Electromagnetic Theory and

Transmission Lines -0
Paper 1.1
M. Tech I Sem
The three branches of
electromagnetics
 Important terminology

Static

Dynamic
 Important terminology

Waveform

Periodic
 Important terminology
Sinusoidal
 electromagnetics
• Electrostatics and magnetostatics refer to the
study of EM under the specific, respective
conditions of stationary charges and dc currents.
They represent two independent branches, so
characterized because the induced electric and
magnetic fields do not couple to each other.
• Dynamics, the third and more general branch of
electromagnetics, involves time varying fields
induced by time-varying sources, that is, currents
and associated charge densities.
 electromagnetics
• If the current associated with the beam of
moving charged particles varies with time,
then the amount of charge present in a given
section of the beam also varies with time, and
vice versa.
 Constitutive parameters of materials.
• The electric and magnetic properties of materials are characterized
by the parameters ϵ and μ, respectively,

• The parameters ϵ, μ, and σ are often referred to as the constitutive

parameters of a material . A medium is said to be homogeneous if
its constitutive parameters are constant throughout the medium.
 Microwave Material
• The responses of an electromagnetic material to
electromagnetic fields are determined essentially
by three constitutive parameters:

– Permittivity Ɛ
– Permeability µ
– conductivity σ

• These parameters also determine the spatial extent to

which the electromagnetic field can penetrate into the
material at a given frequency.
 Types of Medium
• Free Space:
• Lossless Dielectric:

• Lossy Dielectric:

• Good Conductor:
 complex permittivity
• The complex permittivity of material

– Lossy dielectric
– ε’ : Dielectric constant, ability of a material to
store microwave energy
– ε’’ : Dielectric loss factor, ability of a material to
dissipate microwave energy.
– Similarly, we have complex permeability
 Electromagnetic Field Interaction

STORAGE
Electric Magnetic
Fields Fields

Permittivity MUT Permeability

εr = εr
'
− jε r
"
µr = µr
'
− jµr
"
STORAGE
When electric and magnetic fields pass through a material, each can interact with that
material in two ways:

First:
Storage: Energy may be exchanged between the field and the material, in a bi-directional
(lossless) manner. This energy storage is represented by the real part of permittivity or
permeability.
 Electromagnetic Field Interaction

STORAGE
Electric Magnetic
Fields Fields
LOSS

Permittivity MUT Permeability

εr = εr
'
− jε r
"
µr = µr
'
− jµr
"
STORAGE
LOSS

Second
Loss: Energy may be permanently lost from the field, and absorbed in the material (usually
as heat). This energy loss is represented by the imaginary part of permittivity and
permeability.
Complex permittivity

The dielectic constant of a

medium which has conductivity
is therefore a complex quantity.
What is a Conductor and Dielectric?
 Loss Tangent
ε ''

εr "
r
εr
tan δ = '
εr
ε '
r

1 Energy Lost per Cycle

tan δ = D = =
Q Energy Stored per Cycle

D Dissipation Factor Q Quality Factor

Loss tangent is also equivalent to the dissipation factor and one over the quality factor. It
is a measure of the energy lost relative to the energy stored.
 Complex permittivity
• Dielectric material is mainly determined by the
two complex parameters
– permittivity (ϵ)
• Describes the interaction of a material with the electric
field applied on it.
– permeability (µ).
• Describes the interaction of a material with magnetic
field applied on it.
• Both the electric and magnetic fields interact with
materials in two ways: energy storage(real part) and
energy dissipation(imaginary part).
 Techniques for Measuring Dielectric
Properties
• Dielectric materials play an important role in our
daily life especially every electronic circuit, which
needs a dielectric medium to build the circuit.
Typically high frequency electronics circuits are
built on dielectric materials and the operation of
all high frequency circuits depends on the
dielectric properties of the material. In order to
design high frequency circuits it is essential to
have vital understanding of the properties of the
dielectric materials especially the dielectric
constant (real part of complex permittivity) and
loss tangent at the operating conditions.
• A number of methods have been developed to measure
the complex permittivity of materials

– Transmission/Reflection Line Method

– Resonant Technique
– Antenna method
 What is a Wave?
• A wave is a disturbance that carries energy from place to
place.
• A wave does NOT carry matter with it! It just moves the
matter as it goes through it, like water waves.

• Some waves do not need matter (called a “medium”) to be

able to move (for example, through space).

• These are called electromagnetic waves (or EM waves).

• Some waves MUST have a medium in order to move. These

are called mechanical waves.
 Wave type
• Transverse waves: Waves in which the
medium moves at right angles to the direction
of the wave
 Wave type
• Longitudinal ( or Compressional ) waves:
Waves in which the medium moves back and
forth in the same direction as the wave

Compression: where the particles are close together

Rarefaction: where the particles are spread apart
 Wave properties
• Wavelength: The distance between one point
on a wave and the exact same place on the
next wave.
Frequency: How many waves go past a point in
one second; unit of measurement is hertz
(Hz).

• The higher the frequency, the more energy in

the wave.
– 10 waves going past in 1 second = 10 Hz
– 1,000 waves go past in 1 second = 1,000 Hz
– 1 million waves going past = 1 million Hz
 Wave properties
• Amplitude: How far the medium moves from
rest position (where it is when not moving).

• Wave speed: Depends on the medium in

which the wave is traveling.

wave speed = wavelength x frequency

 Traveling Waves
• Waves are a natural consequence of many
physical processes:
– ripples on the surfaces of oceans and lakes
– sound waves constitute pressure disturbances
that travel through air
– mechanical waves modulate stretched strings
– electromagnetic waves carry electric and magnetic
fields through free space and material media as
microwaves, light, and X-rays.
• All these various types of waves exhibit a number
of common properties, including:

– Moving waves carry energy.

– Waves have velocity; it takes time for a wave to travel
from one point to another. EM waves in vacuum travel
at a speed of c, and sound waves travel slower.
– Frequently are linear in the sense that superposition
applies;
– Waves may be transient when a sudden disturbance
occurs periodic, or perhaps random
 1, 2 or 3 dimensional wave
• An essential feature of a propagating wave is that it is a self-
sustaining disturbance of the medium through which it travels. If
this disturbance varies as a function of one space variable, such as
the vertical displacement of the string shown in Fig, we call the
wave one-dimensional or 1D.
A 2D wave propagates out across a surface, like the ripples on a pond. Described by two
space variables.

A 3D wave propagates through a volume and its disturbance may be a function of all three
space variables. 3D waves may take on many different shapes; plane waves, cylindrical
waves, and spherical waves.
• In the material that follows, To keep the presentation
simple, we limit our discussion to sinusoidally varying
waves whose disturbances are functions of only one space
variable
Sinusoidal Waves in a Lossless Medium

Lossless
 Propagation in the -x Direction

By changing the sign on the βx we can make the wave

propagation in the opposite direction

• If the sign in front of the t term is opposite the sign

in front of the x term the propagation is +x
• If the sign of both terms is identical, plus or minus,
the propagation is -x
 Superimposing +x and and -x Waves
• In practical applications coming up later, we
will routinely deal with a superposition of +x
and -x waves.
 1D Electric Field

(a) propagation direction(+z/-z),

(b) frequency (f ) or period (T )
(c) wavelength (λ) Or wavenumber (β)
(d) its phase velocity (up)
Sinusoidal Waves in a Lossy Medium
Example Power Loss
Sol

which is the speed

of light in a vacuum
Review of Complex Numbers
• Euler’s identity,

• complex conjugate

• The magnitude |z| is

since |z| is a positive

quantity
Some Properties
Example
 Review of Phasors
• Phasor analysis is a useful mathematical tool
for solving problems involving linear systems
in which the excitation is a periodic time
function.
• The use of phasor notation to represent time-
dependent variables allows us to convert a
linear integro-differential equation into a
linear equation with no sinusoidal functions,
thereby simplifying the method of solution.
• After solving for the desired variable, such as
the voltage or current in a circuit, conversion
from the phasor domain back to the time
domain provides the desired result.
where is a time-independent function called the phasor of the instantaneous function z(t).
 Example
• The simple RC circuit shown in Fig. contains a
sinusoidally time-varying voltage source given
by
 EM spectrum
• A monochromatic (single frequency) EM wave
consists of electric and magnetic fields that
oscillate at the same frequency f .
• EM wave phase velocity in vacuum is constant
and is the so called velocity of light in vacuum.
• The phase velocity, up, in a vacuum is always c.
• Different uses for different frequencies /
wavelengths