BASICS OF CIVIL & MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Paul J Alengadan
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Christ College of Engineering, Irinjalakuda
1
 MODULE - IV

Analysis of thermodynamic cycles: Carnot, Otto, Diesel cycles, derivation of

efficiency of these cycles, problems to calculate heat added, heat rejected, net work
and efficiency.
IC engines: CI, SI, 2-stroke, 4-stroke engines. Listing the parts of different types of IC
engines. Efficiencies of IC Engines(definitions only), air, fuel, cooling and lubricating
systems in SI and CI engines, CRDI, MPFI. Concept of hybrid engines.

2
 IC Engines

❖ Internal combustion engine is a heat engine which converts chemical energy in a fuel into
mechanical energy, usually made available on a rotating output shaft.
❖ Chemical energy of the fuel is first converted to thermal energy by means of combustion of fuel
with air inside the engine.
❖ This thermal energy raises the temperature and pressure of the gases within the engine and the
high-pressure gas then expands against the mechanical mechanisms of the engine.
❖ This expansion is converted by the mechanical linkages of an engine to a rotating crankshaft,
which is the output of the engine.

3
 Components of IC Engine

❖ Cylinder
❖ Piston
❖ Piston rings
➢ Compression rings
➢ Oil rings

❖ Connecting rod
❖ Crank
❖ Crank shaft
❖ Inlet & exhaust valves
❖ Flywheel
4
 IC Engine Terminology

❖ Death centres
➢ Top death centre (TDC)
➢ Bottom death centre (BDC)

❖ Stroke
❖ Swept volume
❖ Clearance volume
❖ Compression ratio
❖ Cubic capacity (CC)
❖ Crank radius

5
 Classification of IC Engines

1. Type of fuel used 4. Cycle of operation

➢ Petrol engines ➢ Otto cycle engines

➢ Diesel engines ➢ Diesel cycle engines

➢ Gas engines 5. Speed of engine

➢ Slow speed engines (up to 350 rpm)
2. Method of igniting the fuel
➢ Medium speed engines (350 - 1000 rpm)
➢ Spark ignition engines (S.I. engines)
➢ High speed engines (above 1000 rpm)
➢ Compression ignition engines (C.I. engines)
6. Cooling system
3. Number of strokes per cycle
➢ Air cooled engines
➢ Four stroke engines
➢ Water cooled engines
➢ Two stroke engines ➢ Evaporative cooled engines
6
 Classification of IC Engines

7. Method of fuel supply system 9. Arrangement of cylinders

➢ Carburetor engines ➢ Vertical engines
➢ Air injection engines ➢ Horizontal engines
➢ Air less or solid injection engines ➢ Radial engines

8. Number of cylinders ➢ V type engines

➢ Single cylinder engines 10. Valve mechanism

➢ Multi cylinder engines ➢ Overhead valve engines
➢ Side valve engines
➢ Rotary valve engines

7
 Four Stroke Diesel Engine (CI Engine)

❖ One cycle of operation is completed in four strokes of the piston (or two revolutions of crank).
❖ Working principle is based on Diesel cycle.

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Four Stroke Diesel Engine (CI Engine)

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 Four Stroke Diesel Engine (CI Engine)
1. Suction/ Intake stroke
➢ Inlet valve open, Exhaust valve closed.
➢ Piston moves from TDC to BDC.
➢ Air is sucked inside through inlet valve.
2. Compression stroke
➢ Both valves will be closed.
➢ Piston moves from BDC to TDC.
➢ Air gets compressed to high pressure &
temperature.
3. Expansion/ Working/ Power stroke
➢ Towards end of compression stroke, fuel is
injected in the cylinder by fuel injector.
➢ Both valves remains closed.
➢ Combustion takes place thereby pushing piston
from TDC to BDC.
4. Exhaust stroke
➢ Exhaust valve open, Inlet valve closed.
➢ Piston moves from BDC to TDC, pushing exhaust
gas out of cylinder through exhaust valve.
10
 Four Stroke Petrol Engine (SI Engine)

❖ One cycle of operation is completed in four strokes of the piston (or two revolutions of crank).
❖ Working principle is based on Otto cycle.

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Four Stroke Petrol Engine (SI Engine)

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 Four Stroke Petrol Engine (SI Engine)
1. Suction/ Intake stroke
➢ Inlet valve open, Exhaust valve closed.
➢ Piston moves from TDC to BDC.
➢ Air is sucked inside through inlet valve.
2. Compression stroke
➢ Both valves will be closed.
➢ Piston moves from BDC to TDC.
➢ Air gets compressed to high pressure &
temperature.
3. Expansion/ Working/ Power stroke
➢ Towards end of compression stroke, spark plug
initiates a spark.
➢ Both valves remains closed.
➢ Combustion takes place thereby pushing piston
from TDC to BDC.
4. Exhaust stroke
➢ Exhaust valve open, Inlet valve closed.
➢ Piston moves from BDC to TDC, pushing exhaust
gas out of cylinder through exhaust valve.
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Working of Four Stroke Engines

1. Suction
2. Compression
3. Expansion
4. Exhaust
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 Two Stroke Diesel Engine (CI Engine)

❖ One cycle of operation is completed in two strokes of the piston (or one revolution of crank).
❖ Working principle is based on Diesel cycle.

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Two Stroke Diesel Engine (CI Engine)

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 Two Stroke Diesel Engine (CI Engine)

1. Suction & Compression Stroke

➢ Piston moves from BDC to TDC, compressing air to high pressure & temperature inside the cylinder.
➢ At the same time, Inlet port opens, air enters crank case.
➢ All other ports remains closed.
2. Expansion & Exhaust Stroke
➢ At end of compression stroke, fuel is injected into the cylinder by fuel injector.
➢ Combustion takes place, thereby pushing piston from TDC to BDC.
➢ At the beginning of this stroke, Inlet port will be in open position.
➢ As piston moves to BDC, exhaust port opens & inlet port is closed.
➢ Burned gases escape through exhaust port and air in crank case gets partially compressed.
➢ Further downward movement of piston uncovers transfer port & partially compressed air from crank
case move to cylinder.
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 Two Stroke Petrol Engine (SI Engine)

❖ One cycle of operation is completed in two strokes of the piston (or one revolution of crank).
❖ Working principle is based on Otto cycle.

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Two Stroke Petrol Engine (SI Engine)

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 Two Stroke Petrol Engine (SI Engine)

1. Suction & Compression Stroke

➢ Piston moves from BDC to TDC, compressing air to high pressure & temperature inside the cylinder.
➢ At the same time, Inlet port opens, air enters crank case.
➢ All other ports remains closed.
2. Expansion & Exhaust Stroke
➢ At end of compression stroke, spark is fired by spark plug into the cylinder.
➢ Combustion takes place, thereby pushing piston from TDC to BDC.
➢ At the beginning of this stroke, Inlet port will be in open position.
➢ As piston moves to BDC, exhaust port opens & inlet port is closed.
➢ Burned gases escape through exhaust port and air-fuel mixture in crank case gets partially compressed.
➢ Further downward movement of piston uncovers transfer port & partially compressed air-fuel mixture
from crank case move to cylinder.
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 Comparison of two stroke & four stroke engines

S.I. No. Two stroke engine Four stroke engine

One cycle of operation is completed in two strokes One cycle of operation is completed in four strokes
1.
of the piston. of the piston.
More power developed as there is 1 working stroke Less power developed as there is 1 working stroke
2.
for revolution of crank. for 2 revolutions of crank.
Variation of torque is more. So heavier flywheel is
3. Smaller flywheel is enough as the torque is uniform.
required.
Due to valve mechanism, design and manufacturing
4. Easier in design and low manufacturing cost.
is difficult and cost is more.
Ports are used for admitting fuel and exhaust gases. Valve mechanism is used for admitting of fuel and
5.
Position of piston regulates flow of gases. exhausting of burned gases.
Starting is not easy as compared to that of four
6. Easier to start.
stroke engine.
7. Compression ratio is lower. Compression ratio is higher.
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 Comparison of two stroke & four stroke engines

S.I. No. Two stroke engine Four stroke engine

8. Thermal efficiency is less. Thermal efficiency is more.
Operating temperature is more. So more Operating temperature is less. So less consumption
9.
consumption of lubricating oil. of lubricating oil.
Weight of the engine is more for the same output
10. Weight of the engine is considerably less.
power.
11. More noisy. Less noisy.
12. Less complicated mechanical parts. More complicated mechanical parts.

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 Comparison of SI and CI engines

S.I. No. SI engine CI engine

Draws a mixture of petrol and air during suction
1. Draws only air during suction stroke.
stroke.
Carburetor is employed to mix air and petrol in Fuel injector is used to inject fuel at end of
2.
required proportion. compression stroke.
Pressure at end of compression is around 35-40
3. Pressure at end of compression is 10 bar.
bar.
Fuel injected by fuel injector ignites high
4. The charge is ignited with the help of spark plug.
temperature, high pressure air.
5. Working is based on Otto cycle. Working is based on Diesel cycle.
6. Compression ratio is around 6-10. Compression ratio is around 15-25.
7. Easy starting due to low compression ratio. Starting is difficult due to high compression ratio.
8. Engines are lighter and cheaper. Engines are heaver and costlier.
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 Comparison of SI and CI engines

S.I. No. SI engine CI engine

9. Engine runs without vibration. Engine runs with vibration.
10. Less maintenance cost. High maintenance cost.
11. Less thermal efficiency. High thermal efficiency.
12. Generally used in light duty vehicles. Generally used in heavy duty vehicles.

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 Performance of IC Engines

❖ Internal combustion engines have combustion taking place inside and power is available at
crankshaft.
❖ The power produced by the combustion of fuel within the cylinder in an IC engine is called
indicated power.
❖ The power which is available at the output shaft of the engine is called brake power.
❖ The difference between indicated power and brake power is the power lost due to friction of
various moving parts.

1. Indicated thermal efficiency

2. Brake thermal efficiency
3. Mechanical efficiency
4. Volume efficiency

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 1. Indicated thermal efficiency (ηith)

❖ It is the ratio of the power developed on the piston to the energy content of the fuel supplied.
❖ It represents the conversional factor of chemical energy of the fuel into mechanical power.
Indicated power
❖ ηith =
Fuel power

❖ Fuel power = mass of fuel used/s (kg/s) x calorific value of fuel (J/kg)

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 2. Brake thermal efficiency (ηbth)

❖ It is the ratio of brake power coming out of the engine through crankshaft to the fuel power.
Brake power
❖ ηbth =
Fuel power

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 3. Mechanical efficiency (ηm)

❖ It is the ratio of brake power to indicated power.

❖ It indicates what percentage of power developed in the cylinder is actually available at engine
shaft
Brake power
❖ ηm =
Indicated power

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 3. Volumetric efficiency (ηv)

❖ At the beginning of each suction stroke there is some volume of remaining gas in clearance space.
❖ As the piston move toward BDC, these gases will expand, and simultaneously new charge enters.
❖ Due to expansion of residual gases the volume of new charge will not be exactly equal to the
stroke volume.
❖ These deficiency is taken care by defining volumetric efficiency.
❖ Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of actual volume of air that goes to the cylinder to swept volume
of the cylinder.
Actual volume of air
❖ ηv =
Swept volume

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Air intake system in SI engine

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 Fuel intake system in SI engine

Engine
Fuel tank Fuel filter Fuel pump Carburettor
cylinder

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 Fuel intake system in CI engine

Fuel pump Fuel injection

Fuel tank Fuel filter (Low pump (high Fuel injector
pressure) pressure)

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Exhaust system in IC engine

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 Cooling system in IC engine

Air cooled engines Water cooled engines

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 Lubricating system in IC engines

❖ Mist lubrication
❖ Wet sump lubrication
➢ Splash lubrication
➢ Pressure lubrication

❖ Dry sump lubrication

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 Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI)

❖ Fuel Injection system for diesel engines.

❖ The high-pressure solenoid valve makes possible fine control over the injection time and volume.
❖ Uses a reservoir of fuel at high pressure up to 200 MPa in a common rail.
❖ The common rail contains a computer-controlled fuel injectors.
❖ The Electronic Control Unit/module( ECU/ECM) controls the amount of fuel injected and
injection timing.

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Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI)

Advantages

❖ Higher efficiency

❖ Better combustion at low speeds

❖ Better power balance

❖ Less moving parts

❖ More compact engine

3737
 Multi Point Fuel Injection (MPFI)

❖ The carburetor is replaced by Fuel injector.

❖ The system injects fuel into the inlet manifold
based on the commands from ECU.
❖ ECU controls injection timing and quantity of fuel.

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 Multi Point Fuel Injection (MPFI)

Advantages
❖ Improved atomization

❖ Better fuel distribution - Equal flow of fuel vapours into each cylinder

❖ Lower emissions

❖ Better cold weather drivability

❖ Increased engine power:

❖ Less vibration

❖ Immediate response to sudden acceleration and deceleration

❖ High efficiency

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 Hybrid vehicles

❖ A vehicle that uses two or more power sources for moving.

❖ Most common hybrid vehicles combine an IC engine with a battery and a high voltage electric
motor and generator.
❖ Two types of Hybrid Electric Vehicles:
➢ Series Hybrid
➢ Parallel Hybrid

❖ Advantages:
➢ Maximum power and fuel economy can be obtained with minimum emissions.
➢ Less wastage of fossil fuels.
➢ Less noise.

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Series Hybrid Vehicles

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Parallel Hybrid Vehicles

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 MODULE - V

Refrigeration: unit of refrigeration, reversed Carnot cycle, COP, Vapor Compression cycle; definitions
of dry, wet & dew point temperatures, specific humidity and relative humidity, cooling and
dehumidification, layout of unit and central air conditioners.
Description about working with sketches of reciprocating pump, centrifugal pump, Pelton turbine,
Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine. Overall efficiency, problems on calculation of input and output
Power of pumps and turbines.
Description about working with sketches of belt and chain drives, gear and gear trains, single plate
clutches.

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 Refrigeration

❖ Refrigeration is the process of maintaining a system at a temperature below temperature of its

surroundings.
❖ Equipment employed to maintain a system at lower temperature by removing heat from system is
called Refrigerating system.
❖ System which is kept at lower temperature is known as Refrigerated system.
❖ Working fluid used in refrigerating system is known as Refrigerant.
❖ Major application of refrigeration is in Food processing, Preservation & distribution, Chemical &
process industries, Medical field, Comfort air conditioning, etc.

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 Unit of refrigeration

❖ Rate of heat absorbed from a body or space to be cooled is termed as refrigerating effect.
❖ Unit of refrigeration is ton of refrigeration.
❖ One ton of refrigeration is defined as amount of refrigerating effect obtained by melting one ton of
ice at 00 C to water at 00 C in 24 hours.
❖ One ton of refrigeration= 3.52 kW = 210 kJ/min

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 Coefficient of Performance (CoP)

❖ CoP is the measure of effectiveness or performance of refrigeration system.

❖ It is the ratio of desired refrigeration effect to work done to produce that refrigeration effect.
Desired refigeration effect
❖ 𝐶𝑜𝑃 =
Work done to produce that effect

❖ CoP can be greater than 1.

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Vapor Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS)

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 Vapor Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS)

❖ Dry saturated vapor refrigerant from

evaporator is drawn into compressor at low
pressure P1 & temperature T1
❖ Refrigerant is compressed isentropically into
superheated state having high pressure P2 &
high temperature T2
❖ Refrigerant vapor at this state is then
condensed in the condenser by circulating cold
water thereby removing heat from refrigerant.
❖ Further removal of latent heat of condensation
from refrigerant, makes it to condense into low
temperature, high pressure liquid; P3,T3.
4848
 Vapor Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS)

❖ High pressure liquid refrigerant is then

expanded in expansion valve to low pressure,
where it is partially vaporized; T4,P4
❖ Low temperature, low pressure refrigerant
passes through evaporator & absorbs latent
heat of vaporization from the products to be
cooled & gets vaporized into dry saturated
vapor.
❖ This absorption of heat is utilized for cooling
food & water.
❖ Dry saturated vapor again passes to
compressor & cycle is repeated.
4949
Vapor Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS)

50
 Study of household refrigerator

❖ Refrigerator maintains a temperature, few degrees

above the freezing point of water.
❖ Freezer maintains a temperature below the
freezing point of water with a temperature of
about -18°C.
❖ Further below are compartments with
progressively higher temperatures (3°C to 5°C).
❖ Bottom-most compartment which is meant for
vegetables is the least cold one.
❖ Cold air being heavier flows down from freezer to
bottom of the refrigerator
❖ Warm air being lighter rises from vegetable
compartment to the freezer, gets cooled and flows
down again.
5151
 Study of household refrigerator

❖ Thus a natural convection current is set up which

maintains a temperature gradient between top &
bottom of refrigerator.
❖ In a household refrigerator, compressor is placed at
the backside & at the bottom of refrigerator.
❖ The coils behind the refrigerator, where heat is
dissipated to the kitchen air, serve as the condenser.
❖ Expansion of refrigerant takes place at the expansion
valve or capillary tube.
❖ The tubes in the freezer compartment where heat is
absorbed by the refrigerant serves as the evaporator.
❖ A fan blows air from the refrigerator or freezer
compartment across these tubes & refrigerant
absorbs heat & gets vaporized.
52
 Psychrometry

❖ Properties of moist air are known as Psychrometric properties

❖ Subject which deals with the behavior of moist air is called as Psychrometry.
❖ Moist air is a mixture of dry air & water vapor.

❖ Dry air : Mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon-dioxide, hydrogen, argon, neon, helium,
etc., & that contains no water vapor.
❖ Moist air : Ordinary air which is a mixture of dry air & water vapor.
❖ Saturated air : Air which contains maximum amount of water vapor which the air can hold at
a given temperature & pressure.

53
 Terms used in Psychrometry

❖ Relative Humidity (RH)
❖ Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT)
❖ Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT)
❖ Dew point temperature (DPT)
❖ Sensible heat of air
❖ Total heat
❖ Humidity ratio or specific humidity: Ratio of the mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air. It can also
: Ratio of mass of water vapor in a given volume of moist air at a given
temperature to the mass of water vapor contained in the same volume
of saturated moist air at the same temperature.
: Temperature of air measured by an ordinary thermometer.
: Temperature recorded by a thermometer, when its bulb is covered
by a wet cloth & is exposed to a current of moving air.
: Temperature at which the condensation of moisture begins when the
air is cooled at constant pressure.
: Enthalpy of dry air, which can be calculated by measuring its dry
bulb temperature.
: Sum of sensible heat of dry air and sensible plus latent heat of water
vapor present.
be defined as mass of water vapor present in per kg of dry air.

54
 Psychrometric processes

Sensible heating or sensible cooling

❖ Heating or cooling without phase change i.e., heating or cooling of air without increase or
decrease of moisture content.
❖ For sensible heating the air is passed over heating coils while for sensible cooling the air is passed
over cooling coils.
Cooling with dehumidification
❖ Reduction of air temperature along with removal of water vapor from air.
❖ Removal of moisture content can be done by reducing the temperature of air below dew point
temperature so as to allow condensation of water vapor.

55
 Psychrometric processes

Humidification
❖ Process of adding moisture to the air.
❖ Required during air conditioning when air being circulated have only little moisture in it.
❖ Injects steam or spray liquid water into air.
Evaporator cooling
❖ This type of cooling is needed in hot & dry climates.
❖ This method has arrangement for spraying Liquid water into air or passing air through a pad soaked
with water.
❖ Due to less humidity of air it shall evaporate some amount of water in its contact and thus reduce its
temperature because of heat extracted for evaporation of water.
❖ Thus air leaving evaporative cooler shall have temperature less than inlet air temperature & also due
to moisture being picked up, the humidity ratio gets increased.

56
Window air conditioner

57
 Window air conditioner

❖ Consist of two units

➢ Outdoor unit: Compressor, Condenser, Fan
➢ Indoor unit: Evaporator, fan

❖ Capillary tube is provided b/w condenser &

evaporator
❖ Outdoor portion remains outside window
❖ Dampers are provided at front of indoor
portion for changing direction of air flow.

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 Window air conditioner

❖ Low pressure vapor refrigerant from the

evaporator is sucked by compressor & is
compressed to a high pressure & is delivered
to the condenser.
❖ In the condenser, the refrigerant vapor is
condensed to liquid by releasing latent heat
of condensation to the surrounding air.
❖ Hot air formed is driven out using a fan.
❖ High pressure liquid refrigerant enters the
capillary tube where the pressure is reduced.

59
 Window air conditioner

❖ This low pressure liquid - vapor refrigerant

enters the evaporator.
❖ Liquid refrigerant evaporates by absorbing
latent heat of vaporization from the
surrounding air.
❖ This cold air is delivered to the room using a
fan.
❖ Direction of air flow can be changed using a
damper.
❖ Low pressure vapour refrigerant is again
sucked by compressor.
❖ Thus one cycle of operation is completed.

60
 Split air conditioner

❖ In window air conditioner, the indoor & outdoor parts are kept in a single casing & the casing is divided into
two parts.
❖ In the split air conditioner, the unit consisting of evaporator & fan is located inside the room & the other unit
consisting of compressor, condenser & the fan can be kept anywhere outside the room.
❖ The indoor & outdoor units are connected by extended suction & liquid pipelines for transfer of refrigerants.
❖ System works on vapor compression cycle.
❖ It occupy only very small space in the room.
❖ Since the compressor is kept outside the room, the noise inside the room due to working of compressor is
less
❖ Wide opening of wall or window is not required.

61
Central air-conditioning

62
 Properties of Ideal Refrigerant

1. Both condensing & evaporating pressure of 6. Low viscosity

the refrigerant should be above atmospheric
pressure to avoid leakage of air into the 7. High thermal conductivity
system.
8. Chemically stable
2. Freezing temperature of the refrigerant
should be much below the operating 9. Non-inflammable
temperature to prevent the solidification of 10. Non-corrosive
the flow.
3. Specific heat of the refrigerant liquid should 11. Non-toxic
be low 12. Cheap & easily available.
4. Latent heat of vaporization of the refrigerant
should be high
5. Specific volume of the refrigerant vapor
should be low
6363
 Turbines

❖ Mechanical device in which pressure energy/ kinetic energy of working fluid is converted into
mechanical energy of rotation of turbine shaft.
❖ Different types of turbines are hydraulic turbine, steam turbine and gas turbine.
❖ Device which converts hydraulic energy into mechanical energy of rotation of turbine shaft.

64
 Hydraulic turbines

❖ Impulse turbines
➢ Water posses only kinetic energy at inlet of turbine
➢ Impeller rotates due to impulsive force of water
➢ Eg. Pelton turbine
❖ Reaction turbines
➢ Water posses both kinetic energy & pressure energy at inlet
➢ Impeller rotates due to reaction force formed by change in pressure energy of water.
➢ Eg. Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine

65
Pelton turbine

66
 Pelton turbine

❖ Tangential flow impulse turbine

❖ High head turbine (>250m)
❖ Low discharge or low flow rate type
❖ Energy available at turbine inlet is kinetic energy
❖ Major parts
➢ Nozzle
➢ Flow regulating arrangement
➢ Runner & buckets
➢ Casing
➢ Breaking jet

67
 Pelton turbine

❖ Water is directed to the buckets of runner through a nozzle which increases kinetic energy of
water.
❖ Needle spear inside nozzle controls flow of water.
❖ When water impinges on buckets, runner rotates due to impulsive force
❖ Breaking jet is provided, which directs water at back of vanes in order to stop the runner.

68
Francis turbine

69
 Francis turbine

❖ Mixed flow reaction turbine. Water enters radially & leaves axially.
❖ Low head(60m-250m) & high discharge.
❖ Water enters turbine through a spiral casing.
❖ Water is directed to runner by guide vanes which act as nozzle.
❖ A part of pressure energy gets converted to kinetic energy by the time it reaches runner.
❖ As water pass through runner, its pressure changes gradually.
❖ Pressure at inlet of runner is greater than outlet.
❖ This pressure difference is known as reaction pressure which cause rotation of runner.
❖ Water from runner is discharged to tail race through a draft tube.
❖ Draft tube is a long tube with increasing cross-sectional area, used to decrease the velocity of
outgoing water.
Kaplan turbine

71
 Kaplan turbine

❖ Kaplan Turbine is axial flow, low head, high specific speed turbine.

❖ Water flow through the runner along the direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the runner,
the turbine is called axial flow turbine.

72
 Impulse turbine vs. Reaction turbine

Impulse turbine Reaction turbine

Rotation of rotor is due to impulsive force Due to reaction force
Expands when it flows over fixed & moving
Fluid expands in nozzle
blades
Cross sectional area of passage is constant Cross sectional area varies
Speed of rotation is high Not very high
Comparatively small size for same power output Larger size

73
 Efficiencies of turbines

❖ Water power = ρ𝑔𝐻𝑄 (W)

g – acceleration due to gravity (9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 )
ρ – density of water (1000𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )
𝑄 – flow or discharge (𝑚3 /𝑠)
𝐻 – height of water fall or head (𝑚)

74
 Efficiencies of turbines

Power developed by the runner

❖ Hydraulic efficiency, 𝜂ℎ =
Power supplied at the inlet of the turbine (water power)

Power available at the shaft of tℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟

❖ Mechanical efficiency, 𝜂𝑚 =
Power developed by the runner

Volume of water actually striking the runner

❖ Volumetric efficiency, 𝜂𝑣 =
Volume of water supplied to the runner

Power available at the shaft of the runner

❖ Overall efficiency, 𝜂𝑜 =
Power available at the inlet of the turbine
Power developed by the runner Power available at the shaft of tℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟
= ×
Power supplied at the inlet of the turbine (water power) Power developed by the runner
Hence 𝜂𝑜 = 𝜂ℎ × 𝜂𝑚

75
 Pumps

❖ Mechanical device used to convert mechanical energy into pressure energy of a liquid.
❖ Used for raising liquid from low level to high level.
❖ This is achieved by creating low pressure at inlet & high pressure at outlet of the pump.

❖ Positive displacement pump

➢ Reciprocating pump
➢ Gear pump
❖ Rotodynamic pump
➢ Centrifugal pump

76
 Reciprocating pump

❖ Movement of piston towards right creates a

vacuum inside cylinder which pulls water
upwards from sump to cylinder.
❖ Movement of piston towards left pushes
water to delivery pipe from cylinder.
❖ Cylinder is provided with inlet & outlet vales,
both of which are one-way valves.
❖ These valves allow water to flow only in one
direction.
❖ Reciprocating motion of piston is achieved by
connecting rod-crankshaft mechanism.
❖ Crankshaft is rotated by an electric motor.

77
 Centrifugal pump

❖ Required low pressure at inlet & high

pressure at outlet is obtained mainly by
centrifugal action.
❖ Filling the suction pipe & casing with liquid
to be pumped to remove air is known as
Priming.
❖ Removal of air is required because vacuum
created in eye of impeller is directly
proportional to density of liquid which is in
contact with impeller.

78
 Centrifugal pump

❖ Rotation of impeller in casing full of water

increases pressure energy of liquid.
❖ When delivery valve is opened, liquid flows
out of impeller through the casing whose
cross-sectional area increases towards
delivery pipe.
❖ Increase in area decreases kinetic energy of
fluid thereby converting it into useful
pressure energy.
❖ Flow of liquid to delivery valve creates a
vacuum at eye of impeller, which pulls water
from sump to impeller.
79
 Centrifugal pump vs. Reciprocating pump

Centrifugal pump Reciprocating pump

Flow is smooth Flow is pulsating
Suitable for large discharge & low head Suitable for low discharge & high head
Initial cost is less Initial cost is more
Occupies less floor space More floor space required
Needs priming No need of priming
Viscous fluids can be handled Trouble in handling viscous fluids
Due to no reciprocating parts wear & tear is less Wear & tear more
Maintenance cost is low Maintenance cost is high

80
 Efficiencies of pump

Power delivered by the impeller to the liquid

❖ Mechanical efficiency, 𝜂𝑚 =
Power input to the pump shaft

Actual flow rate of pump

❖ Volumetric efficiency, 𝜂𝑣 =
Theoretical flow rate of pump
Water power
❖ Overall efficiency, 𝜂𝑜 =
Power input to the pump

81
 Power Transmission

❖ Mechanical power can be transmitted from one shaft to another, generally, by four
methods of mechanical drives.
➢ Belt drive
➢ Chain drive
➢ Gear drive

❖ Shaft from which power is transmitted is called driver shaft & the shaft to which power
is transmitted is called driven shaft.
❖ Criteria for drive selection
➢ Distance between the shafts
➢ Amount of power to be transmitted
➢ Accuracy required
➢ Speed ratio of shafts
82
 Belt Drive

❖ Used when power is to be transmitted from one shaft to another which are at a considerable
distance apart
❖ Pulleys are mounted on the driver and driven shafts and an endless belt is fitted tightly over these
pulleys.
❖ Factor responsible for power transmission is the frictional resistance b/w belt & pulley.
❖ Amount of power transmitted depends upon
➢ Velocity of belt
➢ Tension under which the belt is placed on pulleys
➢ Arc of contact of the belt & smaller pulley.

83
 Types of belts

❖ Flat belts
➢ Used to transmit moderate amount of power.
➢ Used upto 10 m distance between driving & driven shafts.

❖ V-belts
➢ More suitable for transmission of large amount of power between two shafts having a short center to
center distance.
➢ Ideal distance is 1.25 to 1.5 times the diameter of the larger pulley.
 Materials used for belts

Rubber belts
❖ Very flexible
❖ Consist of layers of fabric impregnated with a rubber composition & having a thin layer of rubber on
the faces
❖ Quickly destroyed if allowed to come in contact with oil or grease.
Balata belts
❖ Similar to rubber belts except that balata gum is used in place of rubber.
❖ About 25 % stronger than rubber belt.
Cotton or fabric belts
❖ Cheaper & suitable for rough service where little attention is needed.
❖ No. of layers, depending upon the thickness desired are put together & stitched
❖ Treated with lins oil to make it waterproof.
85
 Open belt drive

❖ Used with shafts arranged in parallel

❖ Used when shafts to be rotated in the same direction.
❖ Driver pulley pulls the belt from one side & delivers the same to the other side.
❖ Tension on the former side will be greater than the later side.
❖ Side where tension is more is called tight side & the other side is called slack side

86
 Cross belt drive

❖ Used with shafts arranged in parallel

❖ Used when shafts to be rotated in opposite directions.
❖ At the point where the belt crosses, it rubs against itself and wears.
❖ In order to minimize wear, shafts should be placed at a minimum distance of 20b, where b is the
width of belt.
❖ Speed of the belt should be less than 15 m/sec

87
 Advantages

Flat belt
➢ Can be used with high speed drives.
➢ Can be used in industrial & abrasive environment.
➢ Cheap
➢ Absorbs shock and vibrations.
➢ Offers longer life when properly maintained.
V- belt
➢ Can be used for high speed ratios as high as 10:1.
➢ No possibility of belt coming out of grooves.
➢ Low percentage of slip.

88
 Chain Drive

❖ Consist of an endless chain running over special profile toothed wheels called sprocket.
❖ One of the sprocket will be the driver & the other, driven.
❖ Smaller sprocket is called pinion & bigger one is called wheel.
❖ Chain is made up of plates, pins and bushing which are usually made of high-grade steel.
➢ Power transmission chains: transmit power from one shaft to another.
➢ Hoisting chains: Used for lifting loads.
➢ Pulling chains: Used in elevators, conveyors etc.

89
 Chain Drive

❖ Consists of rollers, bushes, pins, inner & outer plates.

❖ Pin passes centrally through bush & roller surrounds bush.
❖ Roller turns freely on bush & bush turns freely on the pin.
❖ Two adjacent rollers are held by two inner plate.
❖ Inner plates connects two bushes also.
❖ Outer plates connects two central pins and keep them in position.
❖ In order to reduce friction all the contact surfaces are lubricated.

Assembled view

90
 Chain Drive

❖ Used in bicycles, motorcycles, agriculture machinery, rolling mills, conveyors, transport mechanisms etc.
Advantages
❖ Can provide non-slip drive
❖ Very high efficiency
❖ Less load on shafts
❖ Occupies less space
❖ Can be operated at adverse temperatures
❖ Can transmit motion to several shafts by a single chain
Disadvantages
❖ High cost
❖ More weight
❖ Velocity fluctuations due to stretching during use
❖ Needs accurate mounting and careful maintenance

91
 Gear drives

❖ Gear is a toothed wheel.

❖ For power transmission one gear is mounted on the driving shaft & another one of the driven shaft, their
teeth meshing with each other.
❖ Distance between the two shafts should be just enough to enable meshing of the gear teeth.
❖ Manufactured either by casting or by machine cutting.
❖ Cutting of gear teeth is done by milling or hobbing.
❖ Cheapest material used is ordinary grey iron.
❖ For heavy duty gears cast steel & alloy steel are preferred.
❖ Non-ferrous metals like phosphor bronze, nickel, manganese etc. are used under corrosive environments.

92
 Gear drives

❖ Used when positive drives are necessary and when the centre to centre distance between the shafts is
relatively short.
❖ Used whenever motion is to be transmitted between non-parallel & non-intersecting shafts.
❖ Gears are of great practical utility in almost all kinds of precession engineering works.
❖ Hardened gear find application in aircraft, automobile & other industries.
Advantages
❖ High efficiency
❖ Less maintenance cost
❖ Can be used for non intersecting & non parallel shafts
❖ Very high accuracy.

93
 Types of gears

1. Spur gears
➢ Teeth are cut parallel to the axis of the shaft .
➢ Used to transmit power between parallel shafts.

2. Helical gears
➢ Used in the same way as spur gears, but the teeth cut on the periphery are of helical screw form.
➢ Helical tooth is thus inclined at an angle to the axis of the shaft.

94
 Types of gears

3. Bevel gears
❖ Used to connect two non-parallel shafts with intersecting axes.
❖ Even though bevel gears are meant for shafts at right angle to each other, it can also be used for any angle.

95
 Types of gears

4. Worm gears
❖ Worm gears are used for power transmission between non-intersecting shafts that are generally at right
angles to each other.
❖ The worm gearing consists of worm & worm wheel.
❖ Worm is a threaded screw & is used as the driver.
❖ Worm wheel is a toothed wheel.
❖ Teeth of worm wheel remain engaged with the threads of the worm.

96
 Types of gears

Spur gear Helical gear

Bevel gear Worm gear

97
 Gear Train

❖ It is a series of gear wheels in which each gear is mounted on a separate shaft.

❖ Except first & last gear, all the gear act as both follower & driver.
❖ Transmission ratio depends on no. of teeth of first & last gear.
❖ Used to connect gears when large center distance is required.

98
 Gear Train

1. Simple gear train

❖ Each shaft carries one gear only.
2Compound gear train
❖ Series of gears are connected in such a way that two or more gears rotates about same axis on same shaft.

Simple gear train

Compound gear train 99
 Clutch

❖ Machine member used to connect the driving shaft to driven shaft, so that driven shaft may be
started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft.
❖ Located b/w flywheel & gearbox of transmission system.
❖ Main function is to disengage driving shaft thus enabling the changing of gears.
❖ Works on the principle of friction b/w two surfaces.
❖ When two frictional surfaces, one rotating & other stationary, are bought in contact & pressed,
they will rotate as a single unit.
❖ Torque transmitting efficiency of friction clutches depends on frictional force b/w two surfaces
which are pressed together.

100
 Single plate clutch

• Consists of a clutch plate made of steel &

having frictional lining on each side.
• Clutch plate is attached to a hub, which
rotates along with the driven shaft & is free
to slide axially on the driven shaft.
• A flywheel is attached to end of crankshaft.

101
101
 Single plate clutch

❖ Spring loaded pressure plate presses the

clutch plate against the flywheel, when clutch
is engaged.
❖ Friction b/w lining on the clutch plate & the
flywheel on one side and friction b/w lining
on the clutch plate & pressure plate on the
other side cause the clutch plate & the driven
shaft to rotate.
❖ When the pressure plate is pulled back by
further compression of the spring, contact
b/w flywheel & clutch plate breaks & then
the flywheel rotates w/o driving the clutch
plate & driven shaft.
❖ Thus the rotation of driven shaft can be
stopped without stopping the engine.
102
102
Single plate clutch
 MODULE - VI

Manufacturing Process: Basic description of the manufacturing processes – Sand Casting, Forging,
Rolling, Extrusion and their applications.
Metal Joining Processes: List types of welding, Description with sketches of Arc Welding, Soldering
and Brazing and their applications
Basic Machining operations: Turning, Drilling, Milling and Grinding.
Description about working with block diagram of: Lathe, Drilling machine, Milling machine, CNC
Machine. Principle of CAD/CAM, Rapid and Additive manufacturing.

104
 Manufacturing Process

❖ Casting
❖ Forging
❖ Rolling
❖ Extrusion

105
 Casting

❖ Process of producing metallic parts of desired shape & size by pouring molten metal into a mould
having cavity of the part to be cast & then allowing the molten metal to solidify.
❖ Resulting solid is called casting which have shape of cavity.
❖ Mould into which molten metal is poured, is made of some heat resistant material.
❖ Sand is mostly used as it is readily available, easily packed to shape, porous & resists high
temperature.

106
 Casting

❖ Moulding is the process of making mould using a pattern.

❖ Pattern is the model or replica of the part to be cast.
❖ Wood is commonly used for pattern, as it is easy to work & readily available.
❖ Main disadvantage of wood as pattern material is that it changes its size due to effect of moisture
in the moulding sand & wears out quickly.
❖ Metallic patterns are used for mass production of castings.

107
 Casting

❖ Metallic patterns are more durable & produce mould of good dimensional accuracy & better
surface finish.
❖ Cast iron, brass, aluminium & its alloys etc are some common metals used for pattern making.
❖ Plastic are now used as a pattern material because they do not absorb moisture, are strong &
dimensionally stable, resistant to wear, have a very smooth surface & are light in weight.
❖ Plaster of paris, waxes etc are also used as pattern materials.

108
 Sand casting

❖ Sand moulds are prepared in a moulding box, which is open at the top & bottom.
❖ Made in two parts & held in alignment by pins.
❖ Top part is called the cope & lower part the drag.
❖ Boxes are made of wood or metal.
❖ Passage for bringing molten metal to mould cavity is known as gating system, consisting of a
pouring basin, sprue & gate.
❖ Pouring basin at the top of mould maintains required rate of flow of molten metal into the mould
cavity.
❖ It also prevents slag from entering the mould cavity.

109
Sand casting

110
 Sand casting

❖ Sprue : Vertical passage passing through the cope & connects the pouring basin with the gate.
❖ Gate : Passage through which molten metal flows from the sprue base to the mould cavity.
❖ Riser : Passage made in the cope to permit the molten metal to flow after the mould cavity is
filled up.
Also acts as a reservoir & feed molten metal into the mould cavity to compensate for the
solidification shrinkage of castings.
Riser also serves as a vent for steam & gases generated as the mould cavity is being
filled up with the molten metal.
❖ Core : Prepared solid mass of dry sand, having the shape of internal cavity or hole in the
casting. Cores are kept in the mould after pattern is removed.
Used to obtain desired hole or recess in the casting which otherwise could not be
obtained by normal moulding process.
111
 Properties of moulding sand

❖ Porosity :Property that allows passage of gases through the mould.

❖ Cohesiveness : Ability of sand particles to stick together.
❖ Adhesiveness : Property of sand particles to stick on to other bodies.
❖ Flowability : Property of sand to behave like a fluid.
❖ Plasticity : Property of acquiring predetermined shape under pressure and to retain it
when the pressure is removed.
❖ Refractoriness : Property of sand to withstand high temperature without breaking down or
fusing.
❖ Chemical stability:Property of sand to resist chemical reaction with molten metal.

112
 Casting defects

1. Blowholes
❖ Smooth, round holes below surface of castings, which are not visible from outside.
❖ Formed by the entrapped bubbles of gases in the metal.
❖ Caused due to excess moisture in moulding sand, low porosity of sand, hard ramming of sand,
inadequate venting.
2. Inclusions
❖ Separate non-metallic foreign material present in casting.
❖ Inclusions may be in the form of oxides, slag, dirt & sand.
3. Swell
❖ Localized or overall enlargement of the casting.
❖ Caused due to loose ramming of the sand.

113
 Casting defects

4. Scab
❖ Erosion or breaking down a portion of the mould.
❖ Main cause is the uneven ramming of sand.
5. Honeycombing
❖ Number of small cavities present on casting surface
❖ Caused by dirt held in suspension in the molten metal.
6. Misrun
❖ Caused if molten metal fails to reach all sections of mould.
❖ Incomplete casting is produced.
❖ Happens due to low fluidity of metal caused by low temperature, slow & intermittent pouring of
molten metal, presence of very thin sections, etc.
114
 Casting defects

7. Shift
❖ Mismatching of casting section is known as shift.
❖ Caused due to misalignment of cope & drag, pattern, movement of mould box during pouring
molten metal etc.
8. Fin
❖ Thin projection of metal, which is not a part of the required casting
❖ Usually occur at the parting surface of the cape & drag, mould cavity & core sections.
❖ Caused due to insufficient weight of mould, improper clamping of moulding boxes, high pressure
of molten metal, incorrect position of the core in the mould cavity.

115
 Casting defects

9. Cold shut
❖ External defect formed when two streams of molten metal of low temperature approach within
the mould cavity, from opposite directions.
❖ Two streams of metal establish a physical contact between them, but fail to fuse together.
❖ Caused due to low fluidity of molten metal, slow & intermittent pouring of molten metal, presence
of thin sections etc.

116
 Forging

❖ Process of changing shape of metals when it is in plastic state, by applying compressive force, is
called hot forging or simply forging.
❖ When the shape of metal is changed while it is at room temperature, by applying large
compressive force, is called cold forging.
❖ Better mechanical properties than casting. Employed for those components which require high
strength & other better mechanical properties.
❖ Eg. Spanners, crane hooks, axles, crankshafts etc.
❖ Classification:
1. Hand forging/Smith forging
2. Drop forging
3. Press forging

117
 1. Hand forging/Smith forging

❖ Traditional forging carried out by blacksmith

❖ Heating of metal is done in an open fire
❖ Hand tools are used for forging.
❖ Requires a lot of skill on the part of the operator
❖ Time consuming.
❖ Not suitable for mass production.

118
 2. Drop forging

❖ Operation done in closed impression dies.

❖ Force for shaping component is applied in a
series of blow by using drop hammers.
❖ Die is made in two halves, which contains
shape of the component to be produced, in
the form of a cavity.
❖ Process can be used for mass production of
small & medium sized products.

119
 3. Press forging

❖ Process is similar to drop forging.

❖ Force is applied by a continuous squeezing operation by means of a hydraulic press.
❖ Mass production technique.
❖ Small to medium sized components are made using this method.
 Forging operations

❖ Upsetting : Increasing cross sectional area at any desired portion at the expense of length.
❖ Drawing down : Process of reducing cross section of a bar by increasing its length.
❖ Bending : Bars & rods are bent to form rings, hooks etc.
❖ Forge welding : Process of joining two metallic surfaces by heating to a higher temperature &
then joined by hammering without using filler materials.
❖ Setting down : Local thinning down operation using a set of hammer.
❖ Cutting : Process of removing pieces of metal by means of a chisel.
❖ Punching : Process in which a punch is forced through job to produce hole.
❖ Swaging : Operation by which required cross sectional shape is obtained.
❖ Drifting : Process of increasing the diameter of a punched hole.

121
FORGING OPERATIONS

Drawing down

Upsetting

Forge welding

Punching
Bending 122
 Rolling

❖ Process of forming metals into desired

shapes by passing metal in b/w a pair of rolls
rotating in opposite directions at the same
speed.
❖ Rolls squeeze the metal to reduce its cross
section while increasing its length.
❖ More economical than forging when metal is
required in long lengths of uniform cross
section.

123
 Rolling

❖ Hot rolling is the process in which metal is

fed to the rolls after being heated above
recrystallization temperature.
❖ In cold rolling metal is fed to the rolls when it
is below recrystallization temperature.
❖ Arrangement of rolls for a rolling operation
constitute a rolling mill.
1. Two high mill
2. Three high mill
3. Four high mill
4. Cluster mill

124
 1. Two High Mill

❖ Consist of two heavy rolls placed exactly one

over the other.
❖ Mostly the lower roll will be fixed in position.
❖ Upper roll can be moved to adjust the space
b/w rolls.
❖ Both rolls rotate at same speed but in
opposite directions.

125
 2. Three high mill

❖ Consist of three rolls positioned one over the

other.
❖ Upper & lower rolls rotate in same direction,
while middle roll rotates in opposite
direction.
❖ Work piece is made to pass in one direction
b/w upper & middle rolls in 1st pass & then
b/w middle & lower roll in opposite direction
during 2nd pass.
❖ Middle roll is kept fixed, upper & lower rolls
are moved to adjust roll gap

126
 3. Four high mill

❖ Consist of four rolls, two of which are

working rolls & other two are back up rolls.
❖ Back up rolls are larger & are used to prevent
deflection of working rolls.

127
 4. Cluster mill

❖ Used for rolling thin sheet or foils.

❖ Pair of working rolls of very small diameter
are supported by a number of back up rolls
on either side.

128
 Extrusion

❖ Process of forming products of uniform cross section in convenient length.

❖ Consist of metal compressing inside a chamber & forcing it out through a die having an opening in
the shape of cross section of the product.
❖ When extrusion is carried out at elevated temperatures it is known as hot extrusion.
❖ If extrusion is carried out at low temperatures, it is known as cold extrusion.
❖ Metals such as lead, tin & aluminum are extruded at room temperature.
❖ Classified as
1. Direct extrusion
2. Indirect extrusion

129
 1. Direct Extrusion/Forward Extrusion

❖ Metal, known as billet, is placed in the die chamber & is forced through the die opening by
applying pressure on the ram.
❖ Extruded part coming out through the die is then cut into the required length.

130
 2. Indirect Extrusion/Backward Extrusion

❖ Extruded part which is forced out of the die is taken out through the ram/plunger, which is made
hollow.
❖ Extruded part moves out in a direction opposite to that of the ram movement.
❖ Requires less force than direct method since there is no frictional force b/w the metal & die
chamber wall.
❖ Ram weakens when it is made hollow.
❖ Difficulty of providing adequate support for the extruded parts.

131
 Metal Joining Processes

❖ Welding
❖ Soldering
❖ Brazing

132
 Welding

❖ Process of joining two metals by the application of heat.

❖ Welding is done with the help of a welding machine.
❖ Welding machine raises the temperature of the required portions of the work pieces so that it can
fuse them.
❖ Depending upon type of heat production welding processes are classified as
1. Electrical resistance welding (Source of heat: electric current)
2. Arc welding (Source of heat: electric current)
3. Gas welding (Source of heat: gas flames)
4. Thermit welding (Source of heat: chemical reaction)

133
 Arc welding

❖ Surfaces to be joined are fused by the heat produced from an electric arc.
❖ A metal electrode is used for obtaining electric arc b/w the work piece & the electrode.
❖ Electric arc is formed by separating electrode from the work piece by a short distance, in which
the electrical energy is converted into heat.
❖ Intense heat so produced melts the electrode & work piece under the arc, thereby forming a pool
of molten metal & electrode.
❖ Arc is maintained by uniformly moving the electrode towards the work piece & hence keeping a
constant gap b/w electrode & work piece.

134
 Arc welding

❖ Electrodes are coated with fluxing materials.

❖ It is to provide a gas shield around the arc to prevent direct contact of oxygen & nitrogen in the
air with the deposited metal.
❖ It also covers the weld metal with a protective slag coating which prevents oxidation of the weld
metal during cooling.
❖ Slag is brushed off after the joint has cooled.

135
Arc welding

136
 Soldering

❖ Form of joining metals, by using another metal or alloy heated to its melting point, w/o melting
base metal.
❖ Heated metal called solder, flows b/w metals to be joined & solidifies.
❖ Mechanical & physical properties of solder should be near to those of the metals to be joined.
❖ Soft solder : Alloy of tin & lead; melts at 320°C.
❖ Hard solder : Alloy of copper & zinc; melts at 600°C.
❖ Parts to be joined are first cleaned & coated with flux.
❖ Flux is used to remove oxides & other surface compounds & to prevent re-oxidation.

137
 Soldering

❖ Solder is heated by using a soldering iron which is heated to red hot by electric current.
❖ Few pieces of solder are then put on the tip of the soldering iron & a few drops of molten solder
are applied over the joint.
❖ Spots of solder in the joint are spread evenly over the entire length of the joint.
❖ Soldered joints can be easily separated & hence are useful only for semi permanent work.
❖ Cannot withstand high temperature & pressure.
❖ Used in electronic chips, wiring joints etc.

138
 Brazing

❖ Process of making joints which can with stand temperatures up to 800°C & moderately high
pressure.
❖ Filler material called brazing solder or spelter is heated to its melting point & allowed to flow b/w
metals to be joined.
❖ On solidification, a moderately strong joint is formed.
❖ Filler material is generally a mixture of copper, zinc & tin.
❖ Ends of metal pieces to be joined are initially cleaned.
❖ Spelter is then spread over the surface together with the flux.

139
 Brazing

❖ Parts are then clamped together & heated.

❖ Brazing mixture is prepared in the form of a paste.
❖ Paste is made by spelter & flux in equal parts & then adding water to it.
❖ Used in parts of bicycle, pipe joints, lathe tools, saw blades etc.

140
 Lathe

❖ Main function of a lathe is to provide suitable

means to hold a work piece & to rotate it
about an axis.
❖ Cutting tool is fed either parallel or
perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the
work.
❖ If tool is moved parallel to axis of rotation of
work piece, a cylindrical surface is produced.
❖ If tool is moved perpendicular to axis of
rotation of work piece, a flat surface is
produced.

141
Lathe

142
 Parts of Lathe

Bed
❖ Lathe bed forms its body structure & is supported at convenient height.
❖ Headstock, tailstock, carriage etc. are mounted on the bed.
❖ Bed provides required strength & rigidity to the machine.
Headstock
❖ Headstock is mounted on the bed at the left end & is permanently secured there.
❖ Head stock has a gear box for changing the speed of rotation of spindle & thereby the speed of rotation of
work piece.
Tailstock
❖ Tailstock is mounted on the bed at the right end & can be clamped at any convenient position.
❖ It supports one end of the work piece.
❖ Also used for holding tools for performing operations such as drilling etc.

143
 Parts of Lathe

Carriage
❖ Carriage consists of parts that serves to support the cutting tool & to control the action of the
cutting tool.
❖ Can be moved along the bed ways provided at the top of the bed.
Lathe centers
❖ Tapered components fit into spindles provided in the headstock & tailstock.
❖ Centre connected to headstock is called live centre since this centre rotates with the spindle.
❖ Centre connected to tailstock is called dead centre since it does not rotate & its function is only to
support the work piece.
Tool post
❖ Tool post mounted on carriage holds the cutting tool & enables cutting tool be adjusted to a
convenient working position.
144
 Parts of Lathe

Lead screw
❖ Long threaded shaft which is brought into action only when threads have to be cut.
❖ Rotation of lead screw is used to move the tool along the work piece to produce screw thread.

145
 Operations performed on a Lathe

Facing
❖ Operation of machining ends of a work piece to obtain flat surface.
❖ Involves moving cutting tool at right angles to axis of rotation of work piece.
Turning
❖ Removal of material from the periphery of a work piece to obtain a cylindrical surface.
❖ Cutting tool is fed parallel to the axis of rotation of the work, removes material from the rotating
work.
Taper turning
❖ Production of conical surface by gradual reduction in diameter from a cylindrical work piece.

146
 Operations performed on a Lathe

Thread cutting
❖ Process of obtaining continuous helical groove.
❖ Threads can be cut either on outside or inside surface.
Knurling
❖ Process of roughening smooth surface of a cylindrical work piece.
❖ Purpose of knurling is to get grip over the surface.
❖ Knurling tool is pressed against the revolving work piece & is traversed along the length to be
knurled.

147
 Operations performed on a Lathe

Drilling
❖ Operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a work piece.
❖ Work piece is held in the chuck & the drill is held in the tailstock.
❖ Work piece is rotated & drill is fed into the work piece.
Boring
❖ Operation of enlarging an already existing hole.
❖ The job is held in the chuck and rotated.
❖ Single point tool traversed through the hole & parallel to the axis of rotation removes metal &
increases diameter of hole.
Reaming
❖ Operation of finishing & sizing an already existing hole.

148
Operations performed on a Lathe

149
Operations performed on a Lathe

150
Drilling Machine

151
 Parts of Drilling Machine

Drilling is the operation of making holes in a work piece by forcing a rotating tool called drill against it.
Base
❖ Rectangular casting on which the column is mounted.
Column
❖ Vertical member of the machine which supports the table.
❖ Drill head supporting motor & spindle is at the top of column.
Table
❖ Supports the work piece or other work holding devices.
❖ Can be moved up & down on the column.
❖ Can be set in various positions in the horizontal plane.

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 Parts of Drilling Machine

Drill head
❖ Mounted on top of the column & supports the spindle head & motor.
❖ Spindle head houses drill holding & rotating devices.
❖ Hand wheel is provided for upward & downward movement of the spindle.
❖ Drill chuck is mounted in the spindle for holding the drill.
❖ Spindle receives power from the motor through belt & pulley.
❖ Speed of the spindle can be varied.

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 Operations performed on a Drilling Machine

Drilling
❖ Operation of producing circular hole using a drill by removing metal from the work piece.
Boring
❖ Operation of enlarging a hole by means of an adjustable single point tool.
Reaming
❖ Operation of sizing & finishing a hole by means of a reaming tool having several cutting edges.
❖ Reamer merely follows a drilled hole & removes a very small amount of metal.
Counter boring
❖ Operation of increasing diameter of a hole for a certain distance to accommodate heads of bolts,
studs etc.

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 Operations performed on a Drilling Machine

Counter sinking
❖ Operation by which a cone shaped enlargement is made at the end of a hole.
Taping
❖ Operation of cutting internal threads by means of a tool called tap.
❖ When tap is screwed into the hole it removes metal & cuts internal threads.

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Operations performed on a Drilling Machine

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 Milling

❖ Process of removing metal by feeding the work piece against a rotating multipoint cutter.

❖ As the cutter rotates, each cutting edge removes small amount of material from advancing work
piece.
❖ Rate of metal removal is rapid as the cutter rotates at very high speed & has many cutting edges.

❖ Major difference of milling compared to other machining processes are interrupted cutting,
relatively small size of chips & variation of chip thickness in a single chip itself.

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Types of milling

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 Types of milling
Up milling
❖ Work piece mounted on table is fed in the
opposite direction to that of the rotating cutter.
❖ Chip thickness varies from minimum at the
start of cut to a maximum at the end of cut.
❖ Load on each cutting edge is gradually
increased.
❖ Cutter tends to lift the work piece from the
worktable.
❖ While taking heavy cuts it results in poor
surface finish.
Down milling
❖ Work piece mounted on the table is fed in the
same direction as that of the rotating cutter.
❖ Chip thickness varies from maximum at the
start of cut to a minimum at the end of cut.
❖ If work piece has a hard surface, cutter has to
cut through the hard surface which reduces the
life of the cutter.
❖ Cutting force is directed downwards at an
angle, forcing the work piece towards the table.
❖ Down milling produces surface of higher
quality because the cutting pressure keeps the
work piece firmly pressed against the table.
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Horizontal Milling Machine

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 Parts of Horizontal Milling Machine

Base
❖ Foundation member for all other parts of milling machine.
❖ Gives the machine required rigidity & strength.
Column
❖ Main supporting frame mounted vertically on the base.
❖ Front face of the column has vertical guide ways.
Knee
❖ Rigid casting that slides up & down on the vertical guide ways of the column face.
❖ It has horizontal guide ways on top surface.
❖ It supports saddle & table and is partially supported by the elevating screw which adjust the
height of knee.
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 Parts of Horizontal Milling Machine

Saddle
❖ Supports & carries the table and is adjustable on guide ways on the top of the knee.
Table
❖ The table rests on guide ways on the saddle & can be moved longitudinally. It supports the work
piece.
Elevating screw
❖ Height of knee is adjusted by the elevating screw.
❖ Also supports the knee.

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 Parts of Horizontal Milling Machine

Spindle
❖ Spindle obtains its power from motor & transmits it to an arbor.
❖ Spindle has a tapered socket for inserting the arbor.
Arbor
❖ Rod on which the cutter is mounted.
❖ Tapered at one end to fit into the spindle.
Overarm
❖ Mounted on the top of the column.
❖ Overarm support provided at the free end of overarm can be moved horizontally on the guide
ways provided at the bottom surface of the overarm.

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Vertical Milling Machine

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 Parts of Vertical Milling Machine

Base
❖ Foundation member for all parts of milling machine.
❖ Gives the machine required rigidity & strength.
Column
❖ Main supporting frame mounted vertically on the base.
❖ Front face of the column has vertical guide ways.
Knee
❖ Rigid casting that slides up & down on vertical guide ways of column face.
❖ It has horizontal guide ways on top surface.
❖ Supports saddle & table and is partially supported by the elevating screw which adjust the height
of knee.
Saddle
❖ Supports & carries the table & is adjustable on guide ways on the top of the knee.
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 Parts of Vertical Milling Machine

Table
❖ Rests on guide ways on the saddle & can be moved longitudinally.
❖ Supports the work piece.
Elevating screw
❖ Height of knee is adjusted by the elevating screw.
❖ Also supports the knee.
Spindle head
❖ Mounted on the top of the column.
❖ Has a swivel base & hence spindle head can be swiveled at an angle for machining angular
surfaces
Arbor
❖ Rod on which cutter is mounted.
❖ Tapered at one end to fit into the spindle.
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 Operations performed on Milling Machine

Slab or Plain milling

❖ Process by which flat, horizontal surfaces parallel to the axis of cutter can be produced.
Face milling
❖ Process by which flat surface perpendicular to the axis of cutter is produced.
End milling
❖ Process by which flat surface which may be vertical or horizontal is produced.
❖ Cutter has cutting edges on the periphery of a shank.
❖ Used for producing slots, grooves, keyways etc.

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Operations performed on Milling Machine

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 Operations performed on Milling Machine

T-slot milling
❖ A plain slot is cut on the work piece using an end milling cutter.
❖ Then T-slot cutter is fed from one end of the work piece.
❖ Neck portion of cutter passes through already milled plain slot.
Angular milling
❖ Process in which angular surface are produced on a work piece.
Form milling
❖ Process by which profiles on the work piece are produced.
❖ Shape of form milling cutter corresponds to the profile of the surface to be produced.
Gear cutting
❖ Process by which gears are produced using form cutters.
❖ Profile of the cutter corresponds to the tooth space of the gear.

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Operations performed on Milling Machine

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 Grinding

❖ Process of metal removal in which cutting tool used is an abrasive wheel.

❖ Removes small amount of metal from the work piece to bring it to close tolerances.
❖ Obtains better finish on the surface.
❖ Machine hard surfaces which are otherwise difficult to be machined.
❖ Sharpen the cutting tools.
❖ Grinding wheel is made of abrasive particles bonded together by some suitable bond.
❖ Abrasive is a hard material which can be used to cut or wear away other materials.eg. sandstone,
diamond, silicon carbide.

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 Types of grinding

Cylindrical grinding
❖ Produces cylindrical surface on a work piece.
❖ Work piece is rotated about its axis & is traversed across the face of a rotating abrasive wheel.
❖ After each traverse, grinding wheel is moved towards the work by a distance equal to the depth of
metal to be removed.

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 Types of grinding

Surface grinding
❖ Produces flat surfaces.
❖ Grinding wheel is rotated on a vertical axis.
❖ Work is traversed under the revolving grinding wheel.
Form grinding
❖ Produces formed surfaces on a revolving cylindrical work piece.
❖ Form is being determined by the shape of the grinding wheel or by the relative movement of the
grinding wheel & the work.

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 CNC Machines

❖ Machine having a computer assigned to one task or a group of related tasks to perform some or all the basic
numerical control actions is known as Computer Numerical Control [CNC] machine.
❖ CNC is an NC system in which a dedicated computer is used to perform some or all the NC functions in
accordance with control programs stored in the memory of the computer.

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 CNC Machines

Advantages
❖ Substantial reduction in setting up time
❖ Short production time
❖ Reduced human error
❖ Easy incorporation of changes in design of components.
❖ Since CNC machines produce ditto parts, the inspection cost can be reduced.
❖ Greater manufacturing flexibility
Disadvantages
❖ Requires special skill in programming & maintenance.
❖ High initial cost

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 CAD/CAM

❖ Computer-aided design (CAD) involves creating computer models defined by geometrical

parameters.
❖ These models typically appear on a computer monitor as a three-dimensional representation of a
part, which can be altered by changing relevant parameters.
❖ CAD systems enable designers to view objects under a wide variety of representations and to test
these objects by simulating real-world conditions.
❖ Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) uses geometrical design data to control automated
machinery.
❖ CAM systems are generally associated with CAD. CAM uses the model created using CAD for
machining and manufacturing the required product of exact size and shape.
❖ Computer-aided design and manufacturing systems are commonly referred to as CAD/CAM.

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 Additive manufacturing

❖ Additive manufacturing (AM) is a general term used for all technologies that produce parts by
layer addition of material, to achieve the required shape.
❖ The conventional metal removal technique is a subtractive process.
❖ AM technologies fabricate models by fusing or polymerization of materials in predetermined
layers and do not require any tools.
❖ The additive manufacturing is gradual process in which parts are manufactured through layers
and each layers are joined, and process continues until the final part is obtained. Post processing
is usually required to improve the surface finish of the product.
❖ This principle is utilized in 3D printers and other modern manufacturing processes.

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