Math 220A

Fall 2007
Homework #1
Will Garner
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Pg 2-3

#6: Let R(z) be a rational function of z. Show that R ( z ) = R( z ) if all the coefficients in
R(z) are real.
P( z )
Suppose R(z) is a rational function, i.e. R ( z ) = , where Q(z) ∫ 0.
Q( z )

Suppose that both P(z) and Q(z) have real coefficients and let z = x + iy.

Then we have that z = x − iy . We claim that P ( z ) = P( z ) and Q( z ) = Q( z ) . Why?

Suppose P(z) = anzn + … + a1z + a0, where ai are real, by assumption. Then

P ( z ) = α n z n + ... + α1 z + α 0
= α n z n + ... + α1 z + α 0
= α n z n + ... + α1 z + α 0
= α n z n + ... + α1 z + α 0
= P( z )

Similarly, we have that Q( z ) = Q( z ) . From that, it follows that R ( z ) = R( z ) . ■

Pg 4

#2: Show that |z1 + z2 + … + zn| = |z1| + |z2| + … + |zn| if and only if zk / zl ¥ 0 for any
integers k and l, 1 § k, l § n, for which zl ∫ 0.

Suppose that zk / zl ¥ 0. Without loss of generality, suppose that z1 is non-zero.

Otherwise, we could reduce the summation to z2 + … + zn, all of which are non-zero.
Then we have that
z2 z ⎛ z z ⎞ zi
z1 + z2 + ... + zn = z1 1 + + ... + n = z1 ⎜ 1 + 2 + ... + n ⎟ Since >0
z1 z1 ⎝ z1 z1 ⎠ z1
⎛ z z ⎞
= z1 ⎜⎜ 1 + 2 + ... + n ⎟⎟ = z1 + z2 + ... + zn
⎝ z1 z1 ⎠

To show the other direction, we shall proceed via induction. For n = 2, we want to
find a condition for which |z1 + z2| = |z1| + |z2|. From the discussion on page 4, we see
that equality occurs if z1 and z2 are collinear. Provided that z2 ∫ 0 (which is a valid
assumption), we have that a necessary and sufficient condition is z1 / z2 ¥ 0.

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Suppose the result holds for all values up to n – 1. We want to show that it holds for n
as well. Suppose that |z1 + z2 + … + zn| = |z1| + |z2| + … + |zn|.

Since |z1 + z2 + … + zn| § |z1 + z2 + … + zn – 1|+ |zn| § … § |z1| + |z2| + … + |zn|, this
implies that every inequality along the way is actually an equality. So, we have that
|(z1 + z2 + … + zn – 1) + zn| = |z1 + z2 + … + zn – 1|+ |zn|.

z1 + ... + zn −1
By similar reasoning used in the base case, we have that ≥ 0 . From that,
zn
z1 ⎛ z2 zn −1 ⎞ z1
it follows that ⎜1 + + ... + ⎟ ≥ 0 ⇒ ≥ 0 . We can repeat the above for z2 / zn,
zn ⎝ z1 z1 ⎠ zn
  

positive by the ind. hypothesis

…, zn – 1 / zn, which completes the inductive step and hence the proof. ■

#3: Let a œ R and c > 0 be fixed. Describe the set of points z satisfying |z – a| – |z + a| = 2c
for every possible choice of a and c. Now let a be any complex number and, using a
rotation of the plane, describe the locus of points satisfying the above equation.

What if a = c? What if a > c? What if a < c?

If a = c, then we have:

The solution set is given by: {z: Re(z) § -a and Im(z) = 0}.

If a > c, then we have:

|z – a| – |z + a| = 2c describes the locus of all points for which the difference of the
distances from 2 fixed points, a and –a, is a constant greater than 0. (This is one
branch of a hyperbola.) The solution set is given by:

⎧⎪ c 4 − a 2 c 2 + a 2 Re( z ) 2 − c 2 Re( z ) 2 ⎫⎪
⎨ z : a ≤ −c, Re( z ) ≥ c, Im( z ) = ± ⎬.
⎪⎩ c2 ⎪⎭
(Solution obtained with the aid of Mathematica, as the algebra was quite messy.)

If a < c, then we have:

The solution set is empty.

As a side note:

|z – a| + |z + a| = 2c describes the locus of all points for which the sum of the distances
from 2 fixed points, a and –a, is a constant greater than 0. (This is an ellipse.)

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Now, suppose that a is complex. Through a rotation of the plane (that is, by sending z
to some z′), we can reduce the problem |z – a| – |z + a| = |x + iy – areal – aimg| – |x + iy +
areal + aimg | = 2c to |x – areal + iw| – |x + areal + iw| = 2c, for some w, at which points we
can apply the previous result.

The resulting locus of points will be a branch of a rotated hyperbola, rotated by q

degrees, where q comes from z = reiq. ■

Pg 5-6

2π
#5: Let z = cis for any integer n ¥ 2. Show that 1 + z + … + zn – 1 = 0.
n

First off, notice that since n ¥ 2, we have that z ∫ 1. Furthermore, 1 + z + … + zn – 1 is a

1− zn
finite geometric series with common ratio z. The sum is equal to , but by de
1− z
Moivre’s Theorem, we have that zn = cis(2p) = 1 + 0i = 1. Thus, 1 – zn =0. So we have
that 1 + z + … + zn – 1 = 0, as desired. ■

#7: If z œ C and Re(zn) ¥ 0 for every positive integer n, show that z is a non-negative real
number.

Suppose Re(zn) ¥ 0 for every positive integer n. In particular, we have that Re(z) ¥ 0.
It remains to show that Im(z) = 0, since we will have that z is real and non-negative.

If z = z = r(cosq + isinq), then it suffices to show that sinq = 0.

We have that zn = rn(cosq + isinq)n = rn(cosnq + isinnq). Since Re(zn) ¥ 0 for every
positive integer n, then we have that rncos(nq) ¥ 0 for all n, i.e. cos(nq) ¥ 0 for all n.

π π
This implies that − ≤ nθ ≤ for all n. Dividing through by n and considering the
2 2
⎛ π ⎞ ⎛π ⎞
limit as n tends towards infinity, we have 0 = lim ⎜ − ⎟ ≤ lim (θ ) ≤ lim ⎜ ⎟ = 0 ,
n →∞
⎝ 2n ⎠ n→∞ n →∞ 2n
⎝ ⎠
thus it must be that q = 0, which implies that sin(q) = 0, as desired. ■

Pg 10

#4: Let L be a circle lying in S. Then there is a unique plane P in R3 such that P … S = L.
Recall from analytic geometry that P = {(x1, x2, x3): x1b1 + x2b2 + x3b3 = l} where (b1,

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b2, b3) is a vector orthogonal to P and l is some real number. It can be assumed that
β12 + β 22 + β32 = 1 . Use this information to show that if L contains the point N then its
stereographic projection on C is a straight line. Otherwise, L projects onto a circle in C.

Suppose the plane P = {(x1, x2, x3): x1b1 + x2b2 + x3b3 = l} intersects S in a circle L on S.
2x 2y x2 + y2 −1
Substituting x1 = 2 , x 2 = , x3 = into P, we obtain:
x + y2 +1 x2 + y 2 + 1 x2 + y 2 + 1
N
2β1 x 2β 2 y β3 x 2 + β3 y 2 − β3
+ + =l
x2 + y 2 + 1 x2 + y 2 + 1 x2 + y 2 + 1
⇒ 2β1 x + 2β 2 y + β 3 x 2 + β 3 y 2 − β 3 = l ( x 2 + y 2 + 1)
⇒ ( β3 − l )( x 2 + y 2 ) + 2 β1 x + 2 β 2 y = l + β 3

This is the equation of a certain locus in the z-plane Figure 1: A circle through N yields
(z = x + iy). The locus is a straight line if b3 = l,
a line in C
a circle if b3 ∫ l and |l| < 1, a single point, or empty.

The latter two cases are ruled out by the assumption N

that the preimage of L is non-empty.

Why do we have a line or a circle?

Suppose b3 = l. Then we have precisely

2b1x + 2b2y = 2b3, i.e. b1x + b2y = b3,
which is the equation of a line. (See Figure 1.) Figure 2: A circle not through N
yields another circle in C
Suppose b3 ∫ l. Then we have
2β1 2β 2 l + β3
( β 3 − l )( x 2 + y 2 ) + 2β1 x + 2β 2 y = l + β 3 ⇒ x 2 + y 2 + x+ y=
β3 − l β3 − l β3 − l
2 2 2 2
⎛ β ⎞ ⎛ β ⎞ l + β3 ⎛ β1 ⎞ ⎛ β 2 ⎞
⇒⎜x+ 1 ⎟ +⎜x+ 2 ⎟ = +⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
⎝ β3 − l ⎠ ⎝ β3 − l ⎠ β3 − l ⎝ β3 − l ⎠ ⎝ β3 − l ⎠

For this to be a circle (see Figure 2), we need the right side to be positive, i.e. we need
2 2
 
=1

l + β3 ⎛ β1 ⎞ ⎛ β 2 ⎞ (l + β 3 )( β 3 − l ) + β1 + β 2 −l + β 3 + β1 + β 22
2 2 2 2 2
1− l2
+⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = = = >0
β3 − l ⎝ β3 − l ⎠ ⎝ β3 − l ⎠ ( β3 − l )2 (β3 − l )2 (β3 − l )2

So, we need 1 – l2 > 0, i.e. 1 > l2, i.e. |l| < 1.

Notice that in the straight line case, P must be of the form x1b1 + x2b2 + (x3 – 1)b3 = 0. The
plane represented by this equation passes through the point N = (0, 0, 1), as desired. ■

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#5: Let Z and Z′ be points on S corresponding to z and z′ respectively. Let W be the point
on S corresponding to z + z′. Find the coordinates of W in terms of the coordinates of
Z and Z′.

Suppose Z = (x1, x2, x3) and Z′ = (x1′, x2′, x3′). Let the corresponding points z and z′ be
given by z = x + iy and z′ = x′ + iy′. Furthermore, let the coordinates of W be given by
(x1″, x2″, x3″). We want to find an expression for (x1″, x2″, x3″) in terms of (x1, x2, x3)
and (x1′, x2′, x3′).

x1 x x′ x′
We have that z = + i 2 and z ′ = 1 + i 2 . Thus, we have that
1 − x3 1 − x3 1 − x3′ 1 − x3′
N N N N
=x =y = x′ = y′

x1 x x′ x′ (1 − x3′ ) x1 + x1′(1 − x3 ) (1 − x3′ ) x2 + x2′ (1 − x3 )

z + z′ = +i 2 + 1 +i 2 = +i .
1 − x3 1 − x3 1 − x3′ 1 − x3′ (1 − x3 )(1 − x3′ ) (1 − x3 )(1 − x3′ )
 
 

= x′′ = y ′′

We have formulas that relate W in terms of x″ and y″.

2 x′′
x1′′ = = ...
x′′ + y′′2 + 1
2

−( x3 − 1) ( ( x3 − 1) x1′ + x1 ( x3′ − 1) ) ( x3′ − 1)

=
((x 3 − 1) ( x1′ + x′ + ( x3′ − 1)2 ) + 2( x3 − 1)( x1 x1′ + x2 x2′ )( x3′ − 1) + ( x12 + x22 )( x3′ − 1) 2
2 2
2
2

2 y′′
x2′′ = = ...
x′′ + y′′2 + 1
2

−( x3 − 1) ( ( x3 − 1) x2′ + x2 ( x3′ − 1) ) ( x3′ − 1)

=
((x 3 − 1) ( x1′ + x′ + ( x3′ − 1) 2 ) + 2( x3 − 1)( x1 x1′ + x2 x2′ )( x3′ − 1) + ( x12 + x22 )( x3′ − 1) 2
2 2
2
2

x′′2 + y′′2 − 1
x3′′ = = ...
x′′2 + y′′2 + 1

=
((x 3 − 1) 2 ( x1′2 + x2′2 − ( x3′ − 1) 2 ) + 2( x3 − 1)( x1 x1′ + x2 x2′ )( x3′ − 1) + ( x12 + x22 )( x3′ − 1) 2
((x 3 − 1) 2 ( x1′2 + x2′2 + ( x3′ − 1) 2 ) + 2( x3 − 1)( x1 x1′ + x2 x2′ )( x3′ − 1) + ( x12 + x22 )( x3′ − 1) 2

These formulas do not appear to simplify in any clean way. ■

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Pg 43-44

#19: Let G be a region and define G* = {z : z ∈ G} . If f: G ö C is analytic, prove that

f*: G* ö C, defined by f *( z ) = f ( z ) , is also analytic.

Suppose that f is analytic. Then we know that f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), with ux, uy, vx, vy
existing, continuous and satisfying the Cauchy-Riemann equations: namely ux = vy
and vx = -uy.

Consider the function f *( z ) = f ( z ) .

If z = x + iy, then z = x − iy = x + i (− y ) . Similarly, if f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y), then

f ( z ) = u ( x, y ) − iv( x, y ) = u ( x, y ) + i (−v( x, y )) .

Thus, we have that f *( z ) = f ( z ) = u ( x, − y ) + i (−v( x, − y )) = u *( x, y ) + iv *( x, y ) .

Now, we know that the partials exist and are continuous, so to show that f*(z) is
analytic, we need only show that the partials of u*(x, y) and v*(x, y) satisfy the
Cauchy-Riemann equations.

That is, we need to show that u*x = v*y and v*x = −u*y .

u*x = u x = v y = −(−v y ) = v*y , where the middle inequality follows from the fact that
Cauchy-Riemann equations hold for u(x, y) and v(x, y).

Similarly, we have that v*x = −vx = u y = −u*y , again with the middle inequality coming
from the Cauchy-Riemann equations for u(x, y) and v(x, y).

Thus, we have that the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied for u*(x, y) and v*(x, y).

Hence, by Theorem 2.29, we have that f *( z ) = f ( z ) is analytic. ■

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Additional Problems to Look At and Know

Pg 2-3

#1: Find the real and imaginary parts of each of the following:

3 6
⎛ −1 + i 3 ⎞ ⎛ −1 − i 3 ⎞
n
1 z−a 3 + 5i n ⎛ 1+ i ⎞
; (a œ R); z3; ; ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ; ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ; i ; ⎜ ⎟ for 2 § n § 8
z z+a 7i + 1 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠

1 1 x − iy x − iy x y
= = = 2 = 2 −i 2 .■
z x + iy ( x + iy )( x − iy ) x + y 2
x +y 2
x + y2

z − a ( x − a ) + iy (( x − a ) + iy )(( x + a ) − iy )
= =
z + a ( x + a ) + iy (( x + a ) + iy )(( x + a ) − iy )
x 2 − a 2 + y 2 + i[( x + a ) y − ( x − a ) y ] x 2 − a 2 + y 2 2ay
= = +i .■
( x + a) + y
2 2
( x + a) + y
2 2
( x + a)2 + y 2
z 3 = ( x + iy )3 = ( x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy )( x + iy ) = ( x3 − 3 xy 2 ) + i(3 x 2 y + x 2 y − y 3 ) . ■

3 + 5i (3 + 5i )(−7i + 1) 38 − 16i 19 8
= = = −i . ■
7i + 1 (7i + 1)(−7i + 1) 50 25 25

3
⎛ −1 + i 3 ⎞ ⎛ −1 − i 3 ⎞⎛ −1 + i 3 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎜
⎟⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1 = 1 + i 0 . ■
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠

6 3 3
⎛ −1 − i 3 ⎞ ⎡⎛ −1 − i 3 ⎞ ⎛ −1 − i 3 ⎞ ⎤ ⎛ −1 + i 3 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1 = 1 + i 0 . ■
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ 2 ⎠

i2 = i6 = -1 + i0; i3 = i7 = 0 – i; i4 = i8 = 1 + i0; i5 = 0 + i. ■

2 3 4 5
⎛ 1+ i ⎞ ⎛ 1 + i ⎞ −1 + i ⎛ 1 + i ⎞ ⎛ 1 + i ⎞ −1 − i
⎜ ⎟ = 0+i; ⎜ ⎟ = ; ⎜ ⎟ = −1 + i 0 ; ⎜ ⎟ = ;
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 2 ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 2
6 7 8
⎛ 1+ i ⎞ ⎛ 1+ i ⎞ 1− i ⎛ 1+ i ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = 0−i ; ⎜ ⎟ = ; ⎜ ⎟ = 1 + i0 . ■
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ 2 ⎝ 2⎠

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#2: Find the absolute value and conjugate of each of the following:

3−i i
-2 + i; -3; (2 + i)(4 + 3i); ; ; (1 + i)6; i17
2 + 3i i + 3

−2 + i = (−2) 2 + 12 = 5 and −2 + i = −2 − i . ■

−3 = 3 and −3 = −3 . ■

(2 + i )(4 + 3i ) = 5 + 10i = 52 + 102 = 5 5 and (2 + i )(4 + 3i ) = 5 + 10i = 5 − 10i . ■

3−i (3 − i )( 2 − 3i ) 3 2 − 3 − i (9 + 2) 10
= = = and
2 + 3i ( 2 + 3i )( 2 − 3i ) 11 11
3−i (3 2 − 3) + i (9 + 2)
= .■
2 + 3i 11

i i (−i + 3) 1 + 3i i 1 + 3i 1 3
= = = 10 and = = −i . ■
i + 3 (i + 3)(−i + 3) 10 i+3 10 10 10

( )
6 6 6
(1 + i )6 = 1 + i = 2 = 8 and (1 + i )6 = 2ei (π / 4) = 8ei (3π / 2) = −8i = 8i . ■

|i17| = |i| = 1 and i17 = i = −i . ■

#3: Show that z is a real number if and only if z = z .

Suppose z is real. Then we have that z = x + i0, where x is real. Notice that
z = x + i 0 = x − i 0 = x = z , as desired.

Suppose that z = z . Then we have that x + iy = x − iy ⇒ 2iy = 0 ⇒ y = 0 . So, we have

that z = x + i0 = x, so z is real, which completes the proof. ■

#4: If z and w are complex numbers, prove the following equations:

2 2 2
z + w = z + 2 Re zw + w
2 2 2
z − w = z − 2 Re zw + w
2 2 2 2
z + w + z − w = 2( z + w )

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2 2 2
z + w = ( z + w)( z + w) = zz + zw + wz + ww = z + zw + zw + w
2 2
= z + 2 Re zw + w (Since c + c = 2 Re(c))

2 2 2
z − w = ( z − w)( z − w) = zz − zw − wz + ww = z − ( zw + zw) + w
2 2
= z − 2 Re zw + w (Since c + c = 2 Re(c))

From the two above equations, it follows immediately that

2 2 2 2
z + w + z − w = 2( z + w ) . ■

#5: Use induction to prove that for z = z1 + … + zn; w = w1w2…wn: |w| = |w1|…|wn|;
z = z1 + ... + zn ; w = w1...wn .

Let us consider the base case (for n = 2) of the above statement. That is, let z = z1 + z2
and w = w1w2. Suppose that z j = x j + iy j and w j = x′j + iy′j .

w = w1w2 = ( x1′ + iy1′)( x2′ + iy2′ ) = ( x1′x2′ − y1′ y2′ ) + i ( x1′ y2′ + y1′x2′ )
= ( x1′x2′ − y1′ y2′ ) 2 + ( x1′ y2′ + y1′x2′ ) 2
= ( x1′2 x2′ 2 − 2 x1′x2′ y1′ y2′ + y1′2 y2′ 2 ) + ( x1′2 y2′ 2 + 2 x1′ y2′ y1′x2′ + y1′2 x2′ 2 )
= x1′2 x2′ 2 + y1′2 y2′ 2 + x1′2 y2′ 2 + y1′2 x2′ 2
= ( x1′2 + y1′2 )( x2′ 2 + y2′ 2 )
= x1′2 + y1′2 x2′ 2 + y2′ 2
= w1 w2

z = ( x1 + iy1 ) + ( x2 + iy2 ) = ( x1 + x2 ) + i ( y1 + y2 ) = ( x1 + x2 ) − i ( y1 + y2 ) = ( x1 − iy1 ) + ( x2 − iy2 )

= z1 + z2

w = w1w2 = ( x1′ + iy1′)( x2′ + iy2′ ) = ( x1′x2′ − y1′ y2′ ) + i ( x1′ y2′ + y1′x2′ )
= ( x1′x2′ − y1′ y2′ ) − i ( x1′ y2′ + y1′x2′ ) = ( x1′ − iy1′ )( x2′ − iy2′ )
= w1w2

Now, suppose all of the above formulas for some arbitrary n. We want to show that
they hold for n + 1 as well.

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′ n + iy1...
To simplify the notation, let z1 + ... + zn = x1...n + iy1...n and w1...wn = x1... ′ n.

′ n + iy1...
w = w1...wn wn +1 = ( x1... ′ n )( xn′ +1 + iyn′ +1 ) = ( x1...
′ n xn′ +1 − y1...
′ n yn′ +1 ) + i ( x1...
′ n yn′ +1 + y1...
′ n xn′ +1 )
′ n xn′ +1 − y1...
= ( x1... ′ n yn′ +1 ) 2 + ( x1...
′ n yn′ +1 + y1...
′ n xn′ +1 ) 2
′ n 2 xn′ +12 − 2 x1...
= ( x1... ′ n xn′ +1 y1...
′ n yn′ +1 + y1...
′ n 2 yn′ +12 ) + ( x1...
′ n 2 yn′ +12 + 2 x1...
′ n yn′ +1 y1...
′ n xn′ +1 + y1...
′ n 2 xn′ +12 )
′ n 2 xn′ +12 + y1...
= x1... ′ n 2 yn′ +12 + x1...
′ n 2 yn′ +12 + y1...
′ n 2 xn′ +12
′ n 2 + y1...
= ( x1... ′ n 2 )( xn′ +12 + yn′ +12 )
′ n 2 + y1...
= x1... ′ n 2 xn′ +12 + yn′ +12
= w1 ... wn wn +1
 

by the IH

z = ( x1...n + iy1...n ) + ( xn +1 + iyn +1 ) = ( x1...n + xn +1 ) + i ( y1...n + yn +1 )

= ( x1...n + xn +1 ) − i ( y1...n + yn +1 ) = ( x1...n − iy1...n ) + ( xn +1 − iyn +1 )
= z1...n + zn +1 = z1 + ... + zn + zn +1
 

by the IH

′ n + iy1...
w = w1...n wn +1 = ( x1... ′ n )( xn′ +1 + iyn′ +1 ) = ( x1...
′ n xn′ +1 − y1...
′ n yn′ +1 ) + i ( x1...
′ n yn′ +1 + y1...
′ n xn′ +1 )
′ n xn′ +1 − y1...
= ( x1... ′ n yn′ +1 ) − i ( x1...
′ n yn′ +1 + y1...
′ n xn′ +1 ) = ( x1...
′ n − iy1...
′ n )( xn′ +1 − iyn′ +1 )
= w1...n wn +1 = w1wn wn +1
N
by the IH

So, we see that each of the formulas holds for n + 1. By the Principle of Mathematical
Induction, we have the formulas are true for all n, completing the proof. ■

Pg 4

#1: Prove z − w ≤ z − w and give necessary and sufficient conditions for equality.

Observe that z = z − w + w ≤ z − w + w ⇒ z − w ≤ z − w .
Also, w = w − z + z ≤ w − z + z = z − w + z ⇒ w − z ≤ z − w
N
Since w − z
= −1( z − w )
= −1 ⋅ z − w

Putting these together, we have that z − w ≤ z − w , as desired.

Notice that we will have equality when z = z − w + w or w = w − z + z . ■

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Geometrically, this occurs if and only if z and w are co-linear, i.e. lie in the same
direction. (See Figure 1.) An algebraic interpretation would be that the quotient z / w
needs to be a real number. (An analogous figure holds for w = w − z + z .)

w
z

z–w

Figure 1: Geometric interpretation of

equality for z − w ≤ z − w

Pg 5-6

#1: Find the sixth roots of unity.

n
⎛ −1 − i 3 ⎞
The sixth roots of unity are given by ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ , for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. ■
⎝ 2 ⎠

#2: Calculate the following:

(a) the square roots of i

i = 1ÿcis(p/2), so we have that the square roots of i are given by:

11/2ÿcis(p/4) and 11/2ÿcis(p/4 + p/) = cis(5p/4). ■

(b) the cube roots of i

Again, i = 1ÿcis(p/2), so we have that the cube roots of i are given by:

1ÿ1/3cis(p/6), 11/3ÿcis(p/6 + 2p/3) = cis(5p/6), and 11/3ÿcis(p/6 + 4p/3) = cis(3p/2). ■

(c) the square roots of 3 + 3i

3 + 3i = 12 cis(π / 3) , so we have that the square roots of 3 + 3i are given by:

4
12 cis(π / 6) and 4 12 cis(π / 6 + π ) = 4 12 cis(7π / 6) . ■

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#3: A primitive nth root of unity is a complex number a such that 1, a,a2, …, an – 1 are
distinct nth roots of unity. Show that if a and b are primitive nth and mth roots of unity,
then ab is a kth root of unity for some integer k. What is the smallest value of k? What
can be said if a and b are nonprimitive roots of unity?

Suppose that a and b are primitive nth and mth roots of unity. Then we have that an = 1
and bm = 1, so it follows that 1mÿ1n = (an)m(bm)n = (ab)nm = 1. This, however, does not
guarantee that k = nm. It may be (and usually is) the case that nm is not the smallest
power that we can raise ab to and yield 1.

Rather, we have that (ab)mn = (ab)kl = ((ab)k)l, where k is the smallest integer such that
(ab)k = 1 and (ab)t ∫ 1 for all 0 § t < k.

The question remains: what is the smallest value of k? The answer is k = lcm(m, n). If
we think of ar and bs as clocks spinning, each returns to 1 after n / m rotations. It is
clear that after nm rotations, both will be back at 1, but they will return to 1 together
for any common multiple of m and n.

Now, suppose that a and b are nonprimitive roots of unity. It will not be the case that
we will get a primitive root of unity. ■

n
n!
⎛ n ⎞ n−k k ⎛n⎞
#4: Use the binomial equation (a + b) n = ∑ ⎜ ⎟a b , and , where ⎜ ⎟ =
k !(n − k )!
k =0 ⎝ ⎠
k ⎝k ⎠
compare the real and imaginary parts of each side of de Moivre’s formula to obtain
the formulas:

⎛n⎞ ⎛n⎞
cos nθ = cos n θ − ⎜ ⎟ cos n − 2 θ sin 2 θ + ⎜ ⎟ cos n − 4 θ sin 4 θ − ...
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 4⎠
⎛n⎞ ⎛n⎞
sin nθ = ⎜ ⎟ cos n −1 θ sin θ − ⎜ ⎟ cos n −3 θ sin 3 θ + ...
⎝1⎠ ⎝ 3⎠

cis(nθ ) = (cos θ + i sin θ ) n

n
⎛n⎞
= ∑ ⎜ ⎟ cos n − k (θ )(i k ) sin k (θ )
k =0 ⎝ k ⎠

⎢n⎥ ⎢ n −1 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣2⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
⎛ n⎞ ⎛ n ⎞
= ∑⎜ ⎟ cos
n−2 j
(θ )(i )2 j sin 2 j (θ ) + ∑ ⎜⎝ 2 j +1⎟⎠ cos n − 2 j +1
(θ )(i ) 2 j +1 sin 2 j +1 (θ )
0⎝
2 j ⎠
j= j =0

⎡ ⎢⎢ n2 ⎥⎥ ⎤ ⎡ ⎢⎢ n2−1⎥⎥ ⎤
⎣ ⎦
⎢ ⎛ ⎞ ⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎦ j⎛ n ⎞ ⎥
= ⎢ ∑ ( −1) ⎜ ⎟ cos (θ ) sin (θ ) ⎥ + i ⎢ ∑ ( −1) ⎜
j n n−2 j 2j
⎟ cos
n − 2 j −1
(θ )(i ) sin (θ ) ⎥
2 j +1 2 j +1
2
⎝ ⎠ j ⎝ 2 j +1 ⎠
⎢⎣ j =0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ j =0 ⎥⎦

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These equations imply that

⎢n⎥
⎢2⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎛ n⎞ ⎛n⎞ ⎛ n⎞
cos nθ = ∑ ( −1) j ⎜ ⎟ cos
n−2 j
(θ ) sin 2 j (θ ) = cos n θ − ⎜ ⎟ cos n − 2 θ sin 2 θ + ⎜ ⎟ cos n − 4 θ sin 4 θ − ...
j =0 ⎝2 j⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 4⎠

and

⎢ n −1 ⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎛ n ⎞ ⎛ n⎞ ⎛n⎞
sin nθ = ∑ (−1) j ⎜⎝ 2 j +1⎟⎠ cos
j =0
n − 2 j +1
(θ )(i ) 2 j +1 sin 2 j +1 (θ ) = ⎜ ⎟ cos n −1 θ sin θ − ⎜ ⎟ cos n −3 θ sin 3 θ + ...
⎝1⎠ ⎝ 3⎠

which completes the proof. ■

#6: Show that j(t) = cis(t) is a group homomorphism of the additive group R onto the
multiplicative group T = {z: |z| = 1}.

To show that j(t) is a group homomorphism, we need to show that j(s + t) = j(s)j(t),
for real s and t. (Note that we start off under the operation of addition, hence the s + t,
and end under the operation of multiplication, hence the j(s)j(t).)

ϕ ( s + t ) = cos( s + t ) + i sin( s + t )
= ( cos( s ) cos(t ) − sin( s ) sin(t ) ) + i ( sin( s ) cos(t ) + cos( s ) sin(t ) )
= ( cos( s ) + i sin( s ) )( cos(t ) + i sin(t ) )
= ϕ ( s )ϕ (t )

Note: Above we used the addition formulas for cosine and sine. ■

Pg 10

2 z − z′
6.7 d ( z , z ′) = , (z, z′ œ C)
2 2
(1 + z )(1 + z ′ )

2
6.8 d ( z , ∞) =
2
1+ z

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#1: Give the details in the derivation of (6.7) and (6.8).

We shall assume through the derivation of (6.3) and proceed from there.

2
z+z −i ( z − z ) z −1
6.3 x1 = 2
, x2 = 2
, x3 = 2
.
z +1 z +1 z +1

We define a distance function between points in the extended plane in the following
manner: for z, z′ in C¶, define the distance from z to z′, denoted by d(z, z′), to be the
distance between the corresponding points Z and Z′ in R3.

If Z = (x1, x2, x3) and Z ′ = ( x1′, x2′ , x3′ ) , then the standard distance between Z and Z′ is
given by

6.5 d ( z , z ′) = ( x1 − x1′) 2 + ( x2 − x2′ ) 2 + ( x3 − x3′ ) 2

= ( x12 − 2 x1 x1′ + x1′2 ) + ( x22 − 2 x2 x2′ + x2′ 2 ) + ( x32 − 2 x3 x3′ + x3′2 )
= 2 − 2( x1 x1′ + x2 x2′ + x3 x3′ ) (since x12 + x22 + x32 = 1 = x1′2 + x2′ 2 + x3′2 )

This gives us

6.6 [d ( z , z ′)]2 = 2 − 2( x1 x1′ + x2 x2′ + x3 x3′ ) .

Using (6.3), let us consider x1 x1′ + x2 x2′ + x3 x3′ .

⎛ z + z ⎞ ⎛ z ′ + z ′ ⎞ ⎛ −i ( z − z ) ⎞ ⎛ −i ( z ′ − z ′) ⎞ ⎛ z 2 − 1 ⎞ ⎛ z ′ 2 − 1 ⎞
x1 x1′ + x2 x2′ + x3 x3′ = ⎜ 2 ⎟ ⎜ 2 ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
⎜ z + 1 ⎟ ⎜ z′ + 1 ⎟ ⎜ z 2 + 1 ⎟ ⎜ z′ 2 + 1 ⎟ ⎜ z 2 + 1 ⎟ ⎜ z′ 2 + 1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
2 2
( z + z )( z ′ + z ′) − ( z − z )( z ′ − z ′) + ( z − 1)( z ′ − 1)
= 2 2
( z + 1)( z ′ + 1)
2 2 2 2 2 2
z + zz ′ + zz ′ + z − ( z − zz ′ − zz ′ + z ) + ( z − 1)( z ′ − 1)
= 2 2
( z + 1)( z ′ + 1)
2 2
2 zz ′ + 2 zz ′ + ( z − 1)( z ′ − 1)
= 2 2
( z + 1)( z ′ + 1)
2 2 2 2
2 zz ′ + 2 zz ′ + z z ′ − z − z ′ + 1
= 2 2
( z + 1)( z ′ + 1)

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2 2
z z ′ − zz − z ′z ′ + 1 + 2 zz ′ + 2 z ′z
= 2 2
( z + 1)( z ′ + 1)
2 2
z z ′ + zz + z ′z ′ + 1 − 2 zz + 2 zz ′ + 2 z ′z − 2 z ′z ′
= 2 2
( z + 1)( z ′ + 1)
2 2 2 2
z z ′ + z + z ′ + 1 − 2 zz + 2 zz ′ + 2 z ′z − 2 z ′z ′
= 2 2
( z + 1)( z ′ + 1)
2 2
( z + 1)( z ′ + 1) − 2( z − z ′)( z − z ′)
= 2 2
( z + 1)( z ′ + 1)
2 2 2
( z + 1)( z ′ + 1) − 2 z − z ′
= 2 2
( z + 1)( z ′ + 1)

So, we have that

[d ( z , z ′)]2 = 2 − 2( x1 x1′ + x2 x2′ + x3 x3′ )

⎡ ( z 2 + 1)( z ′ 2 + 1) − 2 z − z ′ 2 ⎤
= 2−2⎢ 2 2 ⎥
⎢⎣ ( z + 1)( z ′ + 1) ⎥⎦
2
4 z − z′
= 2−2+ 2 2
( z + 1)( z ′ + 1)
2
4 z − z′
= 2 2
( z + 1)( z ′ + 1)

Thus, we have that

2
4 z − z′ 2 z − z′
6.7 d ( z , z ′) = 2 2
= .■
( z + 1)( z ′ + 1) 2 2
( z + 1)( z ′ + 1)

If Z = (x1, x2, x3) and N = (0, 0, 1), then the standard distance between Z and N is
given by

6.5′ d ( z , ∞) = ( x1 − 0) 2 + ( x2 − 0) 2 + ( x3 − 1) 2
= x12 + x22 + x32 − 2 x3 + 1
= 2 − 2 x3 (since x12 + x22 + x32 = 1)

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This gives us

6.6′ [d ( z , ∞)]2 = 2 − 2 x3 .

2 2 2
z −1 2( z + 1) − 2( z − 1) 4
Using (6.3), we have: [d ( z , ∞)] = 2 − 2 x3 = 2 − 2
2
2
= 2
= 2
.
z +1 z +1 z +1

Thus, we have that

4 2
6.8 d ( z , ∞) = 2
= .■
z +1 z +1
2

#2: For each of the following points in C, give the corresponding point of S: 0, 1 + i, 3 + 2i.

0 = 0 + i0. This will correspond to the point (0, 0, -1) on S, that is, the south pole. ■

1 + i corresponds to the point (2/3, 2/3, 1/3) on S. ■

3 + 2i corresponds to the point (6/14, 4/14, 12/14) = (3/7, 2/7, 6/7) on S. ■

#3: Which subsets of S correspond to the real and imaginary axes in C?

Consider the unit sphere and let C pass through the equator of the plane, as is the case
with the stereographic projection.
N
For the real axis, consider another plane, perpendicular to C,
but that passes through (0, 0, 0) and through N = (0, 0, 1)
and parallel to the real axis.
C
This plane creates a circle inside of the sphere. If we look
at the projection of that circle onto C, it will be precisely Real Axis
the real axis. (See the figure to the right.)

In a similar manner, if we consider another plane, perpendicular to C, but passes

through (0, 0, 0), N and is parallel to the imaginary axis. The projection of the
resulting circle will be the imaginary axis. ■

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Pg 43-44

#1: Show that f(z) = |z|2 = x2 + y2 has a derivative only at the origin.

Let f(z) = |z|2, so we have that u(x, y) = x2 + y2 and v(x, y) = 0.

If the Cauchy-Riemann equations are to hold at a point (x, y), it follows that
ux = 2x = 0 = vy and uy = 2y = -0 = -vx, i.e. 2x = 0 and 2y = 0, or x = 0, y = 0.

This tells us that the only place the derivative can exist is at the origin, but it does not
guarantee existence by itself.

However, since the partial derivatives ux, uy, vx, and vy exist, are continuous at (0, 0), and
satisfy the C-R equations at (0, 0), we have that f′(0) exists. Since the C-R equations are
only satisfied at (0, 0), that is the only place where the derivative exists. ■

#10: Prove the following generalization of Prop. 2.20. Let G and W be in C and suppose
that f and h are functions defined on G, g: W ö C and suppose that f(G) Õ W.
Suppose that g and h are analytic, g′(w) ∫ 0 for any w, that f is continuous, h is one-
to-one, and that they satisfy h(z) = g(f(z)) for z in G. Show that f is analytic. Give a
formula for f′(z).

Fix a œ G and let h œ C such that h ∫ 0, h + a œ G. Hence, h(a) = g(f(a)) and

h(a + h) = g(f(a + h) implies that f(a) ∫ f(a + h). Also,

h( a + η ) − h( a ) g ( f (a + η )) − g ( f (a)) g ( f (a + η )) − g ( f (a)) f (a + η ) − f (a )
= = ⋅
η h f (a + η ) − f (a) h

The limit of the left hand side (as h ö 0) is h′(z) (since h is analytic); so the limit
of the right hand size exists. And since lim[ f (a + η ) − f (a )] = 0 ,
η →0

g ( f (a + η )) − g ( f (a ))
lim = g ′( f (a )) .
η →0 f (a + η ) − f (a )

f (a + η ) − f (a)
Hence, we have that lim exists since g′(f(a)) ∫ 0 and h′(a) = g′(f(a))f′(a).
η →0 h
Thus f′(z) = h′(z) / g′(f(z)). If g and h are analytic, then g′ and h′ are continuous and this
gives that f is analytic. ■

17