Chapter–3

Process safety in using NH3 as

refrigerant in Indian ice making plants:
Assessment of existing safety
management practices with policy
recommendations from case studies
3.1 Introduction

Several industries are operated in India having a diverse investment pattern from

micro- to large- scale. In the state of West Bengal, the ice making (manufacturing) plants

under micro scale are operated for storage of food products and are located in the fishing

harbors as well as in the rural and/or residential areas in the West Bengal. Ammonia

(NH3) is used as a refrigerant in these ice making plants. Interestingly, many of the units

are operated with a few persons and sometimes are operated unmanned. Leakage of NH3

is a very common environmental hazard in and around such plants. Incidences of

environmental hazards stemming from the leakage of NH3 are generally addressed in this

state through the public complaints under the provisions of the Environment (Protection)

Act, 1986 as amended (MoEF, 1986). However, safety at work place of plants relatively

bigger in size is covered under the Factories Act, 1948 as amended (MoLE, 1948). As a

result, the safety as well as the preventive maintenance in the micro scale sector seems to

be ignored over the years. Before discussing the findings of the present chapter, the

background research works related to safety aspects stemming from the use of NH3 as a

refrigerant, for ice making plants, cold storages and other operations using NH3 for

similar purposes are reviewed here.

Dandrieux et al. (2001) discussed results obtainable from a few dispersion

experiments of liquefied NH3 in the presence of water curtains. The objective was to

evaluate the effectiveness of water barriers to counteract a weak release of NH3 at a rate

of 0.25 kg/s under pressure. The dissolution of NH3 in the water curtain was about 15%,

but the effectiveness reached a level of 90% at 10 m behind the curtain. This effectiveness

was compared with the results obtained from a release of NH3 at a rate of 0.125 kg/s.

Fitzgerald et al. (2006) reported that intoxication with anhydrous ammonia (AA) was a

common occupation-related health problem affecting farmers and fertilizer applicators.

122 Chapter 3

However, the animal exposure to this toxic chemical was seldom reported in the

literature. In this light, the authors investigated into this aspect and reported that thieves

entered a feedlot and damaged a liquid AA storage tank leading to the accidental leakage

of the gas from a valve causing death of 12 cattle overnight. It was further reported that

such problem was likely to be encountered increasingly because of on-farm storage of

AA and its access by illicit drug manufacturers. In another study, Gangopadhyay and

Das (2008) reported on two separate incidents of NH3 leakage from cold storage and ice

making plants of the West Bengal. The probable causes of the accidents and the ensuing

sequence of events were reported. In addition, the emergency procedures were

highlighted. In another study, Lin (2009) reported an environmental risk assessment of

accidental leakage of liquid NH3 from a storage tank based on its chemical characteristics

prior to setting up of a chemical industry in Guangzhou city. It assessed the behavior of

the liquid NH3 when it leaked into the atmosphere and then made calculation for the

extended area and the hazardous radius of the gaseous mass of NH3 generated.

Tarkington et al. (2009) designed to simulate sheltering-in-place inside a typical

bathroom with the shower running. Shelter-in-place strategies (like remaining indoors,

breathing through a damp cloth, sealing cracks in windows and doors using towels, and

running a shower) were often recommended by the authority under emergency response

measures to protect against accidental release of NH3. Their results reported to show that

shelter-in-place strategies substantially reduced NH3 exposure and inhalation of NH3

could be reduced 100-fold even during prolonged exposures. Cheng et al. (2014)

investigated on the dispersion of NH3 released continuously with and without the

mitigating influence of a downwind water curtain numerically, using computational fluid

dynamics. The turbulence models were used to simulate the dispersion of NH3 cloud

without downwind water curtain and the results were compared with those reported in the
 Chapter 3 123

literature. Their results revealed that the effectiveness of water curtains mainly depended

on the strong air entrainment enhanced by water droplets movement and the absorption of

NH3 also enhanced the effectiveness of water curtain mitigation system.

3.2 Scope and objective

Critical appraisal of the available literature reveals that the informations on the

leakage of NH3 from industrial establishments especially under Indian condition are rarely

reported in the literature. In fact, managing such incidents in weaker economies as in

India is a matter of great concern to the planners, developers, and regulatory authorities

engaged in implementing various rules and regulations in force. Furthermore, the cases

reported by Gangopadhyay and Das (2008) were based only on two typical incidents in

the West Bengal and were routine representations of safety reports submitted before the

concerned regulatory authorities. It is important to note that their work did not cite a

single reference on similar such incidents in the State possibly due to sparse literature.

This article however, is deficient in many aspects. For instance, in one of the cases

reported, the storage of NH3 specified was 25 kg, while in the other, the authors remained

silent about the NH3 storage capacity. Interestingly, the authors reported in the

conclusions that these cases were brought in from cold storage and ice manufacturing

plants. But, which type of unit was in association to which case was missing in the article

which is most likely to be expected by the future researchers. Furthermore, the overall

storage capacities of NH3 in the plants as well as the production capacities of the plants

were not given any cognizance. The information reported therefore, does not seem to

have been presented in a planned manner. As mentioned earlier that the authors have

presented merely safety reports stemming from the leakage of NH3 with some “do’s and

do not’s” as preventive measures that mostly resemble with those already reported in the
124 Chapter 3

existing literature. Let us elicit it as follows. Ammonia, as a refrigerant, could be used by

several industrial establishments and its safety management practices may vary depending

on the capital investment, amount of NH3 stored in the plant, nature of production,

operation and the demographic profile of the area where the plant is located. The location

of the plant as well as the number of such plants operating within the close vicinity would

also play critical role in envisaging the safety management practices. These issues under

the premise of rural areas in the state of West Bengal are assumed considerable

importances that are largely left out in the work of Gangopadhyay and Das (2008).

In order to fill these gaps in knowledge, attempts have been made in this chapter

to investigate into and assess the current safety management practices and policy of ice

making plants using NH3 as a refrigerant in the rural West Bengal. Based on this study,

policy recommendations will be put forward in order to improve the overall

environmental management practices that would have the potential to be applicable for

ice making plants operated in the rural areas of India. In this investigation, 21 plants

operating in the district of 24, Parganas (South) were selected for representing the rural

West Bengal, India. In the following sections discussions are made on methodology,

some preliminary information on the physico-chemical properties of NH3 as a refrigerant,

international and national regulatory limits set forth for NH3, and the principle of vapor-

compression refrigeration cycle used for ice making plants. The relevant data on plant

operation and production were collected from WBPCB. The raw materials for the ice

making plants are NH3, water and salt (NaCl). Except water, the owners’ provided data

on raw materials consumption for NH3 and NaCl were make up consumption to

compensate the loss. These were investigated critically and were verified scientifically

followed by subjective and objective judgments for assessing the environmental

management practices emphasizing the safety issues.

 Chapter 3 125

3.3 Methodology

In this investigation, the ice making plants operating in the district of 24, Parganas

(South) were selected for representing the rural West Bengal, India. There were several

such plants operating in this district, out of which 21 plants located in Basanti, Kakdwip,

Diamond Harbour, Raidighi, Namkhana, Mandir Bazar were considered in this study.

Initially, some preliminary information are outlined briefly on the physico-chemical

properties of NH3 as a refrigerant, international and national regulatory limits set forth for

NH3, and the principle of vapor-compression refrigeration cycle used for ice making

plants. The relevant data on plant operation and production are utilized for the purpose of

this investigation and the assessment. Such data include electricity giving authority,

production capacity, year of establishment, investment pattern, number of employees,

number of operating days per year, raw material consumption and environmental

management practices in relation to the safety aspects.

The raw materials for the ice making plants are NH3, water and salt (NaCl).

Except water, the owners’ provided data on raw materials consumption for NH3 and NaCl

are make up consumption to compensate the loss. Therefore, NH3 and NaCl

consumptions reported by the owners were not fresh charge rather than the make up

consumption. These are investigated critically and are verified scientifically followed by

subjective and objective judgments for assessing the environmental management

practices emphasizing the safety issues. Presented assessment follows from this argument.

This verification coupled with the existing environmental management practices

emphasizing the safety issues in fact, constitutes the first part of this assessment.

In the second part, the differences existing in the safety management practices

stemming from the leakage of NH3 between the micro- and the small/medium- scale units

are elucidated under the premise of the regulatory framework existing in the country. The
126 Chapter 3

merits and demerits of the existing rules and regulations are discussed taking into account

the safety related issues in the storage and handling of NH3 as a part of the overall

environmental management practices for this category of plants in the rural areas. Finally,

few recommendations are put forward for strengthening the Indian safety management

policies for better environmental management during leakage of NH3 from this category

of ice making plants in the rural West Bengal. The proposed recommendations can also

be potentially applicable to other similar rural units not only in other parts of the state but

also all around the country. The process related information and relevant data used in this

chapter were collected from the West Bengal Pollution Control Board (WBPCB).

3.4 State-of-the-art use and physico-chemical properties of ammonia as a refrigerant

It was estimated that the annual total global production of NH3 is 100 MT

commercially. Out of this 100 MT, 80% was consumed for producing urea as fertilizer,

soil injection, antifungal agent so on and forth. On the other hand, uses of the rest 20%

included explosive manufacturing, manufacturing of some inorganic chemicals, for the

reduction of emission of particulate matter from the stack of the coal fired thermal power

plant, and use as refrigerant. Out of this 20%, nearly 2% of NH3 i.e., 0.4% of the total

annual global production of NH3, was used as refrigerant in various applications. For

instance, its use as refrigerant had so far been acknowledged in (i) ice making plants, (ii)

cold storage for fruits and vegetables, (iii) processing of - shrimp, fish, prawn, beef and

pork, (iv) ice cream and dairy plants, (v) air conditioning, (vi) chemical and

petrochemical plants etc. (Siller et al., 2010; CSBP, 2013; Frazer, 2013;

TECHNICOLD SERVICES, 2013). The various physico-chemical properties of NH3 in

relation to its use as a refrigerant and material safety were well documented in the

existing literature (Ciconkov and Ayub, 2009; Eggeman, 2010; Siller et al., 2010;
 Chapter 3 127

Trousdell, 2012; Air Liquide, 2013; CSBP, 2013; DYNONOBEL, 2013; Frazer,

2013; TECHNICOLD SERVICES, 2013) and are presented in Table–3.1.

The reasons for its superiority over other traditional refrigerants such as Hydro

Fluoro Carbons (HFCs) and Hydro Chloro Fluoro Carbons (HCFCs) are excellently

reported in the literature (Ciconkov and Ayub, 2009; TECHNICOLD SERVICES,

2013) and are summarized in Table–3.2 for better understanding. Importantly, Ciconkov

and Ayub (2009) discussed that NH3 had lower global environmental impacts than the

conventional refrigerants commonly known to us as HFCs and HCFCs due to the fact that

NH3 offered the highest coefficient of performance (COP) amongst all refrigerants. The

power consumption was thus less in this case and hence indirectly reduced CO2 emissions

from thermal power plants.

3.5 International and national regulatory ambient limits of NH3

Ammonia can cause various adverse health effects to humans depending on the

epidemiological and toxicological studies carried out on it. Based on these studies, the

dose response relationship and certain crucial regulatory limits set forth internationally

are presented in Table–3.3 (Ciconkov and Ayub, 2009; CSBP, 2013). From the

regulatory limits prescribed, it is conceivable as to how the leakage of NH3 relates to

various health related distress as a function of its concentration in the ambient air. In this

light, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) of India set forth air borne

standards for NH3 annually and on 24-hourly basis. The details of the NAAQS for NH3 in

India are included in Table–3.4 (CPCB, 2009) for improved understanding.

128 Chapter 3

3.6 Principle of vapor-compression refrigeration cycle used for ice making plants

The principle of vapor-compression refrigeration cycle using NH3 as the vapor is

reviewed (Dodge, 1944; Hicks, 1998) here for better understanding. Ammonia was

compressed by a compressor at a specified pressure in the vapor compression

refrigeration cycle as shown schematically in Figure–3.1. The compressed NH3 was

condensed thereafter to a liquid on cooling by water at constant pressure. The liquefied

NH3 was stored temporarily in a receiver after leaving the condenser and was thereafter

allowed to throttle through an expansion valve to the refrigerator coils existing at

relatively lower pressure. At this lower pressure, the liquid NH3 absorbed heat and finally

started evaporating. Ammonia vapor was recycled back by feeding it to the suction side

of the compressor. The evaporating fluid might directly absorb heat intended to be

removed in the refrigerator or it could be removed indirectly by an intermediate fluid such

as brine. In the latter case, brine was to be circulated continuously between the space to

be refrigerated and an evaporator or brine cooler. The direct system was reported to be

preferable, if it completely avoided the possibility of leak of NH3 as refrigerant into the

space being cooled. The indirect system on the other hand, was recommended where one

refrigerating machine was deployed for cooling several independent points.

3.7 Overview of the ice making plants selected for the present study

The unit specific information on the year of establishment, investment pattern,

number of operating personnel, number of operating days in a year and the production

capacity in terms of tons of ice blocks per month is presented in Table–3.5 for 21 units

located in the study area. The source of electricity was the West Bengal State Electricity

Board in all these units. It can be seen from the table that the investment pattern,

operating personnel and production capacity varied markedly, while the number of
 Chapter 3 129

operating days seems realistic in these units. Interestingly, the numbers of personnel

engaged were less than 10 in all the cases except in two cases where information was not

available. In fact, these units were under micro scale classified by the Government of

India (MoJL (LD), 2006) having investment within 25.0 lakh of Indian National Rupees

(INR).

3.8 Assessment of raw material consumption by the ice making plants

The present investigation considers assessing the make up NH3 consumption

pattern and its leakage during operation. The basis for this study is being set forth by

fixing the tons of ice production per unit raw material consumption so as to obtain a

normalized value for comparison. Under this circumstance, the values of raw materials

consumption, production capacity and tons of ice produced per unit consumption of raw

material, like per kg of NH3 consumed, per m3 of water consumed and per kg of salt

consumed are presented in Table–3.6. It can be seen from the table that the values of tons

of ice per kg of NH3 (t Ice/kg NH3), tons of ice per m3 of water (t Ice/m3 Water) and tons

of ice per kg of salt (t Ice/kg Salt) for all the units varied markedly. A constant or a nearly

constant value should have been obtained, but that did not happen in this case, perhaps

mainly due to the supply of raw or primary data by the owner stemming from their lack of

adequate knowledge on the process variables. The values are therefore, not suitable for

direct use for arriving at a conclusion.

In order to obtain the constant value, calculations of consumption of raw materials

are first carried out from the first principle. As mentioned earlier, there would be some

losses of each of these raw materials. For instance, all the intake water would not be

converted into ice as there would be some losses which are common in such kind of

process operations; and this loss should be accounted for while estimating the water
130 Chapter 3

consumption for the production of ice. Similarly, there would be some losses for NH3 and

NaCl charged initially over a period of time and in order to account for these losses

provisions should be made for make up consumption for NH3 and NaCl. Furthermore,

these losses should be well within certain percentages of the raw material consumptions

calculated theoretically. From the plant operating data, these losses are proposed to be

arrived at by an averaging technique through subjective and objective judgments with

scientific insights in a realistic manner, such that the losses bear resemblance with the

calculated theoretical values and are uniform for all the plants. In the following few sub-

sections, the detailed calculations for estimating the consumption of raw materials and the

proposed averaging technique adopted are elucidated for the three raw materials

investigated separately.

3.8.1 Assessment of make up consumption of NH3

The data of a typical plant operation gathered from field survey reveals that the

NH3 refrigeration compressor was taking its suction from the evaporator at a temperature

of –11.25OC, with a vapor quantity of ammonia of 95% at –11.25OC as shown

schematically in Figure–3.1. In this figure, point B to point A was constant temperature

and constant pressure reversible process. This temperature was below the temperature of

the surroundings. Therefore, heat was flowing from the surroundings due to the

temperature difference. As a result, the evaporator produced cooling or refrigerating

effect absorbing heat Qe from the surroundings by evaporation. The liquid NH3 was

leaving the condenser at 30 OC. The detailed steps for calculation (Hicks, 1998; Jennings

and Lewis, 1947) are as follows:

 Chapter 3 131

Enthalpy of liquid NH3 at –11.25OC, HL = 129.65 kJ/kg

Enthalpy of vapor NH3 at –11.25OC, HV = 1431.40 kJ/kg

Therefore, the latent heat of vaporization of NH3 at –11.25OC, hfg

= HV – HL

= [1431.40 – 129.65] kJ/kg = 1301.75 kJ/kg

Enthalpy at point A, HA

= Enthalpy of liquid NH3 + (vapor fraction) × (latent heat of vaporization)

= 129.65 + (0.95 × 1301.75) kJ/kg (assuming a vapor fraction of 95%)

= 1366.31 kJ/kg

Enthalpy at point B, HB at 30OC = 323.1 kJ/kg

Therefore, heat taken by liquid NH3 from surrounding water such that water freezes to ice

and NH3 becomes a mixture of liquid and vapor

= Enthalpy at point A – Enthalpy at point B

= HA – HB = (1366.31 – 323.1) kJ/kg

= 1043.21 kJ/kg = (1043.21/4.18) kCal/kg

= 249.57 kCal/kg = [(249.57×1000)/252] Btu/kg = 990.36 Btu/kg.

Quantity of NH3 required producing 1 ton of ice

= [1 ton refrigeration] / [HA – HB]

= [200 Btu/min]/[990.36 Btu/kg]

= 0.2019 kg/min or 12.12 kg/hr ton of refrigeration.

[1 ton refrigeration = 200 Btu/min; (Gunther, 1969)]

For 21 plants, the total ice production would be 7331 ton/month (Table–3.6).

Therefore, NH3 required for producing 7331 ton/month of ice

= [12.12 × 7331] kg/month

= 88851.72 kg/month ≈ 88852 kg/month

132 Chapter 3

The values of t Ice/kg NH3 are plotted against each plant through a bar graph and

are shown in Figure–3.2. It can be seen from the figure that the ratio of mass of ice

produced to the consumption of NH3 varied markedly and thus an average value can be

determined from best plant operating data. It can further be seen from the figure that more

than 50% (i.e., 12 out of 21) plants attained an average value of 5.0 t Ice/kg NH3

proposed to be achievable by all the plants. Based on this average, the values of make up

consumption of NH3 for each individual unit were estimated from the actual capacity of

ice production and are presented in Table–3.7. It can be seen from the table that the

estimated value of the total make up consumption of NH3 for 21 plants was 1466

kg/month as against 4450 kg/month actually provided by the owners. The estimated value

was 33% (ca.) of the value provided by the owners. Furthermore, the quantity of make up

NH3 estimated was [(1466×100)/88852 =] 1.65% of the total NH3 charged at the

beginning, while the quantity of make up NH3 consumption considering plant owners data

of 4450 kg/month was [(4450×100)/88852 =] 5% of the total NH3 charged at the

beginning. Clearly, it indicated that the make up consumption of NH3 stemming from its

loss shown by the owners was (5% – 1.65% =) 3.35% excess than estimated in the current

study. It might be attributed due to either providing wrong process data or the operators

were really storing excess NH3 than what was exactly required.

Storage of NH3 was leading to some quantum of leakage from these units that

might have caused discomforts to the humans residing nearby. In case of excess storage

of NH3, the degree of discomfort would likely to increase owing to increased quantum of

leakage. Whatever may be the case, leakage must have occurred causing discomforts to

humans that was experienced by the regulatory agency (WBPCB) through receipts of

public complaints from the local residents. Such plants were located in the rural-cum-

residential areas as mentioned earlier and the demographic profile was considerably
 Chapter 3 133

different compared to an urban city. The rate of literacy was generally lower in rural area

than in an urban city, and as a result, the average population was practically unaware of

the problems associated to the hazardous properties of chemicals like NH3. Therefore,

neither the wrong information, nor the excess storage of NH3 was acceptable under any

circumstances. This aspect is separately discussed in Section 3.10.

3.8.2 Assessment of consumption of water

The values of t Ice/m3 Water derived from owners’ provided data are plotted

similarly against each plant through a bar graph and are shown in Figure–3.3. It can be

seen from the figure that the ratio of mass ice produced to water consumed varied

markedly and here an average value was also necessary. Usually, 1 ton of ice could be

produced from 1 m3 of water (assuming density of water as 1 g/cc) under ideal condition.

Therefore, plants showing a ratio of more than 1.0 can not acceptable, as these are in

violation of the second law of thermodynamics and are rejected. On the other hand,

values far below 1.0 can not also be acceptable since it leads to huge loss of water, a

natural resource. Loss can not however, be eliminated but can be reduced. In this analysis,

this ratio was therefore, considered to be 0.95 t Ice/m3 water assuming a reasonable and

realistic loss of 5%. Interestingly, 17 out of 21 plants (i.e., ~ 81% of the total plants)

attained a value of 0.95 t Ice/m3 Water as can be seen from the figure. It can also be seen

from the figure that 16 plants had shown water consumption ≥ 1.00 t Ice/m3 Water

indicating a clear violation of the second law of the thermodynamics. Considering the

proposed average of 0.95 t Ice/m3 Water, the values of water consumption of each plant

were estimated and are presented in Table–3.7. The total water consumption for 21 plants

calculated out to be 7717 m3/month as against a 6557 m3/month provided by the owners.

The present study therefore, estimated slightly higher water consumption to the tune of
134 Chapter 3

18% than the value provided by the owners in contrast to yielding lower values of make

up NH3 consumption described earlier.

3.8.3 Assessment of make up consumption of salt

Aqueous NaCl or brine solution was used in ice making plant where brine

temperature was somewhat above 0OF. It is generally applied for making ice where brine

temperatures were carried within the range of 14OF to 18OF (Gunther, 1969). In practice,

the brine temperatures are carried within the range of 16OF to 18OF in the study plants.

From the complete brine table (Gunther, 1969), the amounts of salt required were

obtained at these two temperatures of 16OF and 18OF and accordingly a range of amount

of salt required were determined. The water required in the brine solution was determined

from the knowledge of volume of the chamber, wherein the ice cans were immersed. The

fraction of the chamber filled in by brine was also required to be known for the purpose

of such calculation. The data collected from field survey was used in order to analyze the

present situation. A typical plant of 5 ton capacity of ice production had shown to use

brine solution tank of size 24′×12′×4′2″ (Length×Breadth×Height). The tank was half-

filled with brine solution and then water filled ice cans were immersed into the tank.

Therefore, the effective volume of brine solution for the production of 5 ton ice was

[{(24′×12′×4′2″)×(0.3048)3m3}/2 = 16.99 m3 ≈] 17 m3. The volume of brine required for

the production of 1 ton ice would be [17/5 m3 =] 3.4 m3.

From the complete brine table (Gunther, 1969) the amounts of salt at 16OF and at

18OF determined from interpolation were 1.226 lb salt/gallon of water (i.e., 146.50 kg

salt/m3 of water) and 1.0873 lb salt/gallon of water (i.e., 130.29 kg salt/m3 of water)

respectively. Therefore, the amount of salt required for the production of 1 ton ice would

be [(130.29×3.4) = 442.99 ≈] 443 kg at 18OF and [(146.50×3.4) = 498.1 ≈] 498 kg at

 Chapter 3 135

16OF. Therefore, for producing 7331 ton ice /month the amount of salt required would be

ranging from (443×7331 =) 3247633 kg/month to (498×7331 =) 3650838 kg/month.

The values of t Ice/kg Salt derived from owners provided data are plotted against

the number of plants through a bar graph and are shown in Figure–3.4. It can be seen

from the figure that t Ice/kg Salt varied greatly as in the case of other raw materials and

here again an average value was determined from the best plant operating data. The

average value of t Ice/kg Salt was derived from the values attained by 12 out of 21 plants

(more than 50%), since 12 plants had already attained the average value of consumption

of NH3 mentioned earlier. Therefore, the number of plant (= 12) was considered an

earmark for drawing an average for raw materials in terms of make up consumption of

NH3 and salt. But this logic does not hold good for the water consumption as described

earlier. The average value of t Ice/kg Salt, in this case was 1.50 (Figure–3.4).

Considering the proposed average of 1.50 t Ice/m3 Salt, the values of the salt consumption

of each plant were estimated and are presented comprehensively in Table–3.7.

The estimated value of the total make up consumption of salt for 21 plants was

4887 kg/month as against a 4573 kg/month actually provided by the owners. The

estimated value of the total make up salt consumption was 7% (ca.) higher than the value

provided by the owners in contrast to yielding lower values of make up NH3 consumption

described earlier. Furthermore, the quantity of salt estimated was [(4887×100)/3247633

=] 0.13 % to [(4887×100)/3650838 =] 0.15 % of the total salt required at the beginning,

while the make up salt consumption considering plant owners data of 4573 kg/month was

[(4573×100)/3247633 =] 0.12 % to [(4573×100)/3650838 =] 0.14 % of the total salt

charged at the beginning. Apparently, the difference in the percentage of loss estimated

and reported by the owners appeared to be marginal however, the loss in terms of quantity

was significant. Best operating practices of such plants could save such loss of salt.
136 Chapter 3

Operating these plants in a cluster with a common source of salt could be one of the

solutions to reduce the loss.

3.8.4 Critical appraisal on the raw material consumption

It is worth noticing that the estimation based on the average technique adopted in

the present assessment had yielded make up NH3 consumption 33 % of the amount

provided by the owners, while water and make up salt consumptions estimated higher

values than provided by the owners to the tune of 18% and 7% respectively. Clearly, from

the foregoing analyses, it was understandable that the owners have provided higher values

of make up NH3 consumption, while showed lower values of water as well as make up

salt consumption, under the present analytical domain. In light of these observations, the

possibility of leakage of NH3 due to its handling and storage for more than the amount

actually required was therefore, justified. The storage and handling of NH3 in an isolated

manner throughout the district in the rural-cum-residential areas necessitated a powerful

administrative tool to avoid problems associated with the leakage of NH3. In fact,

surveillance and monitoring to each individual unit by any governmental agency did not

seem viable considering the existence of a large number of units operating in the state of

the West Bengal. The status of leakage of NH3 from such ice making plants as well as

their status of overall environmental management is detailed in Section 3.10.

3.9 Surveillance and monitoring of ice making plants by the governmental agencies

The ice making plants or the cold storages using NH3 as refrigerant are generally

inspected and monitored in tandem by the Directorate of Factories (DoF), Government of

West Bengal (GoWB) and by the WBPCB. The DoF inspect plants as per the provisions

laid down in the Factories Act, 1948 (MoLE, 1948) while the WBPCB inspect plants
 Chapter 3 137

under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 as amended (MoEF,

1986). The ice making plants or any manufacturing plants whereon the number of

workers working were less than 10 on any day of the preceding 12 months with the aid of

electricity were not considered as “Factory” under the provisions of the Factories Act,

1948 (MoLE, 1948) and were excluded from the administrative control of the provisions

laid down in the said Act. The excerpts of the relevant Section of the aforesaid Act are

given below for ease of understanding:

“Section 2 (m) of Factories Act, 1948:

‘factory’ means any premises including the precincts thereof –

whereon ten or more workers are working or were working on any day of

the preceding twelve months, and in any part of which a manufacturing

process is being carried on with the aid of power, or is ordinarily so

carried on, or

(i) whereon twenty or more workers are working or were working on any

day of the preceding twelve months, and in any part of which a

manufacturing process is being carried on without the aid of power, or is

ordinarily so carried on, but does not include a mine subject to the

operation of the Mines Act, 1952 (35 of 1952), or a mobile unit belonging

to the armed forces of the Union, a railway running shed or a hotel,

restaurant or eating place.

Explanation–I: For computing the number of workers for the purposes of

this clause all the workers [different groups and relays] in a day shall be

taken into account.

138 Chapter 3

Explanation–I: For the purposes of this clause, the mere fact that an

Electronic Data Processing Unit or a Computer Unit is installed in any

premises or part thereof, shall not be construed to make it a factory if no

manufacturing process is being carried on in such premises or part

thereof.”

The plants under study were therefore, excluded from the surveillance and

monitoring by the DoF at any point of time. These plants however, would require No

Objection Certificate or the Consent to Establish from the WBPCB prior to establishment

and Consent to Operate prior to operation. Consent to Operate was however, necessary to

be renewed every on 4 year. Interestingly, any leakage of NH3 from such plants was

generally being inspected by the WBPCB based on the receipt of public complaints. But

the agency responsible for looking after the safety both at the “factory” work place and at

off-site did not have any binding in such a situation (where the number of workers was

less than 10 and the manufacturing unit was aided with the electricity) as per the aforesaid

Act. In contrast, plants having number of workers more than 10 and the manufacturing

unit was aided with the electricity, were under periodic surveillance of the DoF

irrespective of any NH3 leakage, followed by certification.

Furthermore, there were stringent provisions under the said Act to be complied

with during an emergency, like the leakage of NH3 that usually were strictly adhered to

the so called “factory”. Therefore, a case study, demonstrating the regulatory activities of

the DoF as well as other regulatory agencies on the leakage of NH3 from a “factory” as

defined in the Factories Act, 1948, engaged in the refrigeration using NH3 as the

refrigerant, principally analogous to those reported for ice making plants, was necessary

in the present study to draw a comparative assessment between these two different
 Chapter 3 139

cultures distinguished mainly by the number of workers employed and the aid of

electricity. In this light, an accidental scenario generated from the leakage of NH3 from a

cold storage factory in the urban city of Kolkata is described with the regulatory

surveillance of the DoF and others in Section 3.9 next.

3.10 Case study on the leakage of NH3 leading to an accidental scenario

An accidental release of NH3 took place from a fish (shrimp) processing factory

namely, M/s Veejoy Impex on 23.01.2011 at about 3.30 PM located in the densely

populated area of urban city of Kolkata, West Bengal (The Statesman, 2011). The

process description, description of the incident, control measures adopted to control the

situation and the preventive measures prescribed by the DoF and various other regulatory

agencies are described in the following few sub-sections.

3.10.1 Process description of the factory

The factory was engaged in processing of fish (like shrimps) followed by its

preservation. The preservation of fish was carried out in the cold storage in which HCFC-

22 and NH3 were used as the refrigerants in Unit # 1 and Unit # 2 respectively. In the Unit

# 1, there were two gas receivers, two compressors, two plate freezers and one store. The

overall capacity of the gas receivers was 141 kg of HCFC -22. On the other hand, the

Unit # 2 comprised two gas receivers, three compressors, two plate freezers and one store.

The capacity of the gas receivers in the Unit # 2 was 2.2 tons each. Usually, one of the

gas receivers was in operation, while the other was kept as standby. In the Unit # 2, the

overall NH3 storage capacity in the gas receivers, vessel, intercooler and oil separator was

3.5 tons. The unit was however, operated at a storage of 3.0 tons. The capacities of the

two gas receivers in Unit # 2 were 1500 kg and 1000 kg respectively. Reportedly, the gas
140 Chapter 3

receivers should not have more than 65% storage during operation. The receiver in the

NH3 refrigeration system having an approximate diameter of 0.61 m and length of 4.88 m

was used for keeping the liquid NH3 under pressure. Since the incident took place in unit

# 2, the process is described based on this unit and the various stages of operation are

detailed in a block diagram as shown in the Figure–3.5. It can be seen from the figure

that the freezer (Step III) and storage (Step V) were operated at –40OC and –20OC

respectively for which NH3 as refrigerant is required.

The functioning of the freezer and the flake ice making machine using NH3 as

refrigerant is shown in a block diagram in Figure–3.6. It can be seen from the figure that

NH3 from the gas receiver was taken into a vessel and was pumped into three plate

freezers for processed fish to maintain –40OC and into the flake ice making machine.

From these units NH3 was evaporated after absorbing heat and was fed into the intake line

of the compressor. The compressor was further connected with an intercooler followed by

an oil separator. Finally, the compressed NH3 was condensed in a condenser operated

with a cooling tower and returned to the vessel as shown in the figure.

3.10.2 What went wrong - the Incident

The incident occurred in the Unit # 2 of the factory. Ammonia gas was contained

in the receiver under 250 psi pressure in the machine room of the factory. The location of

the receiver was 0.61m (ca.) towards west from the main gate of the machine room while

1.22 m (ca.) towards south from the north side wall of the machine room. The main gate

of the machine room was 30.48 m (ca.) towards west from the main approach road. On

the date the incident took place, the receivers were containing 1200 kg (capacity 1500 kg)

and 800 kg (capacity 1000 kg) of NH3 totaling to 2000 kg having a line pressure of 250

psi. Therefore, the receiver # 2 was 80% filled in with NH3 and was more than 65%
 Chapter 3 141

required during operation as mentioned earlier. Therefore, the receiver # 2 was failed due

to excess storage of NH3 leading to an over pressure from the dished end weld joint

(weakest point). A combined effect of internal corrosion and low empty space over the

liquid might also have influenced in causing this failure. Finally, NH3 was released into

the surrounding environment causing illness to humans and other living objects present in

the locality within a radius of 1km (ca.). Reportedly, one buffalo and one pigeon were

died. The workers fled off from the spot out of fear.

3.10.3 Measures taken to control the situation

Water was sprayed by the Fire Service officials’ towards the machine room from

one of the sides. Later, the receiver was investigated by the Disaster Management Group

and detected a crack on the receiver # 2. An attempt was made by them to control the

release of NH3 from the crack detected on this receiver using metallic plate with rubber

gasket and chain/bolt assembly. The technique adopted was however, inadequate and the

leakage of NH3 gas was continued till 24.01.2011. The gas was ultimately drained out to a

nearby pond to take the control over the situation.

3.10.4 Fault Diagnosis

The incident was diagnosed to be occurred owing to lack of training in respect of

the filling of the receiver by NH3 and its probable leakage. It also indicated that the

occupier did not impart adequate training for conducting periodic supervision to avert

such accidental scenario to ensure safety both at work place and at off-site in accordance

with the provisions of Section 7A of the Factories Act, 1948, as amended (MoLE, 1948).

Further, the occupier did not inform the concerned authority within five hours of

occurrence of the incident as required under the provisions of Rule 99 of the West Bengal
142 Chapter 3

Factories Rules, 1958 prescribed under Section 88A of the aforesaid Factories Act, 1948,

that could have yielded better results than happened actually.

3.10.5 Promulgation of stricter environmental policy by the WBPCB

After three successive incidents, including the incident discussed in Section 3.9.2

on the leakage of NH3 in and around Kolkata during January 2011 killing one person and

leaving several persons ill, a stricter environmental policy was promulgated by the

WBPCB in relation to the restricted use of NH3 in the state of West Bengal for

refrigeration purposes (The Hindu, 2011). In fact, WBPCB directed all the ice making

plants and cold storages located within the municipal areas in the state to switch over

from NH3 as refrigerant to other suitable gas like chloro-difluoro methane (molecular

formula: CHClF2, HCFC-22 or R-22) by 31.12.2012. This means that the plants located

in rural areas under the Panchyats would however, not be required to undergo such

switching over. It was further directed by the WBPCB that no permission would be

granted to any ice making plants and cold storages in the event of using NH3 in municipal

areas (The Statesman, 2011; WBPCB, 2013).

3.10.6 Directive issued by the Directorate of Factories to prevent incidents of NH3

leakage

Preventive measures recommended by the DoF to avoid such incidents were:

1. To comply with the guidelines of WBPCB in connection with usage of refrigerants.

2. To impart proper training and knowledge for conducting periodic supervision

ensuring safety both at work place and at off-site.

3. To comply with the condition as specified in para 7 of provisions of Rule 56 of the

West Bengal Factory Rules, 1958 under section 31 of the Factories Act, 1948, as
 Chapter 3 143

amended (MoLE, 1948), which reads “All pressure vessels, plants, pipelines,

receivers, etc. in the NH3 refrigeration system shall be tested by competent person

regularly at periodic intervals with suitable nondestructive tests (ultrasonic tests,

radiography of the welded joints) / hydrostatic test, etc. as applicable, as per

frequency”.

4. To follow the provisions of the Rule 94 of the West Bengal Factories Rule, 1958

specified under section 87 of the aforesaid Factories Act 1948, as amended as

summarized in Table–3.8.

3.10.7 Directives issued by the West Bengal Fire and Emergency Services to prevent

incidents of NH3 leakage

Safety measures were recommended by the West Bengal Fire and Emergency

Services for immediate implementation by both units considering the operation in the

densely populated area to avoid such incidents in future.

3.10.7.1 Unit-I using HCFC-22 or R-22

1. To install “High Velocity Water Spray” system in the gas chamber having HCFC-22

header in the Unit-I.

2. To install “Automatic Water Sprinkler” system in all floors of the processing and

preprocessing zone including internal corridors.

3. To provide gas leakage sensor incorporated with hooter at strategic locations.

4. To provide two sets of “Breathing Apparatus” for use in the event of an emergency

with trained technicians.

5. To install dedicated fire fighting pumps, constructing a separate pump room in the

building, to supply water at the designed pressure and discharge rate. Arrangements
144 Chapter 3

shall be made such that water availability will be ensured during such an emergency

situation. Such pumps shall have both manual and auto start up facilities.

6. To properly mark all the exit routes with visible signage (e.g., fluorescent signs).

7. To make the passageways free from any encroachment for smooth evacuation during

emergency.

3.10.7.2 Unit-II using NH3

1. To replace NH3 as refrigerant by other gas like HCFC-22 and/or as approved by the

WBPCB.

2. To protect the room with “High Velocity Water Spray” system.

3. To install “Automatic Water Sprinkler” in all floor areas of the processing and

preprocessing zone including internal corridors.

4. To provide gas leakage sensor incorporated with hooter at strategic locations.

5. To provide two sets of “Breathing Apparatus” for use in the event of an emergency

with trained technicians.

6. To install dedicated fire fighting pumps, constructing a separate pump room in the

building, to supply water at the designed pressure and discharge rate. Arrangements

shall be made such that water availability will be ensured during such an emergency

situation. Such pumps shall have both manual and auto start up facilities.

7. To properly mark all the exit routes with visible signage (e.g., fluorescent signs).

8. To make the passageways free from any encroachment for smooth evacuation during

emergency.
 Chapter 3 145

3.10.8 Action taken by the fish processing factory

The refrigerant for Unit # 2 was converted from NH3 to HCFC-22 with the overall

storage capacity increased from 2500 kg of NH3 to 3000 kg HCFC-22.

3.11 Status of safety measures adopted to prevent leakage of NH3 vis-a-vis public

complaints received by the WBPCB due to the leakage of NH3 from plants under

current investigation

The plant specific preventive safety measures and counter measures adopted

during any possible leakage of NH3 and the status of public complaints received by the

WBPCB on the NH3 leakage are presented in details in Table–3.9. It can be seen from the

table that 10 out of 21 plants had adopted safety measures. The safety measures adopted

were not flown from the directive of DoF as usually occurred in the case of a “factory”

described in details in Section 3.9 earlier. Therefore, though little, there was a scope of

deviation from the normal plant operation in these plants leading to release of NH3. And

in that, evidences of leakage of NH3 causing human discomforts were recorded stemming

from public complaints. Sometimes, intervention of judiciary had also been taken place to

improve the environmental culture of the owner in the locality through the WBPCB.

There were 3 out of 21 plants recorded such public complaints as shown in Table–3.9.

These small plants were not free from errors in so far as the leakage of NH3 was

concerned in a situation where “factory” in urban city had shown accidental scenario

leading to killing of humans and animals. On the other hand, lodging complaints from the

remote rural areas to the WBPCB in this instant case was a matter of great uncertainty.

The status of public complaints due to NH3 leakage (Table–3.9) might not truly reflect

the accidental scenario in a sense that all the leakages might not have been adequately

addressed through public complaints and in that case the situation could have been graver
146 Chapter 3

than what has projected here. To explain this aspect, it is essential to bring into the picture

of the knowledge-base of the rural people coupled with their attitudes and interests in

lodging complaints. These factors in many situations were governed by the desires of the

owners. Therefore, it might not be wise to base any arguments depending only on the

receipt of the public complaints against 3 out of 21 plants for making an adhoc decision.

The make up NH3 consumption for each individual plant was significantly lower than the

quantity of storage reported in the case of the factory in the Kolkata. Apparently, the

degree of exposure stemming from an accidental release or even a fire incident in these

micro scale plants might not be identical as in the case of a factory of similar size in the

Kolkata described earlier. On the other hand, intermittent leakages from the micro scale

plants located in an isolated manner might lead to exposures to NH3 to humans longer

than in case of a factory. In fact, exposure here would persist for a long period of time at a

relatively lower concentration than in a factory described in the case of an urban area

especially due to execution of emergency planning quicker than in rural areas. Given the

urgency laid in the matter, the need of attention by the concerned regulatory agency to the

plants under micro scale using NH3 as refrigerants may therefore, not be ruled out.

3.12 Development of advanced techniques to use NH3 as refrigerant to replace the

Ozone Depleting Substances and chemicals having higher GWP

Despite several advantages of NH3, its use as refrigerants was often asked for

replacement with HFCs, Chloro Fluoro Carbons (CFCs) or HCFCs owing to its toxicity

causing health hazards during an accidental release. For instance, WBPCB had issued

order for replacement of NH3 with HCFC-22 in the Municipal areas as discussed earlier.

But the Kyoto Protocol restricted the use of HFCs for their high GWP while the

Stockholm Convention restricted the use of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) e.g.,
 Chapter 3 147

CFCs and HCFCs. Thus their usage as refrigerants would become questionable in recent

years. In light of these conflicting observations, Ciconkov and Ayub (2009) investigated

elaborately in an excellent manner into the possibilities of new technologies in NH3

refrigerating and air conditioning systems. Relevant aspects of this work are reviewed

here for improving the overall environmental scenario keeping in mind that the ban on the

use of NH3 from the toxicity point of view and subsequent switch over to ODS may lead

to global problem as the latter is not free from any leakage. Furthermore, NH3 based

system had shown to have lower carbon foot print than HCFC-22 or other ODS. Thus the

global issues (Global Warming and Ozone Depletion) had prompted scientist, engineers

and the administrators for advanced research on NH3 refrigeration cycle around the world

to make it a more environmental friendly refrigerant as before. Additionally, sensitization

through the planning, development, maintenance and training could curb the negative

impacts of NH3. One best option to reduce the accidental potential during leakage of NH3

is to reduce its charge and to achieve it, a secondary coolant is necessary. The secondary

coolants of choice are water, glycol/water mixture, calcium chloride, sodium chloride,

potassium acetate and CO2. Amongst these, CO2 showed best coolant property by

reducing pipe sizes and introducing with smaller prime movers. The use of secondary

coolants in commercial chillers had shown to restrict NH3 charge less than 50 kg to

decrease its leakages. Furthermore, the cascade refrigerating systems with NH3 and CO2

as secondary coolant were reported to be installed in large industrial systems where low

temperatures (-30 to -540C) were required. In this technique, the NH3 charge was limited

to the machine room whereas only CO2 circulated in the cold room. This technique has

the potential to replace the HFC and HCFC refrigerants and thus the future of NH3 as a

lead refrigerant is gaining the momentum. In another study of Lacoursie`re and Dumas

(2013), it was reported that the Canadian governments promulgated legislations to phase
148 Chapter 3

out and prohibit the use, production, and importation of HCFC-22 substances and

equipment using HCFC-22 as refrigerant. In view of these legislations, the HCFC-22

based refrigeration systems used in 400 out of 500 hockey arenas in the province of

Quebec were modified to use NH3 as one of the most ozone friendly refrigerants. In order

to use NH3 as the refrigerant, the reduction in the risk to an acceptable level for the

neighbors and users was a matter of consideration. These studies clearly revealed the

importance of the use of NH3 as a refrigerant so far as the global environmental issues are

concerned.

3.13 Policy recommendations for better environmental management practices for

the micro scale ice making plants and cold storages located in the rural areas of

West Bengal as well as in India

Critical appraisal of the exiting scenarios of the micro scale ice making plants in

the rural West Bengal coupled with medium scale cold storages located in the urban city

of Kolkata indicates that there is a necessity for periodic inspection and surveillance to

the plants under the micro scale as well mainly due to the fact that these are located

mainly in the rural areas of West Bengal in a scattered manner. The leakage of NH3

though small in such a single plant compared to a small or even medium scale plant, they

need attention to avoid human discomforts stemming from its exposure. The facilities

available under emergency contingency plans in the areas under rural districts are

seemingly different than in an urban location. Furthermore, these plants are excluded

from the routine inspection and surveillance by the concerned regulatory authority

looking after the accidents (namely DoF) under the provisions of the relevant Act of

India. In the light of these findings, following recommendations are being put forward for

achieving improved environmental management in operating such micro scale plants in

 Chapter 3 149

rural West Bengal. The recommendations proposed here could also have the potential for

implementation in other parts of the West Bengal as well as in the other parts of the

country.

1. The plants under micro scale shall be covered under inspection and surveillance

under the provisions of Factories Act of India with amendment.

2. The definition of the “factory” in the said Act shall be revised.

3. The inspection and surveillance protocol are proposed to be revised and developed

based on the quantity of storage of NH3 to the plants. For instance, the plant of

larger size in respect of storage of NH3 shall be inspected more frequently than a

smaller one as described in Table–3.10.

4. Directorate of Factories shall take the help from the district administration for the

development of workforce for conducting the inspection especially in rural areas.

5. Sensitization-cum-training programme shall be organized inviting the owners,

residents likely to be affected both in rural and in urban areas in case of a possible

leakage, and a few representatives from the regulatory agencies.

6. In order to comply with the frequency of inspection proposed, if the development

of the work force is becoming a problem, then the respective State Government

shall develop industrial cluster to accommodate the units under micro scale.

7. Industrial cluster shall have distinct advantages over the operation of micro scale

units in an isolated manner. The raw materials (NH3, Water and Salt) could be

stored in a common place from where these could be delivered to the units

occupied within the cluster as per their registered requirements. This proposal

entails marginal losses. The inspection to all the units by any regulatory agency

could easily be covered in a single run. Waste management if any, will also

become simpler. If acquisition of land for occupancy of all the units is not
150 Chapter 3

conceivable in a single cluster, then it is suggested to develop small clusters such

that the storage of NH3 for rendering services to the units collectively in the

cluster would be restricted within a certain limit. For instance, 21 units discussed

in this article would require nearly 1466 kg/month of NH3 (Table–3.7), and in that

an inspection every on 9 months would suffice as per the proposed frequency of

inspection presented in Table–3.10. The size of the cluster may be decided based

on the NH3 storage capacity and formation of too small or too big cluster may be

avoided from the point of view of conducting inspection as well as to restrict the

consequence of an accidental scenario within a controllable limit.

8. Water- or- air- curtain may be installed in case of developing a cluster for the

storage of NH3 to operate it during an emergency.

9. Exploring advanced techniques as in developed nations in adopting NH3 with

secondary coolant based refrigeration is necessary in minimizing NH3 charging so

as to avoid the use of ODS and chemicals having GWP higher than NH3.

3.14 Conclusions

Several industries are operated in India having a diverse investment pattern from

micro scale to large scale. Ice making (manufacturing) plants operate mostly in the micro

scale for storage of food products such as fish in West Bengal, India, and are located in

the fishing harbors as well as in the rural and/ or residential areas. Ammonia (NH3) is

used as a refrigerant in these ice making plants. Interestingly, many of the units are

operated with a few persons and sometimes operate unmanned. Thus, leakage of NH3 is a

very common environmental hazard in and around such plants. Incidences of

environmental hazards stemming from the leakage of NH3 are generally addressed

through public complaints under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act,
 Chapter 3 151

1986 as amended. However, safety at work place of plants relatively bigger in size,

identified as “Factory” is covered under the Factories Act, 1948 as amended. The

“Factory” under the provisions of the said Act is defined as “any manufacturing plant

(e.g., the ice making plant) whereon the number of workers are more than 10 on any day

of the preceding 12 months with the aid of electricity or whereon workers are more than

20 on any day of the preceding twelve months, and in any part of which a manufacturing

process is being carried on without the aid of power”. Therefore, plants deploying

workers less than 10 and operated with the aid of electricity are not considered to be

“Factories” and are likely to be excluded from the administrative control of the provisions

laid down in the said Act. As a result, the safety and the preventive maintenance in the

micro scale sector seem to be ignored over the years. In fact, managing such incidents in

weaker economies as in India is a matter of great concern to the planners, developers, and

regulatory authorities engaged in implementing various rules and regulations in force.

Critical appraisal of the available literature reveals that the informations on the

leakage of NH3 from industrial establishments especially under Indian conditions are

rarely reported in the literature. An attempt has therefore, been made in this chapter to

investigate into and assess the current safety management practices and policy of ice

making plants using NH3 as a refrigerant in the rural West Bengal. In this investigation,

21 plants operating in the district of 24, Parganas (South) were selected for representing

the rural West Bengal, India. Initially, some preliminary information were outlined on the

physico-chemical properties of NH as a refrigerant, international and national regulatory

3

limits set forth for NH , and the principle of vapor-compression refrigeration cycle used
3

for ice making plants. The relevant data on plant operation and production were collected

from WBPCB. The raw materials for the ice making plants are NH , water and salt
3
152 Chapter 3

(NaCl). Except water, the owners’ provided data on raw materials consumption for NH
3

and NaCl were make up consumption to compensate the loss. These were investigated

critically and were verified scientifically followed by subjective and objective judgments

for assessing the environmental management practices emphasizing the safety issues. The

findings of this chapter are summarized as follows:

Assessing make up NH3 consumption

The overall NH3 charged at the beginning was estimated to be 88852 kg/month

from the first principle for 21 units. The make up NH3 consumption was thereafter

assessed from an averaging technique utilizing the owners’ provided data that was

verified with the total NH3 charged at the beginning. This technique indicated that more

than 50% (i.e., 12 out of 21) plants attained an average value of 5.0 t Ice/kg NH3

proposed to be achievable by all the plants. Based on this average, the total make up

consumption of NH3 for 21 plants was estimated to be 1466 kg/month as against 4450

kg/month actually provided by the owners. The estimated value of make NH3

consumption was 33% of the value provided by the owners and was 1.65% of the total

NH3 charged at the beginning, while considering the plant owners’ data it was 5% of the

total NH3 charged at the beginning. Clearly, it indicated that the make up consumption of

NH3 stemming from its loss shown by the owners was 3.35% excess than estimated.

Storage of NH3 led to some leakage from these units causing discomforts to the humans

residing nearby that was experienced by the WBPCB through receipts of public

complaints from the local residents.

 Chapter 3 153

Assessing water consumption

In this analysis, a reasonable and realistic loss of 5% water was assumed to

produce 0.95 t Ice/m3 water. Interestingly, 17 out of 21 plants (i.e., ~ 81% of the total

plants) attained this value and was considered as the proposed average value for the

assessment. The total water consumption for 21 plants estimated to be 7717 m3/month as

against 6557 m3/month provided by the owners. The present study therefore, estimated

slightly higher water consumption to the tune of 18% than the value provided by the

owners’ in contrast to yielding lower values of make up NH3 consumption described

earlier.

Assessing make up salt consumption

The total salt charged at the beginning was estimated to be 3650838 kg/month

(maximum) from the first principle for 21 units. The total make up consumption of salt

for 21 plants was estimated by the averaging technique using values attained by 12 out of

21 plants (more than 50%), since 12 plants already attained the average value of

consumption of NH3 mentioned earlier. The estimated value was 4887 kg/month as

against 4573 kg/month actually provided by the owners. The estimated value was 7%

(ca.) higher than the value provided by the owners in contrast to yielding lower values of

make up NH3 consumption described earlier. Furthermore, the quantity of make up salt

estimated was 0.13 % to 0.15 % of the total salt required at the beginning.

Critical appraisal on the raw material consumption

It is worth noticing that the estimation based on the average technique adopted in

the present assessment had yielded make up NH3 consumption 33 % of the amount

provided by the owners, while water and make up salt consumptions estimated higher
154 Chapter 3

values than provided by the owners to the tune of 18% and 7% respectively. It was thus

observed that the owners had provided higher values of make up NH3 consumption.

Therefore, the possibility of leakage of NH3 due to its handling and storage for more than

the amount actually required was therefore, justified. The storage and handling of NH3 in

an isolated manner throughout the district in the rural-cum-residential areas necessitated a

powerful administrative tool to avoid problems associated with the leakage of NH3.

Demonstrating the safety management practices under current regulatory regime with

a case study

From the foregoing discussion, it is clear that surveillance and monitoring to each

individual unit by any governmental agency did not seem viable considering the existence

of a large number of units operating in the state of the West Bengal. Further, there were

differences existing in the safety management practices stemming from the leakage of

NH3 between the micro- and the small/medium- scale units which were described under

the premise of the regulatory framework existing in the country. The merits and demerits

of the existing rules and regulations were also discussed taking into account the safety

related issues in the storage and handling of NH3 as a part of the overall environmental

management practices for this category of plants in the rural areas. A typical case study

was dealt with in order to show how an accidental release from a fish (shrimp) processing

factory in the densely populated area of urban city of Kolkata, West Bengal was governed

under the purview of the Directorate of Factories (DoF). The ice making plants under

micro scale were however, excluded from being inspected by the DoF, the agency

entrusted for looking after accidental scenario based on number of workers (less than 10)

and the aid of electricity. Following such type of incidents, WBPCB directed all the ice

making plants and cold storages located within the municipal areas in the state to switch
 Chapter 3 155

over from NH3 as refrigerant to other suitable gas like chloro-difluoro methane.

Directives were also issued by the DoF and the West Bengal Fire and Emergency

Services to the fish processing unit to prevent incidents of NH3 leakage in future.

Status of safety measures and public complaints due to the leakage of NH3 from micro

scale units

It was shown that 10 out of 21 plants had adopted safety measures. The safety

measures adopted were not flown from the directive of DoF as usually occurred in the

case of a “factory”. Therefore, though little, there was a scope of deviation from the

normal plant operation in these plants leading to release of NH3. And in that, evidences of

leakage of NH3 causing human discomforts were recorded stemming from public

complaints. There were 3 out of 21 plants recorded such public complaints.

NH3 to replace substances with higher ODP and GWP as refrigerant

Under many opposing considerations, it was reported in the literature for finding

new technologies in NH3 refrigerating and air conditioning systems for its zero ozone

depleting potential as well as lower (<1) global warming potential. It was concluded that

the future of NH3 as a lead refrigerant was gaining the momentum to get its place as

before.

Policy recommendations for better environmental management practices for the micro

scale ice making plants and cold storages located in the rural areas of West Bengal as

well as in India

Following recommendations are being put forward for achieving improved

environmental management in operating such micro scale plants in rural West Bengal.
156 Chapter 3

The recommendations proposed here could also have the potential for implementation to

other similar rural unit not only in other parts of the West Bengal as well as in the other

parts of the country.

1. The plants under micro scale shall be covered under inspection and surveillance

under the provisions of Factories Act of India with amendment.

2. The definition of the “factory” in the said Act shall be revised.

3. The inspection and surveillance protocol are proposed to be revised and developed

based on the quantity of storage of NH3 to the plants.

4. Directorate of Factories shall take the help from the district administration for the

development of workforce for conducting the inspection especially in rural areas.

5. Sensitization-cum-training programme shall be organized inviting the owners,

residents likely to be affected both in rural and in urban areas in case of a possible

leakage, and a few representatives from the regulatory agencies.

6. In order to comply with the frequency of inspection proposed, if the development

of the work force is becoming a problem, then the respective State Government

shall develop industrial cluster to accommodate the units under micro scale.

7. Industrial cluster shall have distinct advantages over the operation of micro scale

units in an isolated manner. The raw materials (NH3, Water and Salt) could be

stored in a common place from where these could be delivered to the units

occupied within the cluster as per their registered requirements. This proposal

entails marginal losses. The inspection to all the units by any regulatory agency

could easily be covered in a single run. Waste management if any, will also
 Chapter 3 157

become simpler. The size of the cluster may be decided based on the NH3 storage

capacity and formation of too small or too big cluster may be avoided from the

point of view of conducting inspection as well as to restrict the consequence of an

accidental scenario within a controllable limit.

8. Water- or- air- curtain may be installed in case of developing a cluster for the

storage of NH3 to operate it during an emergency.

9. Exploring advanced techniques as in developed nations in adopting NH3 with

secondary coolant based refrigeration is necessary in minimizing NH3 charging so

as to avoid the use of ODS and chemicals having GWP higher than NH3.
158 Chapter 3

Table–3.1 Various properties of Ammonia

Molecular Formula: NH3; Symbol: R-717; Molecular weight: 17

Property Identification Properties Reference

Physical Properties
Physical form (under pressure) Liquefied gas DYNONOBEL,
Color Colorless 2013

Odor Sharp, irritating, penetrating and CSBP, 2013

pungent odor
pH of a 10% solution Greater than 12
Vapor Density (air = 1) 0.77
Boiling Point -33.35 OC
Freezing Point -77.7 OC Eggeman, 2010
Specific Gravity at 0 OC 0.639
Thermodynamic Properties
Vapor Pressure at 20 OC 756 kPa CSBP, 2013

Condensing Pressure at 30 OC 10.5 bar gauge Frazer, 2013

Critical Temperature 133 OC
Critical Pressure 112.8 bar Air Liquide, 2013
Heat Capacity (Cp, 1.013 bar and
15 OC): 0.037 kJ/(mol.K)
Constant Pressure 0.028 kJ/(mol.K)
Constant Volume 1.309623
Cp/Cv
Thermal Conductivity (1.013 bar 22.19 mW/(m.K)
and 0 OC)
Coefficient of Performance 4.8 Frazer, 2013
[COP]
Safety related Properties
Safety group B2 Ciconkov and
Ayub, 2009

Odor Leakage easily detected and self- TECHNICOLD

alarming SERVICES,
2013
Density in presence of moisture Heavier than air, may concentrate at
the ground surface where people are
affected
Flammability Limits 16-25% (vol/vol) CSBP, 2013
Auto Ignition Temperature 651 OC
Properties related to Global Issues
Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) 0 Siller et al.,
2010
Global Warming Potential 0 (Carbon dioxide has a GWP of 1) Trousdell, 2012
(GWP)
 Chapter 3 159

Table–3.2 Merits of NH3 compared with CFCs or HCFCs as a refrigerant

(Ciconkov and Ayub, 2009; TECHNICOLD SERVICES, 2013)

NH3 CFCs or HCFCs

Environmental Aspects
It is environment friendly as it has no ODP (=0) These have significant ODP and
and a GWP of < 1. GWP.
Energy Efficiency
High energy efficiency even at high condensing No such benefit can be seen under
temperatures. Ammonia offers the highest COP this category.
amongst all refrigerants. As a result, power
consumption is less and hence indirectly reduces
CO2 emissions from thermal power plants.
Thermodynamic properties
1. COP is 3% higher than HCFC-22 and 10% better than R-502 as its critical
temperature (1320C) is higher. These make NH3 more efficient refrigerant
2. Specific heat of liquid and vapor NH3 is about 4 times, latent heat about 6 times that
of HCFC-22 while heat transfer coefficient in evaporation and condensation of NH3
is between 2 and 4 times higher than HCFC-22. Thus NH3 system requires smaller
piping for the same capacity.
3. Therefore, NH3 offers excellent thermodynamic properties.
Density in air
Ammonia vapor is 1.7 times lighter than air that Not applicable since NH3 is more
causes it to rise in case of accidental release. toxic.
Detection Potential
The odor threshold of NH3 is 5 ppm, a value The fluorinated refrigerants are
100 times smaller than the tolerance limit. Its odorless and often require a leak
pungent smell makes individual alight and helps detector for detection.
to leave the affected area before exposure to
harmful concentrations.
Price
1. The price per kg of NH3 is 6 to 8 times less than HCFC-22 and hence it is economic.
2. NH3 refrigeration system cost is 20% less than HCFC-22.
3. The liquid density of NH3 is lower than (half) HCFC-22, as a result its use is favored.
4. In the countries where high eco-taxes are introduced, the differences in price with
HFCs are wider.
160 Chapter 3

Table–3.3 International Standards and Dose Response Relationship to Humans

(Ciconkov and Ayub, 2009; CSBP, 2013)

Concentration International Standards and Type of Response to Humans

of NH3, ppm
25 (17 mg/m3) Time Weighted Average (TWA) or Threshold Limit Value (TLV)
35 (24 mg/m3) Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL)
5 Detection threshold
Minor irritation of the eye and respiratory tract, odour threshold by
5–25
most persons.
100 No adverse effect for average worker. Deliberate exposure for long
periods not permitted.
400 Immediate nose and throat irritation. No serious effects after 30
minutes to 1 hour.
500–1000 Tolerance limit
700 Immediate eye irritation. No serious effect after 30 minutes to 1 hour.
1,700 Convulsive coughing. Severe eye, nose and throat irritation. Could be
fatal after 30 minutes.
2,000–5,000 Convulsive coughing. Severe eye, nose and throat irritation. Could be
fatal after 15 minutes.
5,000 Lowest concentration known to be lethal to humans exposed for 5
minutes via inhalation.
5,000 – 10,000 Respiratory spasm. Rapid Asphyxia.
Long term effect: Not carcinogenic and mutagenic
 Chapter 3 161

Table–3.4 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) of India

(CPCB, 2009)

Pollutant Time Concentration in Ambient Air Methods of

Weighted [μg/m3] Measurement
Average Industrial, Ecologically
Residential, Sensitive Area
Rural and (Notified by Central
other Areas Government)
Ammonia Annual * 100 100 Chemiluminescence
(NH3) 24 Hours ** 400 400 Indophenol blue
method

*Annual arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year taken twice a week 24
hourly at uniform intervals;

**24 hourly or 8 hourly or 1 hourly monitored values as applicable, shall be complied

98% of the time in a year. 2% of the time, they may exceed the limits but not on but not
on two consecutive days of monitoring.

Whenever and wherever two consecutive values exceeds the limit specified above for the
respective category, it would be considered adequate reason to institute
regular/continuous monitoring and further investigations.
162 Chapter 3

Table–3.5 Unit specific information on year of establishment, investment, number of

personnel, operating days, and production capacity
Source of Electricity: West Bengal State Electricity Board (WBSEB)
Location of units: District: 24 Parganas (South); State: West Bengal; Country: India

Sl. Name and Address of the Units

[unless otherwise
Investment, INR

No. of personnel
Year established

Operation, DPA

Production [Ice
Block], TPM
#

specified]
1 M/s Sonali Ice Plant. Basanti NA 2.19×106 6 260 300
2 M/s Mahakali Ice Plant. Kakdwip 1990 NA NA 300 500
6
3 M/s Priya Ice Factory. Diamond Harbor 2004 2.38×10 8 300 340
6
4 M/s Sri Hari Ice Factory. Namkhana 2002 0.79×10 6 240 180
5 M/s Raidighi Ice Factory. Raidighi NA 2.29×106 8 300 240
6 M/s Super Ice Factory. Kakdwip 2009 2.61×106 5 240 300
7 M/s Maa Priya Ice Factory. Diamond Harbor NA 45.00×106 NA 240 560
8 M/s Mishka Ice Plant. Mandirbazar NA NA 9 240 80
6
9 M/s Roy Ice Factory. Mandir Bazar 2002 0.50×10 8 300 56
10 M/s Ma Bhabatarini Ice Factory. Namkhana 2000 2.54×106 9 296 900
11 M/s Shree Balaji Ice. Kakdwip 2003 0.85×106 6 240 720
6
12 M/s Samanta ice Factory. Namkhana 1990 0.41×10 4 300 80
6
13 M/s Das Brothers’ Ice Factory. Diamond NA 0.15×10 6 360 120
Harbor
14 M/s Maa Uma Ice Plant. Namkhana NA NA NA 300 405
15 M/s Three Star Ice Plant. Kakdwip 1982 0.43×106 7 300 800
16 M/s Mondal Mini Ice Factory. Namkhana 2004 1.04×106 6 300 150
17 M/s Gobinda Ice Factory. Kakdwip 1990 0.47×106 4 300 304
6
18 M/s Jaba Rani Ice Factory. Diamond Harbor 1973 0.15×10 8 360 240
6
19 M/s Annada Ice Factory Pvt. Ltd. Kakdwip 2008 4.69×10 7 240 800
20 M/s Sangam Ice Factory. Kakdwip 2000 0.50×106 4 240 160
21 M/s Girish Ice Factory. Diamond Harbor 2004 1.20×106 8 240 96

[Note: INR: Indian National Rupees; NA: Data not Available; DPA: days per annum]
 Chapter 3 163

Table–3.6 Unit specific information on raw material consumption, production

capacity and tons of ice produced per unit consumption of raw material

Unit Name of the Units Raw Material

Block], t/month
Consumption

Product [Ice
#
t of Ice t of Ice t of Ice

m3/month
kg/month

kg/month
kg NH 3 m3 Water kg Salt

Water,
NH3,

Salt,
1 M/s Sonali Ice Plant 25 217 500 300 12 1.38 0.60
2 M/s Mahakali Ice Plant 15 100 100 500 33.33 5.00 5.00
3 M/s Priya Ice Factory 150 300 200 340 2.27 1.13 1.70
4 M/s Sri Hari Ice Factory 25 120 100 180 7.20 1.50 1.80
5 M/s Raidighi Ice Factory 125 175 250 240 1.92 1.37 0.96
6 M/s Super Ice Factory 30 720 150 300 10.00 0.42 2.00
7 M/s Maa Priya Ice Factory 90.7 480 200 560 6.17 1.17 2.80
8 M/s Mishka Ice Plant 90.7 96 200 80 0.88 0.83 0.40
9 M/s Roy Ice Factory 90.7 70 200 56 0.62 0.80 0.28
10 M/s Ma Bhabatarini Ice Factory 3000 44 600 900 0.30 20.27 1.50
11 M/s Shree Balaji Ice 45.4 100 200 720 15.86 7.20 3.60
12 M/s Samanta ice Factory 60 75 180 80 1.33 1.07 0.44
13 M/s Das Brothers’ Ice Factory 200 2700 33 120 0.60 0.04 3.64
14 M/s Maa Uma Ice Plant 40 338 60 405 10.13 1.20 6.75
15 M/s Three Star Ice Plant 50 30 400 800 16.00 26.67 2.00
16 M/s Mondal Mini Ice Factory 130 350 200 150 1.15 0.43 0.75
17 M/s Gobinda Ice Factory 60 250 200 304 5.07 1.22 1.52
18 M/s Jaba Rani Ice Factory 10 120 200 240 24.00 2.00 1.20
19 M/s Annada Ice Factory Pvt. Ltd. 90.7 96 200 800 8.82 8.33 4.00
20 M/s Sangam Ice Factory 30.7 80 200 160 5.21 2.00 0.80
21 M/s Girish Ice Factory 90.7 96 200 96 1.06 1.00 0.48
4449.60 ≈

6556.90 ≈

- - -
4450

6557

4573

7331

Total
164 Chapter 3

Table–3.7 Unit specific calculated values on consumption of raw material per month
based on the average values of mass of ice produced per unit consumption of raw
materials
t of Ice t of Ice t of Ice
Basis: = 5.0; 3 = 0.95; = 1.5
kg NH 3 m Water kg Salt

NH3, kg/month Water, m3/month Salt, kg/month

% excess

% excess

% excess
Calculated

Calculated

Calculated
by Owner

by Owner

by Owner
Provided

Provided

Provided
Unit #

1 25.00 60.00 -58.33 217.00 315.79 -31.28 500 200 150

2 15.00 100.00 -85.00 100.00 526.32 -81.00 100 333.3333 -70
3 150.00 68.00 120.59 300.00 357.89 -16.18 200 226.6667 -11.7647
4 25.00 36.00 -30.56 120.00 189.47 -36.67 100 120 -16.6667
5 125.00 48.00 160.42 175.00 252.63 -30.73 250 160 56.25
6 30.00 60.00 -50.00 720.00 315.79 128.00 150 200 -25
7 90.70 112.00 -19.02 480.00 589.47 -18.57 200 373.3333 -46.4286
8 90.70 16.00 466.88 96.00 84.21 14.00 200 53.33333 275
9 90.70 11.20 709.82 70.00 58.95 18.75 200 37.33333 435.7143
10 3000.00 180.00 1566.67 44.40 947.37 -95.31 600 600 0
11 45.40 144.00 -68.47 100.00 757.89 -86.81 200 480 -58.3333
12 60.00 16.00 275.00 75.00 84.21 -10.94 180 53.33333 237.5
13 200.00 24.00 733.33 2700.00 126.32 2037.50 33 80 -58.75
14 40.00 81.00 -50.62 337.50 426.32 -20.83 60 270 -77.7778
15 50.00 160.00 -68.75 30.00 842.11 -96.44 400 533.3333 -25
16 130.00 30.00 333.33 350.00 157.89 121.67 200 100 100
17 60.00 60.80 -1.32 250.00 320.00 -21.88 200 202.6667 -1.31579
18 10.00 48.00 -79.17 120.00 252.63 -52.50 200 160 25
19 90.70 160.00 -43.31 96.00 842.11 -88.60 200 533.3333 -62.5
20 30.70 32.00 -4.06 80.00 168.42 -52.50 200 106.6667 87.5
21 90.70 19.20 372.40 96.00 101.05 -5.00 200 64 212.5
7716.84
4887.33
1466.20 ≈ 7717
≈4887
≈ 1466 18 %
4449.60 6556.90 7% higher
Total ≈ 4450 33% of - higher - 4573 -
≈ 6557 than
owners’ than
owners
provided owners
provided
provided
 Chapter 3 165

Table–3.8 Provisions of Rule 94 of the West Bengal Factories Rule, 1958 specified
under section 87 of the Factories Act 1948, as amended (Schedule XVIII)
(MoLE, 1948)

Rule Measure to be adopted

Part-II A spare ammonia receiver having the same capacity to hold the contents of
the largest ammonia receiver connected to the process shall be provided
Para 9(e)
with inter-connected bypass arrangement for transfer of the ammonia
contained in the process receivers to the spare vessel, in case of any
leakages/ failure of the process receivers.
Part-II A supply of large quantity of water under pressure with pipeline
Para 13(c) arrangement for application at the point of ammonia leakage for quick
absorption of the leaked gas shall be provided. Moreover water sprinkler
system of appropriate velocity shall be provided surrounding the ammonia
receivers/vessels for emergency use.
Part-II Appropriate respiratory protective equipment (canister type gas masks with
spare cartridges as well as Self Contained Breathing Apparatus set) shall be
Para 11
provided for emergency use.
Part-II Maintenance of plant and equipment that had held ammonia shall be carried
out under the supervision of trained supervisors having knowledge of the
Para 19
hazards under a written ‘permit to work’ system.
Part-II On site emergency plan shall be formulated (with names of emergency team
members, name of emergency coordinator, list of emergency equipment, list
Para 23
of telephone numbers and the persons to be contacted in emergencies,
procedures for controlling of leakages, etc) and copies of the same shall be
submitted to the Chief Inspector of Factories, W.B. and to this office.
Part-II Mock drills/ rehearsals of the emergency plan & procedures shall be
conducted every three (03) months and the deficiencies corrected.
Para
23(8)
Part-II The charging hose used during charging of ammonia in the receivers shall
be of the approved type (ISI standards) having sufficient strength to
Para 9(b)
withstand the rated high pressure, so as to avoid any release of ammonia
due to failure of the hose under pressure.
Part-II All instruments and safety devices in the ammonia refrigeration system
(including safety valves, pressure gauges, fittings trip systems, etc) shall be
Para 7
examined regularly at periodic intervals (at least once in a month) and
records of such examination is to be maintained in a register.
166 Chapter 3

Table–3.9 Status of safety measures adopted and public complaints received by

WBPCB due to leakage of NH3
Unit Safety Measures adopted by the Units Public Complaint due to
# leakage of NH3
1 NIL Not recorded
2 NIL Not recorded
3 ¾ NH3 stored in 10-12 mm thick steel cylinder, 8 Not recorded
mm thick steel pipeline provided for NH3
¾ Periodic repair and maintenance of cylinder,
pipeline & valves handling NH3
¾ Provided fire extinguisher and musk during
emergency
4 ¾ Water sprinkler provided over NH3 receiver, Odour problem due to
NH3 vent attached with the receiver header leakage of NH3 within
provided with water dip with continuous water residential area.
flow
¾ Expert appointed to look after the whole
system, fire preventive system and NH3 sensor
5 NIL Not recorded
6 Not recorded
7 Not recorded
8 ¾ Water sprinkler provided over NH3 receiver ¾ Odour problem due to
¾ NH3 leak detector provided, Provision made leakage of NH3.
for covering NH3 leak with wet cloth of ¾ Hon’ble High Court,
Ca(OH)2 Kolkata intervened into the
¾ Pipeline [handling NH3] repair and painting matter for directing the
¾ Expert appointed to look after the whole unit to control NH3
system leakage.
9 ¾ Odour problem due to
leakage of NH3.
¾ WBPCB directed the Unit
to control NH3 leakage.
10 NIL Not recorded
11 NIL Not recorded
12 NIL Not recorded
13 NIL Not recorded
14 NIL Not recorded
15 NIL Not recorded
16 NIL Not recorded
17 NIL Not recorded
18 ¾ Water sprinkler provided over NH3 receiver Not recorded
19 ¾ NH 3 leak detector provided, Provision made Not recorded
for covering NH3 leak with wet cloth of
20 Not recorded
Ca(OH)2
21 ¾ Pipeline [handling NH3] repair and painting Not recorded
¾ Expert appointed to look after the whole
system
 Chapter 3 167

Table–3.10 Proposed frequency of inspection by Directorate of Factories based on

overall NH3 storage capacity

NH3 storage capacity Proposed Frequency of inspection by DoF

up to 200 kg once in 18 months
200 – 500 kg Yearly
500 – 1500 kg once in 9 months
1500 – 3000 kg half yearly
More than 3000 kg Quarterly
168 Chapter 3

Qe

Refrigerator
A (Evaporator) B

T = -11.25oC
x = 0.95

Compressor Expansion
W valve

T = 30oC
Water cooled Liquid
Condenser receiver C
D
Qa

Figure–3.1 Schematic of the NH3 refrigeration system practiced in the ice making plants
 Chapter 3 169

35

30

25 12 Units (~57% of the Units)

attained a value of 5.0 t Ice/kg NH3
t Ice/kg NH3

20

15

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Unit Numbers

Figure–3.2 Unit specific tons of ice produced/kg of NH3 and hence estimation of average
t Ice/kg NH3
170 Chapter 3

30.0

27.5
17 Units (~81% of the Units)
25.0 3
attained a value of 0.95 t Ice/m Water
22.5

20.0
t Ice/m Water

17.5

15.0
3

12.5

10.0

7.5

5.0

2.5

0.0
1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 10 11 12 13 14 14 15 16 17 18 19 19 20 21

Unit Numbers

Figure–3.3 Unit specific tons of ice produced/m3 of water and hence estimation of
average t Ice/m3 Water
 Chapter 3 171

12 Units (~57% of the Units)

6 attained a value of 1.5 t Ice/kg Salt

5
t Ice/kg Salt

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Unit Numbers

Figure–3.4 Unit specific tons of ice produced/kg of salt and hence estimation of average t
Ice/kg Salt
172 Chapter 3

Step–I: Receiving, Washing and Weighing of Fish (Shrimp)

Step–II: Storing and Grading

Step–III: Setting and Loading in a Freezer (metallic container) at –40OC

Step–IV: Packing Step–V: Storing Step–VI: Despatch

in Plastic container at –20OC

Figure–3.5 Process block diagram for processing of fish (shrimp) followed by

preservation
 Chapter 3 173

NH3 Gas Vessel

Liquid Pump
Receiver

3 Plate Freezers for Flake Ice Making

Processed Fish [–40OC] Machine

Compressor
Intercooler

Oil Separator
Condenser
[Cooling Tower]

Figure–3.6 Process block diagram for functioning of the freezer and flake ice making
machine using NH3 gas
174 Chapter 3