cement was observed when higher percentage of cement replaced with the SBA due to dilution
effect [63]. Genesan et al [46] also reported similar result that compressive strength of mortar
cubes incorporating 10% SBA replacement were lager than control sample. Similarly, 7.5%
increase in compressive strength of cubes at 28 days was also observed when 8% sea shell was
replaced with cement [52]. Compressive strength of 20% SBA sample was close to the control
sample and 20% SBA replacement is an optimum value.
45
Figure 4.4 Strength activity index of mortar
Result of strength activity index are presented in the Figure 4.4. It was observed that strength
activity index (SAI) rise with the age of curing. For example, mortar cubes showed strength
activity index of 91.9% at 7-days where as SAI was 103.8% at 56 days. It was noticed that mortar
cubes of 10% and 20% SBA showed higher growth in strength activity index with time as compare
to 30% and 40% SBA samples. For example, SAI for 40% replacement of SBA with cement was
48.6% and 52.2% at 7 and 56 days. Result shows that strength activity index was higher for 10%
and 20% SBA samples. The SAI was 103.8% and 92.2% for 10% and 20% SBA replacement at
56 days. The 30% and 40% SBA replacement have less SAI. The strength activity index was
observed 64.9% and 52.2% for 30% and 40% SBA replacement at 56 days. The SAI should be
greater than 75% for pozzolanic material according to ASTM C311. The strength activity index
was observed higher than the specified limit of 75% up to 20% SBA replacement. Therefore, SBA
is pozzolanic material.
46
4.9 Mortar Bar Expansion Results
Figure 4.5 shows the result of expansion of mortar bars prepared with cement incorporating
different replacement of SBA. The control sample have expansion 0.13% and 0.22% at the age of
14 and 28 days. If expansion of mortar bars exceeds 0.2 % at 14 days, then aggregates are highly
reactive and if it is less than 0.1% then aggregates are non-reactive. If expansion value is between
0.1% and 0.2% at 14 days, then aggregates are slow reactive. In present case aggregates are slow
reactive because expansion at 14 days for control sample was 0.13%. The increase in reduction of
mortar bars expansion was observed with the increase in replacement of SBA. For example, the
reduction in expansion of mortar bar was 25% for 20% SBA at 14 days as compare to control
sample where as 39% reduction was observed for 40% SBA replacement. Glasser [15] pointed
that blended cement have high binding power for alkalis than Portland cement. Pozzolanic material
produce C-S-H with low calcium to silica ratio. C-S-H produce by the blended cement have
negative surface charge which bind the alkalis (Na+, K+).
Figure 4.5 Graph between expansion and age in days
47
Afshina and Rangarju [64] reported that ASR expansion of mortar bar was reduced by pozzolanic
reaction and dilution effect of SCMs. In previous studies, similar reduction in ASR expansion was
reported due to pozzolanic material. The expansion of mortar bars incorporating 10% SBA
replacement have expansion 0.116 and 0.21% at 14 and 28 days which was higher than the
specified limit. The mortar mixtures have 20% and higher replacement of SBA have expansion
less than the limit specified by ASTM C1260. For example, mortar mixture of 20% SBA
replacement have expansion 0.096 and 0.176 % at 14 and 28 days respectively. Therefore, it can
be decided that SBA replacement more than 20% can be used to mitigate ASR expansion. The
30% and 40% SBA replacement cannot be used due to low strength activity index. So, 20% SBA
replacement can be used to mitigate ASR distress when low reactive aggregates are used. Monterio
et al [50] reported that specimens incorporating slag replacement higher than 65% have expansion
less than 0.01% at 14 days. Similarly, Aquino et al. [65] reported 60% reduction in expansion
when 10% highly reactive metakaolin was replaced with cement and 50% reduction was observed
when 10% silica fume was used. Similarly, Kazim Turk et al. [66] reported 56% reduction in the
expansion of mortar bar at 14 days when 30% limestone powder was replaced with cement.
Similarly, Keven Afshinnia et al. [67] reported 67% and 95% reduction in expansion in the mortar
bar incorporating 25% and 50% ground crushed brick as cement replacement.
48
Chapter 5
Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1 Conclusions
Following conclusions are drawn from experimental results:
i. Chemical analysis of ordinary Portland cement confirms the presence of higher alkali
content 1.42 % i.e., greater than 0.8%.
ii. Chemical analysis of SBA confirm that chemical composition of SBA is according to
ASTM C 618. The value of (SiO2+ Al2O3 + Fe2O3) content of SBA was higher than 70%.
iii. Ordinary Portland cement showing good physical properties in accordance with ASTM
standards.
iv. Autoclave expansion of cement is o.12% i.e. less than 0.2%. So, it can be used for
accelerated mortar bar test (ASTM C 1260).
v. The initial and final setting time increase as the percentage replacement of cement with
SBA increase. The normal consistency value of mixture incorporating SBA was higher
than cement because of higher specific area and hygroscopic nature of sugarcane bagasse
ash.
vi. The bulk density and specific gravity was within the limit. The water absorption was 2.43%
which is more than 2% so the aggregates may susceptible to freeze and thaw action. Voids
content of aggregates was more because the aggregates particle was flaky and elongated.
The mechanical properties like crushing value, impact value and abrasion resistance was
within the limits.
vii. Petrographic examination of Chak 110 SB Sargodha aggregates confirms the presence of
reactive minerals i.e. quartzite and slate. However, reactive minerals are found slow
according to the previous research.
viii. Water demand of mortar mixtures incorporating SBA increase as the replacement of SBA
increase as shown by the result of flow table. The increase in the water demand was due to
porous, irregular structure of particle of SBA, hydrophilic nature and high specific surface
area of the SBA.
49
ix. Compressive strength of cubes at 10% SBA replacement was more than control sample
due to pozzolanic reaction of proper proportion of silica from SBA and calcium hydroxide
from cement hydration. Also due to large surface area of SBA which provide additional
nucleation site for the hydration of cement.
x. Compressive strength of cubes decreases at 30 and 40% SBA replacement because of high
water to cement ratio and dilution effect due large replacement of cement with SBA.
xi. The strength activity index value of 10% SBA was 103.8%. The strength activity index
value of cubes containing 20% sugarcane bagasse ash was 92.2% which was more than 75
% limit. The strength activity index decreases at 30 and 40% SBA replacement.
xii. The expansion of mortar bar decreases with the increase of SBA replacement due
pozzolanic reaction and dilution effect. The result of accelerated mortar bar test shows that
20% replacement of cement with SBA was effective dosage to mitigate alkali silica
reaction.
5.2 Recommendations
i. Durability test sulfate attack and chloride penetration of concrete incorporating SBA
should be check.
ii. Temperature of burning and particle size of SBA have effect on the pozzolanic properties
of SBA. The pozzolanic behavior of SBA having optimum burning temperature and
effective particle size should be checked.
50
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Potential of Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash for the Reduction

National University of Computer & Emerging Sciences

for assessment in any other institution.

Asim Sharif Signature:

Roll Number: 15L-5152

Dr. Safeer Abbas Signature:

Dr. Shahid Ali Signature:

HOD, Department of Civil Engineering

Dr. Ali Ahmed

Petrographic examination of Chak 110 SB Sargodha aggregates confirmed the presence of

expansion and strength activity index.

Certificate of Approval ............................................................................................................ii

Abstract ................................................................................................................................... iii

Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... v

List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... ix

List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... x

Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1

1.1 General Introduction ................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem Statement ...................................................................................................... 2

1.3 Research Objectives .................................................................................................... 2

1.4 Scope ........................................................................................................................... 3

1.5 Research Significance ................................................................................................. 3

1.6 Thesis Structure ........................................................................................................... 3

Chapter 2 Literature Review .............................................................................................. 5

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 5

2.2 Structure Affected by ASR ......................................................................................... 5

2.3 Mechanisms of Alkali-Silica Reaction ........................................................................ 6

2.4 ASR Chemical Reaction.............................................................................................. 6

2.5 Formation of ASR Gel ................................................................................................ 7

2.6 Development of ASR Cracks ...................................................................................... 8

2.7 Common Symptoms of ASR ....................................................................................... 9

2.7.1 Map or Pattern Cracks ......................................................................................... 9

2.7.2 Longitudinal Cracks ............................................................................................. 9

2.7.3 Joint Misalignment............................................................................................. 10

2.7.4 Exudation ........................................................................................................... 10

2.7.5 Pop-out ............................................................................................................... 10

2.7.6 Corner Crushing ................................................................................................. 10

2.8 Factors Affecting Alkali-Silica Reaction in Concrete............................................... 11

2.8.1 Reactive Aggregates .......................................................................................... 11

2.8.2 Alkalis Content .................................................................................................. 12

2.8.3 Sufficient Moisture Content ............................................................................... 13

2.9.1 Petrographic Examination of Aggregates ASTM C295 .................................... 15

2.9.2 Chemical Test ASTM C289............................................................................... 15

2.9.3 Mortar Bar Test ASTM C 227 ........................................................................... 15

2.9.4 Accelerated Mortar Bar Test ASTM C 1260 ..................................................... 16

2.9.5 Concrete Prism Test ASTM C 1293 .................................................................. 17

Chapter 3 Material Preparation and Experimental Program ....................................... 18

3.1 Material Preparation .................................................................................................. 18

3.1.1 Collection of Aggregates ................................................................................... 18

3.1.2 Washing and Drying Aggregates ....................................................................... 18

3.1.3 Sieving Aggregate .............................................................................................. 18

3.1.4 Aggregates Gradation ........................................................................................ 19

3.1.5 Preparation of NaOH Solution ........................................................................... 19

3.2 Testing Materials ....................................................................................................... 20

3.2.1 Normal Portland Cement ................................................................................... 20

3.2.2 Sugarcane Bagasse Ash ..................................................................................... 20

3.2.3 Water .................................................................................................................. 21

3.3 Testing Equipment .................................................................................................... 21

3.3.1 Mortar Mixer ...................................................................................................... 21

3.3.2 Digital Length Comparator ................................................................................ 22

3.3.3 High Pressure Autoclave.................................................................................... 23

3.3.4 Flow Table ......................................................................................................... 23