Density

Density is a measure of the amount of mass per unit

volume.
To calculate density, we divide the total mass of a substance by its total volume (the total
amount of space it occupies).
If you write that down mathematically, it becomes
Density = mass / volume
d=m/V

where, d is density in kg/m3, m is mass in kg and V is the volume in m3.

Note that density can also be measured in g/m3 or g/cm3.
(Note: The greek letter ρ is used to mean density)

To convert kg/m3 to g/m3, you need to do is multiply by 1000.

To convert g/m3 to g/cm3, you need to divide by 1,000,000 or 10^6
To convert kg/m3 to g/cm3, all you have to do is divide by 1000.

At constant mass,
The density is inversely proportional with volume of the substance.
d inversely proportional to V

At constant volume,
The density is directly proportional with mass of the substance
d is directly proportional to m

If equal volumes are compared, the one of the greatest mass will have the greatest density.

If equal masses are compared, the one with smallest volume will have the greatest density.
Notes:
i. Density of water at 4 C is 1000 kg/m = 1 g/cm .
0 3 3

ii. Density doesn’t depend on the volume (how big) of the body only; it depends on both its volume and
its mass.
iii. Density changes with temperature but the density of water is a very exceptional with heat change.
iv. Densities of gases depend on their pressure too.
v. The less dense float over the surface of the denser.
vi. The denser will sink or goes down.

Determining the density of a liquid:

So we’ve already established that to calculate density, we need to know the mass and
volume of the substance that we’re calculating the density of.
To calculate the mass of a liquid, first, weigh the container that is going to hold the liquid on
an electric balance (I’d recommend using a measuring cylinder or a volumetric flask as a
container). Record the mass shown. Then add the liquid to the container (fill it up to the
mark if it’s a volumetric flask), and measure and record the mass of the container + liquid.
(The mass of container + liquid) minus (the mass of the container) will give you the mass of
the liquid.
Now you need the volume of the liquid. Simply read the volume from the graduations on
the measuring cylinder, or, if it’s a volumetric flask and you’ve filled it up to the mark, you
already know its volume (i.e. if you filled a 250cm3 volumetric flask to the mark, then you’ve
got 250cm3 liquid).
Note that 1ml = 1cm3 and 1litre = 1dm3.
Now calculate the density of the liquid using d = m / V and the appropriate units.

Determining the density of a regularly shaped solid:

When I say ‘regularly shaped’ solids, I mean ones that you can calculate the volume of using
math – like a cube or cuboid, a cylinder, a prism, a pyramid, a sphere, etc.
I’m going to assume you know how to calculate the volumes of the shapes listed above, but
if you don’t, please drop a comment below, and I’ll update the notes to include them!
So the first step is calculating and recording the volume of the solid.
Then find and record its mass by weighing it on an electric balance.
Calculate its density using the formula d = m / V and the appropriate units.
Describe the determination of the density of an irregularly shaped
solid by the method of displacement, and make the necessary
calculation.
It’s difficult to calculate the volume of an irregular solid, so we use a slightly different
method – we use the displacement of water. There are two ways to do this – if your solid is
small enough to not take up much space in a measuring cylinder, then you can use just the
measuring cylinder. If not, then use a displacement beaker.
Calculating volume with a measuring cylinder
First, fill a measuring cylinder with water to about half its volume and record the volume of
the water in the cylinder. Then carefully drop the solid into the water, making sure not to
splash the water. Record the new volume. The initial volume reading is the volume of the
water, and the final volume reading is the volume of the water + solid, so the difference
between the two volume readings is the volume of the solid.
Calculating the volume with a displacement beaker:
Fill the displacement beaker with water, filling it as much as you can without having any
water displaced. Place a measuring cylinder at the spout of the beaker (like in the diagram).
Carefully place the solid into the beaker, without splashing any water. The measuring
cylinder should collect all the displaced water. Read off the value of the volume of displaced
water in the measuring cylinder and record it. This is equal to the volume of the solid in the
displacement beaker.
Note that for both these methods, you cannot use water absorbent solids (e.g. dry dirt, a
sponge) as they will absorb some water. This means that the volume of the displaced water
will be less than the volume of the solid.
Okay, so now you have the volume of the irregular solid.
All that’s left is finding its mass using an electric balance, and calculating its density using
the formula d = m / V and the appropriate units.
Pressure
Pressure is a measure of the amount of force applied on a surface, per unit area of that surface.

That means, for a fixed area, if you apply a huge amount of force, you’ll be applying a large pressure
on that area. For that same area, if you apply a smaller force, the pressure will be smaller.

Similarly, for a fixed amount of force, if it’s spread out over a large surface area, the force per unit
area is small, so the pressure is small. However, for that same force, if it’s concentrated on a small
area, the force per unit area is larger, so the pressure is larger.

Pressure is a measure of force per unit area.

P = F/A
Where, P is pressure, F is force and A is area.

The unit for pressure is N/m2 or Pa (Pascals).

The unit for force is N (Newtons).
The unit for area is m2.
To increase pressure - increase the force or reduce the area the
force acts on.
Eg: To cut up your dinner you can either press harder on your knife
or use a sharper one (sharper knives have less surface area on the
cutting edge of the blade).
To reduce pressure - decrease the force or increase the area the
force acts on.
Eg: If you were standing on a frozen lake and the ice started to crack
you could lie down to increase the area in contact with the ice. The
same force (your weight) would apply, spread over a larger area, so
the pressure would reduce. Snow shoes work in the same way.
 Pressure in fluids
Liquids and gases are both called fluids because they are both capable of flowing. The
pressure in fluids that are at rest acts equally in all directions.

Barometers
Barometers can be used to predict the weather. They measure changes
in atmospheric pressure over time.
Differences in pressure are seen on weather forecast maps as a pattern of isobars. These
changes in pressure are used to make predictions and, if used with wind readings, are
reasonably accurate.
Many traditional barometers contain mercury. The mercury is in a long glass tube with an
open reservoir at the bottom:

 higher atmospheric pressure exerts a downward force on the mercury in the reservoir -
and pushes the mercury up the tube
 lower atmospheric pressure cannot hold up the weight of the mercury column as effectively - so
the mercury moves lower down the tube
 Atmospheric pressure forces mercury into a glass tube

Pressure in a liquid - Higher

The pressure in a liquid is different at different depths.

Pressure increases as the depth increases.

The pressure in a liquid is due to the weight of the column of water above. Since the particles
in a liquid are tightly packed, this pressure acts in all directions.

For example, the pressure acting on a dam at the bottom of a reservoir is greater than the
pressure acting near the top. This is why dam walls are usually wedge-shaped. The greater
pressure at the bottom would give a greater ‘force per unit area’ on the wall.

Calculating pressure in a liquid

The pressure caused by a column of liquid can be calculated using the equation:

pressure = height of column × density of the liquid × gravitational field strength

 pressure (p) is measured in pascals (Pa)

 height of column (h) is measured in metres (m)
 density (ρ) is measured in kilograms per metre cubed (kg/m3)
 gravitational field strength (g) is measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg)
The symbol ρ is the Greek letter rho - it is pronounced ‘row’.
As shown in the equation, the height of the column isn’t the only thing that affects the
pressure, the density of the liquid does too. As the density of the liquid increases, so does the
pressure.

If the liquid is open to the air, there will also be atmospheric pressure on its surface.

Pressure increases as you move away from a liquid’s surface.

This can be seen in the experiment: Three identically-sized holes are drilled in a bucket. The
pressure is greater at the bottom of the bucket so the water leaves with greater force. This
is the reason dams are thicker at the bottom.

In addition, more dense liquids exert a greater pressure.

For example, the pressure recorded at the bottom of a test tube of mercury is greater than
the same tube filled with water because mercury is denser.

Pressure differences
When we measure the pressure of gases, like that of the air in car tyres, we usually make this
measurement relative to normal air pressure. That is, we calculate the difference between the
pressure in the tyre and the pressure exerted by our atmosphere. Liquidscan also be measured
against normal air pressure.

A manometer measures the pressure acting on a column of fluid. It is made from a U-shaped
tube of liquid in which the difference in pressure acting on the two straight sections of the
tube causes the liquid to reach different heights in the two arms.

The pressure difference can then be calculated by using the following equation:

pressure difference = height × density × g

p=h×p×g
Gas Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure

The earth's atmosphere exerts a force on everything within it. This force, divided by the
area over which it acts, is the atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure at sea level
has an average value of 1,013.25 millibars. Expressed with other units, this pressure is
14.7 lb per square inch, 29.92 inches of mercury, or 1.01 × 105 pascals-this is commonly
referred to as 1 atmosphere which is equivalent to placing a 1kg mass(10N weight) on an
area of 1 centimeter squared.

Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude: it is half of the sea level value at
an altitude of about 3.1 mi (5 km) and falls to only 20% of the surface pressure at the
cruising altitude of a jetliner. Atmospheric pressure also changes slightly from day to day
as weather systems move through the atmosphere.

How much pressure are you under?

Earth's atmosphere is pressing against each square inch of you with a force of 1 kilogram
per square centimeter (14.7 pounds per square inch). The force on 1,000 square
centimeters (a little larger than a square foot) is about a ton!

Why doesn't all that pressure squash me?

Remember that you have air inside your body too, that air balances out the pressure
outside so you stay nice and firm and not squishy.

The Natural Pressure within our bodies is also about 1 atmosphere.As such, the internal
pressure of our bodies is able to balance out the atmospheric pressure that acts on us.If
this natural pressure was not present within our bodies, we would be crushed to death by
the atmosphere.

Air pressure can tell us about what kind of weather to expect as well. If a high pressure
system is on its way, often you can expect cooler temperatures and clear skies. If a low
pressure system is coming, then look for warmer weather, storms and rain.

What Happens if Air Pressure Changes?

Our bodies are unable to adjust quickly to changes in atmospheric pressure, and we may
suffer injuries or altitude sickness if the changes are too great.

For Example: We know that air pressure in High altitudes is much lower than 1
atmosphere.Hence, to safeguard the passengers on an aeroplane, the pressure in the
aircraft is gradually increased as the plane ascends.This way, the people on board will not
experience a great pressure change.
Why do my ears pop?

If you've ever been to the top of a tall mountain, you may have noticed that your ears pop
and you need to breathe more often than when you're at sea level. As the number of
molecules of air around you decreases, the air pressure decreases. This causes your ears
to pop in order to balance the pressure between the outside and inside of your ear. Since
you are breathing fewer molecules of oxygen, you need to breathe faster to bring the few
molecules there are into your lungs to make up for the deficit.

As you climb higher, air temperature decreases. Typically, air temperatures decrease
about 3.6° F per 1,000 feet of elevation.

Simple Pressure Related Applications:

DRINKING STRAW: A drinking straw is used by creating a suction with your mouth.
Actually this causes a decrease in air pressure on the inside of the straw. Since the
atmospheric pressure is greater on the outside of the straw, liquid is forced into and up
the straw.

SIPHON: With a siphon, water can be made to flow "uphill". A siphon can be started by
filling the tube with water (perhaps by suction). Once started, atmospheric pressure upon
the surface of the upper container forces water up the short tube to replace water flowing
out of the long tube.