Original six frigates of the United States Navy

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The United States Congress authorized the original six frigates of the United States Navy with
the Naval Act of 1794 on March 27, 1794, at a total cost of $688,888.82. These ships were built
during the formative years of the United States Navy, on the recommendation of designer Joshua
Humphreys for a fleet of frigates powerful enough to engage any frigates of
the French or British navies yet fast enough to evade any ship of the line.

Purpose[edit]
See also: History of the United States Navy
After the Revolutionary War, a heavily indebted United States disbanded the Continental Navy, and
in August 1785, lacking funds for ship repairs, sold its last remaining warship, the Alliance.[7][8] But
almost simultaneously troubles began in the Mediterranean when Algiers seized two American
merchant ships and held their crews for ransom.[9][10] Minister to France Thomas Jefferson suggested
an American naval force to protect American shipping in the Mediterranean, but his
recommendations were initially met with indifference, as were the recommendations of John Jay,
who proposed building five 40-gun warships.[9][11] Shortly afterward, Portugal began blockading
Algerian ships from entering the Atlantic Ocean, thus providing temporary protection for American
merchant ships.[12][13]
Piracy against American merchant shipping had not been a problem when under the protection of
the British Empire prior to the Revolution, but after the Revolutionary War the "Barbary States" of
Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis felt they could harass American merchant ships without
penalty.[14][15] Additionally, once the French Revolution started, Britain and France each began
interdicting American merchant ships suspected of trading with the other. Lacking a proper navy, the
American government could do little to resist.[16][17]
The formation of a naval force had been a topic of debate in the new American republic for years.
Opponents argued that building a navy would only lead to calls for a navy department, and the staff
to operate it. This would further lead to more appropriations of funds, which would eventually spiral
out of control, giving birth to a "self-feeding entity". Those opposed to a navy felt that payment of
tribute to the Barbary States and economic sanctions against Britain were a better alternative.[18][19]
In 1793 Portugal reached a peace agreement with Algeria, ending its blockade of the Mediterranean,
thus allowing Algerian ships back into the Atlantic Ocean. By late in the year eleven American
merchant ships had been captured.[12] This, combined with the actions of Britain, finally led
President Washington to request Congress to authorize a navy.[20][21]
On January 2, 1794, by a narrow margin of 46–44, the House of Representatives voted to authorize
building a navy and formed a committee to determine the size, cost, and type of ships to be built.
Secretary of War Henry Knox submitted proposals to the committee outlining the design and cost of
warships.[22][23] To appease the strong opposition to the upcoming bill, the Federalist Party inserted a
clause into the bill that would bring an abrupt halt to the construction of the ships should the United
States reach a peace agreement with Algiers.[24][25]
The bill was presented to the House on March 10 and passed as the Naval Act of 1794 by a margin
of 50–39, and without division in the Senate on the 19th.[24][25] President Washington signed the Act
on March 27. It provided for acquisition, by purchase or otherwise, of four ships to carry forty-four
guns each, and two ships to carry thirty-six guns each.[26] It also provided pay and sustenance for
naval officers, sailors and marines, and outlined how each ship should be manned in order to
operate them. The Act appropriated $688,888.82 to finance the work.[27][28]
Design and preparations[edit]

Diagonal riders for hull stiffness are depicted here from the 1992 restoration of Constitution.

With the formation of a Department of the Navy still several years away, responsibility for design and
construction fell to the Department of War, headed by Secretary Henry Knox. As early as 1790 Knox
had consulted various authorities regarding ship design.[29] Discussions of the designs were carried
out in person at meetings in Philadelphia. Little is known about these discussions due to a lack of
written correspondence, making determination of the actual designers involved difficult to
assemble.[30] Secretary Knox reached out to ship architects and builders in Philadelphia, which was
the largest seaport in North America at the time and possibly the largest freshwater port in the world.
This meant that many discussions of ship design took place in Knox's office, resulting in few if any
records of these discussions being available to historians. Joshua Humphreys is generally credited
as the designer of the six frigates, but Revolutionary War ship captains John Foster
Williams and John Barry and shipbuilders Josiah Fox and James Hackett also were consulted.[31][32]
The final design plans submitted to President Washington for approval called for building new
frigates rather than purchasing merchant ships and converting them into warships, an option under
the Naval Act.[29] The designers realized that the fledgling United States could not match the
European states in the number of ships afloat. Nevertheless, this gave the Americans the distinct
advantage in that their ship design was not constrained by access to timber nor limited crew. This
allowed the designers to plan for enormous ships given their role. They had the ability to overpower
other frigates, but were capable of a speed to escape from a ship of the line.[33][34][35] The design was
unusual for the time, being deep,[36] long on keel and narrow of beam (width); mounting very heavy
guns; incorporating a diagonal scantling (rib) scheme aimed at limiting hogging; while giving the
ships extremely heavy planking. This gave the hull greater strength than the hulls of other navies'
frigates. Knox advised President Washington that the cost of new construction would likely exceed
the appropriations of the Naval Act. Despite this, Washington accepted and approved the plans the
same day they were submitted, April 15, 1794.[31]
Joshua Humphreys was appointed Master Constructor of the ships. An
experienced draftsman, Josiah Fox, was hired into the War Department to put plans to paper.
However, Fox disagreed with the large dimensions of the design and, according to Humphreys,
attempted to downsize the measurements while producing his drafts. This incensed Humphreys
enough that Fox was soon assigned to the mould loft with William Doughty.[37]
After or simultaneously with the creation of the drawings, a builder's half model was assembled from
which measurements were taken to create molds of the timbers. In a process known as "molding",
the dimensions of the framing pieces were chalked onto the floor of a mold loft where a template
was formed using strips of light wood.[38] Once the molds were transported to the timber crews, the
templates were used to select the part of a tree that closely matched the template. From there the
timber was felled and roughed out close to the required dimensions, then numbered for identification
and loaded onto a ship for transport.[citation needed] An additional set of more detailed molds was required
for each frigate for the construction crews to follow.

Construction[edit]
Secretary Knox suggested to President Washington that six different construction sites be used, one
for each ship, rather than building at one particular shipyard. Separate locations enabled the allotted
funds to stimulate each local economy, and Washington approved the sites on April 15, 1794. At
each site, a civilian naval constructor was hired to direct the work. Navy captains were appointed as
superintendents, one for each of the six frigates as follows:[31][39]

Guns[Note Naval
Ship Site Superintendent Reference
1]
constructor

Chesapeake Gosport, Virginia 44 Josiah Fox Richard Dale [41]

Boston, George Samuel

Constitution 44 [41]
Massachusetts Claghorn Nicholson

President New York, New York 44 Christian Bergh Silas Talbot [42]

United Philadelphia, Joshua

44 John Barry [41]
States Pennsylvania Humphreys

Portsmouth, New
Congress 36 James Hackett James Sever [41]
Hampshire

Constellation Baltimore, Maryland 36 David Stodder Thomas Truxtun [41]

Humphreys wished to use the most durable materials available for construction, primarily white
pine, longleaf pine, white oak, and, most importantly, southern live oak.[43] Live oak was used
for framing as it was a strong, dense, and long-lasting wood weighing up to 75 lb per cubic foot
(1,200 kg/m3) when freshly cut.[44] The live oak tree grows primarily in coastal areas of the United
States from Virginia to Texas, with the most suitable timber found in the coastal areas of Georgia
near St. Simons.[43][45] This desire for live oak was the primary cause of delays in the frigates'
construction. Appropriated funds from the Naval Act were not available until June
1794.[46] Shipbuilder John T. Morgan was hired by the War Department to procure the live oak and
supervise the cutting and crews. Morgan wrote to Humphreys in August reporting that it had hardly
ceased raining since his arrival and "the whole country is almost under water". Captain John Barry
was sent to check up on progress in early October; he found Morgan and several persons sick
with malaria. Timber cutting finally began when the crews arrived on the 22nd.[47] The earliest
delivery of timber occurred in Philadelphia on December 18, but another load of live oak destined for
New York was lost when its cargo ship sank. Delays continued to plague the timber cutting and
delivery operations throughout 1795. By December of that year all six keels had been laid down,
though the frigates were still unframed and far from finished.[48][49]
Construction of the frigates slowly continued until the 1796 announcement of the Treaty of Tripoli,
which was witnessed by Algiers. In accordance with the clause in the Naval Act, construction of the
frigates was to be discontinued. However, President Washington instead requested instructions from
Congress on how to proceed. Several proposals circulated before a final decision was reached
allowing Washington to complete two of the 44-gun and one of the 36-gun frigates.[50] The three
frigates nearest to completion, United States, Constellation and Constitution, were
chosen.[51] Construction of Chesapeake, Congress, and President was halted, and some of their
construction materials were sold or placed in storage.[52]

The launching of USS Constitution

The earlier predictions of Henry Knox regarding costs of the frigates came to a head in early 1797.
Of the original appropriation of $688,888.82, only about $24,000 remained. Secretary of War James
McHenry requested of Congress an additional $200,000, but only $172,000 was appropriated. The
additional funds were enough to finish the three frigates' construction, but did not allow them to be
manned and put to sea.[53] United States launched on May 10,[54] Constellation on September
7,[4] and Constitution on October 21.[3] Meanwhile, interference with American shipping by France
because of their disagreement over the Jay Treaty prompted Congress to debate authorizing
completion and manning of the three frigates. Secretary McHenry reported that an additional
$200,000 would be required for this stage of construction, touching off grumbling in Congress over
the escalating costs. Nevertheless, on July 1, Congress approved the completion and appropriated
the requested funds.[55]
When the next session of Congress convened in November, Secretary McHenry again requested
funds to complete the three frigates. Though upset over the escalating costs, Congress approved an
additional $115,833, but simultaneously launched an investigation into possible waste or fraud in the
frigate program. On March 22, 1798, McHenry turned over a report outlining several main reasons
for cost escalations: problems procuring the live oak; the logistics of supplying six separate
shipyards; and fires, yellow fever, and bad weather.[56] Additional inquiries prior to McHenry's report
revealed that the War Department used substandard bookkeeping practices, and that the authorized
funds had to be released by the Treasury Department, resulting in delays, causing waste. These
problems led to the formation of the Department of the Navy on April 30.[57]
Simultaneously, relations with France soured even further when President John Adams informed
Congress of the XYZ Affair. In response, on May 28, Congress authorized vessels of the United
States to capture any armed French vessels lying off the coast of the United States.
As Constellation, Constitution and United States were still fitting out, the first U.S. Navy vessel to put
to sea for this undeclared Quasi-War was the sloop Ganges with Richard Dale in
command.[58][59] Finally, on July 16, Congress appropriated $600,000 for completion of the remaining
three frigates; Congress launched on August 15, 1799,[60] Chesapeake on December
2,[5] and President on April 10, 1800.[61][62][63]
Armament[edit]

Carronade on the spar deck of "Constitution"

See also: Naval artillery in the Age of Sail

The 44-gun ships usually carried over 50 guns, and Constitution was known[1] to carry 24-pounder
guns in her main battery instead of the normal 18-pounders most frigates carried.[citation needed]
The Naval Act of 1794 had specified 36-gun frigates in addition to the 44s, but at some point the 36s
were re-rated as 38s.[64] Their "ratings" by number of guns was meant only as an approximation.[65]
Ships of this era usually had no permanent battery of guns, such as modern navy ships carry. The
guns and cannons were designed to be completely portable, and often were exchanged between
ships or shore as situations warranted. Each commanding officer generally outfitted armaments to
his liking, taking into consideration factors such as the overall tonnage of cargo, complement of
personnel on board, and planned routes to be sailed. Consequently, the armaments on ships would
change many times during their careers, and records of the changes were not generally kept.[66]
Commonly, twelve men and a powder-boy were required to operate each gun.[67] If needed, some
men were designated to take stations as boarders, to man the bilge pumps, or to fight fires. Guns
were normally manned on the engaged side only; if a ship engaged two opponents, gun crews had
to be divided. All of the guns were capable of using several different kinds of projectiles: round
shot, chain or bar shot, grape shot, and heated shot.[68] Each gun was mounted on a wooden gun
carriage controlled by an arrangement of rope and tackle. The Captain ordered the gun crews to
either open fire together in a single broadside, or allowed each crew to fire at will as the target came
close alongside. The gun captain pulled the lanyard to trip the flintlock which sent a spark into the
pan. The ignited powder in the pan sent a flame through the priming tube to set off the powder
charge in the gun and hurl its projectile at the enemy.
The marine detachment on board provided the naval infantry that manned the fighting tops, armed
with muskets to fire down onto the decks of the enemy ship.[67]

Frigates[edit]
The frigates were originally designated by the letters A through F until March 1795, when Secretary
of War, Timothy Pickering, prepared a list of ten suggested names for the ships. President
Washington was responsible for selecting five of the names: Constitution, United States, President,
and Congress, each of which represented a principle of the United States Constitution, together
with Constellation which derived from the blazon of the Arms of the United States, "13 stars, forming
a constellation." The sixth frigate, Chesapeake, remained nameless until 1799, when Secretary of
the Navy, Benjamin Stoddert, designated her a namesake of the Chesapeake Bay, ignoring the
previous Constitutional naming protocol.[5][69][70]

United States[edit]
Main article: USS United States (1797)

Naval Battle Between the United States & The Macedonian on October 30, 1812 by Thomas Birch, 1813

United States was built in Philadelphia, launched on May 10, 1797, and commissioned on February
22, 1797. On October 25, 1812, United States fought and captured the
frigate HMS Macedonian. United States was decommissioned on February 24, 1849, and put in
reserve at Norfolk, Virginia. In 1861, while still in reserve at Norfolk, the ship was seized and
commissioned into the Confederate States Navy, which later scuttled the ship. In 1862, Union forces
raised the scuttled ship and retained control until she was broken up in 1865.

Constellation[edit]
Main article: USS Constellation (1797)

USS Constellation by John W. Schmidt

Constellation was built in Baltimore and launched on September 7, 1797. On February 9, 1799, she
fought and captured the French frigate Insurgente. This was the first major victory by an American-
designed and -built warship. In February 1800, Constellation fought the French frigate Vengeance.
Although Vengeance was not captured or sunk, she was so badly damaged that her captain
intentionally grounded the ship to prevent her from sinking. Constellation was struck in 1853 and
broken up. Some timbers were re-used in the building of a new Constellation, and it was claimed
that it was a "repair" of the original ship (a common dodge of the time for political reasons) leading to
uncertainty over which ship was preserved in Baltimore until it was proven in 1999 to be the
second Constellation.[71]

Constitution[edit]
Main article: USS Constitution
USS Constitution under sail for the first time in 116 years on July 21, 1997.

Constitution, rated at 44 guns, launched from Edmund Hartt's shipyard in Boston, Massachusetts, on
October 21, 1797, by naval constructor George Claghorn and Captain Samuel Nicholson.[43] During
the Quasi-War she captured the French merchant ship Niger,[72] and was later involved in battling
the Barbary pirates in the First Barbary War.
She is most well known for her actions during the War of 1812 against Britain, when she captured
numerous merchant ships and defeated four
British warships: HMS Guerriere, HMS Java, HMS Cyane, and HMS Levant. The battle with
the Guerriere earned her the nickname of "Old Ironsides" and public adoration that has repeatedly
saved her from scrapping. She continued to actively serve the nation as flagship in
the Mediterranean and African squadrons and made a circumnavigation of the world in the 1840s.
During the American Civil War she served as a training ship for the United States Naval
Academy and carried artwork and industrial displays to the Paris Exposition of 1878. Retired from
active service in 1881, she served as a receiving ship until designated a museum ship in 1907. In
1931 she made a three-year, 90-port tour of the nation, and in 1997 after a comprehensive
restoration to her 1812 configuration she finally sailed again under her own power for her 200th
birthday.
The oldest commissioned warship afloat in the world,[73][Note 2] Constitution is berthed at
the Charlestown Navy Yard in Massachusetts and is used to promote understanding of the Navy's
role in war and peace through educational outreach, historic demonstration, and active participation
in public events. Constitution is open to visitors year-round, providing free tours, with
the USS Constitution Museum nearby.

Chesapeake[edit]
Main article: USS Chesapeake (1799)

USS Chesapeake
Chesapeake was built at the Gosport Navy Yard, Virginia, and was launched on December 2, 1799.
The Chesapeake was the only one of the six frigates to be disowned by Humphreys due to liberties
taken by her Master Constructor Josiah Fox during construction relating to overall dimensions.[citation
needed]
The frigate that became Chesapeake was originally planned as a 44-gun ship, but when her
construction began in 1798 Josiah Fox altered the original design plan, resulting in the ship's re-
rating to 36 guns.[75] Fox's reason for making the alteration is not clear, but may be attributed to
construction materials that were diverted to complete Constellation. Additionally, Fox and
Humphreys had earlier disagreed over the design of the six frigates, and Fox may have taken
opportunities during construction to make alterations to his own liking. Regardless, the plan for the
redesigned frigate was approved by Secretary of the Navy Benjamin Stoddert.[69]
When construction finished on Chesapeake, she had the smallest dimensions of all six frigates.[76] A
length of 152.8 ft (46.6 m) between perpendiculars and 41.3 ft (12.6 m) of beam contrasted with the
other two 36-gun frigates, Congress and Constellation, which were built to 164 ft (50 m) in length
and 41 ft (12 m) of beam.[4][60][77]
On June 22, 1807, what has become known as the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair occurred when
the Chesapeake was fired upon by HMS Leopard for refusing to comply with a demand to permit a
search for deserters from the Royal Navy. After several quick broadsides from Leopard, to which
the Chesapeake replied with only one gun, the Chesapeake struck her colors. HMS Leopard refused
the surrender, searched the Chesapeake, captured four alleged deserters, and sailed
to Halifax. Chesapeake was captured on June 1, 1813, by HMS Shannon shortly after sailing from
Boston, Massachusetts. Taken into Royal Navy service, she was later sold, and broken up
at Portsmouth, England, in 1820 (with a good deal of her timbers being made into a watermill).