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COLLAPSIBLE SOILS CHARACTERISTICS; THEIR SUITABILITY FOR PROJECTS

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Conference Paper · May 2019

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Lina Anwar Sarkan Sarbast

The American University of Iraq, Sulaimani The American University of Iraq, Sulaimani
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Engineering Geology Project
Spring 2019
Dr. Nihad Baban

 Lina Anwer
 Sarkan Sarbast
 As we all know that in engineering we have many types of soils and we consider and
describe them based upon their properties and characteristics. One of these types of soils that
is very important to be described and categorized is the collapsing soil. The collapsing soil is
a strong, heavy and full of ingredient soil, which can be act as a good foundation for heavy
buildings. But, this soil contains ingredients that coat the other internal ingredients making
bonds between them such as the silt, salt and clay. The silt, salt and clay present in the
collapsible soil in small amounts but when water reaches them a dehydration and a general
chemical reaction’s would happen making this strong soil suddenly to lose weight, the size
will change and making soil to collapse. Here where the name of collapsible soil came from.
By making foundations on this type of soil engineers should consider these important points
the density of the soil which is the most important point, the ratio of the natural water under
the soil and the value or measuring the proportion of the pressure.

Figure1: shows the structure of the collapsiable soil.

A sudden change for the weight and the size of the soil will take place when the ratio
of the moisture increases and the saturation ratio exceed the limit of 50%. As we mentioned
before, the collapsible soil contains some amounts of silt acting as bonds between the other
ingredients. When water enters to the composition of this soil it dissolves those bonds making
this soil to be collapsed. Some of the characteristics this type of soil share are a naturally dry
and open structure without the presence of a protective coat, it has a huge loose in the
sediments, a void with a high percentage ratio and it is sensitive with a high ratio of porosity.

Figure2: shows the limit of saturation of the collapsible soil.

This type of soil excites in most of the countries for example it covers 20% to 25% of
Iran, and the places near to the rivers and oceans for another example Africa.

Figure3: this figure shows the collapsible soil exist in some areas of Iran.

The problems that affect the structures and the foundations made on the collapsible
soil are different and a lot. Especially the foundations locate near to a water sources. For
example the underground water pipes, sewerage lines and even the structures that are located
near to the rivers or the pools where the moisture limit going to be high and the saturation
will exceeds the limit of collapse. It will also lead to a sudden damage to the roads and this
will b e a huge problem that’s why we should consider what types of foundations should be
constructed on the collapsible soil and how to take care and mitigation for it for the reason of
solving these possible problems.

Figure4: shows a road constructed on a collapsible soil.

Figure5: shows a house constructed on a collapsible soil without any early mitigation.

Our main aim in this project is to define the structure of the collapsible soil and the
ingredients it contains. Then, the causes that affect this type of soil to be called collapsed and
conditions it runs through. After that, we take in considerations the many types of mitigations
that are possible to be taken in order to decrease the hazards rate. After describing the
properties and the characteristics of the collapsible soil we considered the types of foundation
we can construct over this type of soil and the types of structures. We observed previous
studies and visual sources on this type and we concluded the importance of the collapsible
soil.

Geology is the study of earth and the materials which is it made, with their structure
and effects that are acting upon those materials. The application of geological data and
knowledge of geology is applied in engineering field in order to study the purpose of stating
factors of geological as location, construction, design, and operation of the engineering are
considered to have a strong base for construction projects.

There exist different stages of soil on earth’s surface. In the engineering world, most
problematic type of soil is collapsible soil, in which it consists of loose materials to a great
extent. However, in geological world, soil is composed of minerals and organic materials that
form the layers of earth.

The composition of soil is a mixture which consists of minerals about %45, organic
materials around %5, and voids about %50 that occupied by water and air within different
ratio. As observed, there are certain percentages of minerals in soil. Higher percentages of
these minerals are clay and quartz minerals. The remaining compositions of these minerals
are both fragment rocks that are sand sized particle and feldspar.

There are two types of weathering; both are chemical and physical (mechanical)
weathering. They both affect soils in different manners, and leave a great damage to the
composition and properties of soil. Geologists have classified soil to three major parts, such
as silt, clay, and sand. It has been experienced that chemical weathering conjunction with
warm climate leads to present more amount of clay minerals in soil, in which it has less
bearing capacity comparing to other two major parts of soil.

Soils are formed from a number of different types of sediment deposition, but the key
is really climate, geology, and resultant geomorphology. Climate changes have major roles
and impacts on soil and the performances of soil. The development of soil which facilitated
by the descending percolation of water comes from the two above mentioned types of
weathering of materials, through the mechanical weathering by breaking rocks into smaller
particles, and chemical weathering which changes the mineral composition. The formation of
soil mostly form under the conditions of not cold, not dry and but not too wet.
 Generally, soils are in a dry state naturally with low density that has a high percentage
of voids. The dry state of soil can be known as unsettled soil until it exposed to water. After
exposing to water the soil get to the point of settlement and its volume decrease and get
denser. The stage that settlement occurs will be the stage of the collapse of soil. Binding
agents that can bear heavy structures in the dry state of soil is much stronger than its wet
state. As the soil is introduced to water, the soil structure starts to become weak and collapse.

Through the previous studies that include soil engineering properties have shown that
there are specific types of sediment deposits and soils can be subjected to collapse, such as
transported deposit soil, silt, fine sand, colluvial soil, mud and debris, and alluvial soil. With
few exceptions, collapse of soil appears to occur in areas that have less than 50 cm of annual
precipitation.

The other compositions of earth’s ground are different dissolved particles and
minerals; sometimes exist in layers. One of those dissolved particles is limestone, which is
the most rapid or quicker dissolved particle. Because of its rapid dissolution, it sometimes
causes harmful damages. If it exists in great depth of ground that has more interactions with
water, it dissolves rapidly and accelerates erosion internally within a great depth. However, if
there is less water content in the limestone particles or compositions, it would not cause that
much harmful destruction. Thus, the dissolution causes considerable damages to the
underground regions. These damages lead to land subsidence. Land subsidence is a collapse
in the land that happens internally. Due to dissolution of layers or big amount of limestone
particles, it leaves the underground with more empty spaces and less bearing capacities that
cannot resist any applied load on the surface and upper layers. Hence, the upper layers also
collapse to fill those spaces in which the land sink with certain depth.

Geologically another cause of collapsible soil is due to extracting too much water or
any other liquids. Extracting liquids reduce the internal pressure and the bearing capacity and
capability of the underground layers in which it left the ground with fewer supporters to resist
any applied load on the surface. Thus, it causes deformation and expansion sometimes in that
certain region and it leads to collapse and subsidence.
 Collapsible soil is clayey silt with metastable structure, and known as loess. This kind
of soil has different properties due to various water conditions. It shows high strength and
toughness when it is at normal water condition while at the wetting condition, the soil will
suffer an unexpected plastic deformation. Existing of collapsible soil can result in structural
damages to the construction projects such as cracks in floor, foundations, and walls.
However, human activities can be a good assist for soil collapse. Those activities are
Irrigation, Water impoundment, watering the lawn, Changing the natural drainage, and
Disposal of wastewater. Collapsible soil can be a real danger for homes that are built on it
due to moving of the structure or cracks. For example, in the United States, Rock Jefferies
said that” each year expansive soils cause $2.3 billion in damage to houses, other buildings,
roads, pipelines, and other structures. This is more than twice the damage from floods,
hurricanes, tornadoes, and earthquakes combined”. (Jefferies, 2013).

Under the addition of water, soil compact or collapse due to its composition which are
loose, dry, and low-density material. In 2012, an ongoing research was done to investigate
compaction effects on the geotechnical properties of collapsible soil. The tests were carried
out in compliance with proctor procedure, ASTM D 1557. Maximum dry unit weights of
compacted samples were found to be varied from 17.2 kN/ m3 to 19.4 kN/m3, with an
average of 18.4 kN/m3.

The corresponding optimum moisture content scattered from 12% to 16%, with a
mean of 14.5%. (Gaaver, 2012). As a result, from this laboratory test, some properties of soil
were achieved such as illustrates lower bound, upper bound, mean value and standard
deviation which are well explained in table 1. Figure 1 shows the relation between dry unit
weights and corresponding liquid limits. Based on the results of the test and the graph shown
in figure 1, it can be concluded that “for any given soil, if the natural dry unit weight falls
below the limiting line, the soil is likely to be collapse” (Gaaver, 2012).
Table 1: Shows Soil Properties Obtained in Laboratory Test.

Properties of soil
Lower Upper
Soil property bound bound Mean value Standard deviation

Percentage of sand (%) 15 41 30.1 7.44

Percentage of silt (%) 41 65 53.7 5.78

Percentage of clay (%) 5 33 16.5 6.31

Percentage of fines (%) 59 85 70.2 7.53

Uniformity coefficient 15 85.7 52.04 21.05

Coefficient of curvature 0.27 4.9 2.95 3.67

Natural moisture content (%) 6 15 11 2

Natural unit weight (kN/m3) 14.1 16.1 15.38 0.45

Liquid limit (%) 23 33 28.5 2.52

Plastic limit (%) 11 17 13.6 1.52

Plasticity index (%) 10 19 14.9 2.42

Activity 0.45 1.71 0.95 0.34

Figure 6: Dry unit weight of soil versus liquid limit

 Even those collapsible soils are one of the problematic soils when they are under
moisture intrusions, but this kind of soil can appear strong and stable in their dry state.
Collapsible soils cannot be estimated theoretically or by prediction to find solutions to the
problems they will cause. These kinds of soils are used only practically by making
laboratory tests, investigation, and taking samples of them to be tested in order to find out
their behaviour and properties, knowing these will facilitate geotechnical engineers to solve
the problems associated with collapsible soils.

Figure 7: Deep foundations used to pass loads through collapsible soils and into strong soil layers or rock

Several ways can be used to improve weak soils such as adding admixtures to them
such as Portland cement or another way can be by replacing the weak soils by a healthier-
quality soil. Another method is “to preload them with a total load of more than the expected
actual imposed loads, while saturating the weak soil during the preloading process”.
(Kalantari, 2013). As explained before, the most suitable techniques to achieve a safe and
strong collapsible soil are field observation and laboratory tests to determine their latent
properties’ potential, in order to create more secure and tough construction structures.
 It is important to know the characteristics and properties of collapsible soil due to
serving and enhancing other principles, subjects, and related projects, such as construction.
Being experienced with estimating problems that a project will face in the future leads to
eliminate those factors and parameters affecting the durability and health of the project to a
great extent. In other words, if engineers are able to determine the behaviour of the field land
used for any types of projects, they can minimize and prevent the future problems by
considering and executing extra steps before and while building the projects. Following this,
being able to determine that there exists collapsed soil and starts mitigating problems occur
due to this type of soil; the constructed project will be safer and stabilizer.

The steps to start with for predicting the problems related to collapsible soil are side
investigation, accuracy of examination, existing problems in real life, identification the type
of problems,…etc. Based on these steps a proper solution can be applicable for preventing
collapses of soil.

It is also not easy to identify and predict the soil that may collapse since there is not a
standard measurement applicable for all types of collapsible soil. Experts and geotechnical
engineers have found some characteristics of such a soil before collapsing. According to their
experiences, such a land has loose materials and fills, accumulates sands due to heavy winds,
has alluvial fans of lighter weight, and consists of decomposed and weathered products of
rocks or any materials. Experts come to an agreement that proper identifications of soil that
goes to collapse are based on the correlations between porosity, void ratio, water content, and
in place dry unit weight of the land.

There exits various method for mitigation of collapsed soil. However, the
applicability of any method depends on several factors including, the kind of projects to be
constructed, and the expected settlement to occur because of the project, the elevation of
collapsed soil, the possibility of the foundation and risk zone to become wet, and the stress
distribution of the project on its foundation. Engineers try to use multiple methods for
solution in order to come up with the proper one for the type of collapsed soil. For instance,
compaction method by roller would not give a good result for deep deposit lands and
sometimes for shallow deposit as well.
 The methods that are still used for treating the field with such properties are as
follows:

 Minimizing foundation pressures

 Elimination of the collapsed soil
 Hydrocompaction
 Densification of the soil
 Solidification of the soil without decreasing its sheer strength
 Using caissons, blasting with prewetting, piles, and more.

Minimizing foundation pressure is a method used to solve problems associated with

collapsible soil. This method is more reliable with structures, such as canal structures. There
are different techniques in engineering world used to minimize foundation pressure. One of
those techniques that is commonly used is floating foundation, in which minimizes the soil
loads by eliminating those materials that their weights are equal or close to the structure’s
weight. Along with this, elimination of collapsible soil is an economical method and used
when there is less depth of collapsed soil especially for concentrated sites.

Hydrocompaction is an effective method prior to any types of construction. There are

two ways of this method. One way is to make small lakes along the field with infiltration
wells in order to wet the land or soil in a great depth. Another way is by prewetting the
surface to a certain depth with infiltration wells. Both ways leads to accelerate the collapse of
soil to happen, and increase the water content of the soil. Therefore, it helps easier
construction excavation and better soil compaction. However, the soil can also be solidified
by adding additives such as Portland cement and then compacting the soil, so it minimizes the
collapse of soil.

Densification of soil is the process to densify low unit weight of soil. There are also
two ways of executing this method, such as dynamic compaction and vibrocompaction. In
dynamic compaction, a large heavy weight is dropped within a certain height to densify the
soil and obtain a desired weigh with respect to a desired depth. A maximum depth reached by
dynamic compaction is about (10 m). In vibrocompaction, a large suspended vibroflot probe
is used, in which it produces a vibration system by a hydraulic motor. It compresses the soil
to higher unit weight state. Thus, a denser soil is obtained which has less voids and porosity
and is stronger.
Figure 8: Dynamic compaction used for compacting soil

Figure 9: Vibrocompaction used for densifying soil by a vibrating system

Figure 10: Vibroflot probe makes the vibration system to compact the soil
 Piles and caissons play an important role in such a significant subject as well. They
are applicable when the collapsible soil is not in a great depth by penetrating the piles with
prewetting foundation. As the piles are penetrated, the loose materials and soils are
compacted and left with a more dense foundation. These piles and caissons help to distribute
and direct all stresses on the capable and strong soil not the collapsed one.

Figure 11: Caissons used to drainage the work place. Figure 5: Piles driven to reach capable soil to build
a project on

The identification and applicable mentioned solutions of collapsed soil leads to result
a safer and stronger construction projects. It has been experienced that mitigation the
problems relate to collapse of soil is better before start building the project because of two
reasons. First reason is that before building the project there are various method applicable to
solve the problem, and the methods are more effective in a way that it either prevent
collapsing or minimizing to a great extent. Second, it is more economic because in some
projects collapsed soil sometimes has no way to solve rather than destroying the whole
project.

Engineers and experts are always trying to monitor and predict the health and
capability of any constructed projects. Problems resulted from collapsed soil are also one of
the engineer’s studies and responsibility before and after building projects. Projects and
foundations of any types of structures which are built on collapsible soil for sure experience a
huge and rapid process of settlement and damage in the foundation first then in the bodies.
Settlements and deformations are going to happen when there is a saturated foundation or
zone due to water under the constructed project. There exist several factors causing saturated
zone, such as wasted water of pools and basins, irrigation canals and systems, leakage of
broken pipes, and sewers.

Collapsed soil problems are not inevitable. Even though collapsed soil affects
buildings and constructions, it also causes damages of pavements constructed on them to a
great settlement unexpectedly. Experts and engineers have experienced various problems of
pavements related to collapses of soil. The problems are as follows:

 Fine particle motions and producing friction within the built structures and
blocking roads
 Different bearing capacity with resulting different settlement
 Great settlement depression shaping
 Higher water and salt content resulting higher potential collapse of soil

The process of infiltration by using wells to both shallow and great depth of soil would
be solution with compaction before building any projects. In other hand, if this infiltration
process, in which it is more likely to happen within less depth of soil due to existing irrigation
systems and sewers in the urbanized regions, occurs after constructing projects, there are
higher chances of settlements to the structures and foundations of the projects. This is
because of changing the properties of the region from a dry or partially dry region to a fully
saturated region. Following this, the more the infiltration systems rates present, the higher
expectancy of humid climates as well.

In semi-arid New Mexico, a commercial building won an award from the city for the
year’s most beautiful lawn and landscaping. However, they also suffered about US $0.5
million dollars in foundation damage owing to differential settlement, having wetted the
collapsible foundation soils to a depth of 15 m in some locations (Houston et al., 2001)
(Behzad Kalantari).
The main problem of collapsed soil is that causes settlement of project foundations.
Various settlement ranges result various degree of damages to foundations. According to
Table 1, the degrees of damages are classified from negligible to very severe.
 Damage classification Estimated crack width in
(mm)
Negligible < 0.1

Very Slight <1

Slight <5

Moderate 5 - 15

Severe 15 - 25

Very Severe > 25

Table 2: Damage Classification with Corresponding Estimated Crack Width.

The last three damage classifications including moderate, severe, and very severe are
required to be taken into consideration especially the last one. This is because these three
damage classification have resulted significant estimated crack width relatively 5 – 15 mm,
15 – 25 mm, and > 25 mm. Projects experience very severe damages have higher risks in
terms of stability. The supporters lose their strength, the walls lean. Following this, doors and
windows deform due to this effective amount of settlement. Projects with such problems are
either partially or entirely rebuilt it again.

 This soil which is the collapsible soil is considered as one of most common existent
soil in the world, when it is in the normal phase which is the dry phase it is strong and
stable but when it reacts with water gathers breaking all the bonds because of this
reaction resulting in a failure in the strength of this soil.

 As we mentioned that this soil is one of most common and has a high existence in
most of the places in the world, in contrast we have to be careful from constructing
roads or structures on this type of soil.

 By using those types of tests such as natural dry density, sieve analysis, liquid limit,
and oedometer. We can find and describe the collapsible soil.
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