Frictional Resistance is the component of resistance obtained by integrating the tangential stresses

orver the wetted surface of the ship in the direction of motion. Viscosity of fluid causes friction. The
friction in physical situations depends on the type of fluid and the physical configuration or flow
pattern.

Two forms of resistance happen as a result of viscosity Friction Resistance and Viscous Pressure
Resistance. Friction arises from the shear stresses in the fluid and acts tangential to the body. Viscous
pressure resistance acts normal to the body.

Frictional Resistance

In laminar flow, a fluid moves in laminas or layers. The layers do not mix transversely but slide over
one another at relative speeds, which varies across the flow.

In turbulent flow, the fluid’s velocity components have random fluctuations. The flow is broken down
and the fluidis mixed transversely in eddying motion

Factors that determine whether a flow is laminar or turbulent are the fluid, the velocity, the form and
the size of the body placed in the flow, the depth of water, and if the flow is in a channel, the channel
configuration and size.

This regimes of flow can be determined using Reynolds Number. Even though Reynolds’ work related
to pipes but the conclusion are relevant to ships. Length L and wetted surface area S and these lead
to formula as:
𝑅𝐹
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡(𝐶𝑓 ) =
1
𝜌𝑆𝑉 2
2
The existence of two flow regimes is important for model tests conducted to determine a ship’s
resistance.

In general CF depends on

1. Nature of flow
2. Reynolds number
3. Form of surface
4. Character and condition of surface

William Froude carried out the first important experiments in 1870s using a series of planks with
different surface roughnesses, the result is a formula such as

𝑅𝐹 = 𝑓𝑆𝑉 𝑛

Where:

f= frictional coefficient

S= wetted surface

V= velocity of the body

n= contant depends on length of ship (1,83 to 2,00)

Later, R.E. Froude has supplemented the paper of his father by data of coefficient and constant used
by him. The resistance formula used was

𝑅𝐹 = 𝑓𝑆𝑉 1,825
Then the formula for the frictional resistance in kilograms (force) had been represented by
𝛾𝜆
𝑅𝐹 = 𝑆𝑉 1,825
1000
Where

𝛾 = spesific weight of water in kg/m3

𝜆 = frictional resistance coefficient

S = wetted area in m2

V = speed in m/s

Le Besnerais expressed the frictional coefficient 𝜆 at a temperature of 15oC by the following formula
0,258
𝜆 = 0,1392 +
2,68 + 𝐿
Where L is the model or ship length in meters.

If the friciton coefficient is to be used for a temperature t other than 15oC the following correction
formula may be used:

𝜆𝑡 = 𝜆(1 + 0,0043∆𝑡)
Where ∆𝑡 = 15oC – t (hence it is negative if t > 15oC)

The formulas were recommended by Contres International des Directeurs de Bassins Paris 1935 and
were used by most of the ship model tanks until about 1960.

If the friction resistance is in kiloNewtons then the formula become:

0,000418 + 0,00254
𝑅𝐹 = ( ) 𝑆𝑉𝐾 1,825
8,8 + 3,281 𝐿
Where

RF = resistance in kNewton

L = Length in meters

S = wetted surface in m2

VK = speed in knots

The model result should be corrected to a standard temperature of 15oC (= 59oF) by correcting:

1. Correction of -0,43% of frictional resistance per + 1oC or

2. Correction of -0,24% of frictional resistance per + 1oF

Schoenherr (1932) collected most of the results of plank tests and plotted them as ordinates of CF to
a base of of Rn. The formula is
 0,242
= log10 (𝑅𝑛 𝐶𝐹 )
√𝐶𝐹

Where
𝑉𝐿
𝑅𝑛 =
𝜐
Rn= Reynolds Number

V = Velocity of moving body

L = Length

𝜐 = kinematic viscosity

Note that the Schoenherr coefficients is valid for a perfectly smooth hull surface. For actual ship with
structual roughnesses such as plate seams, welds, or rivets, and paint roughness should add correction
+0,0004 to the Schoenherr Coefficient.

The problem when using the Schoenherr coefficient was, the coefficients was not valid for lower
Reynolds number and did not give good correlation between the results of small and large models.
The results was sometimes zero or negative.

The ITTC Friction Committee, with the knowledge of so much new work in progress, did not feel able
in 1957 to recommend a final solution to the problem of predicting ship resistance from model results.
Instead, it proposed two alternative single-line, interim engineering solutions. One was to use the
ATTC line for values of Rn above 107, and below this to use a new line which was steeper than the
ATTC line. The latter would, in the Committee's opinion, help to reconcile the results between large
and small models, while using the ATTC line above Rn = 107 would make no difference in ship
predictions from large models. The second proposal was to use an entirely new line, crossing the ATTC
line at about Rn = 107, and being slightly steeper throughout. This would result in lower ship
predictions, and so would tend to increase the correlation allowance CA and avoid negative allowances
for long ships. The Conference in Madrid in 1957 (ITTC, 1957) adopted a slight variation of the second
proposal, and agreed to
0,075
𝐶𝐹 =
(log10 𝑅𝑛 − 2)2

Viscous Pressure Resistance

Since ship is three dimentional object, the form of underwater hull is taken into account. The
dimensionless form of viscous resistance is the coefficient of viscous resistance (CV). This coefficient
is a function of the same properties that influence viscous resistance itself: hull form, speed, and water
properties. The equations for the coefficient of viscous resistance that follow are empirical products
of many years of towing tank testing, and are internationally recognized by the International Towing
Tank Conference (ITTC). The coefficient of viscous resistance takes into account the friction of the
water on the ship as well as the influence of hull form on viscous pressure drag.

𝐶𝑉 = 𝐶𝐹 + 𝐾𝐶𝐹
where:

CV = coefficient of viscous resistance

CF = tangential (skin friction) component of viscous resistance

KCF = normal (viscous pressure drag) component of viscous resistance

The form factor (K) accounts for the effect of hull form on viscous resistance. Both the skin friction
coefficient and the form factor equation are empirically derived from many tests on flat plates and
ships.

∇ 𝐵 2
𝐾 ≈ 19 ( 𝑥 )
𝐿𝐵𝑇 𝐿