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Psychoanalysis: A Brief History of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory

 Courtney Ackerman  18  07-05-2018  Creativity

You’ve almost certainly heard of Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis, but

if you’re like most people, you’re not really sure what psychoanalysis
really is.

You might also wonder how psychoanalysis differs from other forms of
talk therapy, and how the theories behind psychoanalysis and other
forms of talk therapy differ.

In this piece, we’ll give a brief but comprehensive overview of

psychoanalytic theory and practice, the impact of psychoanalysis on
other disciplines and areas, and the most common critiques of
psychoanalysis.

If you’re ready to dive in and learn about Freud, his theories on human
behavior and personality (some of which may seem kooky), and his role
in the creation and popularization of talk therapy, read on.

This article contains:

What is Psychoanalysis? A De nition and History of

Psychoanalytic Theory
The Approach: Psychoanalytic Perspective
Transference and Other Forms of Resistance in Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis Test: The Freudian Personality Test
Psychodynamic vs. Psychoanalytic Theory
Psychoanalysis vs. Psychotherapy
Popular Books on Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis in Art and Literature
Criticisms of Psychoanalytic Therapy
A Take-Home Message
References
 

What is Psychoanalysis? A De nition and History of

Psychoanalytic Theory

Psychoanalysis is a type of therapy that aims to release pent-up or

repressed emotions and memories in or to lead the client to catharsis,
or healing (McLeod, 2014). In other words, the goal of psychoanalysis is
to bring what exists at the unconscious or subconscious level up to
consciousness.

This goal is accomplished through talking to another person about the

big questions in life, the things that matter, and diving into the
complexities that lie beneath the simple-seeming surface.

The Founder of Psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud and His Concepts

It’s very likely you’ve heard of the in uential but controversial founder of
psychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud.

Freud was born in Austria and spent most of his childhood and adult life
in Vienna (Sigmund Freud Biography, 2017). He entered medical school
and trained to become a neurologist, earning a medical degree in 1881.

Soon after his graduation, he set up a private practice and began

treating patients with psychological disorders. His attention was
captured by a colleague’s intriguing experience with a patient; the
colleague was Dr. Josef Breuer and his patient was the famous “Anna O.,”
who suffered from physical symptoms with no apparent physical cause.

Dr. Breuer found that her symptoms abated when he helped her recover
memories of traumatic experiences that she had repressed, or hidden
from her conscious mind.

This case sparked Freud’s interest in the unconscious mind and spurred
the development of some of his most in uential ideas.

Models of the Mind

Perhaps the most impactful idea put forth by Freud was his model of the
human mind. His model divides the mind into three layers, or regions:

1. Conscious: This is where our current thoughts, feelings, and focus

live;
 2. Preconscious (sometimes called the subconscious): This is the
home of everything we can recall or retrieve from our memory;
3. Unconscious: At the deepest level of our minds resides a repository
of the processes that drive our behavior, including primitive and
instinctual desires (McLeod, 2013).

Later, Freud posited a more structured model of the mind, one that can
coexist with his original ideas about consciousness and
unconsciousness.

In this model, there are three metaphorical parts to the mind:

1. Id: The id operates at an unconscious level and focuses solely on

instinctual drives and desires. Two biological instincts make up the
id, according to Freud: eros, or the instinct to survive that drives us
to engage in life-sustaining activities, and thanatos, or the death
instinct that drives destructive, aggressive, and violent behavior.
2. Ego: The ego acts as both a conduit for and a check on the id,
working to meet the id’s needs in a socially appropriate way. It is
the most tied to reality and begins to develop in infancy;
3. Superego: The superego is the portion of the mind in which
morality and higher principles reside, encouraging us to act in
socially and morally acceptable ways (McLeod, 2013).

The image above offers a context of this “iceberg” model wherein much
of our mind exists in the realm of the unconscious impulses and drives.

If you’ve ever read the book “Lord of the Flies” by William Golding, then
you have enjoyed the allegory of Freud’s mind as personi ed by Jack as
the Id, Piggy as the ego, and Ralph as the superego. 

Defense Mechanisms

Freud believed these three parts of the mind are in constant con ict
because each part has a different primary goal. Sometimes, when the
con ict is too much for a person to handle, his or her ego may engage in
one or many defense mechanisms to protect the individual.

These defense mechanisms include:

 Repression: The ego pushes disturbing or threatening thoughts out
of one’s consciousness;
Denial: The ego blocks upsetting or overwhelming experiences
from awareness, causing the individual to refuse to acknowledge or
believe what is happening;
Projection: The ego attempts to solve discomfort by attributing the
individual’s unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and motives to another
person;
Displacement: The individual satis es an impulse by acting on a
substitute object or person in a socially unacceptable way (e.g.,
releasing frustration directed toward your boss on your spouse
instead);
Regression: As a defense mechanism, the individual moves
backward in development in order to cope with stress (e.g., an
overwhelmed adult acting like a child);
Sublimation: Similar to displacement, this defense mechanism
involves satisfying an impulse by acting on a substitute but in a
socially acceptable way (e.g., channeling energy into work or a
constructive hobby) (McLeod, 2013).

The 5 Psychosexual Stages of Development

Finally, one of the most enduring concepts associated with Freud is his
psychosexual stages. Freud proposed that children develop in ve
distinct stages, each focused on a different source of pleasure:

1. First Stage: Oral—the child seeks pleasure from the mouth (e.g.,
sucking);
2. Second Stage: Anal—the child seeks pleasure from the anus (e.g.,
withholding and expelling feces);
3. Third Stage: Phallic—the child seeks pleasure from the penis or
clitoris (e.g., masturbation);
4. Fourth Stage: Latent—the child has little or no sexual motivation;
5. Fifth Stage: Genital—the child seeks pleasure from the penis or
vagina (e.g., sexual intercourse; McLeod, 2013).

Freud hypothesized that an individual must successfully complete each

stage to become a psychologically healthy adult with a fully formed ego
and superego. Otherwise, individuals may become stuck or “ xated” in a
particular stage, causing emotional and behavioral problems in
adulthood (McLeod, 2013).

The Interpretation of Dreams

Another well-known concept from Freud was his belief in the

signi cance of dreams. He believed that analyzing one’s dreams can give
valuable insight into the unconscious mind.

In 1900, Freud published the book The Interpretation of Dreams in which

he outlined his hypothesis that the primary purpose of dreams was to
provide individuals with wish ful llment, allowing them to work through
some of their repressed issues in a situation free from consciousness
and the constraints of reality (Sigmund Freud Biography, n.d.).
In this book, he also distinguished between the manifest content (the
actual dream) and the latent content (the true or hidden meaning behind
the dream).

The purpose of dreams is to translate forbidden wishes and taboo

desires into a non-threatening form through condensation (the joining
of two or more ideas), displacement (transformation of the person or
object we are concerned about into something or someone else), and
secondary elaboration (the unconscious process of turning the wish-
ful llment images or events into a logical narrative) (McLeod, 2013).

Freud’s ideas about dreams were game-changing. Before Freud, dreams

were considered insigni cant and insensible ramblings of the mind at
rest. His book provoked a new level of interest in dreams, an interest
that continues to this day.

Jungian Psychology: Carl Jung

Freud’s work was continued, although in altered form, by his student

Carl Jung, whose particular brand of psychology is known as analytical
psychology. Jung’s work formed the basis for most modern
psychological theories and concepts.

Jung and Freud shared an interest in the unconscious and worked

together in their early days, but a few key disagreements ended their
partnership and allowed Jung to fully devote his attention to his new
psychoanalytic theory.

The three main differences between Freudian psychology and Jungian

(or analytical) psychology are related to:

1. Nature and Purpose of the Libido: Jung saw libido as a general

source of psychic energy that motivated a wide range of human
behaviors—from sex to spirituality to creativity—while Freud saw it
as psychic energy that drives only sexual grati cation;
2. Nature of the Unconscious: While Freud viewed the unconscious as
a storehouse for an individual’s socially unacceptable repressed
desires, Jung believed it was more of a storehouse for the
individual’s repressed memories and what he called the collective
or transpersonal unconscious (a level of unconscious shared with
other humans that is made up of latent memories from our
ancestors);
3. Causes of Behavior: Freud saw our behavior as being caused solely
by past experiences, most notably those from childhood, while Jung
believed our future aspirations have a signi cant impact on our
behavior as well (McLeod, 2014).
 

Lacanian Psychoanalysis: Jacques Lacan

In the mid to late 1900s, the French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan called
for a return to Freud’s work, but with a renewed focus on the
unconscious and greater attention paid to language.

Lacan drew heavily from his knowledge of linguistics and believed that
language was a much more important piece of the developmental puzzle
than Freud assumed.

There are three key concepts of Lacanian psychoanalysis that set it

apart from Freud’s original talk therapy:

1. The Real;
2. Symbolic Order;
3. Mirror Stage.

The Real

While Freud saw the symbolic as being indicative of a person’s

unconscious mind, particularly in dreams, Lacan theorized that “the
real” is actually the most foundational level of the human mind.
According to Lacan, we exist in “the real” and experience anxiety
because we cannot control it.

Unlike the symbolic, which Freud proposed could be accessed through

psychoanalysis, the real cannot be accessed. Once we learn and
understand language, we are severed completely from the real. He
describes it as the state of nature, in which there exists nothing but a
need for food, sex, safety, etc. (The Real, 2002).

Symbolic Order

Lacan’s symbolic order is one of three orders that concepts, ideas,

thoughts, and feelings can be placed into. Our desires and emotions live
in the symbolic order, and this is where they are interpreted, if possible.
Concepts like death and absence may be integrated into the symbolic
order because we have at least some sense of understanding of them,
but they may not be interpreted fully.

Once we learn a language, we move from the real to the symbolic order
and are unable to move back to the real. The real and the symbolic are
two of the three orders that live in tension with one another, the third
being the imaginary order (Symbolic Order, 2002).

Mirror Stage
Lacan proposed that there is an important stage of development not
covered by Freud called the “mirror stage.” This aptly named stage is
initiated when infants look into a mirror at their own image. Most
infants become fascinated with the image they see in the mirror, and
may even try to interact with it. But eventually, they realize that the
image they are seeing is of themselves.

Once they realize this key fact, they incorporate what they see into their
sense of “I,” or sense of self. At this young stage, the image they see may
not correspond to their inner understanding of their physical self, in
which case the image becomes an ideal that they strive for as they
develop (Hewitson, 2010).

The Approach: Psychoanalytic Perspective

In the psychoanalytic approach, the focus is on the unconscious mind

rather than the conscious mind. It is built on the foundational idea that
your behavior is determined by experiences from your past that are
lodged in your unconscious mind. While the focus on sex has lessened
over the decades since psychoanalysis was founded, psychology and talk
therapy still place a big emphasis on one’s early childhood experiences
(Psychoanalytic Perspective, n.d.).

Methods and Techniques

A psychoanalyst can use many different techniques, but there are four
basic components that comprise modern psychoanalysis:

1. Interpretation;
2. Transference analysis;
3. Technical neutrality;
4. Countertransference analysis.

Interpretation
Interpretation is the verbal communication between analysts and clients
in which analysts discuss their hypotheses of their clients’ unconscious
con icts.

Generally, analysts will help clients see the defensive mechanisms they
are using and the context of the defensive mechanisms, or the impulsive
relationship against which the mechanism was developed, and nally the
client’s motivation for this mechanism (Kernberg, 2016).

There are three classi cations of interpretation:

1. Clari cation, in which the analyst attempts to clarify what is going

on in the patient’s consciousness;
2. Confrontation, which is bringing nonverbal aspects of the client’s
behavior into his or her awareness;
3. Interpretation proper, which refers to the analyst’s proposed
hypothesis of the unconscious meaning that relates all the aspects
of the client’s communication with one another (Kernberg, 2016).

Transference Analysis
Transference is the term for the unconscious repetition in the “here and
now” of con icts from the client’s past. Transference analysis refers to
“the systematic analysis of the transference implications of the patient’s
total verbal and nonverbal manifestations in the hours as well as the c
patient’s direct and implicit communicative efforts to in uence the
analyst in a certain direction” (Kernberg, 2016).

This analysis of the patient’s transference is an essential component of

psychoanalysis and is the main driver of change in treatment.

In transference analysis, the analyst takes note of all communication,

both verbal and nonverbal, the client engages in and puts together a
theory on what led to the defensive mechanisms he or she displays. That
theory forms the basis for any attempts to change the behavior or
character of the client.

Technical Neutrality
Another vital piece of psychoanalysis is what is known as technical
neutrality, or the commitment of the analyst to remain neutral and avoid
taking sides in the client’s internal con icts; the analyst strives to
remain at an equal distance from the client’s id, ego, and superego, and
from the client’s external reality.

Additionally, technical neutrality demands that the analyst refrains from

imposing his or her value systems upon the client (Kernberg, 2016).

Technical neutrality is sometimes considered indifference or disinterest

in the client, but that is not the goal; rather, analysts aim to serve as a
mirror for their clients, re ecting clients’ own characteristics,
assumptions, and behaviors back at them to aid in their understanding
of themselves.

Countertransference Analysis
This nal key component of psychoanalysis is the analysis of
countertransference, the analyst’s reactions to clients and the material
they present in sessions. According to Kernberg:

“contemporary view of countertransference is that of a complex

formation codetermined by the analyst’s reaction to the patient’s
transference, to the reality of the patient’s life, to the reality of the
analyst’s life, and to speci c transference dispositions activated in the
analyst as a reaction to the patient and his/her material” (2016).

Countertransference analysis can be generally understood as the

analyst’s attempts to analyze their own reactions to the client, whatever
form they take.

To engage in psychoanalytic treatment, the analyst must see the client

objectively and understand the transference happening in the client and
in their own experience.

Transference and Other Forms of Resistance in

Psychoanalysis
Speaking of transference, it is one of the many forms of resistance
considered in psychoanalysis. In psychoanalytic theory, resistance has a
speci c meaning: the blocking of memories from consciousness by the
client (Fournier, 2018). Resistance is the client’s general unwillingness to
change their behavior and engage in growth through therapy. This
resistance can develop by myriad reasons, some conscious and some
unconscious, and can even be present in those who want to change.

Transference occurs when clients redirect their emotions and feelings

from one person to another, often unconsciously, and represents a
resistance or obstacle between clients and their desired states (healing).

It frequently occurs in treatment in the form of transference onto the

therapist, in which the client applies their feelings and expectations
toward another person onto the therapist.

There are many different types of transference, but the most common
include:

Paternal transference: In this type, the client looks to another

person  as a father or idealized father gure (e.g., wise,
authoritative, powerful);
Maternal transference: The client looks to another person as a
mother or an idealized mother gure (e.g., comforting, loving,
nurturing);
Sibling transference: This type may occur when parental
relationships break down or are lacking; instead of treating another
person as a parent (in a leader/follower type relationship), the
client transfers a more peer-based relationship onto the other
person;
Non-familial transference: This is a more general type of
transference in which the client treats others as idealized versions
of what the client expects them to be, rather than what they truly
are; this type of transference can lead the client to form
stereotypes (Good Therapy, 2015).

Transference is not necessarily harmful but may be a form of client

resistance to treatment. If the client is projecting inappropriate or
unrealistic expectations onto the therapist, he or she may not be
entirely open to the change that treatment can provoke.

Resistance to treatment can also be understood in a more general, non-

psychoanalytic manner. After all, resistance to treatment is not an
uncommon occurrence.

Examples of ways in which a client may resist change in treatment

include:

Silence or minimal discussion with the therapist;

Wordiness or verbosity;
Preoccupation with symptoms;
Irrelevant small talk;
Preoccupation with the past or future;
Focusing on the therapist or asking the therapist personal
questions;
 Discounting or second-guessing the therapist;
Seductiveness;
False promises or forgetting to do what is agreed upon;
Not keeping appointments;
Failing to pay for appointments (Lavoie, n.d.).

On the Couch: Why You Lie Down During Treatment

Although it has frequently been used in satire and cartoons to poke fun
at psychoanalysis, there are some good reasons why the couch is an
important aspect of the psychoanalytic treatment experience.

Dr. Harvey Schwartz explains that having the client lie on the couch
instead of sitting face-to-face with the analyst frees both participants
from the social constraints established by looking at one another:

“Both have the opportunity to let their minds run free in relation to
each other. The unconscious communication that can result fosters a
more profound intimacy and deeper self-discovery” (2017).

Further, Schwartz notes these important points regarding the couch:

1. It is used when the client is ready, and there is no pressure to use it;
2. There is no “right” way to use the couch—each client’s experience is
unique;
3. The couch can facilitate greater levels of honesty that aid in the
treatment process;
4. It can facilitate self-acceptance and reduce inhibitions;
5. The couch can be considered a place of freedom, in which you can
explore the deeper aspects of your pains and your passions (2017).

While the couch isn’t necessary for patients in psychoanalysis, it is

recommended and encouraged for optimal results.

Psychoanalysis Test: The Freudian Personality Test

If you’re interested in taking a quick and easy test to determine whether

you are stuck, or xated, at a stage of development, you can nd one
here. It presents 21 items that may or may not describe your personality,
and you decide how well it describes you, generally on a scale from Very
Inaccurate to Very Accurate.

Although you will need to visit a psychoanalyst if you want a more valid
and reliable diagnosis, this test can give you an idea of where your
personality lies. However, please note that you will need to make an
account with Psychologist World to obtain your results.
For a test with free access to your results, check out this Freudian
Personality Style Test from the Individual Differences Research Labs.
This test is composed of 48 items rated on a 5-point scale from Disagree
to Agree. Your results are in the form of scores ranging from 0% to 100%
on eight personality styles:

1. Oral-Receptive;
2. Oral-Aggressive;
3. Anal-Expulsive;
4. Anal-Retentive;
5. Phallic-Aggressive;
6. Phallic-Compensative;
7. Classic Hysteric;
8. Retentive Hysteric.

You can nd this test here.

Psychodynamic vs. Psychoanalytic Theory

With all of the theories and disciplines sporting the “psycho” pre x, it’s
easy to get them confused.

Psychodynamic theory and psychoanalytic theory have quite a bit in

common; in fact, psychoanalytic theory is a sub-theory of
psychodynamic theory. “Psychodynamic” refers to all psychological
theories of human functioning and personality and can be traced back
to Freud’s original formulation of psychoanalysis.

By contrast, psychoanalytic theory refers exclusively to Freud’s

psychoanalytic theory.

Given the relationship between the two theories, there are several core
ideas and assumptions that they have in common, including:

The signi cance of internal drives;

The impact of the unconscious on human personality and behavior;
Human thoughts, feelings, and behaviors as being rooted in our
earliest experiences;
All behavior as being determined by internal factors (i.e., it is never
random and behavior cannot be completely controlled by the
individual) (McLeod, 2017).

Psychoanalysis vs. Psychotherapy

So, given the difference between the two “psycho-” theories above, what
is the difference between psychoanalysis and psychotherapy?

The main distinctions between psychoanalysis and psychotherapy lie in

both the goals of the treatment and the methods used to achieve those
goals.
Psychotherapy is a type of “talk therapy” that is offered as a treatment
for a wide range of ailments and mental disorders. The goal is to solve a
problem and/or address symptoms that are affecting the client’s quality
of life, and there are many ways to go about working to reach this goal.

Those methods vary depending on the type of psychotherapy in

question. Some of the most common types include:

Cognitive therapy;
Behavioral therapy;
Cognitive behavioral therapy;
Marital or family therapy;
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR);
Narrative therapy;
Emotion-focused therapy;
Brief solution-focused therapy (Lee, 2010).

Psychoanalysis also falls within this list of common types of

psychotherapy, but it has a more speci c goal: helping the client (or
patient) overcome the desires and negative in uences of his or her
unconscious mind.

The techniques used in psychoanalysis differ from most other types of

psychotherapy, demonstrated by the stereotypical image of
psychoanalysis of the client reclining on a couch facing away from the
therapist (or analyst) while discussing his or her past.

Psychotherapy can be undertaken with a variety of length and duration

combinations, from once a month to several times a week. On the other
hand, psychoanalysis is almost always applied in an intensive manner,
often requiring three to ve sessions a week for several years (Lee,
2010).

A Psychoanalyst vs. a Psychotherapist: Is There a difference?

In case the descriptions above didn’t make it clear, there is certainly a

difference between a psychoanalyst and a psychotherapist.

A psychoanalyst has a particular set of skills gained from speci c

psychoanalysis training. While psychotherapists may practice multiple
types of therapy (although they often specialize in a certain type of
therapy or in treating a particular mental health issue), psychoanalysts
generally stick to practicing only psychoanalysis.

However, the two professions both focus on helping people via talk
therapy, and both use their skills to help their clients gain insight about
themselves, address their mental and emotional issues, and heal.
In fact, a psychoanalyst is often considered to be a type of
psychotherapist, just one who specializes in psychoanalysis. With that in
mind, every psychoanalyst is also a psychotherapist, but not every
psychotherapist is a psychoanalyst.

Popular Books on Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis has been around for more than 100 years and has
generated plenty of debate—much of it heated. Unsurprisingly, given
how long it has been practiced, there are many, many books available on
the subject.

Some of the most popular and well-reviewed books on psychoanalysis

are listed here:

Psychoanalysis: A Very Short Introduction by Daniel Pick (Amazon);

Psychoanalysis: The Impossible Profession by Janet
Malcom (Amazon);
Psychoanalytic Perspectives on Developmental Psychology by Joseph
M. Masling and Robert F. Bornstein (link);
Practical Psychoanalysis for Therapists and Patients by Owen
Renik (Amazon);
Psychoanalysis and Psychoanalytic Therapies (Theories of
Psychotherapy) by Jeremy D. Safran (Amazon);
The How-To Book for Students of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy
by Sheldon Bach (Amazon).

Psychoanalysis in Art and Literature

Due to psychoanalysis’s tenure as an in uential theory and form of

therapy, it’s had a sizable presence in art, literature, and lms. If self-
help books tend not to thrill you, you might nd some interesting works
on psychoanalysis in other places.

For a fascinating look at how art has been in uenced by psychoanalysis,

check out Laurie Schneider Adams’s book Art and Psychoanalysis. For a
briefer look at the interaction between the two, you can nd a good,
concise overview through Ivy Roberts’s online lesson titled “The Impact
of Psychoanalysis on Art.”

Psychoanalysis has also left its mark on literature, both by inspiring

works of ction that incorporate aspects of psychoanalysis and/or
psychoanalytic theory and by serving as the basis for psychoanalytic
literary criticism, in which literature is critiqued through the lens of
psychoanalytic theory.

For a brief overview of the effects of psychoanalysis on literature, check

out Susan van Zyl’s article “Psychoanalysis and Literature: An
Introduction” by clicking here.

At the Movies: 15 Films In uenced by Psychoanalysis

The impact of psychoanalysis on movies is perhaps even more salient

than its impact on art and literature. The list below is just a sampling of
the many lms inspired and/or in uenced by psychoanalysis:
 Sisters (1973) directed by Brian de Palma;
Un Chien Andalou (1928) directed by Luis Buñuel;
A Dangerous Method (2011) directed by David Cronenberg;
The Enigma of Kaspar Hauser (1974) directed by Werner Herzog;
The Piano Teacher (2001) directed by Michael Haneke;
Dogtooth (2009) directed by Yorgos Lanthimos;
Blue Velvet (1986) directed by David Lynch;
Black Swan (2010) directed by Darren Aronofsky;
Shame (2011) directed by Steve McQueen;
A Clockwork Orange (1971) directed by Stanley Kubrick;
Psycho (1960) directed by Alfred Hitchcock;
Fight Club (1999) directed by David Fincher;
Antichrist (2009) directed by Lars van Trier;
My Winnipeg (2007) directed by Guy Madden;
Another Woman (1988) directed by Woody Allen.

To read more about how psychoanalysis ties into each of these movies,
see Bryan Norton’s article on the subject here.

Criticisms of Psychoanalytic Therapy

Although psychoanalytic theory laid the foundations for much of

modern psychology, it is not without its aws. Psychoanalysis is still
practiced today, and psychoanalytic theory has been updated to fall
more in line with current knowledge about human behavior and the
brain, but there are many criticisms of the theory and its applications.

The major criticisms are:

Many of the hypotheses or assumptions of psychoanalytic theory

cannot be tested by empirical means, making it nearly impossible to
falsify or con rm;
It overemphasizes the deterministic roles of biology and the
unconscious, leaving little room for in uence from the conscious
mind;
Psychoanalytic theory was deeply rooted in Freud’s sexist ideas,
and traces of this sexism still remain in the theory and practice
today;
It has generally not been supported across cultures, and may
actually apply only to Western culture;
Freud may have relied too much on a pathology framework, seeing
behaviors as inappropriate and/or harmful when they might be
inherent to the normal human experience;
The theory was not developed through the application of the
scienti c method but from (likely highly subjective) personal
reports from Freud on his experience with clients;
There is little evidence of many of Freud’s theories, including the
repression of childhood sexual abuse and trauma.

 
Given these many valid criticisms of psychoanalytic theory, it is probably
wise to approach Freud and his theories with a grain of salt. Although
his work formed the basis for modern psychology, that basis was lacking
in empiricism and falsi ability, and his students and followers bore the
larger burden of providing evidence to back the resulting psychological
theories.

A Take-Home Message

Even though psychoanalysis is less prevalent in the treatment of mental

health issues today than it was in the early 1900s, it is important to learn
about the theories since they had a giant and lasting impact on the eld
of psychology.

Sigmund Freud is not valued today as a top-notch employer of

scienti cally-backed methods, and for good reason; however, his work
does provide key insight. 

What do you think about psychoanalysis and the theory behind it? Does
any of it ring true for you personally? Have you ever tried
psychoanalysis, as a patient or as an analyst?

We want to hear about your experiences. Leave us a comment and

weigh in on this controversial topic.

References 

About the Author

Courtney Ackerman is a graduate of the positive organizational
psychology and evaluation program at Claremont Graduate
University. She is currently working as a researcher for the State
of California and her professional interests include survey
research, well-being in the workplace, and compassion. When
she’s not gleefully crafting survey reminders, she loves spending
time with her dogs, visiting wine country, and curling up in front
of the replace with a good book or video game.

Comments

okidi daniel on 9th September 2019 at 8:53 am

thanks a lot, you my email for any update

Reply

Richard Sockett on 11th August 2019 at 12:15 am

I believe that as a patient I should have received psychoanalytic

treatment instead of psychiatric sexual offender treatment.

Reply

khalid mirani on 17th April 2019 at 7:39 am

 comprehensive introduction of the subject,thanks for sharing

Reply

muhammad sani on 31st March 2019 at 7:29 am

Thank you very much actually am so grateful

Reply

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Reply

Khayaban on 18th March 2019 at 4:59 pm

its really understandable..all the topics, thanks for sharing this article.

Reply

Wuri on 4th March 2019 at 11:46 pm

Thank you for the great analysis of psychoanalysis theory, it help me on

doing mu undergradute thesis

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Angeline on 3rd March 2019 at 1:26 pm

Thank you.may you please tell us the importance of psychodynamic

theories in dealing with juvinale delinquenies

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