CERTIFICATION

Certified that seminar work entitled “Summer Internship From “INDIAN

RAILWAYS (ALLAHABAD DIVISION)” is a bonafide work carried out after the sixth
semester by PRATEEK KUMAR UPADHYAY in partial fulfilment for the award of
Bachelor of Technology in Electrical Engineering from Rajkiya Engineering
College, Bijnor during the academic year 2019-20

CO-ORDINATOR
Signature

……………………………
Dr. Navneet Kumar
 A Report
On
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
From
INDIAN RAILWAYS (NCR DIVISION)
“TRACTION AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM”

Submitted for partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
Electrical Engineering
4th Year
By:
NAME: PRATEEK KUMAR UPADHYAY ROLL NO : 1673520033

SUBMITTED TO

Dr . Navneet Kumar (Asst. Professor)

Department of Electrical Engineering

Rajkiya Engineering College Chandpur, Bijnor

Affiliated to

Dr. A P J ABDUL KALAM Technical University

(Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh-226021)
 DECLARATION

I Abhay kumar, student of B. Tech Electrical Engineering seventh semester,

hereby declare that the term paper titled “INDUSTRIAL TRAINING IN INDIAN
RAILWAYS”, which is submitted by me to Department of Electrical Engineering,
Rajkiya Engineering College Bijnor , AKTU UNIVERSITY UTTAR PRADESH,
LUCKNOW, in partial fulfilment of seventh semester industrial training. This is a
comprehensive study based on the literature survey & brief review on existing
knowledge, which is produced in best possible manner.

Place: Varanasi

Abhay Kumar
(1673520022)
Date:

2
 Summer training has an important role in exposing the real life
situation in an industry. It was great experience for me to work on the
training at UTTAR PRADESH POWER CORPORATION LIMITED through which I
could learn how to work in a professional environment.

Now, I would like to thank the people who guided me and have been a
constant source of inspiration throughout the tenure of my summer training.

I am sincerely grateful to MR. GANESH SINGH(Senior Section Engineer)

who rendered me his valuable assistance, constant encouragement and able
guidance which made this training actually possible.

I wish my deep sense of gratitude to MR. MUKESH KUMAR (JUNIOR

ENGINEER) whose affection guidance has enabled me to complete this training
successfully.
I also wish my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. NAVNEET KUMAR
and Other Faculty members whose guidance and encouragement
made my training successfully.

ABHAY KUMAR

(1673520002)

(Student of final Year)

3
 ABOUT UTTAR PRADESH POWER CORPORATION LIMITED
(UPPCL)
Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited (UPPCL) is the company responsible
for electricity transmission and distribution within the Indian state of Uttar
Pradesh. Its chairman is MR. ALOK KUMAR. Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation
Limited (UPPCL) procures power from; state government owned power
generators, central government owned power generators and Independent
Power Producers through power purchase agreement for lowest per unit cost
of electricity.

The creation of Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Ltd. (UPPCL) on January 14,
2000 is the result of power sector reforms and restructuring in UP (India) which
is the focal point of the Power Sector, responsible for planning and managing the
sector through its transmission, distribution and supply of electricity.

UPPCL will be professionally managed utility supplying reliable and cost efficient
electricity to every citizen of the state through highly motivated employees and
state of art technologies, providing an economic return to our owners and
maintaining leadership in the country.
 ABOUT UTTAR PRADESH POWER TRANSMISSION
CORPORATION LIMITED (UPPTCL)

UP Power Transmission Corporation Limited, incorporated under the Companies

Act 1956, was incorporated in 2006 with the main objective to acquire, establish,
construct, take over, erect, lay, operate, run, manage, hire, lease, buy, sell,
maintain, enlarge, alter, renovate, modernize, work and use electrical transmission
lines and/or network through extra high voltage, high voltage and associated sub-
stations, cables, wires, connected with transmission ancillary services,
telecommunication and telemetering equipment in the State of Uttar Pradesh,
India and elsewhere.
To acquire, establish, construct, take over, erect, lay, operate, run, manage, hire,
lease, buy, sell, maintain, enlarge, alter, renovate, modernize, work and use
electrical transmission lines and/or network through extra high voltage, high
voltage and associated sub-stations, cables, wires, connected with transmission
ancillary services, telecommunication and telemetering equipment in the State of
U.P. and elsewhere.

1. To undertake, for and on behalf of others the erection, operation,

maintenance, management of extra high voltage, high voltage transmission
lines and associated sub-stations, equipment, apparatus, cables and wires.

2. To execute agreements for transmission of power to distribution companies

and other persons and to coordinate, aid and advise on the activities of other
companies and concerns, including subsidiaries, associates and affiliates
engaged in transmission and wheeling of electrical energy.
3. To undertake the functioning of State Load Dispatch Centre in terms of
Electricity Act, 2003.

4. To schedule and dispatch generation of all units connected to the State power
system including the centrally owned generating stations, in respect of the
share assigned to the State and electricity purchased from other States
undertakings.

5. To study, investigate, collect information and data, review operations, plan,

research, design, prepare project reports, diagnose operational difficulties and
weaknesses, and advise on the remedial measures to improve and modernize
existing EHV, HV lines and sub-stations.

To undertake planning and coordination activities of the power system and the
works connected with among other Generation, Transmission, Distribution the
electricity requirements in the state and NRPC region, Load-Dispatch functions
and such other functions as may be assigned to the Company by law or otherwise
by Government Govt./SERC/CERC.

5
 The report gives an overview of 220kV power substation. It includes
electricity transmission and distribution processes at UPPCL, Bhelupur Varanasi
substation. Its substation, an assembly of apparatus which is installed to control
transmission and distribution of electric power, its two main divisions are outdoor
and indoor substation. Different equipment’s used in substations, Bus-bar, surge
arrestor, Isolator, Earth switches, Current Transformers etc. Transformer which is
being used here is core and shell type transformer for stepping up and down
purposes. Different Instruments transformers, Voltage transformers, Current
transformers and capacitor voltage transformers are also being used. There is also
a jack bus which is connected to the main bus with the help of a bus coupler. It is
used as a backup feeder when some other feeder is under maintenance. Also there
is another step down transformer installed in the sub-station which is used to
supply electricity to the sub-station.

6
 CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE NO.
1) Introduction…………………………………………….……………………………………………..…..…………09
2) About Substation……………………………………….………………………………………..………………..10

I. Definition of Substation…………………………………………………..…………………...10
II. Substation……………………………….……………………………………..……………………
III. Types of Sub-Station………………….………………………………..……………………… 10
A. Transmission Substation …..…………………………..………………………..11
B. Distribution Substation ……………………………….………………………….12
C. Collector Substation …………………………………..…………………………..13
D. Converter Substation ………………………………………………………………14
E. Switching Substation …………………………..………………………………….14
IV. 220KV Sub Station……………………………………………….……………………………………15
3) Selection of Site…………………………………………………………………………………………………….16
4) Transmission of Electrical Energy……………………………………………………………………….....17

I. Advantage of HVDC Transmission System……………………………………….…..…17

II. Advantage of AC Transmission System ……………………….………………..….….…18
III. Disadvantage of AC Transmission System………………..………………………………18

5). Conductors……………………………………………………………………………………………..……………19
I. Performance of Transmission Line…………………………………………………………………….20
6). SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM………………………………………………………………………………………….22
7). Equipment in 220KV Substation…………………………………………………………………………….24

I. Bus bars…………………………………………………………………………………….……………………….25
II. Protective Relays…………………………………………..……………………….………………………….26
III. Fuse…………………………………………………………………………………….…………………………....29
IV. Bus Coupler…………………………………………….………………………………………………………….30
V. Lightning Arrester…………………………………………….………….…………………………………….31
8). TRANSFORMERS….……………………………………….………………..……………………………………..33

I. Distribution Transformer…………………………………….…………………………….……………….33
II Power Transformer …………………………………………………………………………………..………..33
III. Instrument Transformer………………………………………………………………………….…………….35
A. Current Transformer……………………………………………………………..…………….36
B. Potential Transformer ………………………………………………….……….……………38

7
 I. Porcelain Insulator………………………………………………...……………………………………….39
II. Glass Insulator ……………………………………………………..……………………………………….….40
III. Polymer Insulator ………………………………………………………………………………………..……..41
IV. Types of Insulator ……………………………………………………………………………………………….43
A. Pin Type Insulator ……………………………………………………………………………….43
B. Suspension Type Insulator ……………………………………………………………..…..44
C. Strain Type Insulator ……………………………………….………………………………….44
D. Shackle Type Insulator ………………………………………………………………………..45
E. Stay Type Insulator………………………………………………..…………………………….46

10). CIRCUIT BREAKER & ISOLATOR…………………………………………………………………….…..47

I. Circuit Breaker ………………………………………………………..………………………………………47
II. Types of Circuit Breaker………………………………………………..…………………………….…..48
A. Oil circuit breaker ………………………………..…………………………………49
B. Air blast circuit breaker …………………………………………………….……..49
C. SF6 circuit breaker …………………………….…………………………………….49
D. Vacuum circuit breaker …………………………………………….…………….52
III. Isolator………………………………………………………………….…………..……….……53
A. Tandom Isolator………………………………………………….………………….…56
11). CONTROL ROOM…………………………………………………………………………………………….….57
12). CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………………………..……60
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………………………………………..………61

8
The present day electrical power system is ac i.e. electric power is generated,
transmitted and distributed in the form of Alternating current. The electric power
is produce at the power station, which are located at favorable places, generally
quite away from the consumers. It is delivered to the consumer through a large
network of transmission and distribution. At many place in the line of power
system, it may be desirable and necessary to change some characteristic (e.g.
Voltage, ac to dc, frequency power factor etc.) of electric supply. This is
accomplished by suitable apparatus called sub-station for example, generation
voltage (11KV or 6.6KV) at the power station is stepped up to high voltage (Say
220KV to 132KV) for transmission of electric power. Similarly, near the
consumer’s localities, the voltage may have to be stepped down to utilization
level. This job is again accomplished by suitable apparatus called sub-station.

9
 1. Definition of sub-station: “The assembly of apparatus used to change
some characteristics (e.g. Voltage ac etc.) of electric supply is called sub-station”

2. Sub-Station:
A substation is a part of an electrical generation, transmission, and distribution
system. Substations transform voltage from high to low, or the reverse, or
perform any of several other important functions. Between the generating station
and consumer, electric power may flow through several substations at different
voltage levels.

Substations may be owned and operated by an electrical utility, or may be

owned by a large industrial or commercial customer. Generally, substations are
unattended, relying on SCADA for remote supervision and control.

A substation may include transformers to change voltage levels between high

transmission voltages and lower distribution voltages, or at the interconnection
of two different transmission voltages. The word substation comes from the days
before the distribution system became a grid. As central generation stations
became larger, smaller generating plants were converted to distribution stations,
receiving their energy supply from a larger plant instead of using their own
generators. The first substations were connected to only one power station,
where the generators were housed, and were subsidiaries of that power station.

3. Types of Substation:
Substations may be described by their voltage class, their applications within the
power system, the method used to insulate most connections, and by the style
and materials of the structures used. These categories are not disjointed; to
solve a particular problem, a transmission substation may include significant
distribution functions, for example.
A. Transmission substation
B. Distribution substation
C. Collector substation
D. Converter substation

10
 A Transmission substation:

A transmission substation connects two or more transmission lines. The simplest

case is where all transmission lines have the same voltage. In such cases,
substation contains high-voltage switches that allow lines to be connected or
isolated for fault clearance or maintenance. A transmission station may have
transformers to convert between two transmission voltages, voltage
control/power factor correction devices such as capacitors, reactors or static VAR
compensators and equipment such as phase shifting transformers to control
power flow between two adjacent power systems.

Transmission substations can range from simple to complex. A small "switching

station" may be little more than a bus plus some circuit breakers. The largest
transmission substations can cover a large area (several acres/hectares) with
multiple voltage levels, many circuit breakers and a large amount of protection
and control equipment (voltage and current transformers, relays and SCADA
systems). Modern substations may be implemented using international
standards such as IEC Standard 61850.

11
 B Distribution substation:
A distribution substation in Scarborough, Ontario disguised as a house,
complete with a driveway, front walk and a mown lawn and shrubs in the front
yard. A warning notice can be clearly seen on the "front door". Disguises for
substations are common in many cities.

A distribution substation transfers power from the transmission system to the

distribution system of an area. It is uneconomical to directly connect electricity
consumers to the main transmission network, unless they use large amounts
of power, so the distribution station reduces voltage to a level suitable for local
distribution.

The input for a distribution substation is typically at least two transmission or

sub transmission lines. Input voltage may be, for example, 115 kV, or whatever is
common in the area. The output is a number of feeders. Distribution voltages are
typically medium voltage, between 2.4 kV and 33 kV depending on the size of
the area served and the practices of the local utility. The feeders run along
streets overhead (or underground, in some cases) and power the distribution
transformers at or near the customer premises.

In addition to transforming voltage, distribution substations also isolate faults

in either the transmission or distribution systems. Distribution substations are
12
typically the points of voltage regulation, although on long distribution circuits
(of several miles/kilometers), voltage regulation equipment may also be installed
along the line. The downtown areas of large cities feature complicated
distribution substations, with highvoltage switching, and switching and backup
systems on the low-voltage side. More typical distribution substations have a
switch, one transformer, and minimal facilities on the low-voltage side.
C Collector substation:

In distributed generation projects such as a wind farm, a collector substation

may be required. It resembles a distribution substation although power flow is in
the opposite direction, from many wind turbines up into the transmission grid.
Usually for economy of construction the collector system operates around 35
kV, and the collector substation steps up voltage to a transmission voltage for
the grid. The collector substation can also provide power factor correction if it is
needed, metering and control of the wind farm. In some special cases a collector
substation can also contain an HVDC converter station.

Collector substations also exist where multiple thermal or hydroelectric power

plants of comparable output power are in proximity. Examples for such
substations are Brauweiler in Germany and Hradec in the Czech Republic, where
power is collected from nearby lignite-fired power plants. If no transformers are

13
required for increase of voltage to transmission level, the substation is
a switching station.
D Converter substation:

Converter substations may be associated with HVDC converter plants, traction

current, or interconnected non-synchronous networks. These stations contain
power electronic devices to change the frequency of current, or else convert from
alternating to direct current or the reverse. Formerly rotary converters changed
frequency to interconnect two systems; such substations today are rare.

E Switching station:

A switching station is a substation without transformers and operating only at

a single voltage level. Switching stations are sometimes used as collector and
distribution stations. Sometimes they are used for switching the current to
back-up lines or for parallelizing circuits in case of failure. An example is the
switching stations for the HVDC Inga–Shaba transmission line.

A switching station may also be known as a switchyard, and these are commonly
located directly adjacent to or nearby a power station. In this case the generators
from the power station supply their power into the yard onto the Generator Bus
on one side of the yard, and the transmission lines take their power from a Feeder
Bus on the other side of the yard.
14
An important function performed by a substation is switching, which is the
connecting and disconnecting of transmission lines or other components to and
from the system. Switching events may be "planned" or "unplanned". A
transmission line or other component may need to be de-energized for
maintenance or for new construction, for example, adding or removing a
transmission line or a transformer. To maintain reliability of supply, no company
ever brings down its whole system for maintenance. All work to be performed,
from routine testing to adding entirely new substations, must be done while
keeping the whole system running.

Perhaps more important, a fault may develop in a transmission line or any other
component. Some examples of this:

  A line is hit by lightning and develops an arc

 A tower is blown down by high wind.

The function of the switching station is to isolate the faulted portion of the
system in the shortest possible time. De-energizing faulted equipment protects
it from further damage, and isolating a fault helps keep the rest of the electrical
grid operating with stability.

4. 220KV Sub-Station:
220KV Sub-Station forms an important link between Transmission network and
Distribution network. It has a vital influence of reliability of service. Apart from
ensuring efficient transmission and Distribution of power, the sub-station
configuration should be such that it enables easy maintenance of equipment and
minimum interruptions in power supply. Sub-Station is constructed near as
possible to the load center. The voltage level of power transmission is decided
on the quantum of power to be transmitted to the load center.

15
 CHAPTER-3 SELECTION OF SITE
Main points to be considered while selecting the site for Grid Sub-Station are
as follows:
1. The site chosen should be as near to the load center as possible.
2. It should be easily approachable by road or rail for transportation
of equipment’s.
3. Land should be fairly leveled to minimize development cost
4. Source of water should be as near to the site as possible. This is because
water is required for various construction activities (especially civil
works), earthing and for drinking purposes etc.
5. The sub-station site should be as near to the town / city but should be
clear of public places, aerodromes, and Military / police installations.
6. The land should be having sufficient ground area to accommodate
substation equipment’s, buildings, staff quarters, space for storage of
material, such as store yards and store sheds etc. with roads and space
for future expansion.
7. Set back distances from various roads such as National Highways,
State Highways should be observed as per the regulations in force.
8. While selecting the land for the Substation preference to be given to the
Govt. land over private land.
9. The land should not have water logging problem.
10. Far away from obstructions, to permit easy and safe
approach/termination of high voltage overhead transmission lines.

16
CHAPTER-4 TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Generally, two systems are there that can be used to transmit electrical energy: -

  HVDC – High Voltage Direct Current transmission system

 HVAC – High Voltage Alternating Current transmission system

ADVANTAGES OF USING HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM -

 HVDC uses only two conductors for transmission. Furthermore, use of

only one conductor is also possible but with earth as return path.

 About 70% potential stress compared to that of AC transmission system for
 the same voltage. Thereby reducing the insulation cost.
 No problem of capacitance, phase displacement, inductance and surge.

Figure 2.1- High Voltage DC transmission lines

17
 ADVANTAGES OF USING AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM -
A three phase AC transmission is generally used instead of HVDC transmission
system, even though the latter has many advantages, because: -
 Stepping up and stepping down is easy in AC transmission system.

 Ease of transforming in AC sub-station than in motor-generator sets of DC
 system.
  Low maintenance.
 More economical.

DISADVANTAGES OF USING AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM -

 Skin effect and proximity effects.
 More volume of conductor is required.
 More possibility of corona effect.

 Line reactance which cause change in voltage regulation of
transmission system.

 Proper synchronisation required while connecting two or
more transmission line.
 Complicated transmission network.

Figure 2.2- High Voltage AC transmission lines

18
 CHAPTER-5 CONDUCTORS

PROPERTIES OF CONDUCTORS USED IN SUB-STATION –

For an efficient working of the sub-station, an ideal conductor or wiring
used in the sub-station should have the following characteristics:

  Capability of withstanding the specific load currents and short time currents.
  Free from corona discharge at the rated voltage.
  Economical
 Minimum number of joints.

 Ability to endure various mechanical forces acting on it due to its situation.
These forces can be weight of self and other conductors, atmospheric forces
 like wind and rainfall; short circuit forces et al.
 Requires minimum number of support insulators.

Suitable materials for conductor systems are copper and aluminum. Another
option can be steel, but it has its limitations which are poor conductivity and high
susceptibility to corrosion.

In order to achieve the above properties of an ideal conductor, they are

categorized into different types depending on utilization: -

  Flat surfaced conductors

  Stranded conductors
 Tubular conductors

Table 5.1- Ground clearance of overhead transmission lines with respect to

voltage they are carrying.
Voltage Level Minimum Ground Clearance
< 66KV 6.1m
66KV – 110KV 6.4m
110KV – 165KV 6.7m
>165KV 7.0m

19
 Overhead transmission lines can be a nuisance sometimes. So in order to
eliminate that we have two methods: -

  Tensioning conductors to sub-station structures or building.

 Tensioning conductors to ground winches.

PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINE

There are three categories of transmission lines: -

  Short transmission line – up to 80km line length

  Medium transmission line – 80km to 160km line length
 Long transmission line – above 160km

Figure 7.1- Overhead transmission lines

The main use of the transmission lines, whatever their categories are, is to
transfer power from one place to another. While transmitting power it is but obvious
that there would be some voltage drop and power loss. This is because of the
resistance, capacitance and inductance of the conductors used as transmission lines.
Therefore, the efficiency of transmission lines can be calculated as: -

20
 = × 100%

Where, Power sent – line losses = Power delivered

Similarly, the voltage regulation of the transmission lines can be calculated using: -

% = − × %

21
 CHAPTER-6 SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM (SLD)
A Single Line Diagram (SLD) of an Electrical System is the Line Diagram of the
concerned Electrical System which includes all the required ELECTRICAL
EQUIPMENT connection sequence wise from the point of entrance of Power up to
the end of the scope of the mentioned WorkAs these feeders enter the station they
are to pass through various instruments. The instruments have their usual
functioning. They are as follows in the single line diagram:

  Lightening arrestors
  C V T
  Wave trap
  Isolators with earth switch
  Circuit breaker
  BUS
  Potential transformer with a bus isolator
  Isolator
  Current transformer
 A capacitor bank attached to the bus

This substation has the capacity of 220kv and can step down to 33kv using two
input lines through the incoming feeders.
The input feeders are namely,

  220KV SAHUPURI FEEDER-I

  220KV SAHUPURI FEEDER-II
  The substation of 220kv/33kv has six outgoing feeders, namely:
  33KV BHELUPUR
  33KV SHANKULDHARA
  33KV KABIR NAGAR
  33KV BHADAINI
  33KV GODAULIA
 33KV BENIA

22
Fig: single line diagram of 220 KV substation Bhelupur

23
 CHAPTER-7 EQUIPMENT IN A 220KV SUB-STATION
The equipment required for a transformer Sub-Station depends upon the type
of Sub-Station, Service requirement and the degree of protection desired.

220KV EHV Sub-Station has the following major equipments:

Bus-bar Protective relay

Metering and Indicating Instrument Miscellaneous equipment

Lightening arrestors Wave trap

Transformer Transformer Instrument

Current Transformer Voltage Transformer

Insulators Circuit breaker

Electric isolator Control and relay

Wave trap

24
 1.BUSBAR

A busbar, in power transmission and distribution system, is an important

piece of metallic strip usually made of copper or aluminum. Its work is to conduct
electricity within a sub-station, battery bank, switchboards and many other
electrical instruments.

If we talk about transmission system, the primary work that the busbar does
is to transmit electricity from one part to another without much loss.

Figure 9.2.1- Busbar

There are various busbar arrangements used in a transmission system. The

main three being:
▪
Single busbar system
▪
Single busbar system with section allocation
▪
Duplicate busbar system

Large substations carry huge amount of power and they cannot afford fault
or maintenance work to hinder the power supply. It can prove to be a very costly
affair. Hence, to avoid that, a duplicate busbar arrangement system is used. The
25
system is very easy to understand and consists of two busbars. One busbar is
the main bus while the other one is the transfer bus or the spare bus. They are
connected by a bus coupler which is a combination of circuit breaker and isolators.

PROTECTIVE RELAY
RELAY

Sometimes, sooner or later, a failure will definitely occur somewhere in a power

system. Its might be because of human negligence or obsolete instruments. But a
better system is where a failure is speedily detected and tackled with proper
measures. Immediate disconnection of the faulty part of the system prevents further
damage to it as well as to other parts of the system. In high voltage circuitry, relays
are installed to provide automatic and reliable switchgear functioning. These relays
are used to identify the problem and convey it to the control panel.

Whenever a fault occurs, there are possibilities that anyone or a combination

of all of these electrical quantities change (voltage, current, frequency or phase
angle). Whenever there is a short circuit in the transmission line, there is an
enormous current flow through it. Therefore, a large amount of current also flows
from the relay causing its contacts to close. This action closes the trip circuit of the
circuit breaker forcing it into an open state. Hence, the faulty part of the system
gets isolated from rest of the power system. This way relays are used as protective
instruments, safeguarding the power system. The relays work mainly on two
operating principles: -

  Electromagnetic attraction relay

 Electromagnetic induction relay

26
 Figure 10.1.1- Relay and Control Panel
TYPES OF RELAYS USED IN CONTROL PANEL OF SUB-STATION –

 Differential Relay – It is a type of relay that operates when the vector

difference of two or more electrical quantities exceed a fixed value. When
the differential quantity becomes equal to or greater than the pickup value,
the relay will be activated and the circuit breaker opens causing the isolation
of faulty section.


 Over-current Relay – It is the type of relay that functions when the current
in the circuit exceeds the fixed value. They are only attached to alternating
current circuits and hence can be operated for fault detection in both the

27
 directions. It operates when phase to phase fault occurs. The starting source
is the current in the electrical circuit supplied from the current transformer
to the relay.

 Directional Relay – This relay operates when there is an earth fault, i.e. if
any one of the phase touches the earth due to any fault. It is so designed that
it attains its operating moment of force by interacting with the magnetic field
of the voltage and current source it protects. The direction of the moment of
force is dependent on the current relative to the voltage.


 Tripping Relay – It is the type of relay that is used in combination with the
main relay. Whenever a fault occurs, the main relay signals the tripping relay
to isolate the faulty part of the power system.


 Auxiliary Relay – It is used to indicate the fault in the power system
by glowing a bulb to warn the employees of the fault.

Metering and Indicating Instrument:

There are several metering and indicating Instrument (e.g. Ammeters, Volt-
meters, energy meter etc.) installed in a Substation to maintain which over the
circuit quantities. The instrument transformers are invariably used with them for
satisfactory operation.

28
 FUSE
A fuse is a type of protective device that consists of a short piece of wire or
thin strip of metal with low melting point. It is designed such that whenever high
current flows through it for large amount of time, then the wire melts. The fuse is
connected in series with the electrical circuit so that it can physically disconnect the
circuit in case of excessive current flow, which otherwise would damage the
electrical circuit. The fuse wire melts due to overheating. If used efficiently, a fuse
wire can be used for both detection and interruption of fault. Fuses can be work as
alternative to circuit breakers. Hence in a power system, they are used where the
cost of buying a circuit breaker is too much to bear. They are used in power systems
for upto a voltage of 115KV, to defend instrument transformers.

Figure 10.2.1- Fuses used in sub-station

29
BUS COUPLER
Whenever we need to couple the main bus with any other bus or two busses so that there
is no interruption in the power supply, a bus coupler is used. A bus coupler can be used without
arcing. A setup of isolators and circuit breakers is used for coupling.

Bus coupler can be used to couple every generator and feeder with the main bus or with
the spar bus. If we have to repair or analyze a feeder or any other instrument then we can do
that by putting it on the spar bus, thus ensuring that the main bus supply is not disturbed.

Figure 9.1.1- Bus coupler

30
 LIGHTNING ARRESTER

Figure 3.1- A lightning arrester

Lightning strikes and surges can become a major problem in electrical power
systems and to deal with that we use lightning arrestors. They protect the
conductors, insulators, transformers and other equipment that are attached to it.
Usually a lightning arrester is made up of a high voltage terminal and a ground
terminal. The lightning arrester easily channels to the earth any lightning surge that
travels to it through the transmission line.In the absence of lightning arrestor,
thousands of kilovolts of electricity can be introduced causing serious damage to
the transmission system. Costly instruments such as transformers are very much
sensitive too these kind of surges and once damaged they are very expensive to
repair. Chances of fire hazards also increase in these situations. In transmission
systems, lightning arrestors are made up of porcelain tube. They are high usually
several feet and several inches in diameter. Disks of zinc oxide are generally filled
in them. They are provided with a safety port on the side to dissipate occasional
internal explosions without harming the porcelain cylinder.

31
 Lightning arresters are graded by: -

  the peak current that they can endure

  the amount of energy they can absorb
 the break-over voltage that they require to start conducting

If we look at figure 2, then we will be able to understand how a lightning arrester

works. Let there be an instrument which is connected to terminal A and terminal E is
earthed. In normal conditions, no current flows through terminal A to terminal E
because of the large resistance between B and C; and C and D. But when lightning
strikes, the voltage is very high and even those large resistances have no effect. So
electricity gets channeled to earth without destroying the instrument.

Figure 3.2- A simple spark gap device which is used to divert lightning strike
to ground.

The lightning arresters installed in the sub-station were of ABB. All the
arresters were carefully placed so as to avoid any sort of damage to the sub-station
due to lightning strikes and surges.

32
 CHAPTER-8 TRANSFORMERS

The energy is generated in bulk at the power plants situated in remote areas.
Here the AC power so generated by these plants is then transmitted over all parts
of the country. The power should be transmitted at appreciably high voltage to
reduce the losses and increase the transmission efficiency. On contrary, at the
consumer end, the power should be transmitted at low voltages based on the
nature of load. Such transformation of AC power from one voltage level to another
is obtained by the use of a device known as transformer. Transformer is an
alternating current dependent machine that is employed to transfer electrical
energy from one electrical circuit to another. It does so without change in
frequency and follows the principle of electromagnetic induction. It has two electric
circuits that are linked with a common magnetic circuit.

DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER – The transformer used to step down

the distribution voltage to a standard service voltage or from the transmission
voltage to the distribution voltage. These are kept in use 24 hours a day whether
they are carrying any load or not. They have very good voltage ratio and are
designed for small value of leakage resistance.

POWER TRANSFORMER – Power transformers have a very important

role in the distribution of electricity till it reaches us. They are used to step up and
step down voltages greater than 33kV and upto 400kV. They are used to transmit
very heavy loads and are usually rated upto 200MVA. They are maintained to have
very high efficiency so that minimum power is lost during the transmission process.
They are bigger in size as compared to distribution transformers. They have high
insulation levels. Their type generally is (according to needs):-

  Generator transformers
  Sub-station transformers
  Unit Auxiliary transformers
  System transformers
  Interconnecting transformers
 Multi-winding transformers for specific needs

33
 Figure 6.1- Power transformer in Bhelupur sub-station

In Bhelupur 132KV sub-station, there were two transformers with

40MVA capacity each. One was from EMCO and the other from PME.
Table 6.1- Data sheet for power transformer installed in 132kV sub-station.
Company EMCO
Serial Number IS 2026/77
Type of cooling Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF)
Rated power 40MVA
Rated Voltage at No Load 132/33kV
Rated Line Current 175/699.82A
o o
50 C for top oil ; 55 C for winding
Guaranteed Max. Temperature
Rise
o
Reference Ambient Temperature 50 C
Frequency 50Hz
Core & Winding Mass 41000kg
Tank & Fitting Mass 23700kg
Mass of Oil 18670kg
Total Mass 83370kg

34
 Figure 6.2- ONAF cooling type of transformer

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER – Instrument transformers are classed as

highly accurate electrical devices. They are used to isolate and transform voltage
and current levels. The most common use of these transformers is to operate
instruments or measuring from high voltage and current circuits. They can safely
isolate the secondary low voltage (current) circuit from the primary high voltage
(current) circuits thus ensuring that the secondary circuit is not harmed by such
high voltage (current). The meter is always connected to the secondary circuit. They
are primarily of two types: -

  Current transformer
 Potential transformer

35
 CURRENT TRANSFORMER

These types of transformers are typically used to measure current flowing in

high voltage AC circuits. They are usually connected a low range ammeter. They
thus insulate the ammeter which could not be connected directly to the lines.
They step down the current by a desired a transformation ratio. The primary is
made up of thick wire which is connected in series with the circuit where
current has to be measured. The secondary is made up of thin wire but has large
number of turns which is connected to the ammeter terminals.

The current transformer is usually used short circuited because the

ammeter resistance is very low. To be on the safe side, if for some reason the
ammeter is removed then the secondary windings must be short circuited with
the help of a short circuiting switch. If not done then in absence of counter
ampere turns by the secondary, the unconstrained primary mmf will result in
extremely high flux in the transformer core producing extreme core loss causing
super heating of the core. Also, high voltage gets produced across the
secondary terminals. Hence, the secondary terminals of the CT should not be
left open circuited in any circumstances.
Table 6.2- Specifications for CT used in Bhelupur 132KV sub-station

Manufacturer BHEL
Highest System Voltage 145KV
Frequency 50Hz
Rated Current Factor per Time 25KA/s
Rated Primary Current 800A
Turn Ratio 400:1

36
Figure 6.3- Current Transformer

Figure 6.4- Potential Transformer

37
POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER – These types of transformers are used for
very accurate voltage readings from a high voltage circuits. They are step
down transformers with a defined voltage transformation ratio. Their
secondary is connected to a low range voltmeter for voltage measurements.
Power rating of these transformers is very high.

Dry type potential transformers are used for up to 5,000V and immersed
type for beyond 13,800V. Between 5,000V to 13,800V, both types are
available. The power ratings are usually 40W to 100W. A precautionary tip:
the secondary is always completely insulated and isolated from the primary
(high voltage) and is grounded for protection of operators.

Table 6.3- Specifications of Capacitor Voltage Transformer used in Bhelupur

132KV sub-station
Manufacturer BHEL
Rated Voltage Factor per Time 1.5/s
Highest System Voltage 145KV
Primary Voltage 76.21KV
Frequency 50Hz
Class 3 Phase

38
 CHAPTER-9 ELECTRICAL INSULATOR

Electrical insulators are one the most important part of a power system. They
are used to avoid unnecessary contact of the transmission lines from their
supporting structures. This ensures that the electric current doesn’t flow to earth
through the supporting points. Electrical insulators basically are extremely high
resistive paths through which virtually no current can flow. In power system, the
overhead transmission lines are supported by properly grounded towers and poles.
So an insulator must be used between the transmission lines and the poles in order
to avoid the flow of electric current to earth. The material of the insulator must
possess certain specific properties for its effective utilization: -

  High mechanical strength to carry the weights of the conductors.

  High dielectric strength to endure voltage stresses in high voltage systems.
  Non-porous.
  High insulation resistance to avoid leakage of current to earth.
  Free from unwanted impurities.
  Resistant to changes in temperature.
 Properly sealed to avoid entrance of moisture and gas.

PORCELAIN INSULATOR – Overhead insulators, now-a-days, are mostly made

of porcelain. Porcelain insulator is basically aluminum silicate mixed with plastic
kaolin, feldspar and quartz hard and glazed. To avoid water tracing, the surface of
porcelain insulator should be properly glazed. It must be non-porous to avoid
deterioration of its dielectric strength. Also it must be free from any air bubble or
impurity in the material.

39
 Figure 8.1- Porcelain Insulator (Disc)
Table 8.1- Properties of Porcelain Insulator
Dielectric Strength 60KV/cm
2
Compressive Strength 70000Kg/cm
2
Tensile Strength 500kg/cm

GLASS INSULATOR – It is one the most popular type of insulator used in power
system. It is made up of annealed tough glass.
Advantages of Glass Insulator –

  High dielectric strength compared to porcelain.

  High resistivity.
  Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
  Higher tensile strength.
  Transparent body so that it’s not heated in sunlight.
  Cheaper than porcelain.
  Longer life.
 Lesser impurities.

40
 Disadvantages of Glass Insulator –
 Easy condensation of moisture on the glass surface causes a much easier
deposition of dust on that wet surface. This provides a path to the leakage
 current of the system.
 Glass cannot be cast into irregular shapes for higher voltage applications.

Figure 8.2- Glass Insulator (Disc)

Table 8.2-Properties of Glass Insulators
Dielectric Strength 140KV/cm
2
Compressive Strength 10000kg/cm
2
Tensile Strength 35000kg/cm

POLYMER INSULATOR – These types of insulators have two parts: a rod shaped
core made of glass fiber reinforced epoxy resin and weather sheds made with
silicone rubber or EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer). Here the weather
sheds cover the rod shaped core. It is also called composite insulator because of its
two-part structure. The weather sheds safeguard the rod shaped core from outside
environment.

41
 Figure 8.3- Polymer Insulator (Suspension)

ADVANTAGES OF POLYMER INSULATOR –

  Very light weight.

  Highly flexible so less chances of breakage.
  Higher tensile strength.
  Better performance in polluted areas.
  Low installation cost.
  Lesser cleaning required due to hydrophobic nature of material used.
 Light weight exerts lesser pressure on the supporting towers.

DISADVANTAGES OF POLYMER INSULATOR –

 Due to unwanted air gaps between rod shaped core and weather sheds,
moisture may enter the insulator causing electrical failure.

 Mechanical failure of the core of insulator may occur due to over
crimping of end fittings.

42
 TYPES OF INSULATORS:
There are five types of insulators:
1. Pin type insulator
2. Suspension type insulator
3. Strain type insulator
4. Shackle type insulator
5. Stay type insulator

1. Pin type insulator:

Pin Insulator is earliest developed overhead insulator, but still popularly used in
power network up to 33 KV system. Pin type insulator can be one part, two
parts or three parts type, depending upon application voltage. In 11 KV system
we generally use one part type insulator where whole pin insulator is one piece
of properly shaped porcelain or glass. As the leakage path of insulator is
through its surface, it is desirable to increase the vertical length of the insulator
surface area for lengthening leakage path.

Fig: pin type insulator

2. Suspension type insulator

43
In higher voltage, beyond 33KV, it becomes uneconomical to use pin
insulator because size, weight of the insulator become more. Handling and
replacing bigger size single unit insulator are quite difficult task. For
overcoming these difficulties, suspension insulator was developed.

In suspension insulator numbers of insulators are connected in series to form

a string and the line conductor is carried by the bottom most insulator. Each
insulator of a suspension string is called disc insulator because of their disc like
shape.

fig: suspension type insulator

3. STRAIN TYPE INSULATOR:

When suspension string is used to sustain extraordinary tensile load of conductor

it is referred as string insulator. When there is a dead end or there is a sharp
corner in transmission line, the line has to sustain a great tensile load of
conductor or strain. A strain insulator must have considerable mechanical
strength as well as the necessary electrical insulating properties.

44
 Fig: strain type insulator
4. SHACKLE TYPE INSULATOR:

The shackle insulator or spool insulator is usually used in low voltage distribution
network. It can be used both in horizontal and vertical position. The use of such
insulator has decreased recently after increasing the using of underground cable
for distribution purpose. The tapered hole of the spool insulator distributes the
load more evenly and minimizes the possibility of breakage when heavily
loaded. The conductor in the groove of shackle insulator is fixed with the help of
soft binding wire.

Fig: shackle type insulator

5. STAY TYPE INSULATOR:

For low voltage lines, the stays are to be insulated from ground at a height. The
insulator used in the stay wire is called as the stay insulator and is usually of
porcelain and is so designed that in case of breakage of the insulator the guy-wire
will not fall to the ground.

45
Fig: stay type insulator

46
 CHAPTER-10 CIRCUIT BREAKER & ISOLATOR
CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Circuit breakers are a sort of switching devices that can be activated

manually to control the electrical power system as well as automatically for the
protection of the grid. Modern power systems deal with huge amount of current
so the designing of these circuit breakers should be such that no arc is produced
and hence we get safe and loss free functioning.

WORKING PRINCIPLE - The circuit breaker mainly consists of fixed contacts and
moving contacts. The physical connection between the two current carrying
contacts due to the applied mechanical pressure on the moving contacts, make the
“on” state of the circuit breaker. The potential energy can be stored in the circuit
breaker by different ways: -

  Deforming metal spring

  Compressed air
 Hydraulic pressure

This stored potential energy is the main factor in the working of the circuit breaker
and it must be released whenever the signal is given. This causes tremendously fast
sliding of the moving contact. All circuit breaker has operating coils (tripping coils and
close coil), whenever these coils are energized by switching pulse, the plunger inside
them gets displaced. This operating coil plunger is typically attached to the operating
mechanism of circuit breaker and the moving contacts are mechanically connected
with this operating mechanism through a gear lever arrangement. There is a
conversion of stored potential energy into kinetic energy, which makes the moving
contact to move. Once the cycle of circuit breaker operation is complete, the total
energy is again stored in the form of potential energy by means of spring charging
motor or air compressor or by any other means.

The circuit breaker has to carry large rated or fault power. While carrying this
large power there is always a risk of dangerously high arcing between the moving and
the fixed contacts during the circuit breaker operation. For safe arc quenching

47
in the circuit breaker, the dielectric strength between the current carrying contacts
should be increased rapidly during every zero current crossing of the alternating
current. The dielectric strength of the media in between contacts can be increased
in numbers of ways: -

 Compressing the ionized arcing media since compressing accelerates

the deionization process of the media

 Cooling the arcing media since cooling increase the resistance of
 arcing path
 Replacing the ionized arcing media by fresh gasses.

A circuit breaker is the equipment, which can open or close a circuit under normal
as well as fault condition. These circuit breaker breaks for a fault which can
damage other instrument in the station.

It is so designed that it can be operated manually (or by remote control)

under normal conditions and automatically under fault condition.

A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to

protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by over current or overload or
short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after protective relays
detect a fault.
Now we discuss about the two types of circuit breakers used in the sub-station.

TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKER:

According to different criteria there are different type of circuit breaker:
According to their arc quenching media the circuit breaker can be divided as:
E. Oil circuit breaker
F. Air blast circuit breaker
G. SF6 circuit breaker
H. Vacuum circuit breaker
OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER:

48
A high-voltage circuit breaker in which the arc is drawn in oil to dissipate the
heat and extinguish the arc; the intense heat of arc decomposes the oil,
generating a gas whose high pressure produced a flow of fresh fluid through the
arc that furnishes the necessary insulation to prevent a re-strike of the arc.

The arc is then extinguished, both because of its elongation upon parting of
contacts and because of intensive cooling by the gases of oil vacuum.

AIR BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKER:

Fast operations, suitability for repeated operation, auto re-closure, unit type multi
break constructions, simple assembly and modest maintenance are some of the
main features of air blast circuit breakers. The compressors plant necessary to
maintain high air pressure in the air receiver. The air blast circuit breakers are
especially suitable for railway and arc furnaces, where the breaker operates
repeatedly. Air blast circuit breaker is used for interconnected lines where rapid
operation is desired.

High pressure air at a pressure between 20 to 30 kg/cm2 stored in the air

reservoir. Air is taken from the compressed air system. Three hollow insulator
columns are mounted on the reservoir with valves at their basis. The double arc
extinguished chambers are mounted on the top of the hollow insulator chambers.
The current carrying parts connect the three arc extinction chamber to each other
in series and the pole to the neighboring equipment. Since there exists a very high
voltage between the conductor and the air reservoir, the entire arc extinction
chambers assembly is mounted on insulators.

SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER

It is a type of circuit breaker in which the current carrying contacts are immersed in
Sulphur Hexafluoride gas. SF6 gas has a high affinity of absorbing free electrons as its
electro-negativity is very high. Moreover, SF6 is an excellent insulator. The SF6
molecules absorb the free electrons from the arc, and hence form a negative ion.
These negatively charged ions have a very low mobility compared to the free
electrons. Hence there is no arcing as the mobility of the charges is the main reason

49
of movement of current through the gas. Electron can be attached to SF6 molecule
in two different ways: -
→
+
6 −
6

6+ → 5− +

SF6 has a very high dielectric property and not only that, its molecules
recombine very fast after the arcing has stopped. The gas can also transfer heat
very efficiently through convection due to its low viscosity. Considering all these
properties of SF6, it becomes 100 times more effective than air to be used in circuit
breakers. Hence they can be used for voltage ranges from 33KV to 800KV and
beyond.

Figure 5.1- SF6 Circuit Breaker

5.2.1) Disadvantages –

50
  SF6 is a greenhouse gas and the circuit breaker must be manufactured and
handled carefully in order to prevent its release into the atmosphere.

 The design of these types of circuit breakers requires almost five times
greater mechanical energy than oil circuit breakers for their proper
functioning.

Table 5.1- Specifications for SF6 circuit breaker used in Bhelupur

132KV sub-station
Breaking Current 50A
Making Capacity 80KA
Total Break Time <60ms
Rated Short Circuit Breaking Current 31.5KA
(symmetrical)
Rated Short Circuit Breaking Current 36.86KA
(asymmetrical)
Rated Duration of Short Circuit 3s
Current
Rated Nominal Current 1250A
Rated Voltage 145KV
Rated SF6 Gas Pressure 6kg/cc

51
 VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS
In this type of circuit breaker, the arc quenching is done in vacuum. This setup is
generally used for arc quenching in medium voltage applications. Vacuum
interrupter is a vacuum chamber in the breaker where all the operations of opening
and closing of contacts and linked arc quenching takes place. The vacuum pressure
inside the vacuum interrupter is generally maintained at 6-10 bar. The interrupter
is basically a steel arc chamber in the center of symmetrically arranged ceramic
insulators. CuCr is generally used to make vacuum circuit breaker contacts, because
these current carrying contacts are very important for the performance of these
circuit breakers. Vacuum circuit breaker is a developing technology, although it was
first introduced in 1960’s. Its size has been greatly reduced and the contact
geometry has evolved from butt contact to spiral shape, cup shape and axial
magnetic field contact. These are one of the most reliable medium voltage
switchgears and require least maintenance.

Figure 5.2- Vacuum Circuit Breaker

5.3.1) Advantages –

  Service life is high.

  No fire hazard as in oil circuit breakers.
 No environment hazard as in SF6 circuit breakers.
ISOLATORS:

52
Isolator is used to ensure that an electrical circuit is completely de-energized for
service or maintenance. In Sub-Station, it is often desired to disconnect a part of
the system for general maintenance and repairs. This is accomplished by an
isolating switch or isolator. An isolator is essentially a knife Switch and is design to
often open a circuit under no load, in other words, isolator Switches are operate
only when the line is which they are connected carry no load. For example,
consider that the isolator is connected on both side of a circuit breaker, if the
isolators are to be opened, the C.B. must be opened first. “An Isolator or a dis-
connector is a mechanical switch device, which provides in the open position, an
isolating distance in accordance with special requirements. An isolator is capable
of opening and closing a circuit when either negligible current is broken/made or
when no significant change in the voltage across the terminals of each of the
poles of isolator occurs. It is also capable of carrying current under normal circuit
conditions and carrying for a specified time, current under abnormal conditions
such as those of short circuit.”

OPERATION OF ELECTRICAL ISOLATOR:

An isolator is a mechanical switch that is manually operated. Depending on
the requirement of a given system, there are different types of isolators. With
53
isolators, one is able to see any open circuit physically as compared to
circuit breakers where no physical observation can be made.

Since no technique for arc quenching exists in isolators, the operation of electrical
isolators should only be carried out when no possible current is flowing through a
circuit. An isolator should not be used to open a completely closed live circuit.
Additionally, live circuits should not be completed and closed using an isolator.
This is to avoid large amounts of arcing from taking place at the isolator contacts.
Hence isolators should only be opened after a circuit breaker is open and should
be closed before closing a circuit breaker. Electrical isolators can be operated
using a motorized mechanism as well as by hand. Hand operation happens to be
cheaper, compared to a motorized arrangement.

As no arc quenching technique is provided in isolator it must be operated when

there is no chance of current flowing through the circuit. No live circuit should be
closed or opened by isolator operation. A complete live closed circuit must not be
opened by isolator operation and also a live circuit must not be closed and
completed by isolator to avoid huge arcing in between isolator contacts. That is
why isolator must be open after circuit breaker is open and these must be closed
before circuit breaker is closed. Isolator can be operated by hand locally as well
as by motorized mechanism from remote position. Motorized operation
arrangement costs more compared to hand operation; hence decision must be
taken before choosing an isolator for the system whether hand operated or
motor operated economically optimum for the system. For voltage up to 145 KV
system hand operated isolators are used whereas for higher voltage systems like
245 KV or 420 KV and above motorized isolator are used.

54
Fig: isolator

55
 TANDEM ISOLATORS:

Tandem isolator, often called split breaker or double breakers, provides two
separate circuits in the space of rectangular sized breaker opening. Every circuit
breaker panel has a limited number of circuits available. The problem is that when
the openings are all used up and you still need to add another circuit, what do you
do you? You could change the electrical panel or double up circuits on a breaker,
but this could place to much load on a particular circuit. So what then? The
answer that many have found is tandem breaker. This type of breaker is the same
size as any other breaker, but it has its difference.

Fig: Tandem Isolator

56
 CHAPTER-11 CONTROL ROOM
The control room has various control panels which shows the information like
incoming power, outgoing power, frequency, time common to all sub-stations,
status of various lines(healthy, faulted, under outage or maintenance), status of
various protective instruments like isolators, circuit breaker, temperature of
various instruments, working tap of transformer etc.

The DAS (Data Acquisition System) is used to accumulate the data received from
various sources. The relay room is separate from the control room. All relay used
here are numerical and are either from Siemens® or ABB®.

The protection system is so fast that it can detect a fault within 30 ms and hence
the circuit breaker can be operated within as less as 80 ms. For 400KV side C.B.,
one -time auto enclosure is allowed in order to clear the faults automatically.
BATTERY ROOM:
The control panels and relays of the sub-station required DC supply of 110 V.

 The DC supply is made with the help of battery bank reserve normally kept
in a separate room called battery room.

 The batteries used in this sub-station are Nickel-Cadmium (NI-Cd) batteries.
These batteries re used due to their advantages like low maintenance,
 longer life (15-20 years) etc.
 Each cell is of 2 V and 300 Ah Capacity.

57
Fig: batteries at sub-station

Used of battery in sub-station:

Storage battery system is used in emergency situation for the working of electrical
equipments:

  To open and close the switch gear

  For indication and control
  Emergency lighting
  Relay and interlocking equipments
 For working of alarm circuit.

58
 CHAPTER-12 CONCLUSION
Now from this report we can conclude that electricity plays an important role in
our life. We are made aware of how the transmission the transmission of
electricity is done. We too came to know about the various parts of the substation
system. The three wings of electrical system viz. generation, transmission and
distribution are connected to each other and that too very perfectly.

Thus for effective transmission and distribution a substation must:

  Ensure steady state and transient stability

  Effective voltage control
  Prevention of loss of synchronism
  Reliable supply by feeding the network at various points
  Fault analysis improvement in respective field
 Establishment of economic load distribution

59
 REFERENCES
 "Joint Consultation Paper: Western Metropolitan Melbourne Transmission
Connection and Sub-Transmission Capacity" (PDF). Jemena. Power or
Australia, Jemena, Australian Energy Market Operator. Retrieved 4
February 2016.

 a b c Stockton, Blaine. "Design Guide for Rural Substations" (PDF). USDA
Rural Development. United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 4
February 2016.

 Steinberg, Neil. "Lights On but Nobody Home: Behind the Fake Buildings
that Power Chicago". Retrieved 14 December 2013.

 "Transformer Fire Video". metacafe. User Eagle Eye. Retrieved 4 February
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