Biochemistry of Cells: Biological Giant Molecules – Polymers

Molecules  Large molecules

 Made from monomers by linking in a
Calorie Intake process called condensation or
 Average woman: dehydration synthesis (remove H20)
*Maintain: 2000 kcal/day  Breaks down by hydrolysis (add H2O)
*Lose 1 lb: 1500 kcal/day  Called macromolecules
 Average Man ex. Proteins Carbohydrates
*Maintain: 2500 kcal/day Lipids Nucleic Acids
*Lose: 2000 kcal/day
Carbohydrates
Fast Facts  Small sugar molecules in soft drinks
 Adolescents  Long starch molecules in pasta and potato
*Male (2800), Female (2200)
 BB = weight reduction & maintenance Monosaccharides
 20% used energy – brain metabolism  Simple sugars
 Protein= King of nutrients  Glucose, fructose, galactose
 Same chemical, but different structural
Carbon-based Molecule formulas (C6H12O6)
 Consists most of the cell, aside from H2O *honey contains both
Glucose – sports drinks glucose and fructose
Fructose – fruits *glucose &
Organic Chemistry
Galactose – milk sugar fructose=isomers
 Study of carbon compounds
 Forms ring structures in aqueous solutions
Carbon
 Main fuel for cellular work
 Versatile atom
 Four electrons in an outer shell that holds 8 Disaccharides
 Share electrons= 4 covalent bonds  Double sugar
 Use bonds to attach to other carbons  Made by joining two monosaccharides
 Form an endless diversity of carbon  Involves removing of water (condensation)
skeletons  Bond – glycosidic bond
 Sucrose, maltose, lactose
Hydrocarbons
 Simplest carbon compound Sucrose – glucose + fructose
 One carbon and one hydrogen Maltose – 2 glucose molecules
 Hydrocarbons of fat molecules= energy Lactose – galactose + glucose
 Large hydrocarbons= molecules in gasoline
Polysaccharides
Shape of Organic Molecules  Many sugar monomers linked together
 Unique 3D shape
Starch
 Shape determines function in organism
 Plant polysaccharide
 Plant cell stores starch for energy
Functional Groups
 Major source of starch= potatoes & grains
 Groups of atoms that give properties to the
compounds to which they attach Glycogen *starch & glycogen
 Animal polysaccharide = same structure; both
Common FG: Hydroxyl Amino  Stored excess sugar
made of glucose
monomers
Carbonyl Carboxyl
Cellulose Primary Protein Structure
 Most abundant organic compound  The primary structure is the specific
 Cable-like fibrils sequence of amino acids in a protein called
 Major component of wood polypeptide.
 a.k.a. dietary fiber
Secondary Protein Structure
Sugars in Water  Occur when protein chains called
 Simple sugars and double sugars readily polypeptide coil or fold
dissolve in water
 Hydrophilic, or “water-loving” Denaturing Proteins
 -OH groups make them soluble  Occur when there is a change in
temperature & pH
Lipids
 Don’t mix with water Four Types of Proteins
 Fats, waxes, steroids, and oils  Structural
 Store energy, help to insulate body, and  Storage
cushion/protect organs  Contractile
 Transport
Types of Fatty Acids
 Saturated Fatty Acids Linking Amino Acids
- All single bonds between carbons  Cells link amino acids together to make
 Unsaturated Fatty Acids proteins in a process called condensation
- double bond between carbons or dehydration
 Peptide bonds form to hold the amino
Triglyceride acids together
 monomer of lipids
 composed of glycerol & 3 fatty acid chains Changing Amino Acid Sequence
 backbone of fat  Substitution of one amino acid for another in
hemoglobin causes sickle-cell disease
Lipids Cell Membrane
 Cell Membrane are made of phospholipids Enzymes
 Have a hydrophilic head and 2  Many proteins act as biological catalysts
hydrophobic tails or enzymes (enzymes=control the rate of
chemical reactions by weakening bonds)
Steroid  Are globular proteins
 Carbon skeleton is fused to make 4 fused  Folded conformation creates an area called
rings active site
 Cholesterol is the “base steroid”  Active sites can change shape called
 Estrogen and testosterone induced fit
 Synthetic anabolic steroids - Variants of
testosterone Other Important Proteins
 Insulin- controls blood sugar level and
Proteins cause the liver to store excess sugar as
 Made of 20 different amino acids linked glycogen
differently  Receptor Proteins – helps cell recognition
 Polymers made of monomers (amino
acids)
 Build cells and act as hormones
Nucleic Acids
 Store hereditary information
 Contains information for producing body’s
proteins
 Two types: DNA & RNA
 Are polymers of nucleotides
Bases – each DNA nucleotide has one of the
following bases:
 Adenine (A)
 Guanine (G)
 Thymine (T)
 Cytosine (C)
Nucleotide Monomers
 Nucleotides are joined together by sugars
and phosphates on the side
 Form long chains called DNA
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic Acid
 Two strands of DNA join together to form a
double helix
RNA: Ribonucleic Acid
 Ribose sugar has an extra –OH or hydroxyl
group
 Has the base uracil instead of thymine
ATP Cellular Energy: Adenosine Triphosphate
 ATP is used by cells for energy
 Made of a nucleotide with 3 phosphate
groups
 Energy is stored in the chemical bonds of
ATP
 Last 2 Phosphate Groups: High Energy
 Breaking the last phosphate bond =
releases energy for cellular work and
produces ADP and a free phosphate
 ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) can be
rejoined to the free phosphate to make
more ATP
Photosynthesis
 Anabolic (small molecules combined)
 Endergonic (stores energy)
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) requiring process
that uses light energy (photons) and water
(H2O) to produce organic macromolecules
(glucose).
6CO2 + 6H2O —> C6H12O6 + 6O2
 Autotrophs – produce their own food
(glucose)
 Mainly occurs in the leaves:
 stomata - pores
 mesophyll cells
Stomata
 Pores in a plant’s cuticle through which
water, vapor and gases (CO2 & O2) are
exchanged between the plant and the
atmosphere.
 Found on the underside of leaves
Mesophyll Cell of Leaf
 Photosynthesis occurs in these cells
Chloroplast
 Organelle where photosynthesis takes
place
Thylakoid
 Thylakoid stacks are connected together
 Grana make up the inner membrane
Why are plants green?
 Chlorophyll Molecules: Located in the
thylakoid membranes
 Plants are green because the green
wavelength is reflected, not absorbed
 Chlorophyll absorbs blue-violet & red light
best
Fall Colors
 During the fall, the green chlorophyll
pigments are greatly reduced revealing the
other pigments
 Carotenoids are pigments that are either
red, orange, or yellow
Redox Reaction 2. Calvin Cycle or Light Independent
 The transfer of one or more electrons from Reaction •
one reactant to another - Also called Carbon Fixation or C3
Two types: Fixation
1. Oxidation is the loss of e – - Uses energy (ATP and NADPH) from
2. Reduction is the gain of e – light reaction to make sugar (glucose).

Oxidation Reaction Concept 1: Photosynthesis converts solar

 The loss of electrons from a substance or energy into chemical energy.
the gain of oxygen
 Photosynthesis is a 2-stage process
Reduction Reaction
 The gain of electrons to a substance or the Stage 1: LIGHT REACTIONS (photo part)
loss of oxygen.  occurs in the thylakoids
 split H2O
Energy for Life on Earth  release O2
 Sunlight is the ULTIMATE energy for all life  reduce NADP+ to NADPH
on Earth  produce ATP by photophosphorylation
 Plants store energy in the chemical bonds
of sugars Stage 2: CALVIN CYCLE (synthesis part)
 Chemical energy is released as ATP during  occurs in the stroma
cellular respiration  converts CO2 into sugar using ATP and
NADPH
Structure of ATP
 ATP stands for adenosine triphosphate
 It is composed of the nitrogen base
adenine, the pentose (5C) sugar ribose,
and three phosphate groups
 The last phosphate group is bonded with a
high energy chemical bond. This bond can
be broken to release energy for cells to use.

Removing a Phosphate from ATP

Breaking the last phosphate bond from ATP, will ---
 Release energy for cells to use
 Form ADP
 Produce a free phosphate group

Free phosphate can be re-attached to ADP

reforming ATP in a process called
Phosphorylation

Two Parts of Photosynthesis

1. Light Reaction or Light Dependent
Reaction
- Produces energy from solar power
(photons) in the form of ATP and NADPH
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate)