Comics

Comics is a medium used to express ideas through images, often combined with text or other visual information. Frequently,
comics takes the form of sequences of panels of images. Often textual devices such as speech balloons, captions, and
onomatopoeia indicate dialogue, narration, sound effects, or other information. The size and arrangement of panels contribute to
narrative pacing. Cartooning and similar forms of illustration are the most common image-making means in comics; fumetti is a
form which uses photographic images. Common forms include comic strips, editorial and gag cartoons, and comic books. Since
the late 20th century, bound volumes such as graphic novels, comic albums, and tankōbon have become increasingly common,
while online webcomics have proliferated in the 21st century with the advent of the internet.

The history of comics has followed different paths in different cultures. Scholars have posited a pre-history as far back as the
Lascaux cave paintings in France. By the mid-20th century, comics flourished, particularly in the United States, western Europe
(especially France and Belgium), and Japan. The history of European comics is often traced to Rodolphe Töpffer's cartoon strips
of the 1830s, but the medium truly became popular in the 1930s following the success of strips and books such as The Adventures
of Tintin. American comics emerged as a mass medium in the early 20th century with the advent of newspaper comic strips;
magazine-style comic books followed in the 1930s, in which the superhero genre became prominent after Superman appeared in
1938. Histories of Japanese comics and cartooning (manga) propose origins as early as the 12th century. Modern comic strips
emerged in Japan in the early 20th century, and the output of comics magazines and books rapidly expanded in the post-World
War II era (1945–) with the popularity of cartoonists such as Osamu Tezuka (Astro Boy, et al.). Comics has had a lowbrow
reputation for much of its history, but towards the end of the 20th century began to find greater acceptance with the public and
academics.

The term comics is used as a singular noun when it refers to the medium, but becomes plural when referring to particular
instances, such as individual strips or comic books. Though the term derives from the humorous (comic) work that predominated
in early American newspaper comic strips, it has become standard for non-humorous works too. In English, it is common to refer
to the comics of different cultures by the terms used in their original languages, such as manga for Japanese comics, or bandes
dessinées for French-language comics.

There is no consensus amongst theorists and historians on a definition of comics; some emphasize the combination of images and
text, some sequentiality or other image relations, and others historical aspects, such as mass reproduction or the use of recurring
characters. The increasing cross-pollination of concepts from different comics cultures and eras has only made definition more
difficult.

Contents
Origins and traditions
English-language comics
Franco-Belgian and European comics
Japanese comics
Forms and formats
Art styles
Comics studies
Terminology
Etymology
 See also
See also lists
Notes
References
Works cited
Further reading
External links

Origins and traditions

Examples of early comics

Manga Histoire de Monsieur Cryptogame Ally Sloper in

Hokusai, early 19th Rodolphe Töpffer, 1830 Some of the
century Mysteries of
Loan and
Discount
Charles Henry
Ross, 1867

The Yellow Kid

R.F. Outcault, 1898

The European, American, and Japanese comics traditions have followed different paths.[1] Europeans have seen their tradition as
beginning with the Swiss Rodolphe Töpffer from as early as 1827 and Americans have seen the origin of theirs in Richard F.
Outcault's 1890s newspaper strip The Yellow Kid, though many Americans have come to recognize Töpffer's precedence.[2] Japan
had a long prehistory of satirical cartoons and comics leading up to the World War II era. The ukiyo-e artist Hokusai popularized
the Japanese term for comics and cartooning, manga, in the early 19th century.[3] In 1930s, Mr. Chester, an early founder of "the
Golden Age of Comics", which make the comics flourished after World War II .[4] In the post-war era modern Japanese comics
began to flourish when Osamu Tezuka produced a prolific body of work.[5]Towards the close of the 20th century, these three
traditions converged in a trend towards book-length comics: the comic album in Europe, the tankōbon[a] in Japan, and the graphic
novel in the English-speaking countries.[1]

Outside of these genealogies, comics theorists and historians have seen precedents for comics in the Lascaux cave paintings[6] in
France (some of which appear to be chronological sequences of images), Egyptian hieroglyphs, Trajan's Column in Rome,[7] the
11th-century Norman Bayeux Tapestry,[8] the 1370 bois Protat woodcut, the 15th-century Ars moriendi and block books,
Michelangelo's The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel,[7] and William Hogarth's 18th-century sequential engravings,[9]
amongst others.[7][b]

Theorists debate whether the Bayeux Tapestry is a precursor to comics.

English-language comics
Illustrated humour periodicals were popular in 19th-century Britain, the earliest of which was the short-lived The Glasgow
Looking Glass in 1825. The most popular was Punch,[11] which popularized the term cartoon for its humorous caricatures.[12] On
occasion the cartoons in these magazines appeared in sequences;[11] the character Ally Sloper featured in the earliest serialized
comic strip when the character began to feature in its own weekly magazine in 1884.[13]

American comics developed out of such magazines as Puck, Judge, and Life. The success of illustrated humour supplements in
the New York World and later the New York American, particularly Outcault's The Yellow Kid, led to the development of
newspaper comic strips. Early Sunday strips were full-page[14] and often in colour. Between 1896 and 1901 cartoonists
experimented with sequentiality, movement, and speech balloons.[15]

Bud Fisher's Mutt and Jeff (1907–1982) was the first successful daily comic strip (1907).

Shorter, black-and-white daily strips began to appear early in the 20th century, and became established in newspapers after the
success in 1907 of Bud Fisher's Mutt and Jeff.[16] In Britain, the Amalgamated Press established a popular style of a sequence of
images with text beneath them, including Illustrated Chips and Comic Cuts.[17] Humour strips predominated at first, and in the
1920s and 1930s strips with continuing stories in genres such as adventure and drama also became popular.[16]

Thin periodicals called comic books appeared in the 1930s, at first reprinting newspaper comic strips; by the end of the decade,
original content began to dominate.[18] The success in 1938 of Action Comics and its lead hero Superman marked the beginning
of the Golden Age of Comic Books, in which the superhero genre was prominent.[19] In the UK and the Commonwealth, the DC
Thomson-created Dandy (1937) and Beano (1938) became successful humor-based titles, with a combined circulation of over 2
million copies by the 1950s. Their characters, including "Dennis the Menace", "Desperate Dan" and "The Bash Street Kids" have
been read by generations of British schoolboys.[20] The comics originally experimented with superheroes and action stories
before settling on humorous strips featuring a mix of the Amalgamated Press and US comic book styles.[21]

The popularity of superhero comic books declined following World War II,[22] while
comic book sales continued to increase as other genres proliferated, such as romance,
westerns, crime, horror, and humour.[23] Following a sales peak in the early 1950s, the
content of comic books (particularly crime and horror) was subjected to scrutiny from
parent groups and government agencies, which culminated in Senate hearings that led to
the establishment of the Comics Code Authority self-censoring body.[24] The Code has
been blamed for stunting the growth of American comics and maintaining its low status in
American society for much of the remainder of the century.[25] Superheroes re-established
themselves as the most prominent comic book genre by the early 1960s.[26] Underground
comix challenged the Code and readers with adult, countercultural content in the late
1960s and early 1970s.[27] The underground gave birth to the alternative comics
movement in the 1980s and its mature, often experimental content in non-superhero
genres.[28] Superheroes have been a
staple of American comic
Comics in the US has had a lowbrow reputation stemming from its roots in mass culture; books (Wonderworld
cultural elites sometimes saw popular culture as threatening culture and society. In the Comics #3, 1939; cover:
latter half of the 20th century, popular culture won greater acceptance, and the lines The Flame by Will Eisner).
between high and low culture began to blur. Comics nevertheless continued to be
stigmatized, as the medium was seen as entertainment for children and illiterates.[29]

The graphic novel—book-length comics—began to gain attention after Will Eisner popularized the term with his book A
Contract with God (1978).[30] The term became widely known with the public after the commercial success of Maus, Watchmen,
and The Dark Knight Returns in the mid-1980s.[31] In the 21st century graphic novels became established in mainstream
bookstores[32] and libraries[33] and webcomics became common.[34]

Franco-Belgian and European comics

The francophone Swiss Rodolphe Töpffer produced comic strips beginning in 1827,[7] and published theories behind the
form.[35] Cartoons appeared widely in newspapers and magazines from the 19th century.[36] The success of Zig et Puce in 1925
popularized the use of speech balloons in European comics, after which Franco-Belgian comics began to dominate.[37] The
Adventures of Tintin, with its signature clear line style,[38] was first serialized in newspaper comics supplements beginning in
1929,[39] and became an icon of Franco-Belgian comics.[40]

Following the success of Le Journal de Mickey (1934–44),[41] dedicated comics magazines[42] and full-colour comic albums
became the primary outlet for comics in the mid-20th century.[43] As in the US, at the time comics were seen as infantile and a
threat to culture and literacy; commentators stated that "none bear up to the slightest serious analysis",[c] and that comics were
"the sabotage of all art and all literature".[45][d]

In the 1960s, the term bandes dessinées ("drawn strips") came into wide use in French to denote the medium.[46] Cartoonists
began creating comics for mature audiences,[47] and the term "Ninth Art"[e] was coined, as comics began to attract public and
academic attention as an artform.[48] A group including René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo founded the magazine Pilote in 1959
to give artists greater freedom over their work. Goscinny and Uderzo's The Adventures of Asterix appeared in it[49] and went on to
become the best-selling French-language comics series.[50] From 1960, the satirical and taboo-breaking Hara-Kiri defied
censorship laws in the countercultural spirit that led to the May 1968 events.[51]
Frustration with censorship and editorial interference led to a group of Pilote cartoonists to found the adults-only L'Écho des
savanes in 1972. Adult-oriented and experimental comics flourished in the 1970s, such as in the experimental science fiction of
Mœbius and others in Métal hurlant, even mainstream publishers took to publishing prestige-format adult comics.[52]

From the 1980s, mainstream sensibilities were reasserted and serialization became less common as the number of comics
magazines decreased and many comics began to be published directly as albums.[53] Smaller publishers such as L'Association[54]
that published longer works[55] in non-traditional formats[56] by auteur-istic creators also became common. Since the 1990s,
mergers resulted in fewer large publishers, while smaller publishers proliferated. Sales overall continued to grow despite the trend
towards a shrinking print market.[57]

Japanese comics
Japanese comics and cartooning (manga),[g] have a history that has been seen as
far back as the anthropomorphic characters in the 12th-to-13th-century Chōjū-
jinbutsu-giga, 17th-century toba-e and kibyōshi picture books,[61] and
woodblock prints such as ukiyo-e which were popular between the 17th and 20th
centuries. The kibyōshi contained examples of sequential images, movement
lines,[62] and sound effects.[63]

Illustrated magazines for Western expatriates introduced Western-style satirical

cartoons to Japan in the late 19th century. New publications in both the Western
and Japanese styles became popular, and at the end of the 1890s, American-style
newspaper comics supplements began to appear in Japan,[64] as well as some
American comic strips.[61] 1900 saw the debut of the Jiji Manga in the Jiji
Shinpō newspaper—the first use of the word "manga" in its modern sense,[60]
and where, in 1902, Rakuten Kitazawa began the first modern Japanese comic
strip.[65] By the 1930s, comic strips were serialized in large-circulation monthly
girls' and boys' magazine and collected into hardback volumes.[66]
Rakuten Kitazawa created the first
The modern era of comics in Japan began after World War II, propelled by the modern Japanese comic strip.
success of the serialized comics of the prolific Osamu Tezuka[67] and the comic (Tagosaku to Mokube no Tōkyō
Kenbutsu,[f] 1902)
strip Sazae-san.[68] Genres and audiences diversified over the following
decades. Stories are usually first serialized in magazines which are often
hundreds of pages thick and may contain over a dozen stories;[69] they are later
compiled in tankōbon-format books.[70] At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, nearly a quarter of all printed material in Japan
was comics.[71] Translations became extremely popular in foreign markets—in some cases equaling or surpassing the sales of
domestic comics.[72]

Forms and formats

Comic strips are generally short, multipanel comics that traditionally most commonly appeared in newspapers. In the US, daily
strips have normally occupied a single tier, while Sunday strips have been given multiple tiers. In the early 20th century, daily
strips were typically in black-and-white and Sundays were usually in colour and often occupied a full page.[73]

Specialized comics periodicals formats vary greatly in different cultures. Comic books, primarily an American format, are thin
periodicals[74] usually published in colour.[75] European and Japanese comics are frequently serialized in magazines—monthly or
weekly in Europe,[60] and usually black-and-white and weekly in Japan.[76] Japanese comics magazine typically run to hundreds
of pages.[77]
 A comparison of book formats for comics around the world. The left group is from Japan and shows
the tankōbon and the smaller bunkobon formats. Those in the middle group of Franco-Belgian comics
are in the standard A4-size comic album format. The right group of graphic novels is from English-
speaking countries, where there is no standard format.

Book-length comics take different forms in different cultures. European comic albums are most commonly printed in A4-size[78]
colour volumes.[43] In English-speaking countries, the trade paperback format originating from collected comic books have also
been chosen for original material. Otherwise, bound volumes of comics are called graphic novels and are available in various
formats. Despite incorporating the term "novel"—a term normally associated with fiction—"graphic novel" also refers to non-
fiction and collections of short works.[79] Japanese comics are collected in volumes called tankōbon following magazine
serialization.[80]

Gag and editorial cartoons usually consist of a single panel, often incorporating a caption or speech balloon. Definitions of
comics which emphasize sequence usually exclude gag, editorial, and other single-panel cartoons; they can be included in
definitions that emphasize the combination of word and image.[81] Gag cartoons first began to proliferate in broadsheets
published in Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, and the term "cartoon"[h] was first used to describe them in 1843 in the British
humour magazine Punch.[12]

Webcomics are comics that are available on the internet. They are able to reach large audiences, and new readers usually can
access archived installments.[82] Webcomics can make use of an infinite canvas—meaning they are not constrained by size or
dimensions of a page.[83]

Some consider storyboards[84] and wordless novels to be comics.[85] Film studios, especially in animation, often use sequences
of images as guides for film sequences. These storyboards are not intended as an end product and are rarely seen by the
public.[84] Wordless novels are books which use sequences of captionless images to deliver a narrative.[86]

Art styles
While almost all comics art is in some sense abbreviated, and also while every artist who has produced comics work brings their
own individual approach to bear, some broader art styles have been identified. Comic strip artists Cliff Sterrett, Frank King, and
Gus Arriola often used unusual, colorful backgrounds, sometimes veering into abstract art.

The basic styles have been identified as realistic and cartoony, with a huge middle ground for which R. Fiore has coined the
phrase liberal. Fiore has also expressed distaste with the terms realistic and cartoony, preferring the terms literal and freestyle,
respectively.[87]

Scott McCloud has created "The Big Triangle"[88] as a tool for thinking about comics art. He places the realistic representation in
the bottom left corner, with iconic representation, or cartoony art, in the bottom right, and a third identifier, abstraction of image,
at the apex of the triangle. This allows placement and grouping of artists by triangulation.
 The cartoony style uses comic effects and a variation of line widths
for expression. Characters tend to have rounded, simplified anatomy.
Noted exponents of this style are Carl Barks and Jeff Smith.[87]
The realistic style, also referred to as the adventure style is the one
developed for use within the adventure strips of the 1930s. They
required a less cartoony look, focusing more on realistic anatomy
and shapes, and used the illustrations found in pulp magazines as a
basis. This style became the basis of the superhero comic book style
since Joe Shuster and Jerry Siegel originally worked Superman up
for publication as an adventure strip.[89]
McCloud also notes that in several traditions, there is a tendency to have the
main characters drawn rather simplistic and cartoony, while the backgrounds and
environment are depicted realistically. Thus, he argues, the reader easily
identifies with the characters, (as they are similar to one's idea of self), whilst
being immersed into a world, that's three-dimensional and textured.[90] Good
examples of this phenomenon include Hergé's The Adventures of Tintin (in his Scott McCloud, whose work
Understanding Comics identified the
"personal trademark" Ligne claire style), Will Eisner's Spirit and Osamu
different styles of art used within
Tezuka's Buddha, among many others.
comics.

Comics studies
Similar to the problems of defining literature
and film,[91] no consensus has been reached "Comics ... are sometimes four-legged and sometimes two-legged and
sometimes fly and sometimes don't ... to employ a metaphor as mixed
on a definition of the comics medium,[92]
as the medium itself, defining comics entails cutting a Gordian-knotted
and attempted definitions and descriptions enigma wrapped in a mystery ..."
have fallen prey to numerous exceptions.[93]
R. C. Harvey, 2001[81]
Theorists such as Töpffer,[94] R.C. Harvey,
Will Eisner,[95] David Carrier,[96] Alain
Rey,[92] and Lawrence Grove emphasize the
combination of text and images,[97] though there are prominent examples of pantomime comics throughout its history.[93] Other
critics, such as Thierry Groensteen[97] and Scott McCloud, have emphasized the primacy of sequences of images.[98] Towards the
close of the 20th century, different cultures' discoveries of each other's comics traditions, the rediscovery of forgotten early
comics forms, and the rise of new forms made defining comics a more complicated task.[99]

European comics studies began with Töpffer's theories of his own work in the 1840s, which emphasized panel transitions and the
visual–verbal combination. No further progress was made until the 1970s.[100] Pierre Fresnault-Deruelle then took a semiotics
approach to the study of comics, analyzing text–image relations, page-level image relations, and image discontinuities, or what
Scott McCloud later dubbed "closure".[101] In 1987, Henri Vanlier introduced the term multicadre, or "multiframe", to refer to the
comics page as a semantic unit.[102] By the 1990s, theorists such as Benoît Peeters and Thierry Groensteen turned attention to
artists' poïetic creative choices.[101] Thierry Smolderen and Harry Morgan have held relativistic views of the definition of comics,
a medium that has taken various, equally valid forms over its history. Morgan sees comics as a subset of "les littératures
dessinées" (or "drawn literatures").[99] French theory has come to give special attention to the page, in distinction from American
theories such as McCloud's which focus on panel-to-panel transitions.[102] Since the mid-2000s, Neil Cohn has begun analyzing
how comics are understood using tools from cognitive science, extending beyond theory by using actual psychological and
neuroscience experiments. This work has argued that sequential images and page layouts both use separate rule-bound
"grammars" to be understood that extend beyond panel-to-panel transitions and categorical distinctions of types of layouts, and
that the brain's comprehension of comics is similar to comprehending other domains, such as language and music.[103]
Historical narratives of manga tend to focus either on its recent, post-WWII history, or on attempts to demonstrates deep roots in
the past, such as to the Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga picture scroll of the 12th and 13th centuries, or the early 19th-century Hokusai
Manga.[104] The first historical overview of Japanese comics was Seiki Hosokibara's Nihon Manga-Shi[i] in 1924.[105] Early
post-war Japanese criticism was mostly of a left-wing political nature until the 1986 publication of Tomofusa Kure's Modern
Manga: The Complete Picture,[j] which de-emphasized politics in favour of formal aspects, such as structure and a "grammar" of
comics. The field of manga studies increased rapidly, with numerous books on the subject appearing in the 1990s.[106] Formal
theories of manga have focused on developing a "manga expression theory",[k] with emphasis on spatial relationships in the
structure of images on the page, distinguishing the medium from film or literature, in which the flow of time is the basic
organizing element.[107] Comics studies courses have proliferated at Japanese universities, and Japan Society for Studies in
Cartoon and Comics[l] was established in 2001 to promote comics scholarship.[108] The publication of Frederik L. Schodt's
Manga! Manga! The World of Japanese Comics in 1983 led to the spread of use of the word manga outside Japan to mean
"Japanese comics" or "Japanese-style comics".[109]

Will Eisner (left) and Scott McCloud have proposed influential and controversial definitions of comics.

Coulton Waugh attempted the first comprehensive history of American comics with The Comics (1947).[110] Will Eisner's
Comics and Sequential Art (1985) and Scott McCloud's Understanding Comics (1993) were early attempts in English to
formalize the study of comics. David Carrier's The Aesthetics of Comics (2000) was the first full-length treatment of comics from
a philosophical perspective.[111] Prominent American attempts at definitions of comics include Eisner's, McCloud's, and
Harvey's. Eisner described what he called "sequential art" as "the arrangement of pictures or images and words to narrate a story
or dramatize an idea";[112] Scott McCloud defined comics as "juxtaposed pictorial and other images in deliberate sequence,
intended to convey information and/or to produce an aesthetic response in the viewer",[113] a strictly formal definition which
detached comics from its historical and cultural trappings.[114] R.C. Harvey defined comics as "pictorial narratives or expositions
in which words (often lettered into the picture area within speech balloons) usually contribute to the meaning of the pictures and
vice versa".[115] Each definition has had its detractors. Harvey saw McCloud's definition as excluding single-panel cartoons,[116]
and objected to McCloud's de-emphasizing verbal elements, insisting "the essential characteristic of comics is the incorporation
of verbal content".[102] Aaron Meskin saw McCloud's theories as an artificial attempt to legitimize the place of comics in art
history.[95]

Cross-cultural study of comics is complicated by the great difference in meaning and scope of the words for "comics" in different
languages.[117] The French term for comics, bandes dessinées ("drawn strip") emphasizes the juxtaposition of drawn images as a
defining factor,[118] which can imply the exclusion of even photographic comics.[119] The term manga is used in Japanese to
indicate all forms of comics, cartooning,[120] and caricature.[121]

Terminology
The term comics refers to the comics medium when used as an uncountable noun and thus takes the singular: "comics is a
medium" rather than "comics are a medium". When comic appears as a countable noun it refers to instances of the medium, such
as individual comic strips or comic books: "Tom's comics are in the basement."[122]
Panels are individual images containing a segment of action,[123] often surrounded by a border.[124] Prime moments in a narrative
are broken down into panels via a process called encapsulation.[125] The reader puts the pieces together via the process of closure
by using background knowledge and an understanding of panel relations to combine panels mentally into events.[126] The size,
shape, and arrangement of panels each affect the timing and pacing of the narrative.[127] The contents of a panel may be
asynchronous, with events depicted in the same image not necessarily occurring at the same time.[128]

Text is frequently incorporated into comics via speech balloons, captions, and
sound effects. Speech balloons indicate dialogue (or thought, in the case of
thought balloons), with tails pointing at their respective speakers.[129] Captions
can give voice to a narrator, convey characters' dialogue or thoughts,[130] or
indicate place or time.[131] Speech balloons themselves are strongly associated
with comics, such that the addition of one to an image is sufficient to turn the
image into comics.[132] Sound effects mimic non-vocal sounds textually using
onomatopoeia sound-words.[133]
A caption (the yellow box) gives the
Cartooning is most frequently used in making comics, traditionally using ink narrator a voice. The characters'
(especially India ink) with dip pens or ink brushes;[134] mixed media and digital dialogue appears in speech balloons.
The tail of the balloon indicates the
technology have become common. Cartooning techniques such as motion
speaker.
lines[135] and abstract symbols are often employed.[136]

While comics are often the work of a single creator, the labour of making them is
frequently divided between a number of specialists. There may be separate writers and artists, and artists may specialize in parts
of the artwork such as characters or backgrounds, as is common in Japan.[137] Particularly in American superhero comic
books,[138] the art may be divided between a penciller, who lays out the artwork in pencil;[139] an inker, who finishes the artwork
in ink;[140] a colourist;[141] and a letterer, who adds the captions and speech balloons.[142]

Etymology
The English-language term comics derives from the humorous (or "comic") work which predominated in early American
newspaper comic strips; usage of the term has become standard for non-humorous works as well. The term "comic book" has a
similarly confusing history: they are most often not humorous; nor are they regular books, but rather periodicals.[143] It is
common in English to refer to the comics of different cultures by the terms used in their original languages, such as manga for
Japanese comics, or bandes dessinées for French-language Franco-Belgian comics.[144]

Many cultures have taken their words for comics from English, including Russian (Комикс, komiks)[145] and German
(comic).[146] Similarly, the Chinese term manhua[147] and the Korean manhwa[148] derive from the Chinese characters with
which the Japanese term manga is written.[149]

See also
Animation Picture book
Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum

See also lists

List of best-selling comic series List of comic strip syndicates
List of best-selling manga List of Franco-Belgian comics series
List of comic books List of newspaper comic strips
List of comics creators Lists of manga
List of comics publishing companies List of manga artists
 List of manga magazines List of years in comics
List of manga publishers

Notes
a. tankōbon (単行本, translation close to "independently appearing book")
b. David Kunzle has compiled extensive collections of these and other proto-comics in his The Early Comic Strip
(1973) and The History of the Comic Strip (1990).[10]
c. French: "... aucune ne supporte une analyse un peu serieuse." – Jacqueline & Raoul Dubois in La Presse
enfantine française (Midol, 1957)[44]
d. French: "C'est le sabotage de tout art et de toute littérature." – Jean de Trignon in Histoires de la littérature
enfantine de ma Mère l'Oye au Roi Babar (Hachette, 1950)[44]
e. French: neuvième art
f. Tagosaku and Mokube Sightseeing in Tokyo (Japanese: 田吾作と杢兵衛の東京見物 Hepburn: Tagosaku to
Mokube no Tokyo Kenbutsu)
g. "Manga" (Japanese: 漫画) can be glossed in many ways, amongst them "whimsical pictures", "disreputable
pictures",[58] "irresponsible pictures",[59] "derisory pictures", and "sketches made for or out of a sudden
inspiration".[60]
h. "cartoon": from the Italian cartone, meaning "card", which referred to the cardboard on which the cartoons were
typically drawn.[12]
i. Hosokibara, Seiki (1924). 日本漫画史 [Japanese Comics History]. Yuzankaku.
j. Kure, Tomofusa (1986). 現代漫画の全体像 [Modern Manga: The Complete Picture]. Joho Center Publishing.
ISBN 978-4-575-71090-8.[106]
k. "Manga expression theory" (Japanese: 漫画表現論 Hepburn: manga hyōgenron)[107]
l. Japan Society for Studies in Cartoon and Comics (Japanese: 日本マンガ学会 Hepburn: Nihon Manga Gakkai)

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Frahm, Ole (October 2003). "Too much is too much. The never innocent laughter of the Comics" (http://www.imag
eandnarrative.be/inarchive/graphicnovel/olefrahm.htm). Image & Narrative (7). ISSN 1780-678X (https://www.wor
ldcat.org/issn/1780-678X). Retrieved 2012-02-05.
Groensteen, Thierry (Spring 2012). "The Current State of French Comics Theory". Scandinavian Journal of
Comic Art. 1 (1): 111–122.
Cohen, Martin S. (April 1977). "The Novel in Woodcuts: A Handbook". Journal of Modern Literature. 6 (2): 171–
195. JSTOR 3831165 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3831165).
Yuan, Ting (2011). "From Ponyo to 'My Garfield Story': Using Digital Comics as an Alternative Pathway to Literary
Composition" (https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-254482672). Childhood Education. 87 (4).

Web

Beerbohm, Robert (2003). "The Adventures of Obadiah Oldbuck Part III" (http://scoop.diamondgalleries.com/Ho
me/4/1/73/1017?articleID=43536). The Search For Töpffer in America. Retrieved 2012-07-23.
Harvey, R.C. (2010-12-20). "Defining Comics Again: Another in the Long List of Unnecessarily Complicated
Definitions" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110914065411/http://classic.tcj.com/top-stories/defining-comics-again
-another-in-the-long-list-of-unnecessarily-complicated-definitions/). The Comics Journal. Fantagraphics Books.
Archived from the original (http://classic.tcj.com/top-stories/defining-comics-again-another-in-the-long-list-of-unne
cessarily-complicated-definitions/) on 2011-09-14. Retrieved 2013-02-06.
Markstein, Don (2010). "Glossary of Specialized Cartoon-related Words and Phrases Used in Don Markstein's
Toonopedia" (http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091016112147/http://www.toonopedia.com/glossary.htm). Don
Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original (http://www.toonopedia.com/glossary.htm) on 2009-10-16.
Retrieved 2013-02-05.
Further reading
McCloud, Scott (2006). Making Comics: Storytelling Secrets of Comics, Manga and Graphic Novels (https://archi
ve.org/details/makingcomicsstor0000mccl) (1st Perennial ed.). ISBN 0060780940.
McCloud, Scott (2000). Reinventing Comics: How Tmagination and Technology are Revolutionizing an Art Form
(1st Perennial ed.). Perennial. ISBN 0060953500.
Carrier, David (2002). The Aesthetics of Comics. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-02188-1.
Cohn, Neil (2013). The Visual Language of Comics: Introduction to the Structure and Cognition of Sequential
Images (https://books.google.com/?id=RVABAQAAQBAJ&dq=the+visual+language+of+comics). London:
Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4411-8145-9.
Dowd, Douglas Bevan; Hignite, Todd (2006). Strips, Toons, And Bluesies: Essays in Comics And Culture (https://
books.google.com/books?id=TjzlxyfWbxwC). Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1-56898-621-0.
Eisner, Will (1995). Graphic Storytelling. Poorhouse Press. ISBN 978-0-9614728-3-2.
Estren, Mark James (1993). A History of Underground Comics (https://books.google.com/books?id=hQb_q6DWle
4C). Ronin Publishing. ISBN 978-0-914171-64-5.
Groensteen, Thierry (2007) [1999]. The System of Comics (https://books.google.com/?id=tgNKwRM00w0C).
University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-57806-925-5.
Groensteen, Thierry (2014). "Definitions" (https://books.google.com/books?id=F9yFBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA93). In
Miller, Ann; Beaty, Bart (eds.). The French Comics Theory Reader. Leuven University Press. pp. 93–114.
ISBN 978-90-5867-988-8.
Groth, Gary; Fiore, R., eds. (1988). The New Comics. Berkley Books. ISBN 978-0-425-11366-0.
Heer, Jeet; Worcester, Kent, eds. (2012). A Comics Studies Reader (https://books.google.com/books?id=EjzAZto
xfx8C). University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-60473-109-5.
Horn, Maurice, ed. (1977). The World Encyclopedia of Comics. Avon. ISBN 978-0-87754-323-7.
Kunzle, David (1973). The Early Comic Strip: Narrative Strips and Picture Stories in the European Broadsheet
from c. 1450 to 1825 (https://books.google.com/books?id=yVY8PgAACAAJ). University of California Press.
ISBN 978-0-520-05775-3. OCLC 470776042 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/470776042).
Kunzle, David (1990). History of the Comic Strip: The Nineteenth Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=IA
hTJO_R7eoC). University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-01865-5.
Sabin, Roger (1996). Comics, Comix and Graphic Novels: A History of Comic Art. Phaidon. ISBN 978-0-7148-
3993-6.
Waugh, Coulton (1947). The Comics. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-0-87805-499-2.
Stein, Daniel; Thon, Jan-Noël, eds. (2015). From Comic Strips to Graphic Novels. Contributions to the Theory
and History of Graphic Narrative (https://books.google.com/?id=3RisCAAAQBAJ&dq=from+comic+strips+to+grap
hic+novels). De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-042656-4.

External links
Comics (https://curlie.org/Arts/Comics) at Curlie
Academic journals

The Comics Grid: Journal of Comics Scholarship (http://www.comicsgrid.com/)

ImageTexT: Interdisciplinary Comics Studies (http://www.english.ufl.edu/imagetext/)
Image [&] Narrative (http://www.imageandnarrative.be/)
International Journal of Comic Art (http://www.ijoca.com/)
Journal of Graphic Novels and Comics (http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rcom20/current)
Archives

Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum (http://cartoons.osu.edu/)

Michigan State University Comic Art Collection (http://comics.lib.msu.edu/)
 Comic Art Collection (http://mulibraries.missouri.edu/specialcollections/comic.htm) at the University of Missouri
Cartoon Art Museum of San Francisco (http://www.cartoonart.org/)
Time Archives' Collection of Comics (https://web.archive.org/web/20130823023710/http://www.time.com/time/arc
hive/collections/0,21428,c_comics,00.shtml)
"Comics in the National Art Library" (https://web.archive.org/web/20091104235741/http://www.vam.ac.uk/collectio
ns/prints_books/features/comics/index.html). Prints & Books. Victoria and Albert Museum. Archived from the
original (http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/prints_books/features/comics/index.html) on 2009-11-04. Retrieved
2011-03-15.
Databases

Comic Book Database (http://www.comicbookdb.com/)

Grand Comics Database (http://comics.org/)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comics&oldid=928058938"

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