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TECH PROJECT 2017

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 OUTLINE OF PROJECT


This project aims at design and construction of a two Lane flexible pavement.The road
under construction is a ODR 91C linking bijnor Chauraha to NH25. The reason for
construction of this road is that the traffic density is higher than what it was designed
earlier and its importance.

This project involves design and construction of -

1. Embankment of the subgrade of the road.


2. Sub-base and base course of the road.
3. Surface course of the road.
4. Geometric design of the road.
According to traffic volume survey, the traffic is found to be 12483 pcu/day , CBR of
the soil is 4.2% .

Details for geometric design of the road

● Design speed f vehicles on this road is 65 kmph


● Reaction time of the driver is 2.5secs
● No. of lanes of the road is 2
● Stopping sight distance is 95m
● Overtaking sight distance is 370m
● Length of horizontal curve is 200m
● Radius of horizontal curve 152m
● Super elevation is 7%.
In modern time road transportation is playing an ever increasing role in human
life. The transportation by road is the only mode which could give maximum service to
one and all. The surface of the roadway should be stable and non-yielding to allow the
heavy wheel load of road traffic to move with least possible rolling resistance. The earth
road may not be able to fulfill any requirements, especially during the varying condition
of traffic loads and weather.

The pavement carries wheel loads and transfers the load stress through a wider area on
the soil subgrade below. One of the objectives of a well designed and constructed
pavement is therefore to keep this elastic deformation of the pavement within the

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permissible limits. Based on the vertical alignment and the environmental condition of
the site, the pavement may be constructed over an embankment, cutting.

Pavements are generally classified into two categories:

• Rigid Pavement

• Flexible Pavement

Fig. 1.1

▪ RIGID PAVEMENT :

The rigid pavement made of Portland cement concrete-either plain, reinforced or


prestressed concrete. The rigid pavement has the slab action and is capable of
transmitting the wheel load stress through a wider area below.

The cement concrete pavement slab can very well serve as a wearing surface as
well an effective base course. The rigid pavement is usually designed and the
stress are analysed using the elastic theory.

Fig. 1.2

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▪ FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT :

The flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation of the lower layers on-to
the surface of the layer. The flexible pavement are built with number of layers. It
is to be ensured that under the application of load none of the layer is
overstressed. The pavement structure is subjected to excessive deformation to
form a localized depression.

The design of flexible pavement involves the interplay of several variables, such
as the wheel loads, traffic, climate, terrain and subgrade conditions. With a view
to have a unified approach for working out the design of flexible pavement in
the country, the IRC first brought out guideline in 1970. These were based on
CBR method. To handle large spectrum of axle load, these guidelines were
revised in 1984. Following the equivalent axle load concept. In this approach the
pavement thickness was related to the cumulative number of standard axles to be
carried out for different subgrade strengths.

With the rapid growth of traffic now, the pavements are required to be designed
for heavy volume of traffic of the order of 150 million standard axles in the
meanwhile, an in house software package was developed under MORT&H
research scheme R-56. This enabled mathematical modeling of the pavement
structure using multiple layer elastic theory. With this background and the
feedback on the performance of the existing designs, the flexible pavement
committee in 1997 set up a sub-group consisting of the following personnel to
review the existing guidelines for design of flexible pavements.

Flexible pavement design methods are accordingly either empirical or semi-


empirical. The design methods therefore include methods based on soil
classification like group index value and methods based on soil strength like
California Bearing ratio.

A typical flexible pavement consists of four component:

• Soil Subgrade
• Sub-base Course
• Base Course
• Surface Course
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Fig. 1.3

SOIL SUBGRADE:

The soil subgrade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the layers of pavement
materials placed over it. The loads on the pavement are ultimately received by the soil
subgrade for dispersion to the earth mass.

SUB-BASE COURSE:

Sub Base Course a layer of stabilized soil or selected granular soil. In some places
boulder stones or brick are also used as a sub-base or soling course. At the sub-base
course, it is desirable to use smaller size graded aggregates or soil-aggregate mixes.

BASE COURSE:

Base course are used under flexible pavement primarily to improve the load supporting
capacity by distributing the load through a finite thickness. The fundamental purpose of
base course is to provide a stress transmitting medium to spread the surface wheel loads
in such manner as to prevent shear and consolidation deformation.

SURFACE COURSE:

The purpose of the wearing course is to give a smooth riding surface. It resist pressure
exerted by tyres and takes up wear and tear due to the traffic. Surface course also offer a
water tight layer against the surface water infiltration.

1.2 DESIGN LIFE:

For the design of pavement, the design life is defined in term of thee cumulative number
of standard Axles that can be carried before strengthening of the pavement is necessary.

It is recommended that pavement for national highways and state highways should be

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designed for a life of 15 years. Expressways and urban roads may be designed for a
longer life of 20 years. For other categories of roads a designed life of 10 to 15 years
may be adopted.

1.3 OVERVIEW :
Indian roads congress has specified the design procedures for flexible pavements based
on CBR values. The Pavement designs given in the previous edition IRC:37-1984 were
applicable to design traffic up to only 30 million standard axles (msa).

The earlier code is empirical in nature which has limitations regarding applicability and
extrapolation. This guideline follows analytical designs and developed new set of
designs up to 150 msa.

1.4 OBJECTIVE :
Flexible pavement has following objectives :

1. The surface of the roadway should be stable and non-yielding, to allow the
heavy wheel loads of road traffic to move with least possible rolling
resistance.
2. The road surface should also be even along the longitudinal profile to enable
the fast vehicles to move safely and comfortably at the design speed.
3. The pavement carries the wheel loads and transfer the load stresses through a
wider area on the soil subgrade blow.
4. The vertical alignment and the environment condition of the site, the
pavement may be constructed over an embankment, cut at the ground level
itself. It is always desirable to construct the pavement well above the
maximum level of the groundwater.

1.5 SCOPE OF WORK :


These guidelines will apply to design of flexible pavements for Expressway, National
Highways, State Highways, Major District Roads, and other categories of roads.

Flexible pavements are considered to include the pavements which have bituminous
surfacing and granular base and subbase courses conforming to IRC standards. These
guidelines apply to new pavements.

1.6 GENERAL SURVEY OF SUBGRADE CONDITIONS :


Sources of data should include the landforms, soil conditions in ditches, and cuts and

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tests of representative soils in the site.

The survey should be augmented with existing soil and geological maps. Both natural
and subsurface drainage of the subgrade must be considered.

1.7 UTTAR PRADESH ROAD DEVELOPMENT POLICY 1998

In the Uttar Pradesh Road Development Policy 1998, one of the objectives is “to keep
the roads free of potholes and patches all the time by continuously maintaining and
repairing them”, and another, “to ensure quality in construction and maintenance of
roads.” Furthermore, one of the salient features of the Policy is that, “latest techniques
will be used for construction of roads and bridges.” However, an examination of these
objectives indicates that these are far from being realised and that in many instances the
necessary policy and procedures are lacking.

1.8 SITE DESCRIPTION :

➢ Site is situated at bijnor, road starts at bijnor chauraha and ends at scooter india
gate chauraha on National Highway 25.
➢ Total length of road is 4.6 km.

➢ Category of road is ODR (Other District road) having 2 lane traffic capacities.

➢ Existing flexible pavement having 7m width & 4.2% of CBR value with total
crust thickness of 600 mm.

➢ Traffic design for 10 years.

1.9 SURVEY REPORT :

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TABLE 1.1

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TABLE 1.2

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TABLE 1.3

TRAFFIC SURVEY
Date : from 19.03.2017 to 20.03.2017

Car/Jeep/ Animal
Two Tracto
Day three Bus Truck Cycle drawn
Wheeler r
wheeler vehicle

1 7490 6009 58 404 1000 281 0

Factor
0.5 1 3 3 0.5 3 4
PCU

Total 3745 6009 174 1212 500 843 0

TABLE 1.4

PCU per day=12483

➢ CALCULATION OF CBR VALUE


Load dial reading at 2.5mm penetration = 30.35
Load at 2.5mm penetration = 30.35 x 190 / 100 = 57.67 kg
CBR value at 2.5mm penetration = 57.67 x 100 / 1370 = 4.21% = 4.2% (say)
Load dial reading at 5.0mm penetration = 44.99
Load at 2.5mm penetration = 44.99 x 190 / 100 = 85.48 kg
CBR value at 2.5mm penetration = 85.48 x 100 / 2055= 4.16%
The CBR value of the specimen is 4.2%.

LIQUID LIMIT & PLASTIC LIMIT

➢ Liquid limit of specimen is 32.53.


➢ Plastic limit of specimen is 11.53.
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DESIGNING
➢ WATER CONTENT OF SOIL =11.86%
➢ LIQUID LIMIT =32.53%
➢ PLASTIC LIMIT =11.53%
➢ PLASTICITY INDEX =21%
➢ BULK DENSITY =1.40
➢ DRY DENSITY =1.25
➢ OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT =13.5%
➢ MAX DRY DENSITY =2.25
● Plasticity index of soil sample of this road is more than 6% i.e 21%. Hence
catred earth of required plasticity index shall be used for construction of
embankment and shoulder.
● Compaction of earth work shall be carried out with optimum moisture content
13.5% to attain max dry density 2.25

DESIGNING OF WIDENING
PCU= 12483

➢ PCU of this road is more than 10,000, hence two lane that is 7m road shall be
required.
➢ Existing width of road is 7mt, hence there is no requirement of widening of this
road.

1.10 DESIGN OF CRUST THICKNESS :

➢ The design crust thickness is based on IRC:37-2012


1.10.1 SPECIFICATIONS OF EXISTING ROAD :

Crust thickness = 61cm

CBR = 4.2%

DBM = 50mm

BM = 40mm

1.10.2 FOR DESIGN TRAFFIC IN 2017-18 :


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1. Traffic in years of completion :
A = P (1 + r)x
P = 743
r = 5%
x = 2 year
A = 743(1 + .05)2
= 819 cvpd
1. computation of design traffic
( )
N= [ ]

A = 819 cvpd

D = Lane distribution factor for two lane single carriageway road = 75%

F = Vehicle damage factor for traffic ranging 150 to 1500 cvpd = 2.50

n = Design life in year = 10 years

r = Annual growth = 5%

( )
N=

N = 17.69 msa.

Now ,as per IRC : 37-2012

For 4.2% CBR value and N = 17.69 msa total

pavement thickness required = 680mm

BC = 2.5cm

DBM = 5cm 7.5cm

WMM = 28.5cm 53.5cm

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GB = 10cm

GSB = 15cm

Fig 1.4

Additional thickness of crust required = 68 - 61= 7cm

Provide

DBM = 3 cm

BC = 4 cm

Hence total thickness of crust after strengthening is 68 cm in which 4cm of BC & 3cm
of DBM are provided additional thickness in existing road of 61 cm crust.

Fig 1.5

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Fig 1.6

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Fig 1.7

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1.10.3 PAVEMENT COMPOSITION :

Design crust required = 680 mm

PROVIDING THE FOLLOWING COMPOSITION OF CRUST –

GSB IN ONE LAYER 300 mm


WMM First Coat 150 mm
WMM Second Coat 100 mm
NON BITUMINOUS CRUST = 550 mm
DBM One Layer 100 mm
BC One Layer 40 mm
BITUMINOUS CRUST =140 mm

Fig 1.8

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 GENERAL VIEW :


A large portion of this project involved an extensive literature review, in which
researchers Obtained information regarding the various design and construction issues
in pavement widening.

This is the initial stage of a project which can have an impact on every stage of the
project thereafter, such as overall cost of works, duration etc., and it is, therefore ,
important that the following steps are documented:

▪ Collection of data, adequacy and accuracy of data.


▪ Data interpretation; solutions based on codes and practices, taking into account
relevant local -and past experience.
▪ The alternatives being considered.
▪ Review prior to finalisation.

This chapter provides a detailed of the literature review. The review is organized
according to the following key areas:

▪ Stabilization,
▪ Pavement Edge drains and Subsurface Drainage,
▪ Longitudinal Construction Joints,
▪ Pavement Edge Drop-Offs,
▪ Construction Equipment, and
▪ Embankment Widening.

It should be noted that for the purposes of this literature review the units of measure
reflect the units used in the referenced reports and are not consistent throughout the
chapter.

2.2 STABILIZATION :

IRC Guidelines for Modification and Stabilization of Soils and Bases for Use in
Pavement. Structures offers a more uniform approach to selecting both the type and

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amount of stabilizer for subgrades, bases, and salvaged existing materials. A laboratory
mix design is a critical step in obtaining the desired improvements to shear strength,
modulus, moisture resistance, stability, and durability.

According to the guidelines, the selection of the appropriate stabilizer for subgrades,
bases, and salvaged existing materials is dependent on factors, such as: soil mineralogy,
soil classification, goals of treatment, mechanisms of additives, desired engineering and
material properties, design life, environmental conditions, and engineering economics.

These specification shall apply to all such road are required to be executed under the
contract or otherwise directed by the Engineer-in-charge. The quality of materials,
processing of materials as may be needed at the site, salient features of the construction
work and quality of finished work shall comply with the requirement set forth in
succeeding sections. It shall be understood that only general terms, and not in complete
detail, it shall be understood that only the best quality are to be employed and
instructions of the engineer are to be fully complied with.

2.3 SCOPE OF WORK :

The work to be carried out under the contract shall consist of the various items as
generally described in the tender documents as well as in the bill of quantities furnished
in the tender documents.

The work to be performed shall also include all general work preparatory to the
construction of roads, bridges, canal crossings, drainage and all other related works. The
work shall include work of any kind necessary for the due and satisfactory construction,
completion and maintenance of the works to the intent and meaning of the drawing and
order that may be issued by the engineer from time to time.

The contractor shall ensure that all actions are taken to build in quality assurance in the
planning and execution works. The quality assurance shall cover all stages of work such
as setting out, selection of materials, selection of construction method, selection of
equipment and plant deployment of personnel and supervisory staff.

2.4 SITE INFORMATION :


The information about the site of work and site conditions in the tender documents is
given n good faith for guidance only but the contractor shall satisfy himself regarding
all aspects of site conditions.

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The location of the works and the general site particulars are as generally shown on the
site plan/Index plan enclosed with the tender documents.

The quarry charts enclosed with the tender documents indicate the location of quarries
and other sources from which naturally occurring materials are available, for guidance
of the contractor.

2.5 PUBLIC UTILITIES :

Drawing scheduling the affected services like water pipes, sewers, oil pipelines, cables,
gas ducts etc. owned by various authorities including public undertakings and local
authorities included in the contract documents shall be verified by the contractor for the
accuracy of the information prior to the commencement of any work.

The final position of these services within the work shall be supposed to have been
indicated based on the information furnished by different bodies and to the extent the
bodies are familiar with the final proposals.

The work of temporarily supporting and protecting the public utility services during
execution of the works shall be deemed to be part of the contract and no extra payment
shall be made for the same. Such works shall be taken up by the contractor only after
obtaining clearance from the engineer and ensuring adequate safety measuring.

2.6. PROJECT COSTING -

This is the process of recording, tracking, and analysing all the various costs incurred
during the execution of a highway project from inception to completion and handover,
including defect liability period.

It is widely regarded as an extremely important component when evaluating and


planning overall project strategies, since different strategies may well result in different
project costs. Accurate project costing becomes critically important especially when
there is a constant scarcity of funds, which is the normal situation with any Government
organization such as the PWD.

In this case the costs of the individual elements that make up the project are summated.
Basically these costs are for labour, plant and equipment, and materials. For work to be
executed 'In-house' with the PWD's own labour force these individual costs will be, or
should be, known.

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When external Contractors are engaged the PWD will only have access to the 'Selling'
rates, i.e. the rate given by the Contractor when pricing the Bill of Quantities.

This 'Selling' rate will include:

▪ Labour costs associated with each item


▪ Plant and Equipment Costs associated with each item
▪ Materials costs associated with each item

Spread of the Contractor's preliminary items which are not listed in the Bill of
Quantities.

Such items, for example, may include:

▪ provision of water, electricity, and telephones to the site.


▪ construction of haul roads.
▪ provision of Contractor's offices and equipment, store, canteen, mess
room, etc.

The total costs of these items are normally spread over the items listed in the Bill of
Quantities. As such they are additional to the elements of labour, plant and equipment,
and materials. But will not be known by the Client Head office overheads - these are the
costs borne by the Contractor for the running of is offices, and include the costs
associated with preparing bids. Most Contractors, and Consulting firms, do not win all
the projects for which they are bidding, but the costs of preparing such bids have to be
recovered from the „profit‟ made on those contracts which they do win.

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CHAPTER 3

GENERAL SPECIFICATION

3.1 PLANNING AND DESIGN :

3.1.1 ROAD NETWORK PLANNING / TRAFFIC MASTER PLAN :

1) The Road & Bridge works should be properly integrated with the ongoing schemes
/sub-project of urban environment improvement project (i.e. Water supply, Sewerage,
Drainage etc.) under UPPWD. The detailed Project report shall be prepared as per the
IRC Guidelines.

2) The existing road network system of the city should be taken into account for
preparation of traffic master plan for 30 years design period i.e. year 2041 and
accordingly the proposed improvement scheme shall be planned.

The following activities have to be worked out for preparation of traffic master plan.

▪ Mid-block traffic survey for different roads including parking survey, pedestrian
survey
▪ Traffic survey in junctions including pedestrian movement
▪ Analysis of traffic survey data
▪ Fixation of Planning Horizontal
▪ Collection of important features, socio economic data, right of way etc. and
Proposed Traffic Plan of the city to avoid traffic congestion in peak hours
including safety of traffic, provision of parking, safe movement of Pedestrian &
slow moving vehicles etc.
▪ Any development/expansion plan, tourism etc. shall also be taken into
consideration for preparation of traffic master plan.
▪ Projection of proposed traffic.
▪ Improvement schemes i.e. new road, widening of existing road, signalling
system, parking facilities, footpath, foot over bridge, Sub-way, Bridges etc have
to be finalized in line with the traffic master plan.
▪ Proposed improvement schemes shall be limited to existing right of way or
minimum acquisition.
▪ Preparation of guidelines for passing of utilities considering the minimum
damage/ obstruction of road for laying of new utilities & maintenance of
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utilities.

3) The Socio- Economic structure of the city shall be taken into consideration for future
prospects of the city as well as needs for development.
4) Based on Traffic & Socio-Economic analysis, the priority list of improvement
schemes shall be prepared to suit the traffic master plan.
5) From the above priority list of improvement. Scheme, the different works shall be
phased for 10/20/30 years for smooth traffic flow as well as minimum Environmental
hazards.
6) Immediate improvement scheme shall be selected to implement as per their merits
and budgetary allocation. The proposed improvement scheme shall be integrated.
7) Based on selection criteria to take up the works high level Bridges as the priority to
this sector. It is proposed that only very important / priority roads should be considered
in accordance to tentative allocation/identified list of works of the town. In general, the
construction of road shall be started after completion of works related to sewerage,
drainage, water supply etc. for the stretches of the road. As and when roads getting
damaged due to sewerage works; road restoration in complete width should be taken
under the sewerage packages; whereas, for water supply works the road restoration may
be limited to the width of excavation only.
8) Longitudinal Sections and Cross-Sections
▪ Levels- along the final centre line should be taken at all staked stations and at all
breaks in the ground.
▪ Cross-sections should be generally taken at 50 - 100 metre intervals in plain
terrain and 50 - 75 metre in rolling terrain depending on the nature of work.
Preferred distance for existing roads and built-up situations is 50 m. The interval
should be still less in hilly terrain, about 20 m. In addition, cross-sections should
be taken at points of beginning and end of spiral transition curves, at the
beginning, middle and end of circular curves, and at other critical locations. All
cross-sections should be with reference to the final centre line, extend normally
up to the right-of-way limit, and show levels at every 2 - 5 metre intervals and
all breaks in the profile.
▪ Centre line profile should normally be continued at least 200 metres beyond the
limits of the project. This is intended to ensure proper connecting grades at both
ends. With the same objective, profile along all intersecting roads should be
measured upto a distance of about 150 metre. Further, at railway level crossings,
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the level of the top of the rails, and in the case of subways, the level of the roof
should be noted. On existing roads, levels should be taken at all points of
intersection in order to help the final fixation of profile.
▪ While finalizing road, top level of manholes constructed for sewer line and
Water line should be considered. If it is not possible to flush the road with top of
Manholes then raising of level of these manholes should be accounted for in
Estimation.
▪ For new roads utility duct along road should be proposed in the city area to pass
water, power and other lines.
▪ Proper Plantation on both side of roads should be considered.
▪ Typical Longitudinal Sections and Cross-Sections appended

3.1.2 DESIGN CRITERIA AND MATERIALS :


3.1.2.1 ROAD WORK :

1) The Specifications for road works are based on the currents Indian Roads Congress
Specifications and recommended codes of practice, and ministry of Roads Transport
and highways as per IRC specifications.
2) Roads shall be planned for full width of Right of Way (ROW) available. In general,
space for utility services / utility corridor may be identified separately in accordance to
the future requirements so that the obstruction of road & damage of the pavement shall
not be occurred in future. If separate space for utility is not available, a suitable
planning for passing of utilities has to be prepared for laying of new utilities &
maintenance of utilities.
3) In general, the road pavement is designed for 20 years design period. However, to
minimize the initial cost, 10-15 years design period may be adopted for design of road
pavement and overlay of BC & DBM for every 5 years shall be recommended for
remaining design period. For this case, cost effective study shall be carried out for all
cases with proper analysis. In absence of actual traffic growth by suitable method, the
annual growth rate of traffic may be adopted as 7.5 percent.
4) The reconnaissance survey of the existing roads should be carried out. All available
information of the existing road i.e. year of construction, subgrade CBR, soil
characteristics pavement composition and specifications, traffic, pavement performance,
overlay history, climatic conditions, location of underground & overground utilities etc.
5) Land Acquisition plan for approved improvement proposal shall be prepared based
on collected revenue map & information.
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6) Normally median should not be less than 1.2 m except critical locations and this
should usually be unpaved in four or more than four lane carriageway except specific
cases due to the width of the right of way limitation.
7) Flexible pavement for new roads should be designed in accordance with IRC: 37-
2001. Strengthening requirements either by method provided in IRC: 37- 2001 or the
Benkelman Beam Deflection Technique described in IRC: 81-2001.

8) For the purpose of structural design only the number of commercial vehicle of weight
of 3 tonnes or more and their axle loading is considered.
9) Profile correction should be avoided as far as possible. If it is not possible to avoid
then it should be taken bare minimum.
10) Effort should be made to have useful cost effective designs. Quality of works is
more dependent on adhering to design parameters during construction rather than higher
design specification.
11) BC and DBM layers should be bare minimum and it should be designed with the
provision of overlay in future. Bitumen of Grade 60/70 or Crumb Rubber Modified
(CRM) shall be used for all bituminous work except for mastic asphalt for which 85/25
Grade of Bitumen.
12) Rigid pavement should be proposed where carriageway comes in submerges and
low lying area. The design shall be done in accordance with IRC Standard.
13) Thermo-plastic paints should be used for road marking.
14) Roadside drain should be designed as per IRC Standard. The intensity of rainfall
should be taken from the realistic past data. The design calculation for the intensity
should be furnished in details along with adopted design procedure.
15) Shifting of utility services should be avoided as far as possible. In case it is not
avoidable then effort should be made to minimize the cost by taking minimum required
shifting of utilities.
16) Environment & Social impact assessment shall be done to minimize environment &
social hazards.
17) Spacing of street light should be designed in accordance to the required width to be
illuminate and accordingly capacity of luminaries and height of poles should be
decided. Dark patches shall not been seen on the road surface.
18) Use of mechanical Grader for construction of embankment, subgrade and subbase
shall be mandatory. For WMM all the material used shall be crusher broken.
19) Bituminous layers shall be laid by paver finisher. Bitumen of Grade 60/70 or CRM
shall be used for all bituminous work.
20) Thermoplastic paint conforming shall be used.
21) Traffic signs, Bollards, Hazard markers, Raised pavement markers shall conform to
relevant IRC specification and provision should be kept in BOQ.

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3.1.2.2 SETTING OUT :
1) All construction should be with reference to the final centre line of the main location
survey.
2) The centre line should be accurately referenced every 50 m interval in plain and
rolling terrains, 20 m intervals in hilly terrains and at all curve points, by marker pegs
and chain age boards set in or near the fence line. The schedule of reference dimensions
should be prepared and marker pegs shall be maintained till the end of the work.
3) Working benchmarks tied with the reference bench mark should be established at the
rate of four numbers per km and also at or near all drainage structures, other bridge and
underpasses. An up to-date record of all bench marks should be maintained and the
working bench marks should be checked frequently.
4) On construction reaching the formation level stage, the centre line should again be set
out and accurately referenced by marker pegs at the outer limits of the formation posts
of timber or steel should be kept one meter from the formation edges showing the
finished formation/finished base course/finished road levels. It should be possible to
stretch a thread across to verify the finished levels of various courses.
5) All survey monuments, benchmarks, beacons, etc. should be maintained accurately
during the construction process. A survey file containing the setting out data for traverse
points and levels shall be prepared and maintained during the construction process.
6) Precision automatic levels, having a standard deviation or + 2 mm per km and fitted
with micrometer attachment shall be used for all double run levelling work. Setting out
of the road alignment and measurement of angles shall be done by using theodolite with
traversing target, having a accuracy of one second. Measurement of distances shall be
done preferably using precision instruments, like, distomat.

3.1.2.3 DRAINAGE :
The site engineer should have a clear understanding that performance of a road is
closely related to drainage, both surface and subsurface. The sources of water involved
may be the surface runoff, seepage flow through subterranean channels, ground water
movement and moisture transfer within the soil masses, etc. and surplus water should be
removed away from the roadway area quickly and effectively.

3.1.2.4 EARTHWORK :
Ensure that the specified cross fall for both pavement and shoulder is provided right
from sub grade level and maintained during the earth work and ensure that subgrade is
sufficiently above the HFL/ ground water table or the natural ground level and should
have minimum height 0.6 m.

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3.2 ROADWAY & DRAINAGE EXCAVATION :

1) The area for the roadway and drainage excavation should be cleared and grabbed. Set
out the limit of excavation to the line & levels. Providing of control pegs for alignments
fixation and embankment construction are to be done as per relevant Clause of
Ministry‟s specification.
2) During excavation different grades of materials may be met, best material should be
reserved for use in the top 0.5 m height of the embankment.
3) Excavated material which is useable in pavement construction should be stacked,
proper measurements and recorded in proper manner.
Cross – section of earthwork of road in banking or in cutting is usually in the form of
trapezium, and the quantity of earthwork may be calculated by the following method:

QUANTITY OR VOLUME = SECTIONAL AREA X LENGTH

SECTIONAL AREA = AREA OF THE RECTANGULAR PORTION + AREA OF


. . TWO SIDE TRIANGULAR PORTION

QUANTITY = (Bd+Sd2) X L

When the ground is in longitudinal slope, the height of bank or depth of cutting will be
different at the two ends of the section and mean height or depth may be taken for “d”
and sectional area at mid-section is taken out for mean height. Alternatively, sectional
area is taken out. Sectional area at the two ends may be calculated and the mean of two
sectional area is taken out. Sectional area at the mid-section or the mean sectional area,
multiplied by the length gives the quantity.

MEAN HEIGHT = (d1+d2)/2

3.2.1 PRE-SPLITTING TECHNIQUE :

1) This blasting technique is defined as the establishment of a specified excavation


slope in rock by controlled use of explosives and blasting in properly aligned and
spaced drill holes- This technique is recommended for harder rock types.
2) This consists of drilling a series of closely spaced parallel holes (not exceeding 900
mm centre-to-centre) that reasonably conforms to the desired outlines and grade.
Production holes should be drilled at least 2.5 m away from the pre-split plane. The
presplit holes are charged and fired prior to the production holes. This provides for a
pre-shared face for the primary blast.
3) All overburden soil and weathered rock along the top of the excavation, for a distance
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of 5 m to 15 m beyond the drilling line, should be removed before drilling the pre-
splitting holes.
4) Normally, this technique should first be applied to short test section to see whether
the method has produced acceptable slope without undue shatter.
5) Any blasting technique which results in damage to the pre-split surface should be
discontinued.

3.2.2 PREPARATION OF CUT FORMATION :

1) Cut formation requires very close inspection for the reason that it is for the first time
that the material gets exposed.
2) Check for suitability of the natural material. Some shale‟s may look hard- when dry
but get slushy in presence of water. If such unsuitable materials are met with, have these
removed to a depth of at least 0.5 m or as otherwise specified and replaced with suitable
material.
3) If density of sub-grade is lower than 97 per cent of the laboratory density determined
as per IS: 2720 (Part VIII), it shall be loosened to a depth of 500 mm, watered and re
compacted in 250 mm thick loose layers to a density not less than 97 per cent of the
maximum laboratory dry density.
4) In rock formation all dish shaped cavities left out by blasting should be cut out at
edges to facilitate drainage. Low areas should be filled up with sub-base material and
properly compacted.
5) Any seepage should be intercepted and properly drained.

3.2.3 EXCAVATION FOR STRUCTURES :

The points which require specific attention are:

1) Setting out true to specified lines and levels.


2) Strength and safety of all temporary shoring, bracing and other earth supporting
devices.
3) Normally, open foundation should be laid dry. Dewatering by boiling, pumping,
diversion channels and other necessary work should be carried out when seepage flow is
met with.
4) The discharged water should not cause damage to the works, crops or property.
5) Detailed examination of the stratum at the foundation level to see whether the soil fits
in with the design assumptions, or the material is unsuitable to be left in place.

3.2.4 BORROW EXCAVATION :

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GENERAL GUIDELINE FOR BORROW EXCAVATION :

1) When earth available from the excavation for the roadway formation and drainage
excavation falls short of the requirement of embankment construction in the remaining
reaches, this should be obtained from approved area(s) outside the land width identified
for the purpose.
2) Check for the location, size and depth of borrow pits, where payment is on the basis
of borrow measurement.
3) The volume of borrow excavation and of compacted embankment will be different if
there is variation in the respective dry densities. For example, if the in-situ DBD of
borrow soil is 1.6 gm/cc, and that of embankment 1.8 gm/cc, the quantity of borrow
excavation will be larger by 1.8/1.6 times.

4) On completion of all measurements for payment, have the borrow pits opened out
partly at either ends to facilitate easy drainage.

3.3 GENERAL GUIDELINE FOR CONSTRUCTION OF


ROCKFILL EMBANKMENT:

1) In normal circumstances embankment should not be constructed with rock fill


arterial. Rock fill should not be used at least for a depth of 500 mm below the formation
level. This should be made up of earthen cushion.
2) The rock fill should be hard durable and inert material capable of being deposited in
layers.
3) Argillaceous rocks (clay, shale, etc.), unburnt colliery stock, and chalk should not be
used in rock fill.
4) The material for rock fill should not exceed 300 mm in size and percentage finer than
125 mm should not exceed 10.
5) The material shall be spread and levelled in layers. Each layer should be compacted
by five passes of vibratory roller (8-10 tonnes). The compacted thickness of each layer
should not exceed 500 mm. Before laying the next layer, the surface voids should be
filled with broken fragments. The top layer of rock fill should be thoroughly blended
with suitable granular material to seal its surface.

3.4 GENERAL GUIDELINE AND PROCEDURE FOR WATER


BOUND MACADAM:

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1) Thickness of a compacted layer should be 100 mm for 90-45 mm, size aggregates
and 75 mm for 63-45 mm or 53-22.4 mm size aggregates.
2) Screenings should generally be of the same material as coarse aggregate. However, if
the use of screenings is not feasible, some other non-plastic material, such as, moorum
or gravel (other than rounded river borne material) having liquid limit and plasticity
index below 20 and 6 respectively may be used provided fraction passing 75 micron
sieve does not exceed 10 per cent.
3) Binding maternal need not be used if the layer is to serve as base (or is to receive
blacktopping), or where crushable type of screenings, like, moorum is used.
4) It is a good practice to lay a sub-base of granular/stabilised material before laying
WBM. This is particularly important where the subgrade is of clayey type.
5) Where the WBM is to be laid directly over subgrade, a 25 mm thick layer of stone
screenings (Grading B) - "inverted choke" - should be spread on the prepared sub grade
before the application of aggregate is taken up. In case of fine sand or silty or clayey sub
grade it is advisable to lay 100 mm thick insulating layer of screening or coarse sand on
the top of fine grained soil. A preferred alternative to inverted choke is the use of
appropriate geosynthetics mesh.
6) Arrangements for water, rollers in working order and templates/ other tools and
equipment for checking the quality of the materials and work must be available at site
before the work of laying is started.
7) The quantities of coarse aggregates and screenings will vary, depending on the actual
grading.
8) Arrangements for lateral confinement of aggregates must be provided. This can
conveniently be done by raising the shoulders in stages equal in thickness to each layer
of WBM.
9) The coarse aggregate should be spread uniformly and evenly on the prepared
subgrade /sub-base by using templates placed across the road about 6 m apart. The
thickness of each compacted layer should not be more than 100 mm in grading 1 and 75
mm for grading 2 and 3. Wherever possible, mechanical devices should be used to
spread the aggregates uniformly so as to minimise the need for manual rectification
afterwards.
10) The spreading should be done from stockpiles or directly from vehicles. No
segregation of large or fine aggregates should be allowed.
11) The surface should be checked frequently while spreading and rolling so as to
ensure the specified regularity of slopes and camber.
12) The coarse aggregate should not normally be spread more than three days in
advance of the subsequent construction operations. Three wheeled power rollers at 80 to
100 kN or tandem or vibratory rollers at 80 to 100 kN static weight should be used for
rolling. Except on superelevated portions, where the rolling should proceed from inner
edge to outer edge, rolling should begin from the edge gradually progressing towards

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centre. Successive passes should uniformly overlap the proceeding by at least one half
widths.
13) In case screening are to be applied, rolling should be discontinued when the
aggregate are partially compacted with sufficient void space to permit application of
screening. During rolling slight sprinkling of water may be allowed. Complete rolling is
indicated by a loose stone piece getting crushed under the roller without sinking.
14) After the coarse aggregate has been rolled, screening to completely fill the
interstices should be applied gradually over the surface. Screening should not be damp
or wet at the time of application. These should not be dumped in piles but applied at a
uniform rate, in three or more applications, so as ensure filling of all voids. Dry rolling
should be done while the screenings are being spread so that vibrations of the roller
cause screenings to settle into the voids of coarse aggregate. Dry rolling should
accompanied by brooming. These operations should continue until no more screenings
can be forced into the voids of coarse aggregate.
15) Spreading, rolling and brooming of screens shall be carried out in only such lengths
which are likely to be completed within one day's operation.
16) After screenings have been applied, the surface should be copiously sprinkled with
water, swept with hand brooms and rolled. This operation should be continued with
additional screenings, applied as necessary, until the coarse aggregates has been
thoroughly keyed, well broomed, firmly set in its full depth and a grout has been formed
of screenings.
17) The base or subgrade should not get damaged due to use of excessive quantities of
water. In case lime treated soil sub-base, construction of water bound macadam should
be taken up only after sub-base has picked up enough strength.
18) Apply binding material, wherever required, in a similar fashion as screening.
Continue rolling till full compaction is achieved.
19) After the final compaction of WBM course, the pavement should be allowed to dry
overnight. Next morning hungry spots should be filled with screenings or binding
material, lightly sprinkled with water, if necessary and rolled.
20) No traffic should be allowed on the road until the macadam has set. The compacted
WBM Course should be allowed completely dry and set before the next pavement
course is laid over.
21) WBM work should not be carried out when the atmospheric temperature is less than
00 C in the shade.
22) Apply binding material, wherever required, in a similar fashion as screening.
Continue rolling till full compaction is achieved.

23) After the final compaction of WBM course, the pavement should be allowed to dry
overnight. Next morning hungry spots should be filled with screenings or binding
material, lightly sprinkled with water, if necessary and rolled.

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24) No traffic should be allowed on the road until the macadam has set. The compacted
WBM Course should be allowed completely dry and set before the next pavement
course is laid over.
25) WBM work should not be carried out when the atmospheric temperature is less than
00C in the shade.
26) After application of cut-back, the surface should be allowed to cure for at least 24
hours.

3.5 COMPACTION

3.5.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS :

1. Each layer of the base and sub-base courses shall be uniformly compacted over its
entire area and depth.
2. On sections of pavement with one-way cross fall, compaction shall begin at the low
side of the pavement and progress to the high side. On crowned sections, compaction
shall begin at the sides of the pavement and progress towards the crown.

Each pass of the rollers shall be parallel with the centreline of the roadway and
uniformly overlap each preceding pass. The outer metre of both sides of the pavement
shall receive at least two more passes by the compaction plant than the remainder of the
pavement.
3. At locations where it would be impracticable to use self-propelled compaction plant,
the pavement material shall be compacted by alternative hand-operated plant approved
by the Superintendent.
4. Watering and compaction plant shall not be allowed to stand on the pavement being
compacted.

3.5.2 RELATIVE COMPACTION :

1. The relative compaction of pavement material at each location tested for field dry
density shall be calculated as follows:

Relative Compaction (per cent) = Field dry density X 100


Maximum dry density

2. The Superintendent may approve some or all of the field dry density testing to be
carried out with a single probe Nuclear Density Meter in the direct transmission mode.
Such approval is conditional upon the testing authority demonstrating calibration of the
device for the material being tested and samples being taken at each test location for
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moisture content determined.

3. Each day that material is produced for placement in a layer or layers, a sample of the
material shall be taken by the Contractor for maximum dry density testing to represent
that day's production. The Superintendent may direct the Contractor to undertake further
maximum dry density testing where the quality of the material supplied appears
inconsistent.

4. For unbound layers, the sample shall be tested to determine the maximum dry density
and optimum moisture content(modified compactive effort) for the material.

5. For bound layers the sample shall be tested within two hours after the addition of
stabilising agent to the mix in accordance with RTA Test Method T130 to determine the
maximum dry density (standard compactive effort) for the material. This test method
shall also be used to determine the optimum moisture content.

6. The maximum dry density so determined shall be the assigned value used in relative
compaction calculations for all like material from that lot or day's Production placed in
a single layer of work, whichever is the lesser.

7. The use of assigned values of maximum dry density is not permitted for non-uniform
materials or any subgrade, except where the subgrade is constructed of uniform granular
materials.

3.5.3 COMPACTION REQUIREMENTS AND ACCEPTANCE :

1. A lot shall be accepted for compaction if:

(a) For unbound layers, the minimum value of all calculated relative compaction
for modified compactive effort is not less than 98 per cent within the lot or the
area of pavement being assessed. Each layer must meet both compaction and
stability under load criteria before the commencement of work on subsequent
courses.
(b) For bound layers, the minimum value of all calculated relative compaction
for standard compactive effort is not less than 100 per cent within the lot or the
area of pavement being assessed.
(c) In the case of bound layers of target final depth in excess of 250mm, the top
150mm shall meet the requirements whilst the bottom 150mm shall have a
relative compaction equal to or greater than 92 per cent.

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2. Lots or areas of pavement not achieving these specified values shall be rejected.
Unbound layers may be reworked, but the bound materials in rejected layers/courses
shall be removed and replaced with fresh materials unless an alternative disposition is
approved by the Superintendent.

3.5.4 COMPACTION EQUIPMENT:

FIG 3.1

3.6 PRIME COAT :

3.6.1 GENERAL GUIDELINE FOR PRIME COAT :

1) Prime coat consists of application a single coat of low viscosity liquid bituminous
material to a pours granular surface preparatory to the superimposition of bituminous
treatment or mix. The choice of printer shall depend upon the porosity of the surface to
be printed. Details are available in Clauses 501.2 of this Ministry‟s Specifications.
2) Bituminous Printer should not be applied on a wet or dusty surface. At the time of
application temperature in the shade should not be less than 100C.
3) The primer distributor should be self-propelled or towed bitumen pressure sprayer
capable of spraying the material uniform ally at the specified rate and temperature.
Hand spraying should be resorted to only in small areas and areas inaccessible to the
pressure sprayer.
4) After application of cut back, the surface should be allowed to cure for at least 24
hours.
5) The quantity viscosity and temperature of lying should be as specified in table

3.7 TACK-COAT:
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3.7.1 GENERAL GUIDELINE FOR TACK-COAT :

1) The binder for tack coat should be a bituminous emulsion complying with IS: 8887
or cut-back as per IS: 217, to be used restrictively for site at sub-zero temperature or for
emergency application.
2) The binder should be applied uniformly with bitumen pressure sprayer capable of
spraying bitumen at specified rate and temperature to provide a uniform unbroken
spread of bitumen.
3) No more than the necessary tack coat for the day's operation should be placed.
4) The succeeding construction should be made only after curing of the tack coat.

3.8 PLACING AND FINISHING OF ASPHALT :

3.8.1 GENERAL :

The asphalt shall be placed with a minimum delay after delivery.


On no account shall asphalt be reheated. Asphalt shall not be placed during rain or
while the surface is wet.

3.8.2 WEATHER CONDITIONS AND PAVEMENT SURFACE


TEMPERATURE :

The Contractor must measure and record pavement surface temperature and wind
velocity at the point of asphalt laying. Measurements shall be recorded in a suitable
Asphalt Work Record Sheet. Asphalt layers less than 45 mm nominated or specified
thickness shall not be placed when:
(a) The pavement surface temperature is below 10° C for dense graded asphalt or below
15° C for open graded asphalt.
(b) The pavement surface temperature is below 25° C and the velocity of the wind
across the pavement exceeds 15 kilometres per hour. Asphalt layers less than 30 mm
nominated or specified thickness shall not be placed when the pavement surface
temperature is below 25° C and the velocity of the wind across the pavement exceeds 5
km/hr. Asphalt paving will not be permitted when the surface of the road is wet or when
cold winds chill the mix to such an extent that, in the opinion of the Superintendent,
spreading and compaction are adversely affected.

3.8.3 SPREADING :
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No layer of asphalt shall be spread until the Superintendent gives approval to proceed.
A course of Open Graded Asphalt or Stone Mastic Asphalt must comprise one layer
only.
The Contractor shall place and finish asphalt so as to:
(a) Produce a homogeneous product with a tightly bound surface;
(b) Achieve the specified in situ air voids for dense graded asphalt or the specified
compactive effort for open graded asphalt;
(c) Provide the specified thickness of asphalt; and
(d) Achieve the finished pavement properties, asphalt shall be placed by a self-propelled
mechanical spreader using automatic level control. Hand placement of asphalt shall be
used only for minor correction of the existing surface and in areas where placement with
a mechanical spreader is impracticable. Each layer shall be completed to a surface
parallel to the finished surface of the pavement and at a depth below it equal to the
compacted thickness of the subsequent layer or layers specified. Where a leveling beam
automatic level control device is used, it shall provide an average profile from a
minimum of 8 separate contact points evenly spaced over a length of at least
9m.Adjoining the edge of a lane which has been spread, tamped and rolled, the asphalt
shall be spread to a height such that after compaction the finished surface will match the
adjoining levels.
Adjoining a lane which has been spread and tamped but the outer edge of which has not
been compacted, asphalt shall be spread to the height of the unrolled material at that
edge.

3.9 LAYING AND CONSOLIDATION OF STONE BALLAST:

Laying and consolidated shall be done during early rainy season, so that sufficient water
is available for consolidation, and during the later part of the rains the ballast gets fully
compacted. The surface shall be made to a camber of 1 in 60 or 1 in 48 as specified.
And two mud walls 20 cm wide and 15 cm high shall be made along the outer edges for
the metaling and ballast spread evenly hand packed to the required camber with
template and bigger pieces of metal placed at the bottom. The ballast shall first be dry
rolled longitudinally with 10 tonne roller commencing from the edges and working
towards the Centre and dry rolling continued until the metal thoroughly compacted and
no mark of roller left on the surface. Rolling should be done slowly without any jerk.
The surface shall then be thinly blinded with sandy earth and watered and rolled. Finally
the side and mud walls shall be rolled and pressed flush to the surface. The surface
should be brought to the required camber by placing template at regular intervals. The
road shall be opened to traffic when dry but still damp, and the traffic should be spread
over the full width by traffic divers.
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CHAPTER 4

TESTING

4.1 TESTS ON BITUMEN :

There are a number of tests to assess the properties of bituminous materials.


The following tests are usually conducted to evaluate different properties of bituminous
materials.

1. Penetration test
2. Ductility test
3. Softening point test
4. Specific gravity test
5. Viscosity test
6. Flash and Fire point test
7. Float test
8. Water content test
9. Loss on heating test

4.1.1 PENETRATION TEST :

It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in tenths of a


millimeter to which a standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically in 5 seconds. BIS
had standardized the equipment and test procedure.
The penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight of 100g and a device
for releasing and locking in any position.
The bitumen is softened to a pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly and poured into
containers at a depth at least 15 mm in excess of the expected penetration.
The test should be conducted at a specified temperature of 250C.
It may be noted that penetration value is largely influenced by any inaccuracy with
regards to pouring temperature, size of the needle, weight placed on the needle and the
test temperature.
A grade of 40/50 bitumen means the penetration value is in the range 40 to 50 at
standard test conditions.
In hot climates, a lower penetration grade is preferred.
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THE FIGURE BELOW SHOWS A SCHEMATIC PENETRATION TEST


SETUP

Penetration

Fig 4.1

4.1.2 SOFTENING POINT TEST :

Softening point denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains a particular degree
of softening under the specifications of test. The test is conducted by using Ring and
Ball apparatus. A brass ring containing test sample of bitumen is suspended in liquid
like water or glycerine at a given temperature. A steel ball is placed upon the bitumen
sample and the liquid medium is heated at a rate of 5oC per minute. Temperature is
noted when the softened bitumen touches the metal plate which is at a specified distance
below. Generally, higher softening point indicates lower temperature susceptibility.

Thermomete

Softenin

Bitum

Strarting Point End

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SOFTENING POINT TEST SETUP

Fig 4.2

OBSERVATION VALUE

Temperature when the ball toughness 520C


bottom 0C

Average 520C

Softening point 520C

Fig 4.3

4.1.3 FLASH AND FIRE POINT TEST :

At high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen materials leave out
volatiles. And these volatiles catch fire which is very hazardous and therefore it is
essential to qualify this temperature for each bitumen grade. BIS defined the ash point
as the temperature at which the vapour of bitumen momentarily catches fire in the form
of ash under specified test conditions. The _re point is defined as the lowest temperature
under specified test conditions at which the bituminous material gets ignited and burns.

4.1.4 FLOAT TEST :

Normally the consistency of bituminous material can be measured either by penetration


test or viscosity test. But for certain range of consistencies, these tests are not applicable
and Float test is used. The apparatus consists of an aluminium float and a brass collar
filled with bitumen to be tested. The specimen in the mould is cooled to a temperature
of 50C and screwed in to oat. The total test assembly is coated in the water bath at 500C
and the time required for water to pass its way through the specimen plug is noted in
seconds and is expressed as the float value.

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4.1.5 WATER CONTENT TEST :

Water Content of soil is the quantity of soil contained in a sample of soil. Generally this
is expressed in ratio. The water content (w) of a soil sample is equal to the mass of
water divided by the mass of solids.

Fig 4.4

4.1.5.1 PROCEDURE :

▪ Clean the container, dry it and weigh it with the lid (Weight 'W1').
▪ Take the required quantity of the wet soil specimen in the container and weigh
it with the lid (Weight 'W2').
▪ Place the container, with its lid removed, in the oven till its weight becomes
constant (Normally for 24hrs.).
▪ When the soil has dried, remove the container from the oven, using tongs.
▪ Find the weight 'W3' of the container with the lid and the dry soil sample.

4.1.5.2 REPORTING OF RESULTS :

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S.NO. OBSERVATION AND DETERMINATION NO


CALCULATION
1 2 3

OBSERVATIONS

1 Mass of empty container(M1) 279.34gm 279.34gm 279.34gm

2 Mass of container +soil(M2) 924.2gm 895.34gm 911.40gm

3 Mass of container +dry soil(M3) 855.9gm 829.84gm 844.64gm

CALCULATIONS

4 Mass of water Mw=M2-M3 68.30gm 65.50gm 66.76gm

5 Mass of solids Ms=M3-M1 576.56gm 550.50gm 565.30gm

6 Water content w=(4)/(5)*100 11.86% 11.90% 11.81%

TABLE 4.1

W = ( 11.86+ 11.90 + 11.81) / 3 = 11.86 %

4.1.5.3 RESULT :

Water content of soil sample = 11.86%

4.2 TESTS FOR ROAD AGGREGATE:


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In order to decide the suitability of the Road stones for use in construction, the
following test are carried out :

(a) Abrasion test

(b) Impact test

4.2.1 ABRASION TESTS :

Fig 4.5

Due to the movement of traffic the road stones used in the surface course are subjected
to wearing action at the top. Hence road stones should be hard enough to resist the
abrasion due to the traffic. Abrasion tests are carried out to test the hardness property of
stones and decide whether they are suitable for different road construction works.

The abrasion test on aggregate may be carried out using any one of the following three
tests:

(1) LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST

(2) DEVAL ABRASION TEST

(3) DORRY ABRASION TEST

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However Los Angeles abrasion test is preferred as the test results have been correlated
with pavement performance.

4.2.1.1 LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST :

The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to be find the percentage wear due to the
relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.
Pounding action of these ball also exist during the test and hence the resistance to wear
and impact is evaluated by this test. The Los Angeles machine consist of a hollow
cylinder closed at both ends, having inside diameter 70 cm and length 50 cm and
mounted so as to rotate about its horizontal axis.

The abrasive charge consist of cast iron spheres of approximate diameter 4.8 cm and
each of weight have 390 to 445 g. The number of spheres to be used as abrasive charge
and their total weight have been specified based on grading of the aggregate sample.
The test has been standardized by the ISI.

The specified weight of aggregate specimen,(5 to 10 kg, depending on gradation) is


placed in the machine along with the abrasive charge . The machine is rotated at a speed
of 30 to 33 rpm for the specified number of revolution (500 to 1000 depending on the
grading of specimen). The abraded aggregate is then sieved on 1.7 mm IS sieve, and the
weight of powdered aggregate passing this sieved is found.

The result of the abrasion test expressed as the percentage wear or the percentage
passing. 1.7 mm sieve expressed in terms of the original weight of the sample. The Los
Angeles abrasion value of good aggregate acceptable for concrete, bituminous concrete
and other high quality pavement materials should be less than 30 percentage. Value up
to 50 percent is allowed in base courses like water bound bituminous macadam.

LOS ANGLES ABRASION VALUE OF ROAD AGGREGATE :

PARTICLE SAMPLE
Original Weight of the sample w1 5000 gm
Weight of aggregate retained on 1.77mm 3584 gm
LOSS OF WEIGHT 28.32%
TABLE 4.2

4.2.2 IMPACT TEST :

A test designed to evaluate the toughness of stone or the resistance of the aggregates to
feature under repeated impacts is called impact test. The aggregate impact test is
commonly carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregate and has been
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standardized by ISI.

The aggregate impact value indicates a relative measure of resistance of aggregate to


impact , which has a different effect than the resistance to gradually increasing
compressive stress. The aggregate impact testing machines consists of a metal base and
cylindrical steel cup of internal diameter 10.2 cm and depth 5cm in which the aggregate
specimen is placed. A metal hammer of weight of 13.5 to 14 kg having a free fall from a
height 38 cm is arranged to drop though vertical guides.

Aggregate specimen is passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10mm sieve is filled in
the cylindrical measure in 3 layers by tamping each layer by 25 blows. The sample is
transferred from the measure to the cup of the aggregate impact testing machine and
compacted by tamping 25 times. After subjecting the test specimen to 15 blows, the
crushed aggregate is sieved on 2.36mm sieve.

The aggregate impact value is expressed as the percentage of the fine formed in terms of
the total weight of the sample.

The aggregate impact value should not normally exceed 30 percent for aggregate to be
used in wearing course of pavements. The maximum permissible value is 35% for
bituminous macadam and 40% for water bound macadam base courses.

IMPACT VALUE OF AGGREGATE :

OBSERVATION SAMPLE
Total weight of dry sample w1g 34
Weight to portion passing 2.36mm sieve 4.5
IMPACT VALUE 13.20
(STRONG)
TABLE 4.3

4.3 LIQUID LIMIT TEST :


This test is done to determine the liquid limit of soil. The liquid limit of fine-grained
soil is the water content at which soil behaves practically like a liquid, but has small
shear strength. It‟s flow closes the groove in just 25 blows in Casagrande‟s liquid limit
device.

4.3.1 PREPARATION OF SAMPLE :

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Air-dry the soil sample and break the clods. Remove the organic matter like tree roots,
pieces of bark, etc.

About 100g of the specimen passing through 425 µm IS Sieve is mixed thoroughly with
distilled water in the evaporating dish and left for 24 hours for soaking.

4.3.2 PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE THE LIQUID LIMIT OF SOIL :

▪ Place a portion of the paste in the cup of the liquid limit device.

▪ Level the mix so as to have a maximum depth of 1 cm.

▪ Draw the grooving tool through the sample along the symmetrical axis of the
cup, holding the tool perpendicular to the cup.

▪ For normal fine grained soil: The Casagrande‟s tool is used to cut a groove 2
mm wide at the bottom, 11 mm wide at the top and 8mm deep.

▪ For sandy soil: The ASTM tool is used to cut a groove 2mm wide at the bottom,
13.6 mm wide at the top and 10mm deep.

▪ After the soil pat has been cut by a proper grooving tool, the handle is rotated at
the rate of about 2 revolutions per second and the no. of blows counted, till the
two parts of the soil sample come into contact for about 12 mm length.

▪ Take about 10 g of soil near the closed groove and determine its water content

▪ The soil of the cup is transferred to the dish containing the soil paste and mixed
thoroughly after adding a little more water.

▪ LL= ( )

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S.NO. OBSERVATIONS DETERMINATION

OBSERVATIONS

1 No of blows(N) 32

2 Mass of empty can(M1) 95.52gm

3 Mass of can +wet soil(M2) 140.73gm

4 Mass of can +dry soil(M3) 129.89gm

TABLE 4.4

4.3.3 RESULT :

Liquid limit of soil sample = 32.53

4.4 PLASTIC LIMIT TEST :


This test is done to determine the plastic limit of soil. The plastic limit of fine-grained
soil is the water content of the soil below which it ceases to be plastic. It begins to
crumble when rolled into threads of 3mm dia.

4.4.1 PREPARATION OF SAMPLE :

Take out 30g of air-dried soil from a thoroughly mixed sample of the soil passing
through 425µm IS Sieve. Mix the soil with distilled water in an evaporating dish and
leave the soil mass for naturing. This period may be upto 24hrs.

4.4.2 PROCEDURE TO DETERMINE THE PLASTIC LIMIT OF SOIL :

▪ Take about 10g of the soil and roll it with fingers on a glass plate. The rate of
rolling should be between 80 to 90 strokes per minute to form a 3 mm dia.

▪ If the dia. of the threads can be reduced to less than 3mm, without any cracks
appearing, it means that the water content is more than its plastic limit. Knead the

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soil to reduce the water content and roll it into a thread again.

▪ Repeat the process of alternate rolling and kneading until the thread crumbles.

▪ Collect and keep the pieces of crumbled soil thread in the container used to
determine the moisture content.

Repeat the process at least twice more with fresh samples of plastic soil each time.

S.NO. OBSERVATIONS AND DETERMINATION NO.


CALCULATIONS
1 2 3

OBSERVATIONS

1 Mass of empty container (M1) 95.52gm 95.52gm 95.52gm

2 Mass of container +wet soil(M2) 115.61gm 117.21gm 115.44gm

3 Mass of container +dry soil(M3) 113.54gm 115.02gm 113.34gm

CALCULATIONS

4 Mass of water=M2-M3 2.07gm 2.19gm 2.10gm

5 Mass of dry soil=M3-M1 18.02gm 19.50gm 17.82gm

6 Water content =(4)/(5)*100 11.53% 11.27% 11.80%

TABLE 4.5

W = ( 11.53+ 11.27 + 11.80 ) / 3 = 11.53 %

4.4.3 RESULT :

Plastic limit of soil sample = 11.53%

CBR value subgrade - 4.2%

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Bearing capacity of soil - 13.20 tonne per sqm

Plasticity index(PI) = LL - PL

= 32.53 - 11.53

= 21> 6

The results which are comes out from the soil test given below –

➢ Liquid limit = 32.53%


➢ Plastic limit = 11.53%
➢ PI = 21> 6 , Hence catred earth of required plasticity index shall be used for
construction of embankment and shoulder.
➢ California Bearing Ratio(CBR) = 4.2% (Bijnor)
➢ Bearing Capacity(BC) = 13.20 tonne per sqm
➢ Gradation of soil = GRADE B

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CHAPTER 5
OVERVIEW

5.1 BITUMINOUS MATERIAL

Bituminous materials or asphalts are extensively used for roadway construction,


primarily because of their excellent binding characteristics and water proofing
properties and relatively low cost. Bituminous materials consists of bitumen which is a
black or dark coloured solid or viscous cementitious substances consists high molecular
weight hydrocarbons derived from distillation of petroleum or natural asphalt, has
adhesive properties, and is soluble in carbon disulphide. Tars are residues from the
destructive distillation of organic substances such as coal, wood, or petroleum and are
temperature sensitive than bitumen. Bitumen will be dissolved in petroleum oils where
unlike tar.

5.1.1 DIFFERENT FORMS OF BITUMEN :

5.1.1.1 CUTBACK BITUMEN :

Normal practice is heat bitumen to reduce its viscosity. In some case preference is given
to use liquid binders such as cutback bitumen. In cutback bitumen suitable solvent is
used to lower the viscosity of the bitumen. The solvent from the bituminous material
will evaporate and the bitumen will bind the aggregate. Cutback bitumen is used for
cold weather bituminous road construction and maintenance. The distillates used for
preparation of cutback bitumen are naphtha , diesel oil, and furnace oil. There are
different types of cutback bitumen like rapid curing (RC), medium curing (MC), and
slow curing (SC). RC is recommended for surface dressing and patchwork. MC is
recommended for premix. It is used for premix with appreciable quantity of the
aggregates.

5.1.1.2 BITUMEN EMULSION :

Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which bitumen is suspended in a newly divided


condition in an aqueous medium and stabilized by suitable material. Normally cationic
type emulsions are used in India. The bitumen content in the emulsion is around 60%
and the remaining is water. When the emulsion is applied on the road it breaks down
resulting in release of water and the mix starts to set. The time of setting depends upon

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the grade of bitumen. The viscosity of bituminous emulsions can be measured as per IS:
8887-1995.

Three types of bituminous emulsions are available, which are Rapid setting (RS),
Medium setting (MS), and Slow setting (SC). Bitumen emulsions are ideal binders for
hill road construction. Where heating of bitumen or aggregates are difficult. Rapid
setting emulsions are used for surface dressing work. Medium setting emulsions are
preferred for premix jobs and patch repairs work. Slow setting emulsions are preferred
in rainy season.

5.1.1.3 BITUMINOUS PRIMERS :

In bituminous primer the distillate is absorbed by the road surface on which it is spread.
The absorption therefore depends on the porosity of the surface. Bitumen primers are
useful on the stabilized surfaces and water bound macadam base courses. Bituminous
primers are generally prepared on road sites by mixing penetration bitumen with
petroleum distillate.

5.1.1.4 MODIFIED BITUMEN :

Certain additives or blend of additives called as bitumen modifiers can improve


properties of Bitumen and bituminous mixes. Bitumen treated with these modifiers is
known as modified bitumen. Polymer modified bitumen (PMB)/ crumb rubber modified
bitumen (CRMB) should be used only in wearing course the requirements of extreme
climatic variations. The detailed specifications for modified bitumen have been issued
by IRC: SP: 53-1999. It must be noted that the performance of PMB and CRMB is
dependent on strict control on temperature during construction.

The advantages of using modified bitumen are as follows:

➢ Lower susceptibility to daily and seasonal temperature variations.


➢ Higher resistance to deformation at high pavement temperature.
➢ Better age resistance properties.

5.2 SITE CLEARANCE :


The work is consist of cutting , removing , and disposing of all materials such as trees ,
shrubs , roots , grass , weeds , top organic soil not exceeding 150 mm in thickness etc ,
from the area of road land containing road embankment , drains , cross drainage
structures and such other areas as may be specified by the drawing or by the engineer .
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Roadside trees , shrub any other plants , pole line , fences , signs , mountains , buildings
, pipelines , sewers and all highway facilities within or adjacent to the highway are not
to be disturbed shall be protected from injury or damage . During the clearing and
grubbing the contractor shall take all adequate precautions against soil erosion , water
pollution and where required undertake additional works .

All the products of clearing and grubbing which , in the opinion of engineer cannot be
used shall be cleared away from the roadside in a suitable manner . care shall be taken
as that unsuitable waste materials are disposed of in such a manner that there is no
likelihood of these getting mixed up with the materials meant for embankment ,
subgrade and road construction.

SELECTION OF COMPACTION EQUIPMENTS FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF


SOILS :

S.NO TYPE OF MATERIAL COMPACTION


. EQUIPMENT
1 rock fill vibratory roller

2 broken concrete , brick, colliery vibratory roller , smooth pneumatic tyred


shale , fly ash etc wheeled roller , roller to be used for
pneumatic tyred roller fly ash only

3 coarse grained soil vibratory roller , smooth


wheeled roller ,
pneumatic tyred roller
4 fine grained soil vibratory roller , smooth sheep foot rollers are
wheeled roller , sheep most suitable for
foot roller , vibro clayey soil
rammer, power rammer ,
plate rammer

TABLE 5.1

5.3 GRANULAR SUB BASE :


5.3.1 SCOPE :
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This work consists of laying and compacting well graded material on prepared subgrade
in accordance with the requirement of specifications. the material shall be laid in one or
more layers in sub base and upper sub base if necessary.

5.3.2 MATERIALS :

The material which is to be used in work shall be natural sand, moorum, gravel, crushed
sand, crushed slag, crushed concrete, or the combination of these materials depending
upon the grading required. the material shall be free from organic or other deleterious
constituents and conformed to one of the three gradings shown in the table below :

GRADING FOR CLOSED GRADED GRANULAR SUB BASE MATERIALS :

IS sieve designation grading 1 grading 2 Grading


3
75.0 mm 100 - -

53.0 mm 80-100 100 -

26.5 mm 55-90 70-100 100

9.50 mm 35-65 50-80 65-95

4.75 mm 25-55 40-65 50-80

2.36 mm 20-40 30-50 40-65

0.425 mm 10-25 15-25 20-35

0.075 3-10 3-10 3-10

CBR value minimum 30 25 20

TABLE 5.2

5.4 PREPARATION OF SUBGRADE :


Immediately prior to the laying of sub base , the subgrade already finished shall be
prepared by removing all vegetation and other deleterious matter, lightly sprinkled with
water if necessary and rolled.

5.4.1 SPREADING AND COMPACTION :

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With the help of a motor grader of adequate by maintaining the required slope and
graded during the operation. Mixing should be done min in place method manual
mixing shall be done only when the width of laying is not adequate for mechanical
operations , as in small sized jobs.

Immediately thereafter rolling shall start. If the thickness of compacted layer does not
exceed 100 mm a smooth wheeled roller of 80 to 100 kN weight may be used. For a
compacted single layer up to 125 mm the compaction shall be done with help of
vibratory roller of minimum 80 – 100 KN static weight with plain drum or heavy tyred
roller of minimum 200 to 300 KN wt.

Rolling shall be continued till the density achieved is at least 98 per cent of maximum
dry density. The surface of any layer material on completion of compaction shall be
well closed free from movement.

All loose segregated or otherwise defective areas shall be made good to the full
thickness of the layer and recompacted.

5.5 PRIME COAT :


5.5.1 SCOPE :

When a bituminous wearing surface is to be placed on a previously untreated compacted


foundation layer such as earth, gravel, stabilized soil, water-bound macadam, the base is
generally given to a single application of liquid bituminous material called “prime
coat”.

5.5.2 PURPOSE :

(i) To promote adhesion or bond between the wearing surface.


(ii) Binds together any loose aggregate which may be present on the base.
(iii) Serves to plug capillary voids, and functions as a deterrent to rise of capillary
moisture where capillary moisture is a factor.
(iv) Provides a temporary seal against the infiltration of surface water.
5.5.3 MATERIAL :

The bituminous material used for prime coat should have high penetrating qualities such
that it can penetrate deep into the base coarse to about 10 mm depth. It should be of
such a nature that after curing it will leave a high viscosity residue in the void space of
treated surface. The material suitable for this is liquid asphalt or road tar of low
viscosity.

QUANTITY OF MC CUT-BACK-BITUMEN FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF


SURFACES:
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S.No. Type of surface Type of Cut-back Rate of spray kg/m2
1. WMM/WBM MC 30 0.6 to 0.9
2. Mechanically stabilized soil Base MC 70 0.9 to 1.2
3. Gravel base, crushed rock MC 250 1.2 to 1.5
TABLE 5.3
5.5.4 APPLICATION:

Up on the prepared surface, the primer is applied at the specified rate through a sprayer.
It is applied to a surface which is dry or slightly damp and at a temperature of not less
than 10 C. After application of the primer, at least 24 hr should elapse before applying
sand blindage.

5.6 TACK COAT :


5.6.1 SCOPE :

Tack coat is a very light application of low viscosity liquid bituminous material on
surfaces which have previously been treated.

5.6.2 PURPOSE :

Simply to insure adhesion between existing surface and new bituminous surface.

5.6.3 MATERIAL :

The binder used for tack coat is either cationic Bituminous Emulsion (RS-1) or suitable
low viscosity paving bitumen of VG 10 i.e. 80-100.

RATE OF APPLICATION OF TACK COAT :

S.No. Type of surface Rate of spray Rate of spray


(Emulsion) kg/m2 (Bitumen VG-10) kg/m2

1. Normal bituminous surface 0.2-0.25 0.3-0.35


2. Dry and hungry bituminous 0.25-0.3 0.35-0.40
surfaces
3. Granular surface treated 0.25-0.3 0.35-0.45
with primer
4. Non bituminous surfaces

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(a) Granular base (not primed) 0.35-0.40 0.45-0.50
(b) Cement concrete pavement 0.30-0.35 0.40-0.45

TABLE 5.4

5.7 BITUMINOUS MACADAM :


5.7.1 SCOPE:

This consists of graded aggregates coated with bituminous binder.

The mixture derives its main source of strength from the mechanical interlocking of the
aggregate particles and cohesion imparted by the binder.

The layer is generally laid to thickness of 50-100 mm.

5.7.2 MATERIALS :

5.7.2.1 AGGREGATES :

The aggregates should be according to following grading:

Mix Design BM grading I BM grading II

Nominal aggregate size 40 mm 119 mm

Layer thickness 75-100 mm 50-75 mm

IS Sieve (mm) Cumulative percent by weight of total aggregate passing

45 100 -

37.5 90-100 -

26.5 75-100 100

19 90-100

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13.2 35-61 56-88

4.75 13-22 16-36

2.36 4-19 4-19

0.3 2-10 2-10

0.075 0-8 0-8

Bitumen content, percent by

Weight of total mixture 3.1-3.4 3.3-3.5

Bitumen grade 35-90 35-90

TABLE 5.5

PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR COARSE AGGREGATES AND KEY


AGGREGATES FOR BITUMINOUS MACADAM

Property Test Specification


Cleanliness Grain size analysis Max 5% passing 0.075mm

Particle shape Flakiness and elongation Max 30%


Index (Combined)

Strength Los Angeles Abrasion Value Max 40%


. Aggregate Impact Value Max 30%

Durability Soundness
Sodium Sulphate Max 12%
Magnesium Sulphate Max 18%

Water absorption Max 12%

Stripping Minimum Retained Coating 95%


TABLE 5.6

5.8 BINDER:
The binder content varies from 3 to 4 per cent. The binder used is straight run bitumen
of penetration grade S.35 , S.65 , or S.90 .
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The choice grade of bitumen depends upon the intensity of the traffic and season of the
year Binders of high viscosity are required in regions of heavy traffic or difficult site
condition and during summer season. A reduction in viscosity may be permitted during
winter season.

5.9 CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONS :


5.9.1 WEATHER AND SEASONAL LIMITATION:

Bituminous macadam shall not be laid during rainy season or when the base course is
damp or wet.

5.9.2 PREPARATION AND TRANSPORT OF MIX:

Hot mix plant of adequate capacity is used for preparing the grade. The temperature of
binder at the time of mixing should be in the range of 150 to 165 C and that of
aggregate in the range of 125 to 150 C, provided that the difference in the temperature
between the binder and the aggregate at no time exceeds 25 C.

After mixing, the mixture is transported from mixing plant to the site in suitable
manner.

5.9.3 SPREADING AND ROLLING:

The mix is spread immediately by means of self-propelled mechanical paver. The


temperature of the mix at the time laying should be in the range of 110 to 135 C. After
that the rolling is done by 8 to 10 tonne power rolling.

The rolling is commenced at the edges and progressed towards the centre longitudinally
except parallel that on super-elevated portion where the rolling is done from the lower
to upper edge parallel to the centre line of the pavement. The roller wheels and picked
up. The rolling operation shall be finished in every respect before the temperature of the
mix falls below 80 C.

5.10 DENSE BITUMINOUS MACADAM :


In this the only difference from Bituminous Macadam is that the aggregates are more
closely graded and the voids are less. As a result, the mixture is dense.

It may be laid in the thickness varying from 50mm to 200mm. When the thickness is
greater than 100mm, laying is carried out in not less than two layers.

Dense Bituminous Macadam is used as a base/binder course of the pavement subjected


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to heavy traffic.

5.10.1 REQUIREMENTS FOR DENSE BITUMINOUS MACADAM

Minimum Stability (KN at 60 C) 9.0


Minimum Flow (mm) 2
Minimum Flow (mm) 4
Compaction level (number of blows) 75 blows on each of the two
face of the specimen
Percent air voids 3-6
Percent voids filled with bitumen (VFB) 65-75

TABLE 5.6

5.11 BITUMINOUS CONCRETE:


The bituminous is the highest quality of construction in the group of black top surface.
Being of high cost specification, the bituminous mixes are properly designed to satisfy
the design requirement of the stability and durability.

The mixed contains dense grading of coarse aggregate and mineral filler coated with
bituminous concrete layer depends upon the traffic the quality of base course.

The specification of materials and the construction steps for bituminous concrete or
asphaltic surface are given below.

5.12 SPECIFICATION OF MATERIAL:


5.12.1 BINDER:

Bitumen of grade 30/40, 60/70, or 80/100 may be chosen depending upon the climatic
of the location.

5.12.2 AGGREGATES AND FILLERS:

The coarse aggregates should fulfill the following requirement:

Aggregates impact value, maximum % : 30

Or loss angeles abrasion value, max % : 40

Flakiness index, max % : 25

Stripping at 40 degree Celsius after 24hr, max % : 25

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5.12.3 SOUNDNESS:

Loss with sodium sulfate in 5 cycle, max % : 12

Loss with magnesium sulfate in 5 cycle, max % : 18

The gradient of aggregates and filler should conform to those given in table.

GRADIENT OF AGGREGATE FOR BITUMINOUS CONCRETE

Sieve size, mm Percent passing by weight


Grading 1 Grading 2
20.00 - 100
12.00 100 80- 100
10.00 80-100 70-90
1.75 55-75 50-70
2.36 35-50 35-50
0.60 18-29 18-29
0.30 13-23 13-23
0.15 8-16 8-16
0.75 4-10 4-10
TABLE 5.7

5.13 BITUMINOUS CONCRETE MIX:


Marshall stability value, minimum kg : 340

Marshall flow value, 0.25 mm units : 8-16

Voids in mi, % : 3-5

Voids filled with bituminous, % : 75-85

5.14 SEAL COAT :


5.14.1 SCOPE :

This work is consist of the application of seal coat for filling the voids in a bituminous
surface laid to specific levels, grads and crossfall (camber). The seal coat is applied as a
final step in the construction of bituminous surface.

5.14.2 PURPOSE:

(a) To water proof or seal the surface and, thereby prevent the determine of the mix
from moisture and air.
(b) To increase resistance to skidding.
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(c) To improve night visibility.
(d) To protect the mat from abrasion caused by heavy traffic.
5.14.3 TYPES :

A. Liquid seal coat comprising of layer of bituminous binder followed by a cover of


stone chipping.
B. Premix seal coat comprising of thin application of fine aggregates premixed with
bituminous binder.
5.14.4 TYPES OF MATERIALS:

5.14.4.1 BINDERS:

The quantity of bitumen per 10 square meters shall be 9.8 kg. If bituminous emulsion is
used the quantity shall be 15 kg.

5.14.4.2 STONE CHIPS:

The stone chips shall be 100 % passing through 11.2 mm sieve and retained on 2.36 mm
sieve. The quantity used for spreading should be 0.09 Cum per 10 square meters.

5.14.4.3 AGGREGATES :

The aggregates shall pass through 2.36 mm sieve and be retained on 180 micron sieve.
The quantity used for this be 0.06 cubic meters per 10 square meters.

5.14.5 CONSTRUCTION OPERATION:

The seal coat is applied immediately after laying the bituminous course which is
required to be sealed.

5.14.5.1 CONSTRUCTION OF TYPE A SEAL COAT :

Bituminous shall be heated to 150-163 C and sprayed at the specified rate with a self-
propelled mechanical sprayer.

Immediately after application of binder, clean and dry stone chips shall be spread
uniformly.

If necessary, the surface shall be brushed to ensure uniform spread of chips. After that
the surface is rolled with a 8-10 tonne smooth wheeled roller.

The rolling is continued until the aggregate particles are firmly embedded in the binder.

5.14.5.2 CONSTRUCTION OF TYPE B SEAL COAT:

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Bitumen and aggregates are heated suitable to the temperature between 150 C and 165
C or as directed by the engineer.

After that they are placed in mixer and are uniformly mixed. Immediately after mixing
the mix is transported to site and spread uniformly on the bituminous surface.

After that, the rolling is continued with a 8-10 tonne smooth wheeled rolled.

The rolling is continued until the premixed material completely fill the voids in the
bituminous course and a uniform surface is obtained.

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CHAPTER 6

FINAL ESTIMATION

6.1 ANALYSIS OF RATE

6.1.1 TACK COAT -

Providing and applying tack coat with VG-10 using bitumen distributor at the rate of
0.35 kg per sqm on the prepared surface cleaned with hydraulic broom

Unit=sqm

Rate approved by SE PWD Lucknow shall be=19.43 per sqm

Now price escalation for 2017-18 shall be=5%each year

Total years lies=3 years

So total price escalation=15%

Now rate of tack coat=19.43+(19.43×0.15) sqm

= 22.34 per sqm

6.1.2 Dense Bituminous Macadam-

Providing and laying dense bituminous macadam with HMP using crushed aggregates
of specified grading, premixed with bituminous binder as per job mix, transporting the
hot mix to work site, laying with a hydrostatic paver finisher to the required grade, level
and alignment, rolling with smooth wheeled, vibratory and tandem rollers to achieve the
desired compaction as MoRT & H specifications Clause 507 complete in all respects.

Unit = cum

Rate approved by SE PWD Lucknow in 2014-15=9491.23 per cum

Now price escalation for 2017-18 shall be=5%each year

Total years lies = 3 years

So total price escalation = 15%

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Now rate of DBM = 9491.23 + (9491.23×0.15) per cum

= 10914.91 per cum

6.1.3 Bituminous Concrete-

Providing and laying bituminous concrete with HMP using crushed aggregates of
specified grading, premixed with bituminous binder as per job mix, transporting the hot
mix to work site, laying with a hydrostatic paver finisher to the required grade, level and
alignment, rolling with smooth wheeled, vibratory and tandem rollers to achieve the
desired compaction as per MoRT&H Specifications Clause 509 complete in all respects.

Unit = cum

Rate approved by SE PWD Lucknow in 2014-15 = 11292.41 per cum

Now price escalation for 2017-18 shall be = 5%each year

Total years lies=3 years

So total price escalation=15%

Now rate of BC=11292.41 + (11292.41×0.15)

=12986.27 per cum

6.1.4 Construction of subgrade with material obtained from borrow pits(for local
earth work) –

Construction of subgrade and earthen shoulder with approved material obtained from
borrow pits with all lifts and leads, spreading, grading to required slope and compacted
to meet requirement of table 300-2

Unit = cum

Rate approved by SE PWD Lucknow in 2014-15=106.20 per cum

Now price escalation for 2017-18 shall be=5%each year

Total years lies=3 years

So total price escalation=15%

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Now rate of DBM=106.20 + (106.20×0.15) per cum

=122.13 per cum

6.2 GEOMETRIC DESIGN :


6.2.1 SIGHT DISTANCE :

The length of the road visible ahead to the driver at any instance is called sight distance.
The sight distance situations considered in the road are:

(1) Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance


(2) Safe overtaking or passing sight distance
(3) Safe sight distance for entering into uncontrolled intersections
(4) Intermediate sight distance
(5) Headlight sight distance
6.2.1.1 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE :

The minimum length of the road visible ahead to the driver is stopping sight distance. It
depends on:

(1) Features of road ahead


(2) Height of the driver„s eye (1.2m) above the road surface
(3) Height the object ((0.15m) above the road surface
(4) Total reaction time of the driver
(5) Speed of the vehicle
(6) Efficiency of the brakes

Stopping sight distance = 0.278 x V x t + V2/254 ( f + 0.01n)

Where, V = Design speed, km/h


t = Reaction time ( 2.5 sec )
f = Coefficient of friction
n = Gradient

6.2.1.2 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE (OSD):

The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle intending to
overtake slow vehicle with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is known as

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the minimum overtaking sight distance (OSD) or the safe passing sight distance
available. It depends upon:-

1. Speeds of
(i) overtaking vehicle
(ii) overtaking vehicle end
(iii) the vehicle coming from opposite direction, if any.

2. Distance between the overtaking and overtaking vehicles; the minimum


spacing depends on the speeds.
3. Skill and reaction time of the driver.
4. Rate and acceleration of the overtaking vehicle.
5. Gradient of the road , if any.

6.2.1.2.1 ANALYSIS OF OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE :

The overtaking sight distance may be split up into three operation , thus dividing the
overtaking sight distance into three parts d1, d2, d3.

1. d1 is the distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction


time t sec of the driver from the position A1 to A2.
2. d2 is the distance travelling by vehicle A from A2 to A3 during the actual
overtaking operation, in time T sec.
3. d3 is the distance travelled by oncoming vehicle C from C1 to C2 during
the overtaking operation of A. i.e. T sec.
d1 = 0.278 Vb.t…..m
s = (0.2 Vb + 6 )…..m
d2 = ( b + 2s )…..m
O.S.D. = ( d1 + d2 + d3 )
O.S.D. = ( 0.278b*t + 0.278b*T + 2s + 0.278V*T)

Where, Vb = speed of overtaking vehicle, kmph


T = reaction time of driver = 2.5 sec.
V = speed of overtaking vehicle or design, kmph
T = ( 14.4*s/A)1/2
S = spacing of the vehicle = (0.2 Vb + b)
A = acceleration, kmph/sec

6.2.1.2.2 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE FOR TWO HIGHWAYS AS


RECOMMENDED BY IRC :

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Speed kmph Time component, seconds Safe


overtaking
For For opposing sight
overtaking Vehicle Total distance
manoeuvre
40 9.0 6.0 15 165
50 10.0 7.0 17 235
60 10.8 7.2 18 300
65 11.5 7.5 19 340
80 12.5 8.5 21 470
100 14.0 9.0 23 640
TABLE 6.1

6.2.1.3 SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTION :

The design of sight distance at intersection may be based on the three possible conditions:

(1) Enabling the approaching vehicle to change the speed.


(2) Enabling approaching vehicle to stop.
(3) Enable the stopped vehicle to cross a main road
6.2.2 WIDTH OF CARRIAGEWAY :
Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width of the
traffic lane and number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the
vehicle and the clearance.

Side clearance improves operating speed and safety. The maximum permissible width
of a vehicle is 2.44 and the desirable side clearance for single lane road.

However , the side clearance required is about 0.53 m, on either side and 1.06 m in the
center. Therefore, a two lane required minimum of 3.5 meter for each lane.

06.2.2.1 AS PER IRC RECOMMENDATIONS: WIDTH OF THE


CARRIAGEWAY

S.NO. CLASS OF ROAD WIDTH OF


CARRIAGEWAY

1 Single lane road 3.75 m

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2 Two lane without raised kerbs 7m

3 Two lane raised kerbs 7.5 m

4 Intermediate carriageway 5.5 m

5 Multi-lane pavement 3.5 m per lane

TABLE 6.2

NOTE :

a. The width of single lane or village road may be decreased to 3.0 m.


b. On Urban road without kerbs the single lane width may be decreased to
3.5 m and in access roads to residential areas to 3.0 m.
c. The minimum width recommended for kerbed urban road is 5.5 m to
make allowance for a stalled vehicle.

6.3 DETAILS OF MEASUREMENT :

NAME OF WORK : STRENGTHENING OF - GOSAIGANJ ROAD (0DR


90-C)(KM 0 - 4.6 km)

SNO Item of work Nos Length Wid Depth Quantity


th

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Mts Mts Mts Qty Unit

1 Providing and applying tack


coat with VG-10 using bitumen
distributor at the rate of 0.35
kg per sqm on the prepared
surface cleaned with hydraulic
broom.

1×2 4600.00 7.0 32200.00 Sqm


0

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32200.00 Sqm
Total

2 Providing and laying dense


bituminous macadam with
HMP using crushed aggregates
of specified grading, premixed
with bituminous binder as per
job mix, transporting the hot
mix to work site, laying with a
hydrostatic paver finisher to
the required grade ,level and
alignment, rolling with smooth
wheeled, vibratory and tandem
rollers to achieve the desired
compaction as MoRT & H
specifications Clause.

1×1 4600.00 7.0 0.04 1288.00 Cum


0

Add profile correction in km 1 1×4. 7000.00 0.0 6.0% 189.00 Cum


to 9 6 4

Total 1477.00 Cum

3 Providing and laying


bituminous concrete with HMP
using crushed aggregates of
specified grading premixed
with bituminous binder as per
job mix, transporting the hot
mix to work site, laying with a
hydrostatic paver finisher to
the required grade, level and
alignment, rolling with smooth
wheeled, vibratory and tandem
rollers to achieve desired
compaction as per MoRT &H

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Specifications Clause 509.

1×1 4600.00 7.0 0.04 1288.00 Cum


0

Total 1288.00 Cum

4 Construction of earthen
shoulder with approved
material obtained from
borrowpits with all lifts and
leads,spreading ,grading to
required slope and compected
to meet requirement of table
300-2

For embankment km 1 1×1 200.00 (2.0 (1.00 1454 Cum


0+3 +0.7)/
.00) 2
/2

1×1 200.00 2.0 (0.8+ 2250.00 Cum


Km 2 0+3 0.5)/2
.00)
/2

1×1 200.00 (2.0 (0.6+ 1800.00 Cum


Km 3 0+3 1)/2
.00)

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/2

1×1 200.00 (0.7 (0.7+ 1687.50 Cum


Km 4 5+1 0.8)/2
.5)/
2

7191.50 Cum
Total

TABLE 6.3

6.4 BILL OF QUANTITY

NAME OF WORK : STRENGTHENING OF MOHANLALGANJ-


GOSAIGANJ ROAD ( MDR 89-C)

SNO Item of work Qty Rate Amount


Unit

1 2 3 4 5 6

1 Providing and applying tack coat with 32200.00 34 1094800


VG-10 using bitumen distributor at the
rate of 0.35 kg per sqm on the prepared Sqm
surface cleaned with hydraulic broom

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2 Providing and laying dense bituminous
macadam with HMP using crushed
aggregates of specified grading
,premixed with bituminous binder as 1477 21651 31978527
per job mix, transporting the hot mix to
work site ,laying with a hydrostatic cum
paver finisher to the required grade
,level and alignment, rolling with
smooth wheeled, vibratory and tandem
rollers to achieve the desired
compaction as MoRT& H
specifications Clause 507 complete in
all respects

3 Providing and laying bituminous 21868 28165984


concrete with HMP using crushed
aggregates of specified grading, 1288.00
premixed with bituminous binder as Cum
per job mix, transporting the hot mix to
work site, laying with a hydrostatic
paver finisher to the required grade,
level and alignment, rolling with
smooth wheeled, vibratory and tandem
rollers to achieve the desired
compaction as per MoRT &H
Specifications Clause 509.

4 Construction of subgrade and earthen


shoulder with approved material
obtained from borrowpits with all lifts 7191.00 403 2897973
and leads,spreading ,grading to Cum
required slope and compected to meet
requirement of table 300-2

Total amount =64137284

Table 6.4

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6.5 SUMMARY OF ESTIMATED COST :


S NO. ITEM COST

STRENGTHENING OF 64137284
BIJNOR CHAURAHA TO
SCOOTER INDIA GATE
1

2 CONTIGENCIES (1%) 641372.84

3 LABOUR CESS (1%) 647786.56

4 TOTAL 65426443.41

SAY 654.26LAKHS

Table 6.5

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BIBLIOGRAPHY :

▪ The content of the information provided has been taken from the following
sources :-
▪ Highway engineering by Dr S.K.Sharma
▪ Highway engineering by S.K.Khanna and C.E.G.Justo
▪ Traffic engineering and transport planning by Dr L.R.Kadiyali
▪ PWD LUCKNOW

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