Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Vol. 12, No. 2, December 2019 ISSN (PRINT) :1979-8903 ISSN (ONLINE): 2503-040X
Editor in Chief
Faizal Risdianto
Editors
Muhammad Istiqlal, IAIN Salatiga
Dr. Saad Boulahnane, University of Casablanca, Casablanca, Morocco
Agung Guritno, IAIN Salatiga, Indonesia
Fahmi Gunawan, Scopus ID: 57199720154, IAIN Kendari, Sulawesi
Hari Prastyo, Language Center of Islamic Institute of Uluwiyah, Mojokerto,
Norwanto norwanto, SCOPUS ID:57204006221, IAIN Salatiga
Hanung Triyoko, IAIN Salatiga
M. Zaini Miftah, IAIN Palangka Raya
Rahmat Yusny, Universitas Islam Negeri Ar-Raniry Banda Aceh
Setia Rini, IAIN Salatiga
Distributor
Nur Ida Qomsiyah,S.Ag
Publishers
Teacher Training & Education Faculty State Institute For Islamic Studies
Salatiga with ELITE Association Indonesia (The Association of Teachers
of English Linguistics, Literature & Education).
Address
Vol. 12, No. 2, December 2019 ISSN (PRINT) :1979-8903 ISSN (ONLINE): 2503-040X
TABLE OF CONTENT
Somariah Fitriani………………………………………………..…119-140
Arina Isti’anah…………………………………………………….….157-174
Alek…………………………………………………………………175-190
Proposing A Gaming Language Analysis Procedure To Reveal Video
Game Ideology through Ludic Linguistics
Christine Manara…………………………………………………….209-231
Amir Ghajarieh
Department of Language Teaching and Translation,
University of Ershad-Damavand
Author’s email ghajarieh.amir@e-damavandihe.ac.ir
Nastaran Jalali
Department of Language Teaching and Translation,
University of Ershad-Damavand
Author’s email Nastaranjalali.71@gmail.com
Mohammad-Amin Mozaheb*
Department of Foreign Languages
Language Center, Imam Sadiq University
Author’s email mozaheb.ma@gmail.com
DOI: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.100-125
Corresponding Author*
Submission Track:
Received: 29-09-2019
Final Revision: 20-11-2019
Available online: 01-12-2019
ABSTRACT
This study investigates the classroom talk of Iranian EFL novice versus
experienced teachers with emphasis on the quality of communicative features
through a linguistic lens provided by the SETT (Self-Evaluation of Teacher
Talk) framework and TTFS (Teacher Talk Functional Scale) checklist. In so
doing, 10 intermediate-level classrooms running by five novice and five
experienced teachers were observed, each case twice. Eight distinctive
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INTRODUCTION
Teacher talk investigation in the context of language learning
classrooms has been the focal point of a fair number of studies over the past
recent years. However, such element of the classroom discourse still appears
to be far from being fully understood and the teachers’ role in EFL classroom
context may need to be reconsidered (Rahmani Doqaruni, 2017). According to
Walsh (2002), teachers have been mostly criticized over their excessive TTT
(Teacher Talking Time). Additionally, in-service and pre-service courses have
suggested teachers to reduce their talking time. Thus, the focus was on quantity
rather than quality of how teachers communicate in the classroom. As he
mentioned (2002, p.4), this has to be otherwise; that is “the focus should be on
quality rather than quantity by recognizing the relationship between language
use and pedagogic purpose”.
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of studies, including Tsui, (2003) and Akbari and Tajik (2012), have
investigated experienced and novice teachers' talk in the literature. However,
previous studies on teacher talk were mostly focused on experienced teachers
(Asik & Gonen, 2016) with just a few aimed at highlighting the crucial factor
in in-experienced EFL teachers (e.g. Rahmani Doqaruni, 2017). Additionally,
few (if any) of these studies analyzed the teacher talk through the linguistics
lens with emphasis on both teachers' cognition and behavior. As such teacher
talk should be studied in detail to identify how various factors, including
experience, can affect teacher performance in an EFL context.
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RESEARCH QUESTIONS
With regard to the importance of intersection between teacher talk and
teacher training course for pre- and in-service teachers, this study is an attempt
to investigate distinctive communicative features of teacher talk through a
linguistic lens provided by the SETT framework and TTFS checklist with the
teaching experience focused as the potential influencing variable. For the
purposes of this study, the following research questions have been adopted:
RESEARCH METHOD
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teacher talk) developed by Walsh (2006a), was adopted for the purposes of this
study.
The SETT is a comprehensive framework aimed at evaluating the
interface between language in use and its possible pedagogic purpose in a
classroom micro-context called ‘mode’ (Walsh, 2006a). Different teacher talk
features were developed by Walsh among which 6 features were chosen to fit
the obtained data in this study based on the preliminary analysis of recurring
themes in teacher talk.
Different types of communicative features were coded into one of the
following patterns:
1. Display questions
2. Referential questions
3. Direct and indirect repair
4. Negotiation of meaning through clarification request and repetition
5. Content and form-focused feedback
6. Extended wait time
7. Language grading
8. Teachers use of first language
This typology was developed based on SETT and TTFS, with this study
further analyzing some other features as contributions to these models. Two of
the authors acted as the raters of the coded data, and the high index for inter-
rater reliability for the two was established (.90) using Cohen's Kappa. It is also
notable that in seeking to ensure the raters have not imposed any ideology
based on coded categories, thematic analysis was used to identify recurring themes
emerging from the data.
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interruptions
J Extended Teacher turn of more than one utterance.
teacher
turn
K Turn Completing a learner’s contribution for the learner.
completion
L Display Asking questions to which teacher knows the
questions answer.
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teachers are generally better in terms of quality of their talk. Moreover, the
findings of the research suggest that these TT features should be taught to
novice teachers as well as experienced teachers in pre-service teacher training
program which helps teachers to improve their performance, in this regard
Safir Institute had asked for the findings of this research. In order to address
the second research question concerning how such distinctive communicative
features could reveal the experience of teachers, this study analyzed data
gained from observation sessions and recorded materials. The following sub-
sections present the results of this study.
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ET4: What would you have done if you had been to their concert?
(then she asked them to discuss this in groups)
The underlined questions in the above excerpts indicate how
referential question are represented in the case of both novice and experienced
cases analyzed in this study. Whilst both teachers used referential questions,
experienced teacher continued the example with group work and continued the
task with learner/ learner interaction. Such feature did not exist in the case of
in-experienced teachers.
Analysis of direct and indirect repair
Both groups of teachers mostly gave direct feedback on the students’
pronunciation errors. Nevertheless, it was identified that some novice teachers
either ignored the students’ grammatical errors while speaking or corrected
them on the spot. For instance, in the case of NT5 below, “very much cars”
was a sentence produced by a student which the teacher corrected its mistake
directly and immediately. Yet, most of the experienced teachers wrote their
students’ errors on a piece of paper so as not to distract them while speaking,
and at the end of each session they put their students' errors on the board,
indirectly corrected them with the help of the learners. Direct error correction
may seem far less time-consuming and the teacher opts for a very open and
direct approach to error correction as preferred by their learners. Safir Institute
seemingly took an opposing view on this issue and most teachers in their
classes were trying to correct errors indirectly, which based on Walsh's (2002)
assumptions reduces interruption and maintains the flow.
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NT5: there were many cars (she interrupted the student and explained
that “very” is used for adjectives and car is a noun)
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In the first example NT4 asked a question from students and waited
for only 2 seconds, which was not enough for the process of thinking.
Otherwise, ET1 asked a question and said “think about it” then waited for a
longer time to give the student a second chance to think about the answer.
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The results of this study are in line with the findings of previous
studies on teacher characteristics and language education such as Tsui (2003)
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CONCLUSION
Research into teacher talk is of noteworthy significance in the literature
on teacher education and L2 language teaching. The results of this study lead
to a more profound understanding of the teacher talk function in the classroom
discourse and would benefit pre-service teachers on how to use language and
critique their own performance particularly through the use of SEET and the
TTFS frameworks. Moreover, using these frameworks help teachers to
encourage learner involvement in the classroom. As Asik and Gonen (2016)
believe, the SETT framework helps teachers develop a more critical eye by
evaluating their use of language.
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REFERENCES
Aisyah, N. (2016). An Analysis of Teachers ‘Talk in an EFL
Classroom. Journal of English and Education, 4(2), 63-79.
Akbari, R., & Tajik, L. (2012). Second-language teachers’ moral knowledge
base: A comparison between experienced and less experienced, male
and female practitioners. Journal of Moral Education, 41(1), 39-59.
Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., Irvine, C. K. S., & Walker, D. (2018). Introduction to
research in education. Cengage Learning.
Aşık, A., & Kuru Gönen, S. İ. (2016). Pre-service EFL teachers’ reported
perceptions of their development through SETT experience. Classroom
Discourse, 7(2), 164-183.
Doganay, A., & Ozturk, A. (2011). An Investigation of Experienced and
Inexperienced Primary School Teachers' Teaching Process in Science
and Technology Classes in Terms of Metacognitive
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Somariah Fitriani
University of Muhammadiyah Prof. DR. HAMKA, Jakarta, Indonesia
somariah@uhamka.ac.id
DOI: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.126-156
Submission Track:
Received: 12-02-2019
Final Revision: 20-11-2019
Available online: 01-12-2019
ABSTRACT
Learning a dual language at the same time during early childhood has caused
the wrong perception. Its false perception makes the parents delay the start of
learning a second /foreign language. Therefore, this study aims at analyzing
the first and second language acquisition of a child in the Indonesian
Language and English. The issues concentrated on the spoken utterances in
Indonesian and English and its affecting factors. The research adopted a
qualitative approach by using a case study, as the unit analysis is a child of 3
years old. For data collection, I employed the naturalistic approach, which I
kept daily notes on the progress of a child’s linguistic and recorded the
dialogues. Since it is a longitudinal study, the research was conducted for two
years, from 2014 to 2015. The research has revealed that utterances spoken
have primarily increased and the child has already understood the commands
by following the instructions. Some concepts such as feeling, taste, color, and
numbers as well as short phrases and simple words in Indonesian and English
at the same time can be understood and uttered. She also can change the
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INTRODUCTION
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Piel, 2016; Heidar, 2012; Orillos, 1998; and Tahriri, 2013). Chomsky reported
that linguists have proposed that a child’s brain contains a ‘language
acquisition device,’ which embodies rules of universal grammar. Because each
language expresses these rules in slightly different ways, the child must learn
the details, given that but the basics are already in the brain (as cited in Carlson
and Buskist, 1997). Chomsky also contended that the child is born with an
innate knowledge of or the predisposition toward language and that this innate
device (the LAD or UG, universal grammar) is universal in all human beings
(cited in Brown, 1994). It means a language acquisition device is not a
“device” like a tool inserted in the brain, but it is the human’s brain where
languages are acquired.
Studies on children’s language acquisition have received sufficient
attention to linguistics discipline up to now, especially, research on how
children acquire and learn English as a second or foreign language. For
example, Mushi (2010) researched parents’ role in their children’s English
language development, in which they are from immigrant families. The study
revealed that the role of parents supported the children’s language learning.
Lin, Cheng & Wang (2018) examined the contribution of cross-language
phonological and morphological awareness of reading acquisition in bilingual
children. Tong, McBride, Ho, et al. (2018) investigated the effect of
morphological awareness to students who learn Chinese, and English. In
Korean students’ experiences, Lee & Jeong (2013) examined the Korean–
English dual language immersion program to develop bilingualism. It can be
inferred that research about children’s acquisition on both L1 and L2 is still
interesting to analyze in different countries. In the Indonesian context, a similar
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RESEARCH METHOD
Research design
The study was to describe how a three-year-old child acquires and
learns two languages, Indonesian (L1) and English (L2) almost at the same
time and its factors affecting her language acquisition. Since the study intended
to collect the data in the form of words and sentences rather than numbers for
around two years. The research employed a qualitative approach by using a
case study method. Yin (2003) highlighted this case is essential, unique,
typical, revelatory and longitudinal. Yin (2003) also added that a case study is
an empirical inquiry investigating a contemporary phenomenon within its real-
life context. Additionally, a case study is “an in-depth study of specific
circumstances used to reduce a vast field of research into one easily
researchable topic” (Shuttleworth, 2008).
Respondent of the study
The unit analysis is a person – a child named Addien as a respondent.
She was a three-year-old when I started conducting the research. She is the first
child of two other twin siblings. She was a kind of shy girl who didn’t want to
communicate with others if she didn’t recognize them. However, when she was
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at home, she changed to be a cheerful girl who loved dancing and singing.
Besides, she was remarkably good at posing in front of the camera. Without
any doubt, every time I took pictures of her, she directly posed with many kinds
of styles. She is a girl who enjoys observing people’s speaking, particularly in
English. For example, every time she heard a word in English from me, she
could repeat it in another day in a proper way, even though I did not teach and
say the meaning of the word. On account of living with her parents, uncles,
aunties, nieces, nephew and me (who often speaks English with her), she is
exposed to two languages; Indonesian as first and dominant language and
English as a foreign or additional language. Occasionally, some others talk to
English too, such as her mother, and her auntie. But she dominantly heard
English from me.
Data procedure and analysis
It took me about two years from 2014 to 2015 to investigate, record,
and analyze the data from the child. For data collection, I adopted the
naturalistic observation which in the naturalistic approach, investigators
observe and record children’s spontaneous utterances. One type of naturalistic
investigation is the so-called diary study, in which a researcher (often a parent)
keeps daily notes on the progress of a child’s linguistic competence as stated
by Denzin and Lincoln cited in Cresswell (2007). To analyze the data, I used
Miles and Hubberman’s (2014) model, which consists of data reduction, data
display, and conclusion and drawing/verification based on existed theory. I
also analyzed the notes through the content analysis technique. While for the
credibility of data, I used triangulation to make sure that the information and
its interpretation have already been in the right one. I used two kinds of
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RESULTS &DISCUSSION
The spoken utterances at the age of three to four years
At the age of two years old, she was taught to call her mother Ami and
her father is Papa. However, she found it difficult to call me Mami. So she
called me Mimi. She also found it difficult to utter Tante Uki, my younger
sister, so instead of Uki, she uttered ui. She also couldn’t say Tante Asih, my
other younger sister but later after around three years old she could say te Aci
and te Uki, but later in the next few months, she could utter Tante. She could
not utter her name properly by Addien. She called herself “tata Endin” instead
of Kakak Endin, since she couldn’t pronounce consonant k. But she can
recognize the letter A, indicated her name. So every time there is a word with
a letter A, she must say “Addin” with long A-and emphasized the sound stress
of din with AAAddin.
At the beginning of three years old, she always asked questions such as
Apa ini? (What is this?), Apa itu? (What is that?) Then she started asking ada
apa? (What happens?), siapa? (Who). Here is one of the example
conversations between her and me. She quite often mixed up between ini (this)
and itu (that). She just said what she saw in her surroundings and jumped from
one topic to another. When we were in the restroom, I used English to request
her to do something such as stand up, sit down; stay there and amazingly she
understood the command and did what I asked her to do. I also sometimes sang
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a song like “wash your hand, wash your face, wash your hair and wash your
lip and mouth, wash your body, your legs, and your feet (while touching her
part of the body) to be healthy, to be fresh, to be beautiful”. To make it easy, I
use a letter R as my name, a researcher and A as Addien to show the dialog or
conversation.
R: Stand up
A: (follow my instruction)
R: Sit down
A: (follow my instruction)
R: brush your teeth
A: (she took toothbrush from hands and brushed her teeth)
R: Do you want to use this? (Point to the soap)
A: Apa? (What?)
R: Merem, close your eyes
A: (follow my instruction) (DATA 1)
Remarkably, I never used the word “merem” to her but she could do it.
She might get it from someone else. She could also tell the story to her mom
with uncompleted sentences, especially after returning from shopping or going
out somewhere with me. Here is the dialog between Addien and her mother
(M).
M: Kakak Addien dari mana? (Where have you been?)
A: lihat balon (seeing balloon)
M: ada berapa balonnya? (How many balloons are there?)
A: banyak sekali (a lot, while raising her both hands up and making the
circle)
M: ngapain lagi? (What else?)
A: banyak anak anak. Main, mam ayam ice cream (A lot of children,
play, eat chicken, ice cream)
M: senang nggak? (Are you happy?)
A: ya
M: mau kesana lagi (Do you want to go there again?)
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Since she started to produce some words, there are some words that she
never wanted to change even the family corrected again and again. For
example, the word yeye means gendong (carry on the back or hip). Every time
she wanted me to carry her, she always said yeye. Other words are mam means
makan (eat) abab means Allahuakbar indicating to take prayer. Mimi Iyah mau
abab ya? (When I was about to take a prayer), nen means asking for milk,
momon means Dora Emon (Japanese character), pupu pupu means Kupu kupu
(butterfly).
After dressing up, she wanted to go outside and I gave the wrong sandal
to her and she said: Salah (it’s wrong), Mimi Iyah. And then she saw a bike
falling and said “jatuh sepedanya.” She saw fish food and said “ ini mam ikan”
(Should be itu), “kakak kasih Ikan mam.” Other example dialogue is shown in
another day when she wanted to eat rambutan.
A: Mimi Iyah, ada rambutan (point to rambutan)
R: (I gave rambutan to her)
A; Kakak Endin mam rambutan (while eating rambutan)
R: ini punya siapa? (Whose rambutan is this?)
A: kakak Endin
A: ini nggak enak (not delicious while pointing to Duku)
A: mau pipis (I want to pee) (DATA 3)
After playing a game on I Pad with her cousin, Zein, she saw a sign of battery
and said:
A: “ ini udah abis, cas (Charge) dulu” (it’s out of battery, needs to be
charged)
A: “ini kotor, Zen no! (This is dirty)
A: “kakak Endin udah naik kereta api”(Kakak Endin took the train)
A: “abang Zein belum naik kereta api (Abang Zein hasn’t taken train yet)
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One day after our dialogue she saw a butterfly and said “ itu sayap”
(that’s wing) but she tried to think first, it seemed that she tried to recall her
memory before producing the word “itu sayap.” She has also already expressed
her opinion and her feeling about taste. When I gave her a black bucket to soak
her body in the bathroom, she asked me a red one and said: “jelek” (ugly)
pointing to a black bucket.
She can give me praise too by saying “Mimi Iyah yang cantik.” (Mimi
Iyah is beautiful). When I asked my sister, she often said “Kakak Addin yang
cantik” One day in the evening when I was watching television, she carried her
teddy bear doll and said with a sad face, knowing the word “mati”, (dead) that
surprised me.
A: “papa Abu mati Mimi Iyah” (Papa Abu is dead. She called her teddy
bear with papa Abu even though the color is brown)
R: tidak mati, Papa Abu bobo (no dead, but sleeping)
A: oh bobo
R: iya, disayang ya (well, love him)
A: (hug the teddy bear) (DATA 5)
She often shows her high curiosity as well by asking a question, for
instance when I got a phone call by saying “siapa Mimi Iyah.” (Who is it?)
When I talked to someone in my graduation day, she said “ ada apa Mimi
Iyah.” (What happens?). When I got angry with my nephew and she heard my
voice from the room, she was in a rush going out said too “ ada apa Mimi
Iyah.” Sometimes I explained to her, but sometimes I just said “nggak ada apa
apa.” (Nothing happens). When I explained, she pretended to understand and
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said “oh.” Even to her aunty, every time her aunty returns from work, she
always asks what her aunty brings to her.
A: anti Asih bawa apa? (What do you bring?)
Aunty: bawa roti (I bring bread)
A: roti apa? (What bread?)
Aunty: roti coklat (Chocolate bread)
A: kakak Adin suka coklat. (I love Chocolate bread) (DATA 6)
Every time she finishes her activity, she quite often reports what she
has just been doing and pretending to do something like below dialogue.
A: Mimi Iyah, kakak Endin udah makan (I have eaten). (I am in front of
laptop
typing)
R: Kok cepat banget (so quickly)
A: Silent (it seems she doesn’t know to how to answer)
R: Makan apa? (What do you eat?)
A: Telor cepok (sunny side up eggs)
A: Kakak Endin mau photo booth (I want to take picture using photo
booth, application in I Pad)
A: Entar dulu ya Mimi Iyah mau kerja. (Wait a minute, I want to work)
R: (silent)
A: Adek mau bando nggak (Do you want bandana? showing a cartoon
bandana to Maryam, her cousin who is still a baby of 6 months old).
A: Mimi Iyah, Endin mau photo booth, itu ada tuh photo booth nya
(A few times said the same thing)
R: Sebentar ya, just a minute
A: a few minutes later
A: Mimi Iyah, Adik kembar bobo (Twin sisters are sleeping)
A: Mimi Iyah mau photo booth (DATA 7)
Finally, I let her sit in front of my laptop and she started to play a photo
booth, after about 2 minutes she got bored and I started to type again.
A: es cream, es cream (she shouted ice cream and played with Zein while
holding a drumstick)
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A: Mimi Iyah, ambil es cream (Please take ice cream, she pointed a drum
stick in front of me)
R: ini bukan es cream (this is not ice cream)
A: pura puranya es cream. (Pretend to be ice cream; I was amazed by
how she can say such a thing)
A: es cream es cream (she was shouting and laughing together with Zein)
A few minutes she saw Zein sitting on her younger sister, Maryam)
A: Mimi Iyah, Adikknya ditindihin. (Zein is sitting on Maryam)
A: diam nggak, nanti nggak diajak ke Tip top (Please be quiet, I won’t
take you to Tip Top supermarket while talking to zein)
A: Kakak Addien marah nih.( I am angry, She often says this thing to
Zein with protruding eyes, and loud voice) (DATA 8)
She often says “mana ya Mimi Iyah” (Where is Mimi Iyah) while
closing her eyes and wandering to look for me. Her mother often plays this
game to her. And she does it to me too. From some examples of the above
dialogues, it can be inferred that at the age of three to four year, she can produce
a complete sentence with some correct grammatical structure and able to create
many consonants correctly with all vocal sounds. She can also develop the
questions by using ini apa? (What is this), become ada apa? (What’s up), and
siapa? (Who is it?). Surprisingly, she could also change it’s a towel with is it
a towel? And point to other things by saying is it a towel? I said no, it is a tap,
it is a tub, etc.
At the age of three, Addien has already understood some concepts,
either in Indonesian or English since her mother and I use English when
communicating with her so that she can use Indonesia and English at the same
time.
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She understands when I say “which one is your nose, eye, ear, hair?” she
can point her part of the body but she can speak only nose, ear and eye.
Her mother has introduced her some part of the body particularly around
her face since she was about two years old and reinforced by me
especially when she takes a bath, such as a nose, eye, hair, and lips.
2. The concept of numbers: 1 -10 in English and Indonesian.
She can follow and repeat what I say about the number in Indonesian and
English. She memorizes number 1 to 5 either in Indonesian or English at
first but later on, she can say until 10. She also knows the number of
things, for example, two things or 4 things. Her mother put pictures of
animals, transportation, numbers, and fruits on the walls to make her
accustomed to seeing the objects.
3. The concept of feeling and taste.
She knows and understands the feeling of sadness, and happiness and
taste of food, sakit (sick), gatel (itchy), capek (tired), tidak enak (not
delicious), pedas (spicy), bau (smell bad) and wangi (fragrant) (especially
after using perfume or taking bath)
4. The concept of colors
The name of the color that she knows firstly is in English, that’s why
every time we ask what color is, she can answer red, merah, pink, but
when saying blue, he says lue or, biru. It seems she understands that red
is merah, blue is biru. But until almost four years old, she finds it difficult
to pronounce purple. So the colors she knows until now are blue, pink,
purple, red, green, brown and white.
5. The concept of animals
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The first time she utters fish with unyu unyu but later after we said that it
is fish, she changes it. But once after almost a year she never said unyu
unyu as a fish, one day she said that again. She knows some animals and
able to differentiate in English like fish, dog, cat, and horse. In Bahasa
Indonesia, she knows cicak (lizard), kucing (Cat), Gajah (Elephant),
capung (dragonfly),tikus (Mouse), semut (Ant).
6. The concept of objects
The first object she introduces is an umbrella, that’s why every time she
sees an umbrella; she must say “umbela.” Since she always sees me
making up, she knows some cosmetic terms such as lipstick, eye shadow,
bedak, (powder) shampoo, sabun (soap). Other things are piring (plate),
gelas (glass), sendok (spoon), botol (bottle), hand phone, remote control,
laptop, IPad, tas (bag). She also can differentiate between hand phone and
iPhone, between tablet and IPad.
7. The concepts of fruits
Some fruits that she can utter and recognize are rambutan, pisang
(banana), manga, papaya, melon, duku, jeruk (orange) since those fruits
are consumed regularly. She loves rambutan and banana very much.
8. The concepts of transport
She is familiar with some transport both in English and Indonesian such
as mobil, car, sepeda, pesawat, bis, bajay, odong odong, kereta api, train.
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A: No
R: Sudah ketemu adik kembar (have you met twin sisters) and kiss?
A: No
R: Take it (a bottle on the floor) and put it on the table
A: (she took it and put it on the table) (DATA 9)
I was in the bedroom doing my work, when she was crying and saying
“Mimi Iyah” (the previous night, she slept in her mother’s bedroom), and I
opened the door seeing her going back to her room.
R: ada apa kakak Addien? (What happen?)
A: (she was still crying)
R: (I held her hand to go to my bedroom)
R: Kakak mau ikut ke kampus? (Do you want to come with me to
campus?)
A: (nod her head)
R: ok drink your milk and sleep first
A: (she lied her body on the bed while drinking a bottle of chocolate
milk)
R: (I continued typing)
A: mau mandi (I want to bathe)
R: sebentar ya, Mimi Iyah lagi nonton. (Wait a minute, I am watching)
A few minutes later after the movie ended
A: Mimi Iyah, mobil sudah dibetulin ama papa. (Car is already fixed by
Papa)
R: (I just nodded my head and took her to the bathroom)
A: Kakak Addien mau pakai sabun ini, sabun orang gede
(I want to use this soap, adult’s soap)
R: (I was washing clothes)
A: Mimi iyah pinter ya, Kakak Addien juga pinter (You are smart, I am
smart too. She took her panty and washed it)
A: Kakak Addien mau abab (means “sholat” take prayer)
(She followed my acts taking “wudhu.”)
R: ok stay there (after finishing her bath, I took a towel in a bedroom)
A: (follow my instruction)
A; handuk baru ya! (New towel isn’t it?)
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One day when she was playing and asking me to help her pretend she
was almost falling and she shouted “hep” means “help” since I said “help” a
few times to her and pretended to nearly falling. It seems that she saw what I
was doing and repeated it the action.
When she was about to go outside and asked Abang Zein to come with her, she
said: “come on bang Zein.” And every time I asked her to kiss her twin sister,
she directly kissed them or sometimes she said “no.” So far there are more
than 20 English words she can utter and produce from the simple ones of one
word such as, “ok,” “yes,” “no” “kiss” until two words such as come on, take
it, let’s go. She could produce a long sentence too, for instance, when we went
out to the pool after jogging, she could say a long sentence. “Wow, it’s so
beautiful, oh my God, come on Abang. Let’s go. Take a picture”.
Based on the above data, it can be concluded that a child of three to
four years old can utter and produce the second language in the early childhood
and she has some extent a good understanding of the meaning of the English
words as well. Thus, the use of two languages at the same time can be learned
without getting confused to differ the two languages. Lightbown (2008)
summarized that the children in early childhood have capability of acquiring
two or more languages. Genesee (2008) pointed out that no scientific reason to
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believe that the brains of young infants are equipped to learn only one language
in early childhood. Genesee (2002) and Lightbown (2008) also revealed that
there is no evidence that children get confused if they learn two languages
during the infant-toddler period. Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson (2003) even
emphasized the importance of rich learning environment to become fully
bilingual children. In this context, the researcher uses two languages in the
same sentence, which is referred to as code mixing or code switching to ensure
her understanding, especially if she seems unsure about the meaning of the
word.
The factors affecting her utterances
Linguistic Input
The role of input affects a child’s language development. Children, who
do not receive input or exposure to a language, will not develop their linguistic
ability normally. This linguistic input is called “positive evidence” as a part of
the language aspect discussed by Pinker (1995), which refers to the information
available to the child, about which strings of words are grammatical sentences
of the target language. Fromkin, Robert and Hyams (2003) contended
“Children who do not receive linguistic input during their formative years do
not achieve native-like grammatical competence.” Lenneberg (1967) called
the formative years as a critical age hypothesis that is a part of the biological
basis of language that the ability to learn a native language develops within a
fixed a period, from birth to puberty. During this critical period, language
acquisition proceeds easily, swiftly, and without external intervention
(Fromkin, Robert and Hyams, 2003). However, variation in input quantity (i.e.,
the amount of language children hear) significantly affects children’s
acquisition (Weisleder and Fernald, 2013). In addition, variation in input
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quality plays a role as well. Some important indicators of quality include the
use of decontextualized language, lexical diversity and properties of verbal and
nonverbal interaction (Hirsh-Pasek, et al., 2015; Rowe, 2012; Rowe, et al,
2016)
In the case of Addien, since she lives with a lot of immediate families
(there are eight adults altogether) and gets a lot of exposure either in Indonesian
and English (mostly from the researcher), her linguistic ability develops a lot.
Her utterances are like most normal children who start producing one word,
two words and more complete sentences consisting subject, verb, and noun or
adverb either in affirmative sentences or questions. She can understand what
people say and act, utter the words, produce the sentences, and respond to
people in her surrounding, even to the activities she watches on television. For
example, when she saw a man running on TV, she said “hati hati nanti jatuh”,
(be careful or you will fall down). She also remembers and recognizes all of
the things belong to us. “Ini punya Ami or ini punya Mimi Iyah, (This belongs
to Ami or This belong to Mimi Iyah) or when I wore my sister’s veil, she said
“ini punya tante Uki.” She can as well as express her own opinions when I ask
what color she wants or the kind of clothes she likes; what food she wants to
eat, and soon. Therefore, this critical period has a great impact on a child
language development. After this period, the grammar acquisition is difficult
and for some individuals it is never fully achieved. Like a case of Amala and
Kamala who were found in India, a case of Victor who was found in 1798 or
Genie who had been confined to a small room under the conditions of physical
restraint and had received only minimal contact from the age of eighteen
months until almost fourteen years. Regardless of the cause of isolation, none
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the children must see the things or objects (use five senses). By showing and
exposing a lot of pictures, it can help a child to know, understand, and utter the
words that contribute not only to his/her language acquisition but also to her
psycho motoric aspect. The researcher buys a lot of VCDs or DVDs so that
she, at least, is familiar with English since early childhood. When I bought her
a movie Barbie VCD of “Barbie & her sisters in a Pony tale” and watched it
several times, she knew a concept of horse and that horse is a tame animal that
she can ride on it. Beforehand, she was afraid of a horse, when I took her to
Pacuan Kuda and asked her to ride a horse. She also has plenty of words from
all of us (8 adult people) who communicate and have interaction with her. She
learns a lot from those things: environment, significant others (immediate
family) and media that support, and affect her linguistic ability. Hoff (2003)
emphasized that children’s surrounding and social interaction with the family
member and the community affect their language acquisition as well.
Last but not least, in addition to mentioned factors, according to Ball
(2010), some factors affecting the outcomes of dual language acquisition
include formal instruction, individual differences, socio cultural adaptation,
language spoken (exposure) at home, motivation, ethnic/gender
discrimination, physiological condition and family socio economic status.
CONCLUSION
Dual language learning is not confusing as some common beliefs or
myths occur to some parents. On the other hand, the children benefit some
advantages such as they are better at problem solving, demonstrate greater
creativity and express more tolerant attitudes. There are also some benefits the
children can obtain from learning a second/foreign language, especially if the
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any ages as well as across the lifespan. Therefore, future research about
individual differences (ID) needs to be addressed to analyze further potential
variables.
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Genesee, F., Boivin, I., & Nicoladis, E. (1996). Talking with strangers: A study
of bilingual children’s communicative competence. Applied Psycholinguistics,
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Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned (3rd edition).
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Rowe, M. et al. (2016). Going beyond input quantity: Wh-questions matter for
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Tong, X; McBride, C; Ho, C.S; Waye, M.M.Y.; Chung, K.KH; Wong, S.W.L;
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9771-z
Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods. (3rd edition).
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Haerazi*
English Lecturer, Graduate School, Mandalika University of Education
haerazi@ikipmataram.ac.id
Zukhairatunniswah Prayati
English Teacher, SMPN 1 Jonggat, Lombok Tengah, NTB
anisprayati@gmail.com
DOI: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.141-157
Corresponding Author*
Submission Track:
Received: 27-7-2019
Final Revision: 20-11-2019
Available online: 01-12-2019
ABSTRACT
This study investigated the use of the scientific-based approach in the ELT
class to solve students' learning problems. Those problems are students'
difficulties to complete their learning tasks, lack of vocabulary to complete
reading tasks, lack of grammatical competence, afraid of proposing questions,
afraid of speaking, and difficulties to complete the listening tasks. These caused
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INTRODUCTION
The change of curriculum in Indonesia is based on the demands to
compete internationally. To reach international competitiveness, the change of
national curriculum needs reinforcement. In doing so, the ministry of national
education recommends the new curriculum, namely Curriculum 2013
(henceforth K13). The concept of K13 is developed in accordance with the
educational practice development and educational theoretical paradigm.
Basically, the concept of K13 is to complete the previous curriculum, namely
KTSP (educational unit level curriculum). The main touch of applying K13 is
to increase students' competences in conducting observation, asking or
interviewing, thinking logically, and communicating and presenting what they
have got or knew as the result of understanding materials. To achieve the goals,
the scientific-based approach is employed in K13.
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scientific approach has five stages and the genre-based approach has five stages
as well. In teaching practice, the teacher can choose any scientific stages to be
started inserting the genre-based learning activities. According to Munir
(2015), the application of the scientific approach and genre-based approach can
be applied accurately as suggested in the Teacher Book (Kemendikbud, 2016).
In addition, Syafii (2018); Kristie and Listyani (2018) recommend online short
stories, role-play, storytelling, and song can be integrated with the scientific-
based approaches for English students. Therefore, the scientific-based
approach is directed students on what to learn and how to learn it.
This study is aimed at investigating the use of the scientific-based
approach in the ELT class to improve students' achievement and classroom
interaction. The effectiveness of the approach will influence the
implementation of K13 for all of the Junior high school students at Central
Lombok, NTB. The application of the scientific approach in this study was
subjected to ELT class at the 8th-grade students of SMPN 4 Praya. Based on
the observation in the preliminary study, the students’ problems that caused
students have low achievement and inactive classroom interaction include
difficulties to complete learning tasks; on vocabulary acquisition to complete
reading tasks; on grammatical competence to write English sentences;
proposing questions to teachers or other classmates; speaking ability in
discussion process; and listening problems to understand the native speaking.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Curriculum K13
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programs presented that Indonesian students have a low quality such as PISA
assessment. As a response to this, the K13 was designed to prepare students'
character to be critical to participate in the global world in the upcoming years.
According to Nur and Madkur (2014), K13 offers “the building of character to
prepare students to face various opportunities, which could give positive and
negative effects for them ad society in general”.
Nooryastuti (2015) states K13 has characteristics such as: "(1) the
content of the curriculum is stated in the core competence and the basic
competence in detail; (2) the core competence is description of aspects of the
attitude, knowledge, and skill that have to be studied by students in the school,
class, and subject level; (3) the basic competence is competence for a theme in
all educational levels from elementary to middle level; (4) the core and basic
competencies have priority in attitude aspects for level of basic education while
cognitive aspects are the main point for middle education level; (5) all of basic
competences and learning process are developed to attain the core
competences; (6) the basic competence is developed accumulatively and
reinforced among subjects and educational level; and (7) the syllabus is
designed for a theme for elementary school and subjects for middle level".
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Meanwhile, reading and listening skills include receptive skills because both
relate to how learners receive information based on both activities.
In Junior high schools, teachers provide language elements for learners
such as grammar, vocabulary, punctuation, spelling, and pronunciation.
According to Yoshida (2010), the use of cognitive skills such as comparing
and constructing the target language with their own language is able to improve
learners’ linguistic skills. Therefore, teaching English in junior high schools is
necessary to build learners’ cognitive skills through scientific learning
activities.
Scientific-Based Approach
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RESEARCH METHOD
Research Setting
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Research Design
Reconnaissance
Reconnaissance is an activity to identify the students' problems through
observation and questionnaire. The researcher collaborates with the real
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teacher to find the ideas, opinions, and suggestions to formulate the problems.
In this study, the problems are classified into three levels, which are very
difficult, medium, and easy. This study is focused on the medium levels faced
by students. The medium levels are selected and categorized into some levels
such as most urgent, urgent, and less urgent. The most urgent problems are
chosen to be solved by using the scientific-based approach.
Action
Planning
The problems found in the initial step would be handled by the
implementation of the scientific-based approach to improve students’ ELT
achievement and classroom interaction at the 8th-grade students of SMPN 4
Praya. To do so, the researchers administered the preparation of the
implementation of the actions. The research plans include syllabus, lesson
plans, materials, and teaching media.
Implementing
This stage is an action to implement what the researcher and teacher plan.
The teacher applies the scientific-based approach in the class to deal with the
lesson plan made. In this stage, researchers observe the interaction between the
teacher and students and the interaction among the students in the class during
the implementation of the learning activity. In addition, the researcher records
the process of learning activities.
Evaluating
The researcher and teacher discussed the process of learning and teaching
activities. The researcher makes some notes dealing with the interaction
between students and teachers, and among students in the class. Besides, the
researcher records the result of action by interviewing with students and
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teachers about their opinions, feelings, and suggestion about the actions. At the
end of this, the researcher and teacher discussed some changes and
improvisation of the interaction, materials, and stages of the scientific-based
approach. Then, the research team gives responses toward those changes and
improvements.
Reflecting
This stage is the last stage of action activities that aim to analyze and
evaluate the effects, obstacles, difficulties, and other possibilities. When the
ELT achievement and classroom interaction of the 8th-grade students of SMPN
4 Praya, Central Lombok in the academic year 2018/2019 is considered to be
better, the action is stopped. The students' ELT achievement is achieved with
5 meetings. Meanwhile, the classroom interaction better results in 4 meetings
in this study. The action is done through two cycles. One cycle is focused on
improving the English achievement and the second cycle is administered in
enhancing the classroom interaction in teaching and learning processes.
Data Collection Technique
To collect the research data, the instruments used in this study are a
questionnaire, observation, and test. The instruments are considered the
validity and reliability. It is proven by the result analysis using Cronbach’s
Aplha formula where its Alpha (0.730) is higher than the sig. level 0.05. After
this process, the researcher observes the ELT learning process and gives
questionnaires to the other research team members to identify the learning
problems. In the action stages, the researcher observes the classroom learning
processes.
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The data of students' achievement are collected by using a test. The kind
of test includes a posttest given by the teacher at the end of the teaching and
learning process. The indicator of achievement in this study is limited to the
individual passing grade of English subject which is 70. Meanwhile, classroom
interaction is limited to the process achievement indicators. It can be defined
by some improvement in the classroom interaction of the 8th-grade students of
SMPN 4 Praya in the instructional process. To ensure the trustworthiness of
the data and the objectivity of data, the researcher applies triangulation.
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Actions
The teacher and researcher agree to use the existing curriculum applied
in the school. The instructional materials are adapted from the course-book
provided by the school. The teacher modifies the materials in line with the ELT
instructional goals and learning objectives. The researcher helps the teacher to
design the materials in the form of learning tasks for reading, writing, and
speaking. These become some activities that are addressed to handle the
students’ learning problems. After the lesson plans are prepared well, the
teacher implemented in accordance with the time that has been scheduled.
Cycle 1
Planning
Based on the result of pre-test and observation, the data indicate students
have low achievement in English subject and students have problems in
classroom interaction. The plan is to solve those problems using the scientific-
based approach. The plan includes four activities that are; (1) choosing the
topics and items of instruction, (2) designing the lesson plans that contain the
core competence and basic competence, (3) designing observation sheets, and
(4) providing teaching materials and teaching media. To find the improvement
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Implementing
In this phase, the researcher and teacher execute the plan that has been
agreed before. In each meeting, the researcher as an observer records the
learning activities. It is also assisted by one of the collaborators as the observer
and the other one plays a role as the teacher. In the first meeting, the steps of
the scientific-based approach are realized in the main activities. For instance,
in the step of observing, students are asked to pay attention to the provided
topics of texts. Under the teacher’s guidance, students analyze the texts dealing
with generic structures, contents, and linguistic aspects. Subsequently, the
students start giving comments relating to the topic of the texts. In this context,
feedback is promising input for developing the four language skills (Wahyuni,
et. al., 2019; Brumen, et al., 2018; Sumekto & Setyawati, 2019; Septiana &
Kadarisman, 2016).
Evaluating
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between students and the teacher that occurs but it is no significant changes
among students and between the teacher and students.
In the last meeting, students are provided a test to know their English
achievement after conducting the actions. The researcher and the teacher
distribute a test. A test is administered in line with the indicators of basic
competences breaking down from the core competencies. Based on the result
of descriptive analysis, the score of students can be seen in Table 3 as follows.
Table 3. The Students’ ELT Achievement at Cycle 1
Statistics
Score
N Valid 21
Missing 0
Mean 74.48
Median 70.00
Mode 68
Std. Deviation 8.646
Minimum 60
Maximum 88
Sum 1564
Reflecting
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teacher agreed to continue to the second cycle (cycle 2). The teacher and the
researcher in the next cycle were focused on different students' problems.
Cycle 2
Planning
The previous cycle was addressed to some learning problems faced by
students in ELT classrooms. Those were solved by using the scientific-based
approach, but other problems would be handled in the second cycle by applying
the same approach. The learning approach was actually applied in line with the
feasible learning problems which are urgent to be elucidated. In this second
cycle, the action is focused on students’ problems dealing with speaking
abilities, asking activities, and listening activities. The use of the scientific-
based approach along with the proper learning materials and teaching media is
prepared well. It is in line with what Indrilla (2018) states the scientific
approach is effective to improve the 8th-grade students' language acquisition.
Also, Astuti (2015) and Sarwanti (2016) state the scientific approach is
possible for English teachers to improve students’ language skills.
Implementing
As mentioned in the planning, the learning activities are directed to
involve students in learning activities oriented to speaking abilities. The
teacher has divided students into 3-4 students of each group. Each group is
asked to observe any classroom pictures. The teacher carries out question-
answer activities about the pictures. Thus, the teacher provides students with
some exercise to ask questions in English correct grammar. The students
practice to imitate the sentences in groups between each member. Besides,
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students are asked to associate the topic being discussed with other relevant
topics in their question-answer activities. In short, the cycle is oriented to those
problems going to solve.
Evaluating
Having done the implementation, the researcher and the teacher evaluate
the students' progress relating to students' speaking ability, questioning
activities, and listening activities. In the first meeting, students are directed to
practice speaking skills through discussion activities. The teacher provides
interesting materials for students such as giving serial pictures and some
videos. It is intended to help students acquire ideas to practice expressing their
ideas in English. In doing so, the teacher divided students into small groups.
The learning process occurs in the form of group discussion. The interaction is
done in a dynamic discussion and almost all of the students are involved. The
three steps of the scientific-based approach are employed in this meeting,
namely observing, asking, and associating activities.
The activities are focused on practicing to express opinions through
speaking activities from the first meeting into fourth meeting. To strengthen
students’ speaking abilities, the teacher provides the topics of Sasak traditional
music such as rudat and gendang beleq. It is in accordance with what Haerazi
et al. (2018) and Aprianoto et al. (2018) recommend that cultural topics are
promising inputs to evoke the students’ speaking competences. To facilitate
students in doing so, the teacher offers students with interesting materials in
the form of videos. Huang and Hung (2012) state video can help students to
augment their English-speaking skills. In addition, video is used to evoke
students’ attention (Kuo et al., 2014). According to the teacher, the learning
processes are quite successful to facilitate students to familiarize themselves
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with native accents and pronunciation and to acquire new vocabulary. It is also
proved by the result of students’ achievement in cycle 2.
Table 4. The Students’ Achievement at Cycle 2
Statistics
Score
N Valid 21
Missing 0
Mean 82.76
Median 80.00
Mode 80
Std. Deviation 3.820
Minimum 78
Maximum 90
Sum 1738
Reflecting
The researcher and the teacher agreed that the implementation of the
scientific-based approaches was able to enhance students’ achievement and
classroom interaction by providing interesting learning materials. The
students’ problems were solved in two cycles. Cycle 1 was focused on the
students’ problems relating to (1) students’ difficulties to complete their
learning tasks, (2) lack of vocabulary to complete reading tasks, and (3) lack
of grammatical competence. Meanwhile, Cycle 2 was addressed to help
students to eradicate that they feel still (1) afraid of proposing questions, (2)
afraid of speaking, and (3) difficulties to complete the listening tasks. In the
second cycle, the result showed that almost 95% of students diminished their
learning problems in the ELT class.
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CONCLUSION
Having done the action in two cycles, the researcher concludes that the
use of the scientific-based approach for 8th grade students of SMPN 4 Praya is
effective to solve students' problems dealing with students' difficulties in
completing their learning tasks, lack of vocabulary acquisition to complete
reading tasks, lack of grammatical competence, afraid of submitting questions,
afraid of speaking in the class, and difficulties in conducting listening tasks.
The steps of the scientific-based approach include observing, questioning,
collecting, associating, and communicating. By providing students with
various interesting learning activities, assisted by interesting learning tasks and
materials, students are able to involve themselves in the teaching-learning
activities in the class. In addition, students brave to express their ideas or
opinions in English although the utterances are in simple sentences.
To solve those students’ problems, the teacher provided for students with
familiar topics to discuss in the form of small groups. In Cycle 1, the researcher
and the teacher conducted the actions in four meetings. The fifth meeting was
allotted to carry out the final test to know the students’ progress. The effect of
the scientific-based approach in the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd meetings was not seen yet.
The effect of that approach could be seen in the 4th meeting. The mean score
of students' achievements was 74.48. It indicated that the passing grade was
achieved classically but not individually because of some students' scores
under the minimum achievement criteria. The significant change in this cycle
was that the students are able to diminish their learning difficulties. In cycle 2,
the actions are done in four meetings. The interaction among students and
between students and the teacher improved. It was proved that the mean score
of students' achievements was 82.76. The passing grade was achieved
individually in the second cycle.
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SUGGESTION
The teacher can keep going to use the scientific-based approach in the
teaching of ELT classroom for Junior high schools to overcome students’
problems relating to the students’ achievement and classroom interaction. The
problems derive from some difficulties such as (1) students’ difficulties to
complete their learning tasks, (2) lack of vocabulary to complete reading tasks,
and (3) lack of grammatical competence, (4) afraid of proposing questions, (5)
afraid of speaking, and (6) difficulties to complete the listening tasks. Based
on the result, the teacher can apply this approach regularly to maintain and
improve the students' achievement and classroom interaction. Also, the teacher
should give more guidance and clues when they complete learning tasks to
make the implementation of that approach more effective in the class or out of
the class. Besides, the teacher also should consider time management as
effectively as possible and ensure that students have enough time to do the
learning activities.
REFERENCES
Aprianoto, Maurisa, S., & Haerazi (2018). Developing instructional tasks and
materials of interculture-based English speaking skills (IBES) model,
Journal of Arts, Science, & Commerce, Vol. IX (October), 57–64.
http://dx.doi.org/10.18843/rwjasc/v9i4/08
Astuti, D. (2015). Efektivitas pendekatan saintifk terhadap keterampilan
menulis karangan narasi di kelas IV SD Jomblangan, Bantul. Basic
Education, 4(3), 1-10
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Arina Isti’anah
Universitas Sanata Dharma
arina@usd.ac.id
DOI: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.181-205
Submission Track:
Received: 20-07-2019
Final Revision: 21-11-2019
Available online: 01-12-2019
ABSTRACT
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Rohingya issue. The similarities were seen from the reflected ideologies,
responsibility and blame, and the types of employed Themes. The difference
was found in the way each media portrayed the ideologies. However, all media
agreed to show their responsibility to end and solve Rohingya crisis to achieve
peace and harmony amongst South-East Asian countries.
Keywords: headlines, critical discourse analysis, Rohingya
INTRODUCTION
Rohingya case is one of the humanity issues that attracts media’s
attention, particularly in South-East Asia. News on Rohingya has been
published for years since the case seems unfinished. The number of refugees
keeps increasing and the clearing still happens until now. Rohingya’s attempt
to flee to Malaysia by sea are denied by Myanmar government, thus the
government called them as Bengalis and refused them as a national race
(James, 2006, p. 22). It is also reported that Rohingyas never have any type of
citizen and ethnic group (Steinberg, 2010, p. 73). Furthermore, the clearing has
sustained until early 2005, when “some 20.000 Muslim refugees from
Myanmar still remained refugee camps in Bangladesh. Malaysia has offered
political asylum to about 10.000 such persons” (Ganesan & Hlaing, 2007, p.
191). The facts mentioned previously triggers media to share information
related to Rohingya in the form of news.
Online newspapers are chosen by people nowadays since they are
easily accessed from their gadgets. “Newspapers function as a special tool of
language to propagate agendas of different social, political, and economic
pillars of power” (Lodhi, et al., 2019, p. 325). Hence, what is written in
newspaper reflects not only the writers’ or editors’ ideologies but also the
parties behind the media. Media news is described as “a news item or news
report, i.e. a text or discourse on radio, TV, or in the newspaper, in which new
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information is given about recent events” (Dijk, 1988, p. 4). The term “news
discourse” is thus preferred since media news involves the whole discourse:
physical shape and its contents which has a more semantic nature (Dijk, 1988).
What is interesting in “news discourse” is the choice of words as the title of
news, called headlines. Reah defines headlines as “the story in a minimum
number of words, attract the reader to the story and, if it appears on the front
page, attract the reader to the paper” (Mapunda & Keya, 2015, p. 59). Thus,
readers will catch the departing message of news from the headlines.
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) facilitates news discourse analysis
by considering how texts strive for social practice (Fairclough, 1995).
Fairclough proposes that careful analysis of textual form, structure, and
organization at all levels is needed for text interpretation. In news discourse,
the existence of headlines cannot be ignored as they portray the news summary.
The departing message in headlines is called Theme. Halliday defines theme
as “the initial part of a clause which gives prominence to particular information
and which, in CDA terms, is often an indication of taken-for-granted or
‘common sense’ assumption about the nature of things” (Locke, 2004, p. 49).
Finding out the Themes in news discourse can reveal newspaper’s ideology
since ideology is found in the discursive event itself (Fairclough, 1995).
Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) facilitates CDA by considering
language as a vehicle to express people’s thoughts in various ways and
purposes by means of wordings (Mathiessen and Halliday, 1997). Analyzing
text covers not only the linguistic feature description but also ideologies
brought by language use. The choice of text features “is regarded as potentially
ideological, including features of vocabulary and metaphors, grammar,
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Themes employed in the news discourse can reveal how South-East Asian
media regard Rohingya issue. As the case happens in South-East Asia, the
researcher expects that there will be some similarities among the media. To
prove the hypothesis, CDA is employed by focusing on the textual structure of
text, or how the message is packaged by media.
Studies on CDA have been exercised by some scholars. Umami (2013)
observed the discourse devices utilized in an opinion column title on
Polycarpus case. The research employed the meta-functions analysis, including
the appraisal and thematic analyses. The data were taken from news features
in The Jakarta Post newspaper, analyzed in terms of their micro level and
macro level of analysis. The employment of topic sentence, fullness
development, and coherence among paragraphs are used in the analysis. In the
textual analysis, the research paid attention to the use of conjunction and
theme. The use of marked theme is benefited by the writers to make the readers
easier grasp the meanings and plot of the articles (Umami, 2013).
Rohingya crisis also attracted the study by Afzal (2016) by concerning
the media’s strategies to frame Rohingya issue in the international stage. The
data were taken from Pakistani, British and American editorial opinions. The
research believes that frame may be used in a biased way to interpret different
political events. The Nation, a Pakistani newspaper, criticizes the Nobel
laureate Aung San Suu Kyi for showing her dislike to the Muslims. The
newspaper also encourages readers’ emotions by framing Aung San Suu Kyi
as a discriminative leader. The similar frame is also shown in The Guardian
newspaper. Several emotional appeals (pathos) are used to frame Rohingya
crisis. From the Western point of view, The New York Times keeps the readers
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on the side of Rohingya Muslims. The research found that Rohingya crisis
itself is covered up by the readers’ emotions framed by the media (Afzal,
2016).
Bolte & Keong (2014) involved Fairclough’s CDA to observe the
representation of refugees, asylum seekers and immigrants (RASIM) in three
Malaysian newspaper reports. The textual analysis covering Themes reveals
three main attributes to RASIM: refugee protection, people smuggling and
human trafficking, and policy and national security. The paper found that the
discourse in the three newspapers is influenced by its situational context and
ideological differences between newspapers. RASIM is represented in a
positive supporting way as the media is on the side of Malaysian government,
or pro-government. Malaysia Kini is concluded to have more balanced report
since it fulfills the ethics of proper journalism (Bolte & Keong, 2014).
Research on textual analysis, focusing Theme and Information parts of
clauses in Arabic and English news reports was utilized by Potter (2016). The
research compares how Arabic and English news presents Syrian refugees.
Influenced by the different language target readers, English news reports
present the ‘accusation’ against Syria and signpost the ‘evidence’ against Syria.
On the other hand, Arabic news employs new information as Themes to
emphasize Syria’s ‘cooperation’. Syria’s innocence is also shown in Arabic
news reports. The paper concludes that Arabic news tends to be a pro-Syria by
encouraging readers to perceive Syria as an innocent victim, whereas English
news favors a negative representation of Syria and encourages readers to
perceive Syria as the logical perpetrator of Hariri’s murder (Potter, 2016).
The papers reviewed above agree that ideology is embodied inside the
wordings. The presence of news discourse welcomes linguistic scholars to
criticize the representation of an issue, in this case is refugees, in various
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RESEARCH METHOD
This paper employed Fairclough’s CDA as its approach. Fairclough
argues that language is exercised to express ideology in various code, structure,
system, or formation (1995, p. 71). In Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG),
meanings are represented into three functions: ideational, interpersonal, and
textual functions. The textual function of language provokes the reading
positions ‘inscribed’ in texts (Talbot, 2007, p. 46). It is about how the message
is packaged. Fairclough proposes that wordings change or affect the
ideological meaning embedded in the text. The lexico-grammar structures are
ideologically chosen (cited in Bolte & Keong, 2014). Van Dijk adds that
reports are expected to be highly topicalized and intertwined with the notion of
positive US versus negative THEM construction (2000).
The data were taken from the online newspapers published by five
South-East Asian countries: The Jakarta Post from Indonesia, Malaysia Kini
from Malaysia, Mmtimes from Myanmar, The Nation from Thailand, and Daily
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Star from Bangladesh, taken during 2017. Those five countries were chosen
due to the close border to Rakhine, the place where Rohingyans stayed. The
headlines are coded as follows: INA refers to the Indonesia, H refers to
headline, 1 refer to the number of headlines. The same code is used for the
other countries: MAL for Malaysia, THAI for Thailand, MYAN for Myanmar
and BANG for Bangladesh. There were twenty headlines chosen for each
country. Thus, the number used in the third code will range from 1 to 20.
Each headline was carefully analyzed and categorized into its type:
experiential, interpersonal, or textual theme (Eggins, 2004). Since all headlines
were experiential, each participant or circumstance in the headline was grouped
in terms of its newspaper. Since five newspapers were included as the data, the
variations of Theme are displayed in a table to figure out how the wordings in
each newspaper similar to and different from the others. The participants
performing as Themes were thus related to the social context in which the
discursive event happened. This analysis is helpful to reveal the ideologies
embodied in the text.
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Goal ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Carrier ✓ ✓ ✓
Token ✓
Attribute
Sayer ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Verbiage ✓ ✓
Patient ✓
Circumstance ✓ ✓
The table above shows that Malaysian newspaper headlines have the
most various participants. Indonesian and Bangladesh newspaper headlines
have the same number of variants in their participants. Token is absent in
Indonesian headlines, but present in Bangladesh newspaper headlines. On the
other hand, Circumstance is found in Indonesian newspaper headlines, but not
in Bangladesh. Myanmar and Thailand newspaper headlines employ the least
variant of participants in their Themes. Both involve Actor, Goal, and Sayer.
Carrier is present in Thailand newspaper headlines, but absent in Myanmar.
Verbiage, on the other hand, is found in Myanmar newspaper headlines, but
not in Thailand.
There are two main ideological perspectives shared by the observed
media: responsibility and blame. In general, the South-East Asian newspaper
headlines portray Rohingya issue as “responsibility” that they have to fulfill.
The conflict in this region is seen as a serious one, thus the media choose
particular linguistic features to show their responsibility to put it as the
departing message in the media. The table below shows the representation of
responsibility and blame by the South-East Asian media.
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“Blame” “Responsibility”
11
Indonesia 9
12
Malaysia 8
18
Myanmar 2
14
Bangladesh 6
13
Thailand 7
68
Total 32
The table above displays that all of the headlines in the five countries are
dominated by “responsibility” as the Theme. However, the linguistic choice in
the headlines is different from one newspaper to the others. The discussion
below shows proof.
Responsibility
Responsibility is the dominant ideology reflected in all media. The
table below shows the type of Theme which shows responsibility.
Table 3 Summary of Theme Showing Responsibility
South-East Asian Type of Theme Examples
Media
Indonesia Actor, Goal, Sayer Indonesia, Jokowi-Suu Kyi, More
Rohingyans refugee
Myanmar Actor, Goal, Sayer Government, refugee deal,
ministry, a strong commitment
Malaysia Actor, Sayer, Patient A mercy mission, Najib, DPM,
Malaysia
Bangladesh Actor, Sayer Bangladesh, Home minister,
Bangladesh-Myanmar
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government to help Rohingyans. The media put action to help the refugees as
something “mercy”. In other words, praise is also attached to Malaysian
government.
Another type of Theme showing Malaysian responsibility is the
employment of Actor. In the Malaysian newspaper headline, the Actor is
attached to the government official to show their responsibility in accordance
with Rohingya crisis. Below is the datum.
MAL.H.18 Najib came through for Rohingya, give credit where
due
The use of material verb “came through” marks the material process. The
action done by Najib is a portrayal of Malaysian government responsibility.
The media intends to choose Najib as the Theme in order to emphasize
responsibility made by the government.
The other distinctive participant in the Malaysian headline is
Circumstance of place as seen below.
MAL.H.7 From Malaysian backrooms, Rohingya send what
little they can to fleeing relatives
The Theme in the above headline is in the form of prepositional phrase “from
Malaysian backrooms”. In transitivity process, it is categorized as
Circumstance of place. Instead of displaying Rohingya as the Actor who sends
their expectation, Malaysian media chose to put the circumstance as the
Theme. The effect inferred from the structure is readers can pay more attention
to Malaysian backrooms as the place in which Rohingya seeks helps.
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Blame
Despite the responsibility represented in various linguistic features in
South-East Asian newspaper headlines, “blame” is also found from the
employment of linguistic features in the data. The table below points out the
type of Theme showing “blame” in the headlines.
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crisis to affect ASEAN stability. The serious issue which happens in Myanmar
is seen as blame towards the crisis. The solid and intimate relationships among
ASEAN countries is not stable due to the crisis. Here, Jokowi as the president
of the Republic of Indonesia shows his political statement regarding Rohingya
issue. As one of the founders of ASEAN, Indonesia takes its responsibility to
keep stability among ASEAN countries. The similar “blame” is shown as
Carrier in the second datum above. The huge number of refugees in Bangladesh
shows the failure of Myanmar government to solve the crisis. Bangladesh is
seen as the affected country which has to provide place for Rohingyans.
The other linguistic features showing blame by Indonesian media is
shown as a Goal in the headline. Below is the datum.
INA.H.14 Rohingya lives and limbs shattered by mines at
Myanmar frontier
The existence of the Goal above also shows “blame” since Rohingyans become
the participants directed to by the Actor, Myanmar frontier. The presence of
Goal instead of Actor above signifies that the media intends to portray
Rohingyans as the victim of the action. Herewith, blame is shown by the media.
The choice of the name Rohingya instead of refugees also shows that
Indonesian media acknowledges the existence of the race.
Unlike Indonesian media which show blame and responsibility in
almost equal existence, Myanmar media only put a few headlines which show
blame. Below is the datum.
MYAN.H.13 Over 70 killed in Rakhine after militants attack
The participant bold above is the Theme, represented as the Goal. The number
of people shown as the Goal above shows “blame” to the militants. What the
Actor did, militants, results in more than 70 people died. Myanmar media
blames the militant to kill more than 70 people in Rakhine. The choice of
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life to the children. Camps are not the best place for children as they need clean
environment to grow as healthy children. The limitation in the camps is
portrayed as the result of the clearing by Myanmar government.
In Thailand newspaper headlines, Patient is the only participant found
among South-East Asian media. It is shown in the datum below.
THAI.H.14 Myanmar beauty queen dethroned 'after posting
Rohingya video'
What Myanmar beauty queen accepted, being dethroned, is a result of her
action posting Rohingya video. Thailand media portrays that event as blame to
the government. The strict rule which forbids its citizens to mention Rohingya
is experienced by the beauty queen. She is portrayed as the affected participant
because of the rule.
Another participant revealing blame is Sayer, the participant who says.
The Sayer in Thailand media refers to Rohingyas as seen below.
THAI.H.18 Rohingya forced from Myanmar say army redoubling
push to clear villages
As the Sayer, Rohingya forced from Myanmar utters their experience of
clearing by the army. Thailand media portrays that event as blame to the
Myanmar army since Rohingyans experience unpleasant treatment by the
government. The systematic clearing has continued and become more severe.
The employment of “redoubling push” emphasizes the sad witness by
Rohingyans. They do not have another choice but leave the area.
Thailand newspaper media also shows its fair view of the crisis. The
employment of Carrier which involves both Bangladesh and Myanmar below
are the proof.
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its people’s responsibility as human beings who feel sympathy for the victims.
Indonesian newspaper presents as a pro-government organization to support
what the government conducts to solve the crisis. The finding supports Bolte
& Keong (2014) research on how media is influenced by its situational and
ideological context. As the biggest Muslim country, Indonesian newspaper
attempts at showing its government responsibility to protect Rohingyans.
Though the readers’ sympathy is not obviously inscribed in the headlines, the
readers are grasped to observe their government action regarding Rohingya
issue. Nevertheless, the choice of Actor referring to Myanmar is used by
Indonesian media to show “blame” toward Myanmar. The employment of
“Myanmar troops” and “Myanmar army” are some examples.
Malaysian newspaper headlines are rich in linguistic features put in the
headlines. The domination of Actor in the headlines at the same time show
responsibility and blame. The responsibility shared by the media is represented
by government official who shows its power to take particular decision toward
Rohingya issues, such as the choice of “Najib, DPM, and Shahidan”. To show
blame, Malaysian media repeats the choice of “Suu Kyi” as the Actor behind
the clearing. The representation of Suu Kyi as the Actor is in line with Afzal's
(2016) analysis of how Pakistani media frames Suu Kyi as a discriminative
leader. This also arouses the readers’ emotional appeals (pathos) toward
Rohingya crisis. It emphasizes that media produced in Muslim countries share
similar attitude toward Rohingya case.
Bangladesh's media has different referents of Actor though Actor also
dominates the headlines. Bangladesh chooses the number of Rohingya to be
the Themes in order to show how Rohingyans make effort to save themselves,
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countries. The readers are encouraged to recall the spirit of ASEAN which can
unite them. The conflict happens in South-East Asia is the countries’
responsibility. The “neutral” position Thailand newspaper headlines show is
influenced by the socio-political context in Thailand, as a country that is not
affected directly by the crisis. As one of the founders of ASEAN, Thailand
government is portrayed as the one mediates the conflict. The analysis
emphasizes that newspapers propagate agendas of different social, political,
and economic pillars of power (Lodhi, et al., 2019).
CONCLUSION
This research concludes the choice of wordings in the headlines can
create different discursive effects to the readers. Even though the textual
structures of the headlines are represented in the same type, they can bring
different ideological perspectives depending on how the texts are distributed.
The language choice in the headlines is capable of revealing the position of the
media, whether they are pro-government or not. Language is also benefited to
exercise power and encourage the readers’ emotions. The event behind the case
may be hidden by the emotions and actions signposted in the headlines. This
emphasizes that language choice in media is socially and politically influenced
by the social context. This research invites future scholars to enrich the present
findings so that the studies on how media bring Rohingya issue in the world.
REFERENCES
Afzal, N. (2016). Elements of Pathos and Media Framing as Scientific
Discourse: A Newspaper Perspective on Rohingya Crisis. International
Journal of Advanced and Applied Science, 3(6), 89-99.
203
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Bolte, S., & Keong, Y. C. (2014). The Refugee Swap Deal in Malaysian Online
News Reports: Ideology and Representation. GEMA Online Journal of
Language Studies, 14(2), 93-108. (http://dx.doi.org/10.17576/GEMA-
2014-1402-07)
Ganesan, N., & Hlaing, K. Y. (2007). Myanmar: State, Society and Ethnicity.
Pasir Panjang: ISEAS Publishing.
Lodhi, M. A., Mukhtar, S., Akhtar, S., Nafees, K., Akhtar, N., & Sajid, H. M.
(2019). Textual and Rhetoric Analysis of News Headlines of Urdu and
English Newspapers. International Journal of English Linguistics, 324-
342.
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Note: Some parts of this article were presented in LOOW 6 by Petra Christian
University, entitled “Rohingya in Media: Critical Discourse Analysis in
Myanmar and Bangladesh Newspaper Headlines”
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Al e k
UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, Jakarta-Indonesia
alek@uinjkt.ac.id
DOI: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.206-234
Submission Track:
Received: 13-08-2019
Final Revision: 21-11-2019
Available online: 01-12-2019
ABSTRACT
Greeting personal name in local languages are unique and various from one
to another language, island, and cultural group. One of these is Bima
language, especially in Belo dialect. The recent study expects to reveal the
three main issues as follows (1) How many patterns of greeting name
variations using in Belo dialect of the Bima language? (2) How are the
variations pattern constructed in the greeting of personal names in Belo dialect
of Bima language? (3) What are the most often vocal sound patterns used in
greeting the personal names in Belo dialect of Bima language? The research
used a qualitative descriptive study. The collection used some procedures,
namely interviews, recording, documentation. The data analyzed with a
qualitative descriptive that followed Miles and Hubermann. The results show
that there are four patterns variation in greeting personal male names and
eight variations in greeting female names; the second, there are three ways of
constructing the patterns of greeting names, namely at the beginning, the
middle, and the end of the syllables; and the most often syllable vocal pairs
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used /e—o/ for male names and syllables /a—u/ and /e—o/vowel pairs for
female names. It is crucial to scrutinize the local languages and their cultures
contained within. This implication of recent study results expects to evoke the
speakers of regional languages have a responsible and sense of belonging to
their language and culture.
INTRODUCTION
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In Bima Regency, the Belo dialect is one of the dialects which exist in
the Bima language. This region located in Sumbawa island. The regency is
closer to Dompu regency through the land but closer to Ende through the sea.
Geographically, Bima regency consists of two regions; East Bima and West
Sanggar. The capital of Bima regency is Bima. (Bima District in Figure, 2000).
The difference between dialect and language lies in the mutually intelligible
among the language community. Finally, the way of greeting one's name
mostly similar, that is, by rewarding or honoring "lia" to the older or the
charismatic figure. Bima people use Bima language as their mother tongue and
for communication and interaction in their daily life in any activity of their life.
Like any other subdistrict in Bima regency. The Bimanese in the Belo sub-
district, use terms of greeting names differently for different level, degree, or
age.
The terms of greeting in any other region, the Bimanese language users
also have specific rules or principles. Those rules are crucial since the
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Levinson, Ellen (in Chaer and Leonie Agustina, 2010, p. 21) state that
politeness is one of the principles in language use. In other words, it is crucial
to consider the other person’s feelings when communicating with others.
Through considering the other peoples' sense, it will enable communication or
interactions and social progress without threatening the face of the speakers or
speech partners.
RESEARCH METHOD
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The primary data of this recent research obtained directly from the
informants in the research sample areas, which were well representative Belo
dialect in the Bima language. The real procedures of analyzing the data
followed Miles and Hubermann (1984), which includes data presentation, data
reduction, and drawing conclusions and verification of findings. Furthermore,
to guarantee the accuracy and limitations of the data, the triangulation
technique applied to ensure the research methods, data collection, and data
analysis techniques valid and reliable.
The recent article expects to reveal the greeting system practice in the
Bima language, especially in Belo dialect (BD). After conducting a long
journey of investigation, reciprocating to the native speakers of the Bima
language, the researcher, then found out the uniqueness of Bima’s people or
Bimanese in greeting system of personal names mainly used by the Belo
people. During the investigation, he found himself really “melted together” to
the natives. So, he got the original facts of the matters discussed. There are two
main variations of greeting or addressing names usually used in the Belo
dialect. The variations of greeting/calling names are different from male and
female, which applied in daily interactions of Bima language. Under detail
explanations, the investigation divided into several components. There are four
patterns of variation in greeting male’s names in Belo dialect of Bima
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language. The first pattern is constructed from the syllable /e—o/. This pattern
of variation is the most number in Bima language variation in daily greeting
personal names use. The greeting of personal names shows the difference
based on who is the caller of the names. The sample of greeting names can be
seen in Table 1 below.
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In regard the finding above, Brewer (1981) states that based on his
research under the title “Bimanese Personal Names: The View from Bima
Town and Donggo” Bimanese people has a unique pattern in addressing
personal names, even though among one to another subdistrict has slightly
difference each other. The result above can be viewed from the cultural
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perspective, Brown and Levinson (in Gunarwan, 1994, p. 6) explain that the
speaker chooses the strategy by considering the levels threat of "face" based
on the social distance of both the speaker and the speaker. The difference in
social status and power between speaker one and speaker two make the
strategies or patterns in their communication difference to each other. The
other aspect usually considered by the speakers in communication is a cultural
aspect or concern. In other words, the cultural perspective becomes a crucial
thing to be cared about in maintaining conversation continuity. In line with
Brown and Levinson, Nwoye (1992) stresses that politeness is an essential
aspect of verbal communication and involved the strategies for maintaining
social interaction among the speakers. Furthermore, Nwoy states that the actual
using of the strategies in certain social settings may differ from the other
tradition or cultural context. The next variation of daily greeting personal male
names constructed by syllable /i—a/ as in Table 2.
Younger Older/same
Caller age Caller
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Younger Older/same
Caller age Caller
Younger Older/same
Caller age Caller
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different names when greeted by the younger callers. Otherwise, the greeting
is variation when are greeted by the older or same age callers.
Regarding these findings are in line with (Erwin Wayan & Arifin,
2013) under their research title Penggunaan Bahasa Mbojo Di Lingkungan
Masyarakat Bima Di Bima: Sebuah Kajian Variasi Bahasa state that personal
greeting names in Belo dialect of Bima language. Bimanese or Bima people
have some variations based on their age, sex, and position. Furthermore, they
express that there are two levels of politeness variations, namely moderate and
less politeness
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Table 5 shows the variety of greeting personal names for females in Belo
dialect (BD) of Bima language (BL). From ten female names show the
difference of greeting between the younger callers and older or same-age
callers. The younger callers to the older people have less choice or variation
than older and same-age callers. The younger callers have a unique greeting to
older people, as in Arabiah, Ramlah, Laila, Jahara, Maulana, and Mariati. But
for greeting names Fau for Darfiah, Sarfiah, Jau for Jahara and Jahora; Lau
for Ramlah and Lailah; Nau for Ratna, Misnah, Nur’aini; and Wau for
Ma’awiah and Marwiah.
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Caller/Same
Age
Table 6 above shows the different ways of greeting personal names for females
in Belo dialect (BD) of Bima language (BL). From eleven (11) proper names
found the difference of greeting between the younger callers and older and
same-age callers. The younger caller to the older people has only one choice
to greet or call older female names. But in greeting personal names by the older
and same-age callers has at least two ways or choices each name. There is a
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proper name Ma’iah is called or greeted with three ways Ma’ia, Ma, and Ia.
Besides, the proper name Hanifah can be greeted by the younger callers in two
ways, namely Heno and Nefo. Meanwhile, the proper names Mariati and
Asmara may be addressed or called by younger callers with one greeting,
namely Mero.
Fatma, Ma Fatmah
The finding, as seen in Table 7 shows the different ways of personal greeting
names for females in Belo dialect (BD) of Bima language (BL). From three (3)
proper names (Salmah, Sarmae, and Fatmah) which follow the pattern of
construction /o—a/ in greeting personal female names by the younger callers.
The three proper names called with one greeting name, namely Moa.
Meanwhile, the variation of greeting name by older and same-age callers are
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two ways, they are Salma and Ma for Salmah; Sarmae and Mae for Sarmae;
and Fatma and Ma for Fatmah.
Jumra Jumrah
Table 8 presents the results from the data analysis which used the pattern of
greeting female names. This finding shows the difference from the other
designs as in the previous tables. The finding in Table 5 above may be called
a unique construction, especially in greeting female names for younger callers
to older people, especially for female names. There are six (6) names may be
called with one greeting or addressing, such as Maria, Mariamah, Marianah,
Juriah, Juhriah, and Jumrah. Otherwise the greeting of female names is called
by the older and same-age callers are more variations. Each of the proper names
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has two variations, but only one name has no variation or other option, namely
Jumra for Jumrah.
Table 9 provides the result regarding the patterns of greeting female names
using syllable /e—i/. there are four proper names. There is a female name has
two ways for younger caller to older people, such as Sei and Moa for Sarmaeh.
Thre are two names that have one way of greeting the female names, as in
younger callers, Sei for Samsiah and Kalisom. Meanwhile the older and same-
age callers have only one way or choice to greet or call both Samsiah and
Kalisom. The last greeting variation in this pattern is the older and same-age
callers have two ways or choices to greet or address the proper name Sarmaeh.
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As can be seen from Table 10 above, the pattern of greeting female names for
younger callers to older people using syllable /o—i/. From five female names
found that each name has only one way or choice to greet or call when it is
called or greeted by younger callers, such Bodi for Jubaidah; Doji for Hadijah;
Losi for Halisah. Rofi for Sarifah, and Lomi for Halimah. However, each of
five names as presented in Table 5 above has two ways or choices when they
are greeted or called by older and same-age callers.
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Mini,
Rukmini
Rukmini
Table 11 shows the variation of greeting female names using syllable pattern
/e—e/ for younger caller to older people. There is only one choice of greeting
two female names, namely Maemunah and Rukmini. Both names greeted or
addressed with Mene. Meanwhile the older and same-age callers have two
ways or choices to greet and call them, such as Muna and Maemuna for
Maemunah; and Mini and Rukmini for Rukmini. But there is one proper name,
namely Rumini has the same greeting, both older callers and same-age callers.
It means that there is no omitting final phoneme ‘h’ in this name. In other
words, this name is unique to other Bimanese female names. Regarding this
finding, Hanafi (2001) stresses that: “Bahasa Bima (BB) merupakan bahasa
yang unik dalam sentuhannya dengan sapa diri. Selain karena konsonan yang
lesap pada akhir pelafalan kata atau pemenggalan berdasarkan silabel.”
Translation: Bima is a unique language along with its its personal address.
Instead of the ellipsis of consontant on the last part of the pronunciation or
the syllable division"
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It can be seen from the data in Table 12 that there is only one name
found using this pattern construction in greeting female names of Bima people.
The variation of greeting occurs only in older and same-age callers, such as
Habiba and Biba for Habibah. Meanwhile, as the most common of greeting
female names, especially the callers or greeters are younger than the people are
called or greeted.
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CONCLUSION
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dialect. The results indicated that there are differences between males and
females in the greeting of personal names. There are four variations or patterns
in male’s greeting their personal names. In the meantime, there are nine
patterns of syllable of vowel variations in constructing the greeting of female’s
names in Belo dialect of Bima language. The other result related the process of
building the patterns or variations in greeting both male and female names
consist of three variation patterns, namely at the beginning (Kasim for Keso),
in the middle (Nurdin for Deo), and the last is at the end of the syllables (Bakri
for Reo). The variation found in this study not only the patterns of syllables or
vowel pairs but also the name variation in the way of greeting some personal
names, both in male’s name and female’s name when they are called by older
or same age speakers/callers. The other important result indicates that the most
syllable /e—o/ for male and syllable /a—u/ and /e—o/ for female names. The
other important uniqueness found in this study is that of all final letters or
phonemes in greeting personal names, both males and females in the Bima
language ending with ‘vowel letter.’ In societal life, personal greeting names
may differ from a language community to another language community; it is
strongly affected by the culture embraced and the level of closeness among the
speakers.
The finding of the recent study suggests that the language teachers, the
language planners of Bima language, includes Belo dialect to scrutinize the
aspects that have not revealed yet within the investigation. Last but not least,
the local language not only a means of communication among the speaker of
the language but also to support the development of the national language.
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Khristianto
Universitas Muhammadiyah Purwokerto
Kristian.topz@gmail.com
DOI: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.235-261
Corresponding Author*
Submission Track:
Received: 21-07-2019
Final Revision: 21-11-2019
Available online: 01-12-2019
ABSTRACT
This study proposes a procedural analysis on the implementation of ludic
linguistics to analyze gaming language with wordplay, the core of focus in
ludic linguistics, as the point of departure. To formulate the procedural
analysis, theories of language play by Crystal ideology of influence and
ludonarrative model by Aarseth, wordplay in the gaming context by Paul,
intended meaning level by Stiles, wordplay transmission by Winter-Froemel,
game interface types by Stonehouse, and indexical storytelling by Fernández-
Vara were applied as the theoretical foundation. To provide a vivid application
of the proposed procedural analysis, wordplays appearing on game assets
from Konami’s Metal Gear Solid, Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty, and
Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater were taken as examples of analysis. The five-
step procedure is able to show how wordplays in the gaming context are
designed as mechanical cues to help gamers complete the games and as
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narrative cues to help them comprehend the story. Moreover, this proposed
procedure is able to indicate that the mechanical and narrative cues have a
particular ideology of influence, which affects gamers in reacting and
responding to particular problems presented by the games. The result of this
study discloses future research on the roles of wordplays in the gaming context,
signifying the importance of ludic linguistics as a bridge between language
studies and game studies.
INTRODUCTION
Humans as Homo Ludens-playful creatures express their playfulness
through games (Huizinga, 1949). Structurally games are classified into ludus,
structured games, and paidia, unstructured games (Caillois, 1961). In playing
games, humans make use of language to formulate rules, devise tactics, and
achieve goals. Though game are diverse, in terms of types and how they are
played, they share a common trait of the narrative. Rules, tactics, and goals are
the game elements that contribute to the emergence of game narrative.
Language intertwines itself with those elements to ensure that the game
narratives are playful.
Perceiving how language is intertwined with playfulness, Crystal
(1996) urges the necessity to study how humans use language to express their
playfulness, which he calls ludic linguistics. Crystal (2001) emphasizes the
relationship between language and playfulness in terms of language play for
humorous purposes through wordplay as ludic rules. Since playfulness is not
only related to humor and the development of games, concerns on how games
are explainable from linguistics perspectives are taken into account. Before
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Crystal (2001) displays his concerns on the link between language and
playfulness, Sudnow (1983) has indicated how the language used in games
plays a significant role in establishing gameplay experience, further implying
that gaming language has particular power in influencing gamers. Regarding
this influence, Aarseth (1997) emphasizes on how human language and
programming language are molded to instruct gamers to traverse games
cybertextually. The traversing act by gamers indicates the presence of guidance
or system of traversal within the game. Mäyrä (2008) argues that in games,
language is a system that incorporates game rules and gameplays and provides
meaningful playfulness for gamers. Due to its status as a system, an interaction
commonly called human-computer interaction (HCI) occurs. Ensslin (2011)
specifies this interaction in terms of how linguistics contributes in displaying
the relationship between language use and ludic activities gamers perform.
Concerning the linguistics implied by Ensslin (2011), Purnomo et al. (2016)
emphasize the necessity to revisit ludic linguistics as argued by Crystal by
focusing on two major elements it offers namely patterns and preferences.
Patterns refer to how the game information is constructed while preferences to
how gamers devise gaming strategies based on the information given.
Departing from the combination of both, gaming identity or what they call as
luden is able to be revealed.
The gap left by the aforementioned studies is how to incorporate the
root of ludic linguistics, which is wordplay, in video game context to reveal
how ideology of influence is transferred through the use of wordplays. This
relationship might disclose a comprehension on the ideology particular games
have and the influences they have upon gamers from language perspectives.
To indicate how gaming languages have a link on the ideology of influence,
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RESEARCH METHOD
This qualitative study employed Giddings’ (2009) micro-ethnography
approach for video game studies. This approach was selected since it focuses
on the events resulting from the interaction between games and their gamers.
This approach is linear to the essence of the ideology of influence and thereby
employing this approach would generate a vivid picture of how wordplays, as
the root of ludic linguistics, are constructed as such to influence the gamers in
playing the games.
The data of this study were the game assets of Metal Gear Solid, Metal
Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty, and Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater comprising
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gaming context are designed as such to deliver their intended meaning to the
gamers by requesting them to perceive the meaning of wordplays, not the way
it is presented.
In the case of Chaff Grenade, if a description on the grenade usage and
function is not existent, the intended meaning on the wordplay is of level two
since recognizing the usage and function of Chaff Grenade is not only
obtainable from deciphering the word ‘Chaff’ but also from trial and error by
the gamers. In the game, Chaff Grenade is presented along with its description
and thus making the wordplay falls into level zero, literal intended meaning.
To give a better understanding of how Stiles’ (1986) intended meaning level
works in the gaming context, a table is presented as follow:
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As seen from the table, that the criteria employed to indicate intended meaning
level are game-to-gamer centric indicates that game acts as an addresser while
gamers as an addressee. This addressing relationship points out that both
attempt to communicate through a language with specific features. In the case
of ‘chaff’, that its level of intended meaning is of level zero is not only
indicated by the criteria of its level but also the way the played word is
presented, wordplay transmission, the next step of the analysis.
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more diegetic an interface has in transmitting the wordplays, the higher the
immersion level is. In Chaff Grenade case, the immersion level is low and the
intended meaning is of level zero. This low-zero combination points out that
Chaff Grenade is designed to have a direct influence on the gamers so that they
might engage its mechanical functions in a responsive manner.
In the context of narrative functions, wordplay transmission is
delivered in regard to the storytelling or story building types the games have.
Fernández-Vara (2011) proposes indexical storytelling, a story told through
indications or indices, terms borrowed from Peircean sign philosophy.
Indexical storytelling claims that stories in games are not only intended to tell
something to the gamers but also to indicate the gamers to do something. In
Revolver Ocelot case, for instance, the lines said by the gunman are not
intended only to tell that he is an experienced Colt user but also to indicate that
the gun has only six bullets and it requires time to reload. The first function is
what Fernández-Vara (2011) refers to as ‘what happened;’ the second, what
should be done. In brief, the former is better termed event and the second,
action. In event, the story attempts to immerse gamers in ‘telling’ while in
action, the immersion lies on ‘building’. These different types of immersion
signify a different level of engagement, how gamers are exposed to particular
games or game elements (McMahan, 2003). In telling, gamers are required to
connect past and present events to predict and analyze what event will be
occurring in the future of the controlled character. Meanwhile, in building,
gamers have to connect cues hidden or exposed in the game environment. In
regard to wordplays and their transmissions, telling and building also share the
same transmissions as what mechanical functions have.
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In the case of Chaff Grenade, the indexical storytelling is action and thus
building becomes the focus of the played word. As it falls into building, gamers
are asked to reveal the cues of the grenade functions. To do so, gamers could
rely on themselves to know how the played word is transmitted, whether the
word is aided by visual, audial, both, or none. The way the word is transmitted,
as discussed before, is connected to the intended meaning level.
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the analyzed played word has. The ideology of influence falls into two
principles of delivery namely metamorphosis and anamorphosis (Aarseth,
1997). The former attempts to influence gamers in a literal way, implying that
gamers are free to configure any strategies with the existing features of the
games to accomplish particular goals. Meanwhile, the latter demands gamers
to traverse the games in a specific way to complete certain objectives, hidden
from the literal ones. In the context of wordplays, this specific traversal mode
is also required. This is due to the fact that wordplay might be utilized to
function as a veiled speech and a safe criticism (Ahl, 1984), to which politics
is primarily attached (Mitsis and Ziogas, 2016). Wordplay might also be
aesthetically employed to strengthen the poetic sides of art or the witty sides
of fictional characters (Mahood, 2003; Louden, 1995). To provide a clear
relationship among each step, the analysis is delivered through a hierarchical
process chart:
Chaff Grenade
Chaff
Seed Winnowing
Effecting
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Non-Diegetic Action
Low-Zero Building-Zero
As seen from the chart above, the word played in Chaff Grenade is
‘chaff’. This word has an effecting kernel since it belongs to the equipment
game asset. The effecting kernel occurs on the mechanical functions of the
word only. The mechanics are non-diegetically displayed with visual and
audial aids. These aids are the graphic and phonic realization of the meaning
behind ‘chaff’, semantically related to ‘seed’ and ‘winnowing’. Since the
meaning is realized through the use of non-diegetic interfaced visual and audial
aids, ‘chaff’ in Chaff Grenade is low in immersion and zero in intended
meaning. This condition indicates that the metamorphic principle is applied in
delivering ideology of influence, meaning that the word ‘chaff’ is not designed
to be deciphered by the gamers. What occurs in the case of ‘chaff’, which
emphasizes on the mechanism of using the equipment, is a type of equipment
naming in military games. A different case might occur when the equipment
naming is intended for a role-playing game (RPG) with all its derivative genres.
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Chaff in its narrative functions, as seen from the above chart, focuses
on action indexical storytelling. It implies, as suggested before, that the played
word ‘chaff’ is not intended to provide information regarding the story
occurring before and after the introduction of ‘chaff’. Chaff is indicated to lead
the gamers to perform particular actions through the controlled character. To
perform this action, in the case of ‘chaff’, the indication is delivered in intended
meaning level zero, meaning that the cues to operate the grenade are explicitly
delivered or metamorphically delivered. In the context of ludo-narrative, the
focus on mechanical function ‘chaff’ indicates that the mechanics of Chaff
Grenade builds the weapon’s narrative. When a game asset relies on
mechanical functions to establish its narrative, it points out that the game asset
is not story-related but gameplay-related. When game assets dominantly have
more focus on mechanics than narrative, it implies that the genre the game has
is gameplay-driven. On the other hand, the game genre is narrative-driven
genre when narrative functions dominate the game assets. If a game has a
balanced portion for both functions, the genre is gameplay and narrative-
driven. This classification of gameplay, narrative, and gameplay-narrative
conforms to the theory of Clearwater (2011) on game genre. The following
table might illustrate how the ideology of influence principles are intertwined
with mechanical and narrative functions:
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Mechanical Narrative
Functions Functions
The table shows that two types of dominance relationship are existent
namely superior and inferior. Superior dominance means that particular
ideology of influence dominates more than the other in mechanical or narrative
functions. If metamorphic and anamorphic principles are superior on
mechanical functions, it implies that the game focuses primarily on gameplay
with a different manner of presentations. Gameplay delivered by metamorphic
principle allows gamers to play the game without even learning it and vice
versa for anamorphic principle. On the other hand, if metamorphic and
anamorphic principles are superior in narrative functions, the game focus is on
its gamestory (narrative). Gamestory narrated through metamorphic principle
indicates that the story is presented in a conventional formula, in which gamers
are not required to perform a specific method to comprehend the story. In an
anarmophic principle delivered gamestory, a specific method to traverse the
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anamorphosis influences the gamers to connect and relate all the cues to
uncover the hidden action and story.
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and thereby in wordplay context, gamers have to locate and decipher the played
word and its intended meaning. Meanhwile, resistible persuasion frees gamers
from solving the problems they meet with or without comprehending the
wordplay. ‘Chaff’ is the only solution for a surveillance problem since without
having this grenade, Solid Snake will be detected by the surveillance camera
and this condition makes the persuasion falls into a compulsive persuasion. If
this type of persuasion ‘chaff’ case displays is wrapped in the metamorphic
principle, it indicates that ‘chaff’ as the played word functions as an aesthetic
attribute only. If the compulsive persuasion is delivered through an anamorphic
principle, it points out that the wordplay works as a functional attribute. In
Metal Gear Solid, this type of persuasion is found from the aforementioned
case of Psycho Mantis. Another case showing compulsive persuasion in
anamorphic principle appears on Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater when Snake
has to face The Sorrow. This boss takes the shape of a ghost. Snake cannot kill
him but he can kill Snake. If the gamers are observant, they will notice that The
Sorrow keeps on saying lines with the kernel ‘returning’ like ‘go back to your
own world’, ‘wake up’, ‘now you will know the sorrow of those whose lives
you have ended’. These lines are supported by visuals of the characters Snake
has killed before, signifying the kernel ‘returning’. The solution to defeating
The Sorrow lies on allowing Snake to die first and taking a pill called Revival
Pill to return Snake to life. Doing so, The Sorrow will be defeated.
Identification comes after persuasion. The difference between
persuasion and identification lies on the target or addressee. In persuasion,
what appears on the game forces the gamers to react and respond while
identification deals with how gamers cognitively perform a mechanical
adjustment through button pressing, difficulty setting, or game configuration
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mechanics. In Metal Gear Solid, the game narrative kernel is Metal Gear, a
gigantic nuclear launching bipedal robot or mecha and the game mechanics
kernel is stealth action. In the case of ‘chaff’, the word is related to the game
narrative and mechanics kernel since the meaning of ‘chaff’ is also related to
missile deployment and ‘chaff’ is utilized to make the thrower remain unseen
in action. This type of meaning circulation, where the played word is connected
to the kernels of game narratives and mechanics, is called componential. The
following table provides the types of meaning circulation:
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of the bosses are related to the word gear, weapons. Revolver Ocelot, Sniper
Wolf, and Vulcan Raven with exception being Liquid Snake since he fights
with a variety of weapons bear them the names of weapons. This focus on
weapon functions as a hint for game mechanics, from which gamers could take
advantage. This weapon-related name is the example of elemental circulation.
The last circulation, ingredential, as the name implies, it refers to trivial or
promotional function. As discussed before, most games with franchise have
what is called Easter Egg. This Easter Egg primarily functions as a tool to
evoke fun and nostalgia. The presence of Konami games, Policenauts, Mario
statuette, Yoshi statuette, adult model posters and other Easter Eggs in Metal
Gear franchise serve ingredential circulation when related to particular played
words.
CONCLUSION
Ludic linguistics roots from wordplays for humorous purposes,
implying that wordplays through their construction have the power to influence
its recipients to react and respond to the messages the wordplays bear. This
concept is applicable to explain how gaming language works by highlighting
the functions of wordplays in the gaming context. Those functions are
facilitating analysis of how games persuade, creating identifications, and
circulating meanings. These three functions are intertwined with ideology of
influence, how game elements influence gamers in taking decisions to solve
particular problems or challenges the games offer. In delivering ideology of
influence, two principles are known namely metamorphosis, a literal traversal
of delivering ideology of influence, and anamorphosis, a specific traversal.
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Caillois, R. (1961). Man, play and games (M. Barash, Trans.). Champaign:
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Crystal, D. (1996). Playing with linguistic problems: From Orwell to Plato and
back again. Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and
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Crystal, D. (2001). Language play. University of Chicago Press.
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Mitsis, P., & Ziogas, I. (Eds.). (2016). Wordplay and Powerplay in Latin
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Newman, J. (2013). Videogames. London: Routledge.
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Christine Manara
Graduate School of Applied English Linguistics
Universitas Katolik Indonesia Atma Jaya
christine.manara@atmajaya.ac.id
DOI: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.262-293
Submission Track:
Received: 11-03-2019
Final Revision: 21-11-2019
Available online: 01-12-2019
ABSTRACT
This article reports one part of a larger study on exploring the global and
local English needs in nine secondary-level schools in several Indonesian
regions (i.e. Sumatera, Sulawesi, and East Nusa Tenggara). The study
investigates: 1) teachers’ and students’ perceived understanding of the
existence of English in their local contexts; 2) opinions of their current local
and global needs of English in today’s globalized era; and 3) their opinions
of the teaching and learning of English. Data were collected from
questionnaires and interviews. The results show that students in different
regions have slightly different views and perceptions of English use and how
it needs to be learned and taught for their current and future needs for
English. Although slightly different in their perceptions of needs, there seems
to be a coordinated understanding of English needs between the students and
teachers. The findings also indicate that there is a growing awareness of the
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INTRODUCTION
Globalization is the buzzword in the literature of English Language
Teaching today. The existence of globalization can be immediately felt in
many local contexts around the world. Along with globalization, English has
often been given prestigious statuses, such as the language of globalization,
prosperity, and modernity. Numbers of English learners and speakers are
growing and have even outnumbered the Inner Circle countries (Crystal, 2003).
The wider use of English as a Lingua Franca has also been perceived as one of
what is considered to be 21st-century skills. Contrary to this positioning of
English in the globalization flow, the allocated time for the English subject is
reduced to 2 hours/week in the framework of Indonesia's current 2013
curriculum (often referred to as K13). This controversial decision of limiting
English lessons to 2 hours/week was a result of a bipolar tug-of-war between
the fear of English as a threat to Bahasa Indonesia (and local languages) and
the needs of English as a lingua franca. Teachers are left alone with their
judgment and available resources to fit themselves into the new policy.
This study was inspired by these dilemmatic conditions and
perspectives in the teaching of English in Indonesia. It is specifically interested
in investigating the local-global gravity force of the use, learning, and teaching
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scholars (Canagarajah, 2005; Graddol, 1997, 2006; Phillipson, 1990) view this
colonization act as the first wave of globalization that helped the spread of
English to different parts of the world. By mandating English as the official
language to be used in those countries, the language was taught to the locals to
accommodate communicative purposes and other needs of the colonizer. The
teaching of English is, therefore, orientating to the so-called "Standard
English" as set by the colonizer. The development of English teaching
methodologies and learning theories in the early years until the late 80s had
drawn heavily from the perspective of English as the First Language
acquisition for monolingual speakers, excluding the fact that bilingual speakers
approach the acquisition of languages differently.
The second major factor is the emergence of the United States as the
leading economic power of the twentieth century (Crystal, 2003).
Globalization, at that time, was associated with the idea of westernization and
‘Americanization’ with the expansion of many leading American-based
transnational corporations across the world establishing “global supply
structures in mass market conditions” (Schneider, 2011, p. 52). Schneider
(2011) describes that the wave of American cultural dominance was also
brought by the media (through American TV series and Hollywood movies) as
well as political influence.
Canagarajah (2006) adds that the advancement in digital technology
and information has intensified the widespread of English in a very complex
way. The rapid flow of information, languages, cultures, ideas, technology, and
people has increased across borders, making languages, cultures, contact, and
interaction a common phenomenon today. Along with this border-crossing
phenomenon (physically and/or virtually), English has often been used as a
Lingua Franca for intercultural communication in this globalization era. The
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RESEARCH METHODS
This article is one part of a larger research project. The project adopts
the mixed-methods research framework combining quantitative and qualitative
approaches in its investigation. As explained by Hansen, Creswell, Clark,
Petska & Cresswell (2005), mixed methods “involve[s] the collection, analysis,
and integration of quantitative and qualitative data in a single of multiphase
study” (cited in Hesse-Biber, 2010, p. 3). The quantitative approach is adopted
in the attempt of understanding the trends in English Language needs while the
qualitative approach is adopted to gain specific information on particular
aspects of the English language needs in the schools' context. Both quantitative
and qualitative data are triangulated and worked to complement each other to
gain better insights into the foci of the research.
The Quantitative research instrument used a questionnaire to survey the
general trend in English competencies needed for English communication in
today’s globalized era. The questionnaire consists of two major sections that
look at the current use of English in the participants’ local context and the
future use of English as well as the competencies that the students and teachers
perceived as needed in the two settings (present and future use of English). To
avoid any language barrier in filling out the questionnaire, the questionnaire is
written in Bahasa Indonesia.
The Qualitative research instruments used in-depth semi-structured
interviews and classroom observation field notes. The interviews were adopted
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Exposure
Teaching
School code School Type Location to and use
context
of English
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(tourism
site)
Participant Teaching
Gender School code Qualifications
(pseudonym) experience
1 Eli F School A (SA) MA-TEFL 16 y
2 Nia F School B (SB) BA-TEFL 12 y
3 Ernest M School C (SC) BA-English Lit 9y
4 Lea F School D (SD) MA-TEFL 14 y
5 Tini F School E (SE) MA-TESOL 21 y
6 Ari M School F (SF) BA-TEFL 6y
7 Dita F School G (SG) BA-TEFL 14 y
8 Neli F School H (SH) BA-TEFL 10 y
9 Tomi M School I (SI) BA-TEFL 5y
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High Low
Q1. English in my local contexts is mostly used:
exposure exposure
A. in education (learned as a subject matter) 3.4 3.6
B. to upgrade someone’s social status 2.7 2.8
C. in economy 3.0 3.0
D. in marketing (branding) 2.8 2.8
E. as ELF between the local and international institutions 3.2 3.0
F. in politics 3.0 3.1
G. in social media 3.3 3.2
H. for socio-cultural purposes to promote local cultures 3.3 3.2
I. as professional English (language of profession) 3.1 3.0
J. in intercultural communication with foreigners 3.1 3.1
K. in tourism 3.4 3.1
There is a slight difference in the average score between SHEE and SLEE in
item A (education), E (ELF), and K (tourism). Education sector receives the
highest average score compared to other items in this section. This indicates
that their real active encounter with and use of English is mostly at school
during the English lesson rather than in other domains. For SHEE, the average
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score among the items is quite evenly spread out. The five domains that
received a higher score as reported by SHEE are in education, in tourism, in
politics, in social media, for socio-cultural purposes, and in intercultural
communication and as the language of professional English. This is quite
acceptable since SHEE has more opportunities and exposures to use English
among these different contexts. Surprisingly, the average score of SLEE
among the items is also evenly spread out just as SHEE. This may indicate that
SLEE has the awareness of other English use beyond formal schooling, or at
least their “imagined” (Anderson, 1983) use of English.
Interestingly, the average score of the teachers’ answer is quite close to
the students'. Table 4 shows the calculation of the average score of the teachers’
response to questionnaire item 1.
Average
Teachers’ opinions on English use in their local context
score
A. in education (learned as a subject matter) 3.4
B. to upgrade someone’s social status 2.8
C. in economy 2.9
D. in marketing (branding) 3
E. as ELF between the local and international institutions 3.2
F. in politics 3.1
G. in social media 3
H. for socio-cultural purposes to promote local cultures 3.4
I. as professional English (language of profession) 3.3
J. in intercultural communication with foreigners 3.3
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K. in tourism 3.2
Five areas that obtained higher scores are English use in education, for socio-
cultural purposes, as professional English, in intercultural communication, as
ELF (local-international institutions), and in tourism. There seems to be a
coordinated understanding between the teachers and students about the
growing functions of English in other sectors although still limited in its use
for most areas in Indonesia.
The highest score within this range of use was in the education field
especially in the context of English lesson in class. This is a highly common
response that the teachers shared in the interview sections, in particular,
teachers who taught in the low English exposure area. This is best represented
in Tini’s account as follows,
Several teachers (Ernest, Tomi, and Neli) in high English exposure area
(THEE) shared the immediate reality of English presence in their context and
perceive English as the language of tourism and intercultural exchange. Tomi,
a teacher at vocational high school (SMK), express his view on the role of
English in his teaching context as follows:
Honestly, English is a basic need here. Aside from the fact that
English is studied as a subject lesson here, and, well, since this town
is a tourism site, English, for this young generation, becomes a
medium to enter this industry [tourism]. So, the learning needs to be
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Students’ and teachers’ opinions of their current local and global English
needs
Questionnaire item 2 aims to find out the students’ and teachers’
perceived current needs of English in their local context. In this section, there
is a significant difference in the average score between SHEE and SLEE
answers as displayed in table 5.
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It can be seen from the table that SLEE reported higher urgency in learning
English to pass the standardized National Exam (Ujian Nasional) than SHEE.
This result supports SLEE perceived view (from questionnaire item 1) that
English is mostly felt in the education sector and learned as a subject lesson at
school. For other items of Question 2, the average scores are quite similar in
nature. There is a slightly higher score result for SLEE for item B, E, and F
compared to the SHEE result. This may indicate that students feel the
importance of English for the purposes of studying other subjects, participating
in international academic discussion, and introducing local culture
internationally through social media through the medium of the Internet.
When asked to rank the language skills and knowledge that they
urgently need in the order of importance, both SHEE and SLEE still rank basic
language skills, vocabulary, and grammar knowledge as the five important
skills. Table 6 shows both groups perceived language skills and knowledge of
their current needs.
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Q.3. Rank the language skills & knowledge that you High Low
need right now based on the order of importance exposur exposure
(1 = most important to 9 = least important) e
Reading 4 2
Writing 5 1
Speaking-Listening 1 3
Grammar 3 4
Vocabulary 2 5
Communication Strategies 6 6
Pragmatics 7 7
Intercultural Communication skill 8 8
Transfer skill 9 9
The result may not be a surprising result since these language skills and
knowledge (grammar and vocabulary) have been given so much attention in
the National Curriculum that they experienced since grade 7. It is, therefore,
quite understandable that communication strategies, pragmatics knowledge,
intercultural communication skill, and transfer skill are less recognized by both
groups.
Comparing the result of both groups, it can be seen in table 4 that
writing and reading are placed to be the two most important skills to be learned
by SLEE group. This result is in line with their reported urgent need for passing
the National Exam that tends to test their reading and writing skills. SHEE,
however, place speaking-listening skill and vocabulary as the two most
important learning skills to be learned for their current English needs. The
focus on vocabulary and spoken production skill can be related to the two
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The teachers believe that their students spend more time on the Internet
rather than in real life studying at school or at home. Therefore, they view that
item F, G, and H are more relevant and realistic needs for the students today.
Students interact more online rather than face-to-face interaction. This is quite
a common theme that the teachers shared during the interview. This belief is
best depicted by Eli’s account in which she compared her time as a student
with her current students’ life.
Students’ and teachers’ opinions of their future local and global English
needs
To understand students’ attitudes towards English learning, the
questionnaire also seeks information on students’ opinions of their near future
needs of English. Table 8 shows the average score of students’ responses.
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Surprisingly, SLEE gives a slightly higher score in almost all the categories
compared to SHEE score. The three categories that received the highest score
by SLEE are to participate in academic activities in local/national university
(item A), to study (item B) and to work (item D) abroad at countries that use
English as the First Language (item B). SLEE projection of their future English
need to participate in the local/national university may indicate their awareness
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that English has been one of the basic requirements for university entrance and
that they will still have to learn English in the university level. Item B and D
may indicate SLEE long term desire to use English for studying or work abroad
particularly in the so-called inner circle countries. It may also indicate their
high exposure to English which they perceived as coming from the inner circle
countries.
For SHEE, three categories that received the highest score are almost
similar to SLEE. These categories are to participate in academic activities in
local/national university (item A), to study abroad at inner circle countries
(item B), and to study abroad at other countries that use English as a Lingua
Franca (item C). The focus is more on continuing further education either in or
out of the country. There is no specific preference of either being in an inner
or outer circle abroad.
As regards their future English needs, students were asked to rank the
language skills and knowledge that they would need to acquire in the near
future. Interestingly, there is a slight change in priorities that the students set
for their future English needs. This shift of priorities can be seen in Table 9.
Table 9. Rank of English skills and knowledge for students’ future needs
Q.5. Rank the language skills & knowledge that you High Low
need in the near future based on the order of exposure exposure
importance (1 = most important to 9 = least important)
Reading 4 2
Writing 6 6
Speaking Listening 1 1
Grammar 3 4
Vocabulary 2 3
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Com. Strategies 5 5
Pragmatics 7 7
ICC 8 8
Transfer skill 9 9
In the previous section (Table 6), both SHEE and SLEE reported higher
priorities in learning the five basic skills and knowledge (grammar and
vocabulary). In table 9, it can be seen that “writing” has been pushed down by
“communication strategies”. This is an extreme shift reported by SLEE group
that voted writing at the first place in their current English skill need, and now
being placed on the sixth place for their future English need. SLEE score shows
that “speaking-listening” skill was given the first priority. There is also an
interest in including communication strategies in their main five categories.
Although the ranking order of current and future English needs does
not change that much for SHEE, there is a similar tendency as SLEE for
preferring communication strategies to writing skills. In the current English
needs section, writing was previously put in fifth place and now it is being
placed in the sixth-placed. There seems to be a growing awareness in the two
groups of the communication function of English today and in the future
requires the knowledge of communication strategies.
Different from the students’ view of their future English needs, teachers
assigned a quite different projection of needs. Table 10 shows teachers’ view
on their students’ future English needs.
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The average score of the teachers' response shows almost equal attention to the
different use of English. Most future English situations that the teachers
imagined are related to the use of English (for studying and working) abroad.
This is understandable since English has no official status in Indonesia and that
its intensive use is mostly found in the context of English being taught as a
lesson in class. There is still very limited domains of use for English in
Indonesia. Even in the big cities like Jakarta and Surabaya, the domain use of
English exists mostly in transnational companies or in international
transactions through the media of Internet, and bilingual schools (as the
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The preferred learning styles that received a higher score by SHEE and SLEE
are almost similar in range. Both groups seem to agree that exposure to English
is very important that both groups preferred learning through pop culture
(listening to English songs and watch English movies) more than the others.
Both groups also seem to agree that learning English at school is not enough
for their needs and that both reported the need to take extra English lesson
outside of school. Other traces of exposing themselves with more English can
be seen from their preferences of wanting to use English apps on mobile phone,
join an English speaking community, read English texts or news online, and
make friends with foreigners through the Internet. These activities are in line
with what the teachers pointed out during the interview in which students today
has depended so much on IT advancement in most of their daily activities.
These teachers' observation can actually be captured from their reported
opinions on how English teaching needs to be learned and taught in the
following paragraph.
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In finding out the teachers' understanding between the needs and ways of teaching
English, the questionnaire also asks teachers to give their opinions on ways to
approach the teaching and learning of English. Table 12 lists the average score
on teachers’ approach to the teaching of English.
Concerning the teachers' opinions on limited English use domain in
most part of Indonesia, they view that this condition provides little opportunity
for students to intensively learn, practice and use English for real-life purposes.
Moreover, teachers shared their concerns about the short allocation of time for
the English lesson at school (2 hours per week). This explains the teachers'
view on the importance of teaching English from early age at the elementary
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school level (item A). The limited time of English lesson students received
from grade 7 to 12 is considered insufficient in helping learners to learn and
acquire English once they graduated from high school. This belief is further
reinforced by providing higher exposure (item C and D), integrating blended
learning (item E), and adopting English for Specific Purposes approach (item
G). There is also raising awareness on the teaching of pragmatics knowledge
and intercultural skill that are in line with their projection of students' future
needs in Table 10 (for studying and working abroad). The teachers realize that
it is likely for their students in the future to use English in a more interactive
nature in such context of studying and working abroad in which pragmatic
knowledge and intercultural skill are highly needed.
In the interview, all nine teacher participants described that students
need more time and exposure to English in order to catch up with the demand
of using English in this globalized world. While remaining faithful to K13,
teachers pointed out that 2 hours/week was not enough to provide students
opportunities to practice using English in class. As a response to the need for
creating an English exposure media at school, the teachers and together with
AMINEF ETAs (English Teaching Assistants) organized an English club (an
extra-curricular activity) for students who are motivated to upgrade their
English knowledge and performance. This English club, as the teachers
explained, focuses more on English communication skill since this is the skill
that the students have little opportunity to do in the classroom.
CONCLUSION
This study found that there are slightly different perceptions between
students in high English exposure areas (SHEE) and those in low English
exposure areas. It is understandable that SHEE would have a wider perception
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on the use of English besides the education sector since the use of English in
other sectors (e.g. transnational companies, and tourism sites) is visible in their
immediate surroundings. Although they may have to encounter English
through the Internet or other media, it is only in the classroom that SLEE
experienced exposure to English (through the medium of instruction in
Indonesian or a mixture of Indonesian and English). There is also a
corresponding result between the students’ perception of the use of English and
their current needs. Since English is intensively encountered by the students at
school, SLEE reported their immediate needs for learning English to pass the
National Exam. In contrast, SHEE reported other needs that lean towards the
learning of English for communicational purposes (especially through the
medium of the Internet). These English needs, however, are still being received
from a traditional learning standpoint. Both groups still rank the learning and
acquisition of English by focusing on basic language skills and knowledge
(grammar and vocabulary). This may not be a surprising result since the focus
on English language teaching at school is mostly on these basic skills and
knowledge. This result is also quite linear with the teachers’ questionnaire
results in which they perceived English to have communicative functions in
students’ social activities in the virtual world.
Students’ perceptions of their future English needs also display quite
similar results. Both groups seem to be aware of their near future English needs
after their high school life. The highest score was assigned to the activities of
studying in local/national universities, studying abroad, and working abroad.
For these purposes, interestingly, there is a slight change in priorities of
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learning for both groups. SLEE, who reported earlier to give the highest
importance on learning writing (in Question 3: current English needs section),
only ranked this skill sixth and promoted speaking-listening skill as their
priority, and the inclusion of communication strategies as the fifth priority. A
similar tendency can also be captured in SHEE response for preferring
communication strategies to writing skills.
Interestingly, students and teachers seem to agree on how English
should be learned and taught. In general, students (of both groups) realize the
need for exposure to a lot of English use through various media (namely, taking
extra lessons outside of school, online courses, using English apps, listening
and watching English movies, and having foreign friends online). Teachers are
also of the opinion that English needs to be taught by providing higher
exposure, integrating blended learning, and adopting English for Specific
Purposes (ESP) approach. There is also a growing awareness of teaching the
pragmatics knowledge and intercultural skill to accommodate the students'
future English needs for intercultural communication use. In their effort to
providing more opportunities for English use, these teachers organized an
English extra-curricular activity, the English Club. The activity is held once a
week (90 minutes) in which the teachers focus on developing students' spoken
communicative skills.
Despite the results explored in this study, there are a few limitations for
future projects to consider. Firstly, the study only surveys nine schools in
several contexts in Indonesia with very limited time to conduct classroom
observations without interviewing the students. Therefore, it would be more
interesting if further studies targeted an individual school in a more holistic
manner that includes several classroom observations, students' interviews, and
providing a more contextual background of individual school's condition. This
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holistic approach of studying the school, teachers, students, and the local use
of English will provide much deeper insight into the understanding of the local-
global attractions and how teachers and students respond to such conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to thank Universitas Katolik Atma Jaya, Jakarta
and AMINEF for funding this project.
REFERENCES
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https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/ pub_learning-elt-
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Graddol, D. (2006). English next: Why global English may mean the end of ‘English
as a foreign language’. London: The British Council. Retrieved from
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Hansen-Thomas. H., Richins, L.G., Kakkar, K. and Okeyo, C. (2016). I do not
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Hesse-Bibber, S.N. (2010). Mixed methods research: Merging theory with
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Lawson, S. (2018). English Teaching Assistants in Indonesia: An examination
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unpublished research report for the Ministry of Research and
Technology, Jakarta, Indonesia.
Manara, C. (2014). Intercultural Dialogue on English Language Teaching:
Multilingual teacher educator’s narrative of professional learning.
Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
McKay, S.L. (2002). Teaching English as an International Language. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Phillipson, R. (1990). Linguistics Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University
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Schneider, E.W. (2011). English around the world: An introduction.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Seidlhofer, B. (2001). Closing a conceptual gap: The case for a description of
English as a lingua franca.
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.18326/rgt.v12i2.238-252
Submission Track:
Received: 09-02-2019
Final Revision: 21-11-2019
Available online: 01-12-2019
ABSTRACT
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INTRODUCTION
The speakers of a language can coin new words according to their needs
with the help of already existing words or word-forming elements in the
language. Hausa as a language do coin new words, and the language is one of
the three major Nigerian languages others are the Yoruba and Igbo. The
language is widely accepted and used as lingua-franca by many people from
different ethnic groups in northern Nigeria. Furthermore, the language is also
been used across Nigeria and West Africa. It is used in both print and non-print
media houses. That is in newspapers and radio stations for news broadcast,
education, entitlements, political programs and a host of others. Hausa
language has served as a tool which radio use for social engineering and
mobilization. It has long been the language of politics, religion (Islam and
Christianity alike) and broadcasting before Nigerian independence and after
independence. The language almost up to date is the Nigerian language that
enjoys the highest patronage of Western media stations especially the BBC,
VOA, RFI, DW and a lot of others. It is also in Hausa that the media assessed
and evaluate the performance of the elected representatives and the elected
public office holders for the benefit of the electorates. An example of such
programs is on the Hausa radio station across the Northern region of Nigeria,
“An ce, ka ce” of Nagarta Radio Kaduna, and the likes.
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RESEARCH METHODS
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effect. In most cases, the purpose is to attract attention of readers and front
page headlines or lead stories are particularly structured in such a way to
achieve that effect.
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This is in line with, Safire (1978) opinion where Sani (2011:33) notes
that two types of coinages do exist: Chorus and Phantom. Chorus coinage is
where a word or phrase pops into political language without recoverable coiner
while the Phantom is where a coinage enters the language by osmosis. Though
some words and phrases have been in the Hausa lexicon, by the coming of
modern politics, it pops into political discourse and took several
interpretations. For strong political culture of the people, the words and phrases
became a political language that electorates reckon with.
Neologisms tend to occur more often in cultures that are changing rapidly
and also in situations where there is easy and fast propagation of information.
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The new terms are often created by combining existing words or by giving
words new and unique suffixes or prefixes.
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Mohsin (2013: 821) states that neologism can be a brand new word
gaining usage in a language, or a new meaning for a word already in existence.
Such a term isn't typically in common use, but may become so if it is used
often. Neologisms can come from a variety of places and might be gleaned
from scientific or technical language, come from other languages, be derived
by putting two words together, or they may be solely invented. Language
specialists suggest new words often migrate into a language most with great
cultural changes or with the integration of two cultures that speak two different
languages.
According to Martan (2008:75) neologisms are new words that are use
in society, and are deemed to have been non-existent in the past. Neologisms
are very important in the generative capacity of natural languages; they are the
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elements that make languages living rather than dead…” and “are an indicative
of language death”.
Hausa Gloss
The Nagarta Radio Hausa Political Program “An ce, ka ce” is a political
program the presenters use some words and phrases in the program which are
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meant to hide the actual names of the personalities being referred to, at the
same time coined a word or phrase giving a description of those personalities.
Here, presenters twist and twill language to suit the purpose and amuse the
largest audience.
In relation to the above, some words and phrases are already in the
realm and vocabulary of the Hausa language. Eventually due to the advent of
modern politics, some of them have taken several connotations as used in the
radio political program. They are diverted from the literal traditional meaning
and are motivated by the mental representation of the speaker and hearer as
well as metaphorical features association to the word which makes it well
understood within the domain of politics. With this, we can say coinage and
neologism took place in the radio (media).
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Based on Sani’s (2011:92) argument which argues that, coinage ranges from
single to multiple words. However, the following are some of their
characteristics which the data possessed:
i. Absence of definition of terms,
ii. Only equivalence are provided;
iii. Predominance of translation;
iv. Little use of morphological resources of the language;
v. Resistance to creativity and innovation in coining new terms;
vi. Provision of more than one equivalent to a term;
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meaning and taken up new shades of meaning. New words are created; the
existing ones are lexically expanded and semantically redressed in another
sphere of meaning.
CONCLUSION
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is most important factor of a neologism for being a part of the language. If its
speakers continuously use a newly coined word, it gradually enters the
language even over the rejection of its opponents but finally in that of the many
neologisms created, adapted, mutilated, very few survive.
It’s hoped that this paper will draw the attention of more researchers
towards finding how Hausa radio political program do contribution towards
language development; and consider others morphological processes in the
analysis of the collected data not only on radio but on various media outfits.
REFERENCES
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