Hydraulic Turbines

TERMINOLOGIES

1. Affinity Laws: allow the output of a turbine to be predicted based on model tests.
2. Axis: an imaginary line about which a body rotates.
3. Blade: is the individual component responsible for extracting energy from the
velocity of the water jet and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output
shaft.
4. Brake nozzle: A nozzle directed at the back of the buckets, which is opened when
there is a need to slow down or stop the turbine.
5. Braking Jet –the jet of water produced by the break nozzle.
6. Buckets: cups or bowls attached to the runner which take the impact of water from
the nozzle causing the runner to rotate.
7. Cavitation: A phenomenon which occurs when the pressure at a point in a hydraulic
system is lowered below the vapor pressure of the oil in the system. This allows
bubbles of oil vapor to form in the oil. If this occurs at the pump inlet, the quick
pressure rise inside the pump forces these bubbles to collapse violently. This can
cause erosion of metal parts, noise and vibration.
8. Dam: a concrete structure that impounds water for irrigation and hydropower
purposes
9. Deflectors: The deflectors serve to bend the jet away from the runner at reduced
loads to avoid a high speed increase.
10. Design Head (Hd): is the net head at which peak efficiency is desired. This head
should preferably approximate the weighted average head, but must be so selected
that the maximum and minimum heads are not beyond the permissible operating
range of the turbine. This is the head which determines the basic dimensions of the
turbine and therefore of the power plant.
11. Draft Tube: is a conically shaped conduit attached to the turbine discharge. It slows
down the high discharge velocity water coming from the runner as it discharges to
the tail race.
12. Duct: a channel or tube for conveying
13. Efficiency: the ratio of the useful work performed by a machine or process to the
total energy expended or heat taken in.
14. Forebay or Pre-dam: is a small reservoir where water is temporarily stored. It is
used to trap sediment and debris to ensure that clean water enters the penstock.
15. Francis Turbine: is an Inward Flow Reaction Turbine having Radial Discharge at
Outlet.
16. Generator: a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. An
arrangement of magnets spinning inside a coil of wire to produce electricity.
17. Guide Bearing: The function of the turbine guide bearing is to resist the
mechanical imbalance and hydraulic side loads from the turbine runner thereby
maintaining the turbine runner in its centered position in the runner seals.
18. Guide mechanism/Guide vane: It consists of a circular wheel all-round the
runner of the turbine. The stationary guide vanes are fixed on the guide wheel. The
guide vanes allow the water to strike the vanes fixed on the runner without shock
at inlet
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19. Head cover: Supports the weights of guide vanes and confine the vibrations and
unnecessary movements of the wicket gates.
20. Head Water: water level at supply reservoir.
21. Hub: The part of the runner to which blades are mounted.
22. Hydraulic efficiency: It is the ratio of the power developed by runner to the power
supplied at the inlet of the turbine.
23. Hydraulic turbine: is a prime mover that converts the kinetic energy and potencial
energy of flowing water into mechanical power for the purpose of driving an
electrical generator or other machinery.
24. Hydroelectricity: is electricity produced from hydropower.
25. Hydropower (“Hydro”): The process of generating electricity by capturing the
potential energy of falling water through the use of a water wheel (turbine) to
mechanically spin rotating magnets which create electrical current that can be
distributed to users by transmission lines.
Large Hydropower: Although definitions vary, the U.S. Department of Energy
(DOE) defines large hydropower as facilities that have a capacity of more than 30
megawatts.
Small Hydropower: The DOE defines small hydropower as facilities that have a
capacity of 100 kilowatts to 30 megawatts.
Micro Hydropower: A micro hydropower plant has a capacity of up to 100
kilowatts. A small or micro-hydroelectric power system can produce enough
electricity for a home, farm, ranch, or village.
26. Jet: a fluid stream issuing from an orifice or nozzle.
27. Kaplan turbine: is a propeller type water turbine with the adjustable blades which
work in reverse. Mainly designed for low head water applications.
28. Maximum Head (Hmax): is the gross head difference in elevation between the
maximum forebay (head water) level without surcharge and the tailrace level
without spillway discharge. Under this condition, hydraulic losses are negligible and
may be disregarded.
29. Minimum Head (Hmin): is the net head resulting from the difference in elevation
between the minimum forebay (head water) level and the tailrace level minus losses
with all turbines operating at full specified gate opening.
30. Mechanical efficiency: It is the ratio of the power available at turbine shaft to the
power available at turbine runner.
31. Motor: a device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.
32. Nozzle: is provided at end of penstock and its main function is to increase the
velocity of the water and to direct it to the buckets of the turbine.
33. Overall efficiency: It is the ratio of the power available at the turbine shaft to the
power available from the jet.
34. Pelton Turbine: is a tangential flow impulse turbine that uses double curved
buckets to capture the jet of water. It is primarily used for high heads.
35. Penstock: A closed conduit or pipe for conducting water to the powerhouse.
36. Pentrough: an open usually planked or boarded trough or tank from which water
falls onto a waterwheel.
37. Propeller: a mechanical device for propelling a boat or aircraft, consisting of a
revolving shaft with two or more broad, angled blades attached to it.

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38. Reservoir: a large natural or artificial enclosure used as a source of water supply
in a hydraulic system.
39. Runaway Speed: the speed at full flow, and no shaft load.
40. Runner: A rotating circular disc on the periphery of which buckets are mounted
with equal spacing between them.
41. Scroll Casing: a spiral casing with a decreasing area to make sure that water flows
into the central portion of the Kaplan turbine at uniform velocity.
42. Shaft Seal: Prevent water leakage between main shaft and head cover.
43. Slit Sluice: is a chamber that collects the mud and through which the mud is
discharged.
44. Sluice Gate: A sliding gate used to control the flow of water.
45. Spear: is provided within the pen stock and its main function are to increase and
decrease the amount and speed of water entering the turbine. If more water is
needed the spear is moved back to allow more to enter into the turbine and if less
water is needed the spear moves forward to decrease the amount of water entering
the turbine.
46. Specific Speed: The speed at which the turbine will run when developing one unit
power under a unit head.
47. Spillway: The structure or portion of a larger structure that is used to release
excess water over or around a dam.
48. Splitter: The dividing wall which separates each bucket of a pelton turbine into two
symmetrical parts.
49. Stator – The stationary part of a rotary system, found in electric generators
and electric motors. Its main purpose is to keep the field aligned.
50. Surge Chamber: is a standpipe connected to the penstock and open to the
atmosphere so that the water will always be at atmospheric pressure.
51. Tail water: The water level downstream of the powerhouse or dam.
52. Tailrace: The downstream channel that carries water away from a dam or
powerhouse.
53. Trash Rack: A screen that prevents the leaves, branches and other water
contaminants to enter into the penstock.
54. Turbine Shaft: The rotating element, usually circular in cross section, which is used
to transmit power from the turbine runner to the generator shaft and generator
rotor.
55. Turbine: A rotary engine that converts the energy of a moving stream of water,
steam or gas into mechanical energy.
56. TurgoTurbine: also known as a half Pelton turbine, it is an impulse turbine which
uses spoon-shaped blades to capture the jet of water.
57. Vane: a broad blade attached to a rotating axis or wheel that pushes or is pushed
by wind or water and forms part of a machine or device such as a windmill, propeller,
or turbine.
58. Vortex: a mass of whirling fluid or air, such as a whirlpool or whirlwind.
59. Volumetric efficiency: It is the ratio of volume of water actually striking the
runner to the total water supplied by the jet to the turbine.
60. Water wheel - a large wheel driven by flowing water, used to work machinery or
to raise water to a higher level.

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 61. Waterway - a river, canal, or other route for travel by water.
62. Wicket gates: Adjustable elements that control the flow of water from the scroll
case into the turbine passage.

INTRODUCTION:

Hydraulic turbines may be defined as prime movers that transform the kinetic
energy of the falling water into mechanical energy of rotation and whose primary function
is to drive a electric generator. Hydraulic Turbines have a row of blades fitted to the
rotating shaft or a rotating plate. Flowing liquid, mostly water, when pass through the
Hydraulic Turbine it strikes the blades of the turbine and makes the shaft rotate. While
flowing through the Hydraulic Turbine the velocity and pressure of the liquid reduce,
these result in the development of torque and rotation of the turbine shaft. There are
different forms of Hydraulic Turbines in use depending on the operational requirements.
For every specific use a particular type of Hydraulic Turbine provides the optimum output.

HISTORY:

The hydraulic turbine has a long period of development, its oldest and simplest
form being the waterwheel, first used in ancient Greece and subsequently adopted
throughout medieval Europe for the grinding of grain, etc.

 A waterwheel is a type of device that takes advantage of flowing or falling water

to generate power by using a set of paddles mounted around a wheel. The falling
force of the water pushes the paddles, rotating a wheel. This rotation of a wheel
can be transmitted to a variety of machines through a shaft at the center of the
wheel. These wheels are generally large and composed of wood or metal with
many blades or buckets along the edge of the wheel to capture the power of the
moving water.
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 Turbine is a designation that was introduced in 1824 in a dessertion of the French
engineer Claude Bourdin. The term reflected the primary difference between
waterwheels and the new turbines that would soon come into development that
featured a swirling motion of water by passing energy to a spinning rotor. A turbine
would prove to process more water, spin faster, and harness bigger heads.
Another distinguishing feature of early turbines from waterwheels was they were
built on a vertical axis opposite of a basic waterwheel’s horizontal axis connected
to a vertical shaft configuration. The blades also resembled spoons or shovels,
therefore, early turbines were sometimes called “spoon wheels.”

 A French engineer, Benoit Fourneyron, developed the first commercially successful

hydraulic turbine (circa 1830). Later Fourneyron built turbines for industrial
purposes that achieved a speed of 2300 rpm, developing about 50 kW at an
efficiency of over 80%..

 Henschel and Jonval in 1840 independently developed turbine with axial water
flow through it. They were the first ones to apply draft tube and in that way to
utilize the water head between runner outlet and tail water level utilize the water
head between runner outlet and tail water level.

 In 1849, the American engineer James B. Francis designed the first radial-inflow
hydraulic turbine that became widely used, gave excellent results, and was highly
regarded. In its original form, it was used for heads of between 10 and 100 m. His
design changed the shape of the runner blades so they curved and the water flow
turned from a radial to an axial path and it is called Francis Turbine.

 In 1890, The Pelton wheel turbine, named after its American inventor, Lester A.
Pelton, This is an impulse turbine in which water is piped at high pressure to a
nozzle where it expands completely to atmospheric pressure. The emerging jet
impacts onto the blades (or buckets) of the turbine, which produce the required
torque and power out- put. The head of water used originally was between about
90 and 900 m (modern versions operate up to heads of nearly 2000 m).

 In 1913, Viktor Kaplan revealed his idea of the propeller (or Kaplan) turbine, which
acts like a ship’s propeller but in reverse. At a later date, Kaplan improved his
turbine by means of swiveling blades, which improved the efficiency of the turbine
appropriate to the available flow rate and head.

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DESIGN, PARTS AND COMPONENTS:

TURBINE CLASSFICATION:

Based on How Energy is Transferred:

 Impulse turbine: generally uses the velocity of water to move the runner. As the
water strikes the buckets the runner rotates with the water exiting on the downside
of the turbine housing. Impulse turbines are commonly used for high head and
low flow applications. Ex. Pelton, Cross Flow and Turgo turbine.

 Reaction turbine: a turbine which develops power from the combined action of the
pressure and velocity of water. The runner is placed directly in the water stream
flowing over the blades rather than striking them. They are generally used for low
head and high flow applications Ex. Kaplan, Francis and Propeller turbine.

Based on Direction of Flow:

 Tangential flow turbine: a turbine in which water strikes the runner wheel
tangentially to the path of rotation.
Ex. Pelton turbine and Turgo turbine

 Axial flow turbine: a turbine in which water enters runner wheel parallel to the
direction of axis of rotation of runner.
Ex. Kaplan turbine, propeller turbine

 Mixed flow turbine: a turbine in which the direction of flow is partly radial and
partly axial. Water enters the blade radially and comes out axially parallel to the
turbine shaft.
Ex. Francis turbine

Based on Head of Water:

Very low head turbine: when head is less than 15m.

Ex. Propeller turbine

Low head turbine: when head is between 15-60m.

Ex. Kaplan turbine

Medium head turbine: when head is between 60-250m.

Ex. Francis turbine

High head turbine: when head is above 250m.

Ex. Pelton wheel

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4–7
TYPES OF WATER TURBINE DESIGN:

Different types of Hydraulic Turbines were developed with the increasing need for power.
Three major types are Pelton Wheel, Francis and Kaplan Turbine.

 Design of Pelton Wheel Turbine

The Pelton Turbine has a circular disk mounted on the rotating shaft or rotor. This circular
disk has cup shaped blades, called as buckets, placed at equal spacing around its
circumference. Nozzles are arranged around the wheel such that the water jet emerging
from a nozzle is tangential to the circumference of the wheel of Pelton Turbine. According
to the available water head (pressure of water) and the operating requirements the shape
and number of nozzles placed around the Pelton Wheel can vary.

Main components of a Pelton turbine:

1. Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement

Nozzle is used to increase the kinetic energy of the water that is going to strike
the buckets or vanes attached to the runner. The quantity of water that strikes the
buckets is controlled by spear. The spear is installed inside the nozzle and regulates the
flow of water that is going to strike on the vanes of the runner. The spear is a conical
needle present in the nozzle. It is operated by a hand wheel or automatically in an axial
direction. When the spear is move backward the rate of flow of water increases and when
it is pushed forward the rate of flow of water decreases

2. Runner and Buckets

Runner is a rotating part of the turbine. It is a circular disc on the periphery of

which a number of buckets evenly spaced are fixed. The buckets are made by two
hemispherical bowl joined together. Each buckets have a wall in between two
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hemispherical bowl called splitter. The splitter splits the jet of water striking the buckets
into two equal parts and the jet of water comes out at the outer edge of the bucket. The
buckets are designed in such a way that the jet of water strike the buckets, deflected
through 160 degree to 170 degree. The buckets of the Pelton turbine are made up of
cast iron, cast steel bronze or stainless steel.

3. Casing

The outer covering of the this turbine is called casing. It prevents the splashing of
the water and helps to discharge the water to the trail race. It also acts as a safeguard
in the case of any accident occurs. Cast iron or fabricated steel plates are used to make
the casing of the Pelton Turbine.

4. Breaking jet

When the jet of water is completely closed by pushing the spear in forward
direction than the amount of water striking the runner becomes zero. But still the runner
keeps moving due to the inertia of the runner. In order to stop the runner in the shortest
possible time a small nozzle is provided which directs the jet of water at the back of the
vanes. This jet of water used to stop the runner of the turbine is called breaking jet.

Working Principle of Pelton Turbine

The high speed water jets emerging form the nozzles strike the buckets at splitters,
placed at the middle of a bucket, from where jets are divided into two equal streams.
These stream flow along the inner curve of the bucket and leave it in the direction
opposite to that of incoming jet. The high speed water jets running the Pelton Wheel
Turbine are obtained by expanding the high pressure water through nozzles to the
atmospheric pressure. The high pressure water can be obtained from any water body
situated at some height or streams of water flowing down the hills.

The change in momentum (direction as well as speed) of water stream produces an

impulse on the blades of the wheel of Pelton Turbine. This impulse generates the torque
and rotation in the shaft of Pelton Turbine. To obtain the optimum output from the Pelton
Turbine the impulse received by the blades should be maximum. For that, change in
momentum of the water stream should be maximum possible. That is obtained when the
water stream is deflected in the direction opposite to which it strikes the buckets and with
the same speed relative to the buckets.

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  Design of Francis Turbine

Francis Turbine is a combination of both impulse and reaction turbine, where the
blades rotate using both reaction and impulse force of water flowing through them
producing electricity more efficiently. Francis turbine is used for the production of
electricity in hydro power stations. Francis Turbine has a circular plate fixed to the rotating
shaft perpendicular to its surface and passing through its center. This circular plate has
curved channels on it; the plate with channels is collectively called as runner. The runner
is encircled by a ring of stationary channels called as guide vanes. Guide vanes are housed
in a spiral casing called as volute. The exit of the Francis turbine is at the center of the
runner plate. There is a draft tube attached to the central exit of the runner. The design
parameters such as, radius of the runner, curvature of channel, angle of vanes and the
size of the turbine as whole depend on the available head and type of application
altogether.

Main Components of Francis Turbine:

1. Spiral Casing

Spiral casing is the inlet medium of water to the turbine. The water flowing from
the reservoir or dam is made to pass through this pipe with high pressure. The blades of
the turbines are circularly placed, which mean the water striking the turbines blades
should flow in the circular axis for efficient striking. So the spiral casing is used, but due
to circular movement of the water, it looses its pressure. To maintain the same pressure

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the diameter of the casing is gradually reduced, so as to maintain the pressure uniform,
thus uniform momentum or velocity striking the runner blades.

3. Guide Vanes

Guide vanes are not stationary, they change their angle as per the requirement to
control the angle of striking of water to turbine blades to increase the efficiency. They
also regulate the flow rate of water into the runner blades thus controlling the power
output of a turbine according to the load on the turbine.

4. Runner Blades

The performance and efficiency of the turbine is dependent on the design of the
runner blades. In a Francis turbine, runner blades are divided into 2 parts. The lower half
is made in the shape of small bucket so that it uses the impulse action of water to rotate
the turbine. The upper part of the blades use the reaction force of water flowing through
it. These two forces together makes the runner to rotate.

5. Draft tube

The pressure at the exit of the runner of Reaction Turbine is generally less than
atmospheric pressure. The water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race. A
tube or pipe of gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit of
turbine to the tail race. This tube of increasing area is called Draft Tube. One end of the
tube is connected to the outlet of runner while the other end is sub-merged below the
level of water in the tail-race.

Working of Francis Turbine

Francis Turbines are generally installed with their axis vertical. Water with high
head (pressure) enters the turbine through the spiral casing surrounding the guide vanes.
The water looses a part of its pressure in the volute (spiral casing) to maintain its speed.
Then water passes through guide vanes where it is directed to strike the blades on the
runner at optimum angles. As the water flows through the runner its pressure and angular
momentum reduces. This reduction imparts reaction on the runner and power is
transferred to the turbine shaft.

If the turbine is operating at the design conditions the water leaves the runner in axial
direction. Water exits the turbine through the draft tube, which acts as a diffuser and
reduces the exit velocity of the flow to recover maximum energy from the flowing water.

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  Design of Kaplan Turbine

To generate substantial amount of power from small heads of water using Kaplan
Turbine it is necessary to have large flow rates through the turbine. Kaplan Turbine is
designed to accommodate the required large flow rates. Except the alignment of the
blades the construction of the Kaplan Turbine is very much similar to that of the Francis
Turbine. The overall path of flow of water through the Kaplan Turbine is from radial at
the entrance to axial at the exit. Similar to the Francis Turbine, Kaplan Turbine also has
a ring of fixed guide vanes at the inlet to the turbine

Main components of a Kaplan turbine:

1. Scroll Casing

It is a spiral type of casing that has decreasing cross section area. The water from
the penstocks enters the scroll casing and then moves to the guide vanes where the
water turns through 90° and flows axially through the runner. It protects the runner,
runner blades guide vanes and other internal parts of the turbine from an external
damage.

2. Guide Vane Mechanism

It is the only controlling part of the whole turbine, which opens and closes
depending upon the demand of power requirement. In case of more power output
requirements, it opens wider to allow more water to hit the blades of the rotor and when
low power output requires it closes itself to cease the flow of water. If guide vanes is
absent than the turbine can not work efficiently and its efficiency decreases.

3. Draft Tube

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 The pressure at the exit of the runner of Reaction Turbine is generally less than
atmospheric pressure. The water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race. A
tube or pipe of gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit of
turbine to the tail race. This tube of increasing area is called Draft Tube. One end of the
tube is connected to the outlet of runner while the other end is sub-merged below the
level of water in the tail-race.

4. Runner blades

The heart of the component in kaplan turbine are its runner blades, as it the
rotating part which helps in production of electricity.Its shaft is connected to the shaft of
the generator. The runner of the this turbine has a large boss on which its blades are
attached and the the blades of the runner is adjustable to an optimum angle of attack
for maximum power output. The blades of the Kaplan turbine has twist along its length.

Working of the Kaplan Turbine

The working head of water is low so large flow rates are allowed in the Kaplan
Turbine. The water enters the turbine through the guide vanes which are aligned such
as to give the flow a suitable degree of swirl determined according to the rotor of the
turbine. The flow from guide vanes pass through the curved passage which forces the
radial flow to axial direction with the initial swirl imparted by the inlet guide vanes which
is now in the form of free vortex.

The axial flow of water with a component of swirl applies force on the blades of
the rotor and looses its momentum, both linear and angular, producing torque and
rotation (their product is power) in the shaft. The scheme for production of
hydroelectricity by Kaplan Turbine is same as that for Francis Turbine.

OTHER TURBINE TYPES:

4. Turgo impulse turbines

Turgo turbine is an impulse turbine designed for medium head applications. These
turbines achieve operational efficiencies of up to 87%. Developed in 1919 by Gilkes as a
modification of the Pelton wheel, the Turgo has certain advantages over Francis and
Pelton designs for some applications. Firstly, the runner is less expensive to make than a
Pelton wheel while it does not need an airtight housing like the Francis turbines. Finally
the Turgo has higher specific speeds and at the same time can handle greater quantum
of flows than a Pelton wheel of the similar diameter, leading to reduced generator and
installation cost.Turgo turbines operate in a head range where the Francis and Pelton

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overlap. Turgo installations are usually preferred for small hydro schemes where low cost
is very important

5. Crossflow turbine

Also called a Michell-Banki turbine a crossflow turbine has a drum-shaped runner

consisting of two parallel discs connected together near their rims by a series of curved
blades. A crossflow turbine always has its runner shaft horizontal (unlike Pelton and Turgo
turbines which can have either horizontal or vertical shaft orientation). Unlike most water
turbines, which have axial or radial flows, in a crossflow turbine the water passes through
the turbine transversely, or across the turbine blades. As with a waterwheel, water enters
at the turbine's edge. After passing the runner, it leaves on the opposite side. Going
through the runner twice provides additional efficiency. When the water leaves the
runner, it also helps clean the runner of small debris and pollution. The cross-flow turbines
generally operate at low speeds. Crossflow turbines are also often constructed as two
turbines of different capacity that share the same shaft.The turbine wheels are the same
diameter, but different lengths to handle different volumes at the same pressure

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APPLICATIONS OF HYDRAULIC TURBINE:

Pelton turbine:

- Pelton wheels are the preferred turbine for hydro-power, when the available water
source has relatively high hydraulic head at low flow rates.
- Pelton wheels are made in all sizes. For maximum power and efficiency, the wheel
and turbine system is designed such that the water jet velocity is twice the velocity
of the rotating buckets.
- There exists in multi ton pelton wheels mounted on vertical oil pad bearing in
hydroelectric power.

Kaplan turbine:

- Kaplan turbines are widely used throughout the world for electrical power
production. They cover the lowest head hydro sites and are especially suited for
high flow conditions.
- Inexpensive micro turbines on the Kaplan turbine model are manufactured for
individual power production with as little as two feet of head.
- Large Kaplan turbine are individually design for each site to operate at the highest
possible efficiency, typically over 90 %. They are very expensive to design,
manufacture and install, but operate for decades.

Francis turbine:

- Francis type units cover a head range from 40 to 600 m (130 to 2000 ft).
- It’s efficiency decreases as flow decreases.
- They may also be used for pumped storage, where a reservoir is filled by the
turbine (acting as a pump) driven by the generator acting as a large electrical
motor during periods of how power demand.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:

Advantages:

-It is a renewable energy source. Water energy can be used again and again.

-The running cost of turbine is less compare to other.

-It has high efficiency.

-It can be control fully. The gate of dam is closed when we does not need electricity and
can be open when we needed.

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-Dams are used from very long time so it can be used for power generation.

-It does not pollute environment.

-It is easy to maintain.

-The dam constructed for hydraulic turbine can become a tourist place.

Disadvantages:

-Initial cost is very high. It takes several decades to become profitable.

-It can destroy the natural environment at site. Large dam cause big geological damages.

-It can develop at only few sites where proper amount of water is available.

FORMULAS:

Gross Head (Hg)

𝑯𝒈 = 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 − 𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑯𝒈 = 𝒁𝟏 − 𝒁𝟐

Effective Head (He)

𝑯𝒆 = 𝑯𝒈 − 𝑯𝑳

Head Loss Due to Friction at Penstock (HL)

𝑳 𝝊𝟐
𝑯𝑳 = 𝒇 ( ) ( )
𝑫 𝟐𝒈

Water Power – Turbine (Pt)

𝑷𝒕 = 𝝆𝒈𝑸𝑯𝒆 = 𝜸𝑸𝑯𝒆

where:

ρ = density of water
g = gravitational acceleration
γ = specific weight of water

Penstock Efficiency (ηp)

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 𝑯𝒆
𝜼𝒑 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑯𝒈

Volumetric Efficiency (ηv)

𝑸 − 𝑸𝑳
𝜼𝒗 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑸

where:

Q = volume flow rate at penstock

QL = loss of flow due to leakage
Q – QL = actual flow actual flow received by the blades or buckets

Hydraulic Efficiency (ηh)

𝑯𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒃𝒍𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒔

𝜼𝒉 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑯𝒆

Mechanical Efficiency (ηm)

𝑷𝒃
𝜼𝒎 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒓

Total Turbine Efficiency (ηt)

𝑷𝒃
𝜼𝒕 = 𝜼𝒗 𝜼𝒉 𝜼𝒎 =
𝑷𝒕

Generator Efficiency (ηg)

𝑷𝒈
𝜼𝒈 =
𝑷𝒃
where:
Pb = break power, power delivered to shaft
Pr = power delivered to the runner
Pg – generator output power

Turbine-Generator Efficiency or Combined Efficiency (ηk)

𝑷𝒈
𝜼𝒌 = 𝜼𝒕 𝜼𝒈 =
𝑷𝒕

Generator Speed (N)

𝟏𝟐𝟎𝒇
𝑵=
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔
4–17
where:
N = generator speed, rpm
f = frequency, Hz

PROBLEM NO. 1

In a hydroelectric power plant the head water level elevation is 508.5m. The gross
head is 28.5m and the head loss is 3.5% of the gross head. Determine the tail water
elevation and the penstock efficiency. (ANS 480m; 96.5%)

Given: Z1 = 508.5m Req’d: Z2, ɳp

Hg= 28.5m
HL= 0.035Hg
Solution:
𝐻𝑔 = 𝑍1 − 𝑍2
𝑍2 = 𝑍1 − 𝐻𝑔 = (508.5 − 28.5)𝑚 = 480𝑚
𝐻𝑒 = 𝐻𝑔 − 𝐻𝐿 = 28.5𝑚 − 0.035(28.5𝑚) = 27.5𝑚
𝐻𝑒 27.5𝑚
𝜂𝑝 = = = 0.9649 = 96.49%
𝐻𝑔 28.5𝑚

PROBLEM NO. 2

For an effective head of 45m a hydroelectric plant has an available flow rate of 37
500 lps of water. Determine the power generated by the plant if the turbine efficiency is
87% and the generator efficiency is 90%. (ANS 12 962kW)

Given: He = 45m Req’d: Pg

Q= 37 500 lps
ɳt= 87%
ɳg= 90%

Solution:

𝑘𝑁 𝑚3 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑊∙𝑠
𝑃𝑡 = 𝛾𝑄𝐻𝑒 = (9.81𝑚3 ) (37.5 𝑠
) (45𝑚) (𝑘𝑁∙𝑚) ( 𝑘𝐽 ) = 16 554.375kW

𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝑡 (𝜂𝑡 )(𝜂𝑔 ) = 16 554.375𝑘𝑊(0.87)(0.9) = 12 962.08𝑘𝑊

4–18
PROBLEM NO. 3

A hydroelectric plant has a headwater elevation of 97.5m and a tailwater elevation

of 62.5m. The available volume flow rate us 15 000 lps and the head loss is 4% of gross
water head. Determine the turbine power output if the turbine efficiency is 85%. (ANS
4202.6kW)

Given: Z1 = 97.5m ; Z2 = 62.5m Req’d: PB

Q= 15 000 lps
HL= 0.04Hg
ɳt= 85%

Solution:

𝐻𝑔 = 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = (97.5 − 62.5)𝑚 = 35𝑚

𝐻𝑒 = 𝐻𝑔 − 𝐻𝐿 = 35𝑚 − 0.04(35𝑚) = 33.6𝑚

𝑘𝑁 𝑚3 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑊∙𝑠
𝑃𝑡 = 𝛾𝑄𝐻𝑒 = (9.81𝑚3 ) (15 𝑠
) (33.6𝑚) (𝑘𝑁∙𝑚) ( 𝑘𝐽 ) = 4944.24kW

𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃𝑡 (𝜂𝑡 ) = 4944.24kW(0.85) = 4202.6𝑘𝑊

PROBLEM NO. 4

In a hydroelectric plant, the elevation difference between the water surfaces at

intake and the tailrace is 178m. When the water flow is 2345 lps, the friction loss in the
penstock is 15m, and the head utilized by the turbine is 135m. The mechanical friction in
the turbine is 55 kW and the leakage loss is 78 lps. Determine the following:

a. Hydraulic efficiency
b. Volumetric efficiency
c. Power delivered to the runner
d. Turbine break power
e. Mechanical efficiency
f. Turbine efficiency
(ANS 82.82%; 96.67%; 3002.3kW; 2947.3kW; 98.17%; 78.6%)

Solution:

𝑎) 𝐻𝑔 = 178𝑚
𝐻𝐿 = 15𝑚

4–19
 𝐻𝑒 = 𝐻𝑔 − 𝐻𝐿 = 178𝑚 − 15𝑚 = 163𝑚
𝐻𝑢 135𝑚
𝜂ℎ = = = 0.8282 = 82.82%
𝐻𝑒 163𝑚
𝑄 − 𝑄𝐿 2.354 − 0.078
𝑏) 𝜂𝑣 = = = 0.9667 = 96.67%
𝑄 2.354
𝑘𝑁 𝑚3 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑊∙𝑠
𝑐) 𝑃𝑟 = 𝛾𝑄′𝐻𝑢 = (9.81𝑚3 ) (2.267 𝑆
)(135𝑚) (𝑘𝑁∙𝑚) ( 𝑘𝐽 ) = 3002.3kW

𝑑) 𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃𝑟 − 𝑃𝐿 = (3002.3 − 55)𝑘𝑊 = 2947.3𝑘𝑊

𝑃𝑏 2947.3𝑘𝑊
𝑒) 𝜂𝑚 = = = 0.9817 = 98.17%
𝑃𝑟 3002.3𝑘𝑊

𝑓) 𝜂𝑡 = 𝜂𝑣 𝜂ℎ 𝜂𝑚 = (0.9667)(0.8282)(0.9817) = 0.786 = 78.6%

PROBLEM NO. 5

A Pelton-type turbine was installed 30m below the head gate of the penstock. The
head loss due to friction is 15% of the given elevation. The length of the penstock is
80m and the coefficient of friction is 0.00093. Determine the diameter of the penstock
and the power output of the turbine. (ME Board Exam, April 1987). (ANS 0.4217m;
781.61kW)

Solution:

𝐻𝑔 = 30𝑚
𝐻𝐿 = 0.15(30𝑚) = 4.5𝑚
𝐻𝑒 = 𝐻𝑔 − 𝐻𝐿 = 30𝑚 − 4.5𝑚 = 25.5𝑚
𝜐2
= 𝐻𝑒 ; 𝜐 = √2𝑔𝐻𝑒
2𝑔
𝑚 𝑚
𝜐 = √2 (9.81 𝑠2 ) (25.5𝑚) = 22.37 𝑠

𝐿 𝜐2 𝐿 𝜐2
𝐻𝐿 = 𝑓 ( ) ; 𝐷=𝑓 ( )
𝐷 2𝑔 𝐻𝐿 2𝑔

𝑚 2
80𝑚 (22.37 𝑠 )
𝐷 = 0.00093 [ ] = 0.4217𝑚
4.5𝑚 2 (9.81 𝑚 )
𝑠2
𝜋 𝜋 𝑚 𝑚3
𝑄 = 𝐴𝜐 = 𝐷2 𝜐 = (0.4217𝑚)2 (22.37 𝑠 ) = 3.1245
4 4 𝑠

4–20
 𝑘𝑁 𝑚3 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑊∙𝑠
𝑃𝑡 = 𝛾𝑄𝐻𝑒 = (9.81𝑚3 ) (3.1245 𝑆
)(25.5𝑚) (𝑘𝑁∙𝑚) ( 𝑘𝐽 ) = 781.61kW

PROBLEM NO. 6

The average elevation of the headwater and tailwater in a hydroelectric plant is

275m and 125 m, respectively. The average water velocity in the 1.6m-diameter
penstock is 5m/s and the estimated head loss is 3% of the available head. The plant has
a turbine efficiency of 84% and a generator efficiency of 92%. If the plant operates for
330 days per year determine its annual output in kw-hr. (Ans. 87 799 159 kW-hr)

Solution:

𝐻𝑔 = 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 = 275𝑚 − 125𝑚 = 150𝑚

𝐻𝐿 = 0.03(𝐻𝑔 ) = 0.03(150𝑚) = 4.5𝑚
𝐻𝑒 = 𝐻𝑔 − 𝐻𝐿 = 150𝑚 − 4.5𝑚 = 145.5𝑚
𝜋 2 𝜋 2
𝑚 𝑚3
𝑄 = 𝐴𝜐 = 𝐷 𝜐 = (1.6𝑚) (5 ) = 10.05
4 4 𝑠 𝑠
𝑘𝑁 𝑚3 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑊∙𝑠
𝑃𝑡 = 𝛾𝑄𝐻𝑒 = (9.81𝑚3 ) (10.05𝑆
) (145.5𝑚) (𝑘𝑁∙𝑚) ( 𝑘𝐽 ) = 14 345𝑘𝑊

𝑃𝑔 = 𝑃𝑡 (𝜂𝑡 )(𝜂𝑔 ) = 14 345kW(0.84)(0.92) = 11 085.75𝑘𝑊

330𝑑𝑎𝑦 24ℎ𝑟
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 11 085.75𝑘𝑊 ( )( ) = 87 799 159 𝑘𝑊 − ℎ𝑟
𝑦𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑦

4–21
REFERENCES:

https://www.brighthubengineering.com/fluid-mechanics-hydraulics/26551-hydraulic-
turbines-definition-and-basics/

https://www.brighthubengineering.com/fluid-mechanics-hydraulics/26551-hydraulic-
turbines-definition-and-basics/

https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-waterwheel-4077881

http://machineryequipmentonline.com/hvac-machinery/hydraulic-turbinesearly-history-
of-hydraulic-turbines/

https://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2016/10/pelton-turbine-working-main-parts-
application-with-diagram.html
https://theconstructor.org/practical-guide/francis-turbines-components-
application/2900/
https://www.brighthubengineering.com/fluid-mechanics-hydraulics/27426-hydraulic-
turbines-kaplan-turbine/
http://waterturbines.wikidot.com/main:types-of-water-turbines
https://www.mech4study.com/2016/10/hydraulic-turbine-working-types-advantages-
and-disadvantages.html

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