2D modelling of hydrocarbon migration along and across growth faults:

an example from Nigeria

Gérard Caillet1 and Sébastien Batiot2
1
TotalFinaElf, Exploration & Production, Avenue Larribau, 64018 Pau, France (e-mail: gerard.caillet@totalfinaelf.com)
2
IGAL, Paris, France

ABSTRACT: Temis 2D was used to study hydrocarbon migration and fluid

distribution in an area of the Niger Delta. In this setting, high pressures are related
to a high sedimentation rate, and pressure compartments are delineated by growth
faults. A growth fault is regarded as a hydro-mechanically active zone contributing
both to a release of high pressures and to hydrocarbon migration from the deep
mature source rocks to shallower reservoirs.
Overpressures are generated in confined systems where water flow is extremely
low. The most significant parameters causing the generation of overpressures are
very low shale permeability and rapid burial. In 2D modelling, pressure calibration is
obtained by adjusting cap-rock permeability and by properly simulating reservoir
connectivity. The accuracy of fluid flow simulation is highly dependent on lateral
transmissibility across reservoirs and/or faults. When pore pressure reaches fracture
pressure, the vertical permeability in the model must be increased to simulate release
of the excess pore pressure by fracturing. Simulating hydrocarbon migration, which
is dependent on both permeability and capillary pressure, from a high-pressure
domain to a lower pressure domain without losing the pressure distribution, requires
a detailed geological model and a thorough calibration.
In a deltaic system, such as the Niger Delta, a growth fault behaves as a complex
zone for fluid flow, due to a relatively low horizontal permeability and a significant
transient vertical permeability. In detail, permeability and capillary pressures in the
fault zone are dependent on clay content (clay smearing) along the fault, possible
cataclasis reducing sandstone permeability, and lithology juxtaposition, forming a
complex structure along which fluids have to move. In this approach the fault is
considered as a permanent active zone with transient fluid and pressure transfers,
implying hydro-mechanical coupling.
The aim of 2D basin modelling is to simulate the geological history of a petroleum
system in order to understand and quantify the hydrocarbon generation, migration
and trapping. As a control of a correct simulation, the main hydrocarbon-bearing
reservoirs must be restored with correct temperature, pore pressure, saturation and
gas:oil ratio (GOR). The results of the present simulation show that all these
parameters, and particularly pore pressures and GOR, are in accordance with well
data. Fluid flow modelling allows vertical migration of the hydrocarbons from the
deep overpressured domain to the hydrostatic domain, and a partial lateral transfer
between adjacent reservoirs, without full pressure equalization. The model correctly
predicts hydrocarbons in the main reservoirs and the appropriate GOR, even though
local variations are not well simulated. Abnormally high pressures are maintained
within the system even though fluid flow and hydrocarbon migration are simulated
in a dynamic mode. The thorough geological description of the fault zone, which
allows a detailed input of petrophysical parameters, is the key to such a result.
KEYWORDS: fault property, petroleum system, numerical simulation, fluid flow

INTRODUCTION predominant in sedimentary basins. In a deltaic environment

growth faults result from the instability in compaction and in
The role of faults in the process of fluid expulsion from effective stress, due to rapid sedimentation. Consequently they
overpressured zones into less pressured zones is recognized as form discontinuities where pressures can be released and fluids
Petroleum Geoscience, Vol. 9 2003, pp. 113–124 1354-0793/03/$15.00  2003 EAGE/Geological Society of London

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can move. Weber & Mandl (1978) and Price (1980) consider
that faults are vertical drains. Many authors (Chapman 1981;
Hooper 1991) consider that growth faults can be both barriers
and flow paths to migration. In all cases, it is recognized that, in
a mature petroleum system, fluid transport along and across
major faults is the main process for hydrocarbon migration.
Losh et al. (1999) demonstrate that a growth fault in the Eugene
Island area acted as a conduit for fluid flow and that this
behaviour is a transient process, with pulsing controlled by the
pressure regime. On the other hand, traps against faults can
occur locally where the faults are lateral pressure or migration
barriers. The complexity of a fault zone in terms of its physical
properties makes it difficult to handle in basin modelling.
Numerical simulation of fluid flow and pressure is highly
dependent on the vertical and horizontal permeability of the
porous system. In a fault zone, permeability is a function of the
rheological characteristics of the deformed rocks, clay content,
cataclasis and cementation – all dependent on adjacent lithol-
ogies – and also a function of the stress pattern. For simulation
purposes, the geological complexity must be greatly simplified.
In this paper an empirical approach is proposed, using the
software Temispack2D (Beicip-Franlab), to simulate hydro-
carbon migration using the fault zones as the main pathways
with respect to pressure equilibration and fluid dynamics. The
main growth faults are used for the fluid transfers, and the
permeability and fluid flow calculation are adjusted to obtain a
thorough pressure calibration and a hydrocarbon distribution
corresponding to field data. In addition to a two-phase simu-
lation, a compositional simulation (three-phase and multi-
hydrocarbon components) was performed to try to obtain fluid
GOR and fluid density which fit the observed data.
The example chosen for this study is an area of the Niger
Delta, where many oil- and gas-bearing reservoirs have been
found, all close to major faults. A large set of data is available
to control and calibrate the simulation.
GEOLOGICAL CONTEXT OF THE NIGER DELTA
The Niger Delta, situated on the Gulf of Guinea on the
West Coast of Africa (Fig. 1), built out during the Tertiary.
Accumulation of marine sediments in the basin commenced in
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G. Caillet and S. Batiot
Fig. 1. Location map of the study area.
Albian time, after the opening of the South Atlantic Ocean, and
delta development started only in the Late Paleocene/Eocene
(Doust & Omatsola 1990).
Throughout the geological history of the delta, its structure
and stratigraphy have been controlled by the interplay between
rates of sediment supply and subsidence. Subsidence has been
controlled both by driving subsidence of the basement as well
as differential sediment loading and compaction of unstable
shales. Many syn-sedimentary and post-sedimentary faults affect
the delta sequence. In fact, the delta can be subdivided into a
number of major growth-fault-bounded sedimentary units or
depobelts.
The Niger Delta is a regressive sequence of clastic sediments
developed in a series of off-lap cycles. The base of the sequence
consists of massive and monotonous marine shales, grading
upwards into interbedded shallow-marine and fluvial sands, silts
and clays. The total thickness of this sequence can reach 12 km
in the centre of the basin.
Growth faulting is interpreted to be triggered by the move-
ment of deep-seated, overpressured, ductile marine shales and
aided by slope instability. As noted by Doust & Omatsola
(1990), the magnitude of throw and growth on faults bounding
depobelts is such that much of the paralic sequence on the
downthrown side is younger than that on the upthrown
side. Within depobelts, growth faults form the boundaries of
macrostructures, each characterized by its own sand–shale
distribution pattern and structural style.
The Niger Delta is a rich oil and gas province. The oils are of
a light waxy type and the gas, usually associated with oil, is
methane rich. The source rocks are the subject of controversy
(Frankl & Cordry 1967; Evamy et al. 1978; Ekweozor &
Daukoru 1984). The Akata shales are probably the most
prolific source rocks, and they reach a high maturity level,
whilst the Agbada shales can partly contribute, even though
they remain generally at a low maturity level (Ejedawe et al.
1984). The kerogen type is considered as a mixed marine- and
terrestrial-type kerogen.
Most of the hydrocarbon traps are structural, either related
to faults or to anticlinal closure. The prospectivity of individual
structures depends principally on sand distribution and sealing
potential of faults. The fluid distribution is usually complex.
 2D modelling of hydrocarbon migration, Nigeria
SYN-SEDIMENTARY FAULTS AND FLUID
MIGRATION
In a deltaic system the sedimentary processes are partly
controlled by syn-sedimentary faults, which allow an accommo-
dation of compaction, tectonic pulses and fluid transfers. Most
of the megastructures are delineated by synthetic and antithetic
faults with an extension of one to several kilometres.
For Crans et al. (1980), the regional synthetic faults result
from the sliding of the sedimentary pile under the effect of its
own weight. For other authors (Evamy et al. 1978; Doust &
Omatsola 1990), these faults are only due to the movements of
the underlying overpressured shales. These faults are charac-
terized by an important throw (hundreds of metres) at depth,
and this throw decreases progressively towards the surface,
indicating a syn-sedimentary movement. These major faults are
the main conduits for fluid transfers, mainly because they are
deep seated. Many secondary faults are associated with the
mega- and macrostructures (crestal fault, flank fault, counter-
regional fault). Their effect on the fluid movements depends
principally on their depth, throw and connectivity with other
faults and reservoirs.
Several studies concern fault plane analysis (Weber & Mandl
1978; Bouvier et al. 1989; Lindsay et al. 1993, Lehner & Pilaar
1996, Yielding et al. 1997; Fisher & Knipe 1998; Knai & Knipe
1998) with the objective of evaluating the sealing potential or
drainage capacity of a fault zone. The fault zone cannot be
considered as a simple fault plane, but as a complex gouge
zone, with mixed materials (complex lithology), fractures,
shearing bands, cementation or clay smearing. The physical
properties of the fault (porosity, permeability, capillary pressure,
and hydrocarbon saturation) are controlled by the nature of the
gouge zone.
Fault transmissibility can also be increased under the effect
of tectonic movements. Such catastrophic events can activate
existing discontinuities or create tension fractures, and can
permit significant fluid flow. Such processes cannot easily be
introduced into a model, as they are discontinuous and not
constrained from a geological point of view.
Outcrop observations do not give a real image of what
occurs at depth on hundred or thousand metre-long faults,
under in situ conditions. As the physical parameters are not
accessible to observation and measurement, an empirical
approach, aiming at calibrating fluid flow and pressures at a
basin or field scale, is proposed.
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Fig. 2. Conceptual model for
hydrocarbon migration.
The conceptual model illustrating what we believe to occur
in the study area is presented in Figure 2. In this model all the
faults are the main paths for fluid migration and the main
vertical barriers to pressure transfer. For computational
reasons, the number of faults is reduced, and the fault zone is
given a greater thickness than in reality. This artificial thickness
increase is due to software handling issues; a software which
allows a coupling between mechanical processes and hydraulic
transfers would allow a more realistic simulation, focused on
the petrophysical properties of faults.
MODELLING HYDROCARBON GENERATION
AND MIGRATION (TEMIS 2D)
The modelled geological cross-section
The geological cross-section (Fig. 3) chosen for modelling is
situated in licence OML 58, an onshore area of the delta. It is
orientated SE–NNW (Fig. 1), with a total length of 32 km. It
crosses several oil and gas fields: Erema, Ibewa, Obagi and
Ebegoro South.
This cross-section is interpreted from a 3D seismic dataset,
and a complete well dataset. The stratigraphic and structural
complexity proposed by the geologists cannot be modelled in
its entirety, so a simplified version is used for modelling (Fig. 3).
Only the main growth faults are considered (the Ama Fault and
Erema Fault) for simulation of hydrocarbon migration and
pressure distribution. A smaller fault, which is known to be
a pressure barrier, is also considered.
The sedimentary pile is more than 6000 m thick (Fig. 4). It is
subdivided into three main sequences. The Akata Formation
(Cretaceous to Early Oligocene) is characterized by highly
overpressured shales. It is considered as the main source rock
of the system, at the present day reaching a high level of
maturity. The Agbada Formation (Oligocene to Mid-Miocene)
is composed of an alternation of sand, silt and clay layers. It is
the prospective unit where most of the oil discoveries are
found. The shaly layers at the base of the sequence have a
significant source-rock potential, but they do not reach a high
maturity level. The Bénin Formation (Late Miocene to present)
is composed of massive sand deposits of fluvial origin. It is an
open system with hydrostatic pressures.
The lithofacies used for modelling (Fig. 5) are limited to five
main lithotypes – pure sand, 75% sand: 25% shale, 50%
sand:50% shale, silty shale, and pure shale They represent the
predominant lithologies in each layer. A different shale type is
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used for the Akata shales with reduced vertical permeability, to
better simulate overpressures.
The main hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs, projected on the
cross-section (Fig. 5), are named Res X and Res XI at
Achira/Erema (between 2800 and 3000 m deep), Res O, Res T
and Res R at Ibewa (between 3000 and 4000 m), Res VI at
Obagi (2200 m), and Res T at Ebegoro (3200 m).
Modelling a fault zone
The problem for modelling fluid flow in a fault zone is to
calibrate the fault parameters to obtain a reasonable transmis-
sibility. The gouge zone is composed of clay and sand, coming
from the rocks along the fault walls. In the case of growth faults
characterized by a throw of several hundred metres, it is
thought that clay smear might not be continuous. It can be
better preserved if the throw is small, and if the sand:shale ratio
is small (Fig. 6a). In case of a significant throw, more discon-
tinuities can occur. On the other hand, all kinds of heterogen-
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G. Caillet and S. Batiot
Fig. 3. Initial 2D geological
cross-section showing the number of
interpreted growth faults.
Fig. 4. Stratigraphy of the modelled
cross-section.
eity within the fault gouge will play a variable role in fluid
transmissibility, under the effect of stress distribution; more
stress anisotropy means more fragility of the fault zone.
The fault zones are modelled with a series of small cells
(Fig. 6b). Each of these cells is characterized in terms of
lithology and petrophysics. Lithotypes attached to a cell are
chosen according to what is expected in the fault zone, as a
function of fault throw, layer thickness and facies of the layers
dragged along the fault. This was performed manually, no
automatic option being available in the modelling package.
Intrinsic permeability and capillary pressure of these mixed
lithologies are a direct function of shale content. An aniso-
tropy factor (to distinguish between vertical and horizontal
permeability) is adjusted empirically to obtain acceptable flow
values (Fig. 6c). A ‘fault clay’ type is used for the central part of
a fault zone, with vertical permeability higher than horizontal
permeability. This is to account for a clay smear situation,
which causes a strong barrier to lateral flow but allows vertical
 2D modelling of hydrocarbon migration, Nigeria 117

Fig. 5. Lithofacies of the modelled

cross-section.

Fig. 6. Modelling a fault zone, from an outcrop to a mesh. (a) Clay smear along a fault zone, from Frechen brown-coal pits in Germany (after
Weber 1987). (b) Clay smearing is included in the geological model, to simulate realistically fluid flow and hydrocarbon migration with TEMIS
2D. Simulated fluid flow will depend on fault plane lithology and juxtaposed lithologies, as a function of fault throw and sand:clay ratio. (c) For
fluid flow modelling, the small cells defining the fault plane are given an intermediate lateral and vertical permeability (sandy shale or shaly
sand). Parameters for horizontal and vertical permeability will be adjusted empirically to obtain a good pressure calibration and a significant fluid
flow.

flow along walls. Capillary pressures in the central zone are also
taken to be intermediate, which will favour a hydrocarbon
migration from clay to fault to sand.
Figure 7 provides a detailed look at a fault zone (enlarged
view of a section from the modelled cross-section in Fig. 5),
showing how permeability is taken into account as a function of
fault zone ‘facies’; the facies itself is empirically deduced from
fault throw, lithology and shale ratio.
Discussion of the method. Fluid flow along and across the fault is a
difficult problem in 2D modelling, as there is no direct means
to check if what is simulated was in fact the real situation during
geological history. Usually, modellers consider the fault zone
with only one lithotype and try to obtain a correct fluid
pressure and fluid transfer by simply adjusting the permeability
corresponding to this lithology. Very often, in a context like the
Niger Delta, there is real difficulty in simulating an effective
hydrocarbon migration, requiring a significant permeability,
together with the maintenance of high overpressures. This is
critical in a dynamic system where hydrocarbon generation,
migration and trapping are still very active today.
In Temis 2D there is no coupling between fluid dynamics
and mechanical movements, which forces users to find other
solutions to simulate linked geological processes. One proposed
method consists of changing the permeability of the fault zone
during geological history. This was tested in the present
example, by considering the faults to be highly permeable until
8 Ma (active faulting=open conduit), and impermeable between
8 Ma and 0 Ma (tectonic quiescence). In that case, a very
effective hydrocarbon migration occurs until the faults are
closed, and the pressure becomes hydrostatic everywhere.
When the faults are closed, hydrocarbon migration stops and
there is a rapid pressure build up. This geological scenario is
acceptable for a snap-shot estimate, and it does give an idea of
the ultimate trapping potential of an area. However, it would
also mean that hydrocarbon migration is inefficient today,
which is not in line with the concept of a dynamic system,
where overpressures occasionally reach the fracture gradient,
and where source rocks remain in a very mature state, supplying
a continuous hydrocarbon flux. Also, it is difficult to under-
stand how fault zones could undergo such a drastic change in
permeability.
The method developed in this paper is based on the concept
of a dynamic system, where hydrocarbon generation and
migration occur together with significant overpressuring.
Overpressures, which result from rapid subsidence and a high
rate of sediment supply, are the driving force for both fluid

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Fig. 7. Enlarged area of a fault zone showing detailed lithology used
for the simulation.
movements and fault activation. In our simulation, overpress-
ures are maintained and hydrocarbon migration occurs simul-
taneously throughout the burial history of the system (even
though an increase of the fault throw with increasing burial is
not directly taken into account).
Well data calibration
The cross-section (Fig. 5) connects several fields (Achira, km-9;
Ibewa, between km-14 and -18; Obagi, km-21, and Ebegoro,
km-29). Well data are used for calibration of temperature, pore
pressure and source rock.
Thermal calibration is based on extrapolated well data
measurements. A heat flow of 0.055 W m
2 is taken at the
base of sediments to simulate present-day temperatures and a
constant heat flow is assumed through the geological history.
The surface temperature varies according to palaeo-
environment and palaeo-latitude changes. Variations in thermal
gradients are mainly dependent on changes in thermal conduc-
tivity of the sedimentary pile (i.e. lithology, porosity and fluid
content).
A temperature versus depth diagram (Fig. 8) shows a
calculated present-day temperature of 73C at 2000 m and
125C at 4000 m. This corresponds to an average gradient of
26C km
1 within this interval. Well data indicate a lower
gradient in the shallow section (between 0 m and 2000 m) than
in the deep section (below 2000 m). This effect is not well
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G. Caillet and S. Batiot
Fig. 8. Comparison of calculated temperatures and well data.
Fig. 9. Comparison of calculated maturity (%Ro) and well data.
simulated, but this does not affect the evaluation of source-rock
maturity which is at a depth where a good match is obtained.
Source-rock maturity is calibrated using vitrinite reflectance
data (%R0). In the model, hydrocarbons are generated within
a source rock when vitrinite reflectance rises above 0.6%.
Available well data show a good fit (Fig. 9).
The pressure regime of the Niger Delta can be subdivided
into two domains; the first domain is hydrostatic and comprises
the Bénin Formation and the top of the Agbada Formation; the
second domain is overpressured and comprises the lower
Agbada Formation and the Akata Formation, at greater depth,
characterized by shale undercompaction. Pressure data from
RFT measurements clearly indicate these two domains with a
sharp build-up transition zone between. The simulation
respects the data and the pressure calibration is quite good at
any location (Fig. 10).
In the simulator, when pore pressure (Pp) reaches fracture
pressure, vertical permeability is increased to release the excess
pore pressure. This option in the simulation facilitates fluid
flow, either water flow from compaction or hydrocarbon
migration from the source rocks to the traps. In the study area,
it is considered that the fracturing threshold is reached when
Pp]0.75
v
 2D modelling of hydrocarbon migration, Nigeria
Fig. 10. Comparison of calculated pore pressure and well data at Erema and Ibewa.
Fig. 11. History of source-rock maturity (transformation ratio and vitrinite reflectance) in the main reservoirs and Mobile Shales.
where sv is the total vertical stress. The shale layers are assumed
to be horizontal barriers to fluid flow, particularly if they are
undercompacted under the effect of a rapid burial. Important
pressure variations can also be observed laterally between fault
compartments, indicating that the faults are vertical barriers to
a horizontal fluid flow. This does not exclude possible vertical
permeability of the fault zone. The model used for simulat-
ing fluid flow in this system allows the maintenance of
pore pressures and transmissibility of fluids together, which
characterizes a dynamic system.
Source-rock maturity
The history of source-rock maturity (Fig. 11), based on vitrinite
reflectance (%Ro) and kerogen transformation ratio (TR),
indicates that the Mobile Shales (Akata Fm.) are producing
most of the hydrocarbons found in the traps, in spite of poor
potential. At the end of the Oligocene (23 Ma) they were below
the oil window (T=140C, TR=35%, %R0=0.75). After 15 Ma,
the Mobile Shales progressively reached the gas window.
Today, the maturity indicators are at a high level (T=195C,
TR=93%, %R0=2.25).
According to the model, in the sand-shale series of the
Agbada Fm. the oil window was reached between 11 Ma and
8 Ma (130C<T<140C, 15<TR<35%, 0.6<%R0<0.8) at the
deepest location, but expulsion started only at the end of the
Pliocene (3 Ma). Today, all the potential source rocks inter-
bedded with the deepest reservoirs are contributing to their
charging with hydrocarbon, but are insufficient to fill all the
accumulations.
The maturity level at present day is illustrated in Figure 12.
The main reservoirs are indicated with their respective pressure
and fluid GOR.
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Burial and pore pressure history
The pore pressure build-up occurred rapidly in the deep series,
between 33 Ma (early Oligocene) and 23 Ma (Late Oligocene),
under the effect of rapid subsidence and onset of under-
compaction (Fig. 13). During this period, the deep reservoirs
became significantly overpressured. Between 23 Ma and 15 Ma,
pore pressure did not increase much because of the lower
sedimentation rate. During deposition of the sand-rich Bénin
Fm. (15 Ma to 8 Ma) and subsequently, the low sedimentation
rate induced a slight decrease of overpressures in the Mobile
Shales, because part of the compaction water was released.
At the present day (Fig. 14), the deep reservoirs are main-
tained at a high pressure, under the combined effect of water
escape from shales and hydrocarbon charging. The shallow
reservoirs are kept at a hydrostatic regime. The distribution of
overpressures in Figure 15 shows that the top of the under-
compacted shales is well simulated.
Hydrocarbon migration and trapping
The history of hydrocarbon migration and trapping in the
whole petroleum system is illustrated in Figure 16 where the
hydrocarbon flow vectors are drawn for 20, 15, 8 and 0 Ma.
Hydrocarbon generation in the Akata Fm. started as early as
25 Ma but migration was effective around 20 Ma, and the
deepest reservoirs (right above the Mobile Shales) were charged
first, rapidly, with a calculated flow exceeding 10 m Ma
1. The
transformation ratio ranged from 20% to 60%, depending on
depth.
At 18 Ma, hydrocarbon flow reached the Erema Fault. The
general fluid flow was mainly vertical, with little lateral trans-
missibility at the base. The transformation ratio within the
 120 G. Caillet and S. Batiot

Fig. 12. Source-rock maturity (vitrinite reflectance) at present day.

Fig. 13. History of pore pressure and overpressure in the main reservoirs and Mobile Shales.

Fig. 14. Pore pressure distribution at

present day.

Mobile Shales reached 70%. The deep reservoirs were fully
charged (>90% oil saturation).
At 15 Ma, the hydrocarbons had reached reservoir S0, at
2400 m. Migration was still mainly vertical at the Erema Fault,
while the flow was more lateral at the level of the secondary
fault of km-18. The deep reservoirs were filled more. The
secondary source rocks in alternation with sands above the
Mobile Shales entered the maturity window (TR of 10 to 30%)
and contributed to the charging of the nearby reservoirs.
At 8 Ma, the hydrocarbon flow had still increased and
hydrocarbon migration extended in to the whole system
(Fig. 16). The secondary fault of km-11 had a major role,
distributing the fluids from deep layers to shallower reservoirs
on both sides of the fault (S0, T0, T1, O, and P) and maintaining
lateral overpressures. Two types of accumulation were created:
(i) in traps against faults, in upthrown compartments where the
fault throw is important and in downthrown compartments
when the fault throw is small; (ii) in large anticlinal structures.
Also noted at this stage was the filling of Reservoir XII within
the hydrostatic zone. The Mobile Shales had reached the gas
window, their level of maturity becoming high (TR >80%). The
structural compartment between the two main faults was

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 2D modelling of hydrocarbon migration, Nigeria
invaded by hydrocarbons between 2500 m and 4500 m. For
geometrical reasons, the Ama Fault has a limited role in the
distribution of hydrocarbons. The deep sand–shale layers of the
paralic series became mature enough (TR between 40% and
65%) to generate and expel hydrocarbons.
At the present time the main hydrocarbon flow is vertical,
which allows a complete filling of the reservoirs (Fig. 17). The
main faults are the efficient vertical drains, particularly fault
km-11, in direct contact with the recently mature silty shales,
which permits hydrocarbon filling of the reservoirs within the
hydrostatic zone. Hydraulic fracturing of the seals is impossible
at shallow depth because of the near-normal pressure regime,
so vertical migration through existing fractures is the only
possible process to fill the shallower reservoirs. The hydro-
carbon saturation at present day is presented in Figure 17. The
reservoirs, in which significant hydrocarbon trapping occurs,
are in red.
Fluid flow in the fault zone
A detailed look at fluid transfer in the fault zones (Fig. 18)
illustrates perfectly the distribution between lateral and vertical
hydrocarbon flow. The fault zone is dynamically a complex
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121
Fig. 15. Overpressure distribution
at present day. The top of
undercompacted shales is correctly
restored.
Fig. 16. History of hydrocarbon
migration and trapping at 20, 15, 8 and
0 Ma.
zone where horizontal and vertical permeability and capillary
pressure, which are very dependent on clay content, cataclasis,
cementation and lithology of the adjacent rocks, can be
modelled with a satisfactory result.
The different dynamic behaviours along and across a fault are
simulated simply using a few facies types accounting for
different petrophysical characteristics (the facies are shown in
Figure 18). The result, in terms of fluid flow, is dependent on
the geometry and juxtaposition of these facies. There is a strong
analogy between the enlarged picture in Figure 18 (‘zoom’) and
the sketch of Figure 6 (clay smearing in an outcrop).
All the hydrodynamics of the system are driven by the
transmissivity of the faults. The excess of pore pressure in the
deep formations is released through the faults, which can be
fractured or re-opened under the effect of high fluid pressure.
The filling of the potential reservoirs with hydrocarbons, which
are generated at depth, is a function of their connectivity to the
faults.
The enlarged picture of a fault zone in the model (Fig. 18)
illustrates how a trap against a large growth fault, in the
upthrown compartment, can be filled with hydrocarbons
coming both from down flank and along the fault plane. The
 122
Fig. 18. Lithology, hydrocarbon saturation and hydrocarbon flow at present day in a fault zone (see Fig. 17 for location).
hydrocarbon saturation within the fault plane never exceeds
30%. The pore pressure is dynamically maintained within the
reservoirs where hydrocarbons replace water by buoyancy. In
that case, the potential traps in the downthrown compartment
are not filled with hydrocarbons, because the parameters
chosen for the fault zone do not allow significant trapping.
As soon as the pore pressure reaches the fault entry pressure
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G. Caillet and S. Batiot
Fig. 17. Hydrocarbon saturation at
present day. Boxed area marked ‘zoom’
indicates the portion of the fault zone
enlarged in Figure 18.
value, which is relatively low compared to a shaly bed,
hydrocarbons can migrate upwards along the fault zone.
The hydrocarbon flows simulated with TEMIS 2D are
average flows calculated at a geological time step (a few metres
per million years). At a thousand-year scale, the fluid flow
within a fault is probably a transient and cyclic process related
to the in situ stresses.
 2D modelling of hydrocarbon migration, Nigeria
Compositional simulation and PVT modelling
An optional module of TEMIS 2D is dedicated to fluid
characterization (GOR, density, viscosity, phase and compo-
sition). This allows prediction of the fluid nature within a
prospect and understanding of the effects of PVT on hydro-
carbon properties during their transfers from the source rock to
the trap.
The kerogen of the source rock is described as a multi-
component material, which will produce different classes of
hydrocarbons as a function of the activation energy. The
hydrocarbons are expelled in the system and are submitted to
varying pressure and temperature conditions. A determination
of the fluid phase and volume evolution is possible using an
equation of state.
An example of a GOR calculation is presented in Figure 19.
At Achira (SE) the GOR is in the range of 300 Sm3 m
3, at
Ibewa it varies from 800 Sm3 m
3 to 2000 Sm3 m
3, and at
Obagi it is in the range of 600 Sm3 m
3, at the depth of
recognized reservoirs. This is in perfect agreement with the
field data (reported in Fig. 12).
CONCLUSIONS
Several hypotheses about fault zone characterization have been
tested. Considering variations within the fault zone, in terms of
permeability and capillary pressure, linked to clay smear and
possible cataclasis, a realistic hydrocarbon migration model is
obtained.
Hydrocarbon migration started 20 Ma ago and has been
continuing until the present day. The main flow is vertical along
the faults. There is also a significant lateral transmissivity
between reservoirs juxtaposed against the fault, particularly
when the sand/shale ratio is high or clay smear dis-
continuous (important fault throw). In the deep domain, faults
are regarded both as semi-permeable drains and lateral barriers
to fluid flow and pressure. Within the hydrostatic domain,
faults have a small throw and are more permeable in the
horizontal direction, which allows a normal connectivity and
pressure transmission.
Abnormal high pressures are maintained within the modelled
system, where fluid flow and hydrocarbon trapping are
simulated in a dynamic way. A thorough geological description
of the fault zone, which allows a detailed calibration of
petrophysical parameters, is the key for such a result.
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123
Fig. 19. Representation of the
calculated GOR at present day in a part
of the section.
An empirical approach to calibrate petrophysical parameters,
where fault throw, depth, pressure and thickness of the layers
are considered, is used, and it has proved acceptable to simulate
hydrocarbon migration in a dynamic way.
A simulation using a compositional definition of the hydro-
carbons and a PVT calculation option of Temis 2D, allows
good prediction of the fluid properties in a trap. This result is
possible because the model is well calibrated in terms of
pressure and temperature, and the complexity of the fault zone
in terms of fluid transmissibility is correctly simulated.
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Received 8 January 2002; revised typescript accepted 20 July 2002.

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