CHAPTER 1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 BHEL AN OVERVIEW

The first plant of BHEL was established 39 years ago at Bhopal and was the
genesis of heavy electrical equipment in INDIA. Forging ahead on a sturdy
foundation of over five decades of engineering excellence and embracing the
glorious next phase of its growth, BHEL is an integrated power plant equipment
manufacturer and one of the largest engineering and manufacturing company of its
kind in India engaged in the design, engineering, manufacture, construction,
testing, commissioning and servicing of a wide range of products and services for
core sectors of the economy, viz. Power, Transmission, Industry, Transportation
(Railways), Renewable Energy, Oil & Gas, Water and Defense with over 180
products offerings to meet the needs of these sectors. BHEL has been the bedrock
of India's Heavy Electrical Equipment industry since its incorporation in 1964.

BHEL's growth has been synchronous with achieving self-sufficiency in

the indigenous manufacturing of heavy electrical equipment. Out of the available
35,000 MW per annum capacity for power plant equipment manufacturing in the
country, BHEL alone constitutes a mammoth 20,000 MW per annum capacity. A
widespread network of 17 Manufacturing Divisions, 2 Repair Units, 4 Regional
Offices, 8 Service Centers, 6 Overseas Offices, 6 Joint Ventures, 15 Regional
Marketing Centers and current project execution at more than 150 project sites
across India and abroad corroborates the humungous scale and size of its

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operations.

Adding to its achievements, BHEL has joined the elite club of select global
giants having an installed base of over 170 GW of power generating equipment
globally. In FY 2015-16 the company has recorded the highest-ever
commissioning of projects in its history. Enhanced focus on project execution has
resulted in BHEL creating history by way of commissioning/synchronizing an
all-time high 15,059 MW of power generating equipment during the year. This
includes the highest-ever power generation capacity addition of 13,061 MW to
the Indian utility segment, a quantum jump of 59% over the previous year. With
this, BHEL has already achieved 94% of the capacity addition target for the XII
Plan in first 4 years itself. 55% of the supercritical sets commissioned in the
country are contributed by BHEL, a testimony to its valuable contribution
towards nation building.

BHEL also has a widespread overseas footprint in 80 countries with

cumulative overseas installed capacity of BHEL manufactured power plants
nearing 10,000 MW including Belarus, Bhutan, Egypt, Indonesia, Iraq,
Kazakhstan, Malaysia, New Zealand, Oman, Rwanda, Sudan, Tajikistan and
UAE.

The high level of quality & reliability of BHEL products is due to

adherence to international standards by acquiring and adapting some of the best
technologies from leading companies in the world including General Electric
Company, Alston SA, Siemens AG and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd.,
together with technologies developed in its own R&D centers. Most of its
manufacturing units and other entities have been accredited to Quality
Management Systems (ISO 9001:2008), Environmental Management Systems

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(ISO 14001:2004) and Occupational Health & Safety Management Systems

BHEL's greatest strength is its highly skilled and committed workforce of

around 42,200 employees that have been the cornerstone of BHEL's journey
ensuring success. Further, the concept of sustainable development is inculcated in
the DNA of BHEL which is evident from its mission statement-"providing
sustainable business solutions in the fields of energy, industry and infrastructure".
BHEL is also engaging with the society with its social initiatives aimed at
Community Development, Health & Hygiene, Education, Environment
Protection, Disaster Management, and Talent up gradation/Skill development.

The future is filled with both exciting opportunities & grueling challenges.
BHEL has embraced new business opportunities by expanding its offerings and
enhancing competitiveness seeking to realize its long term vision. Creating new
business avenues and maximizing the utilization of available infrastructure will
be the key to future growth and stakeholders' wealth enhancement.

1.2 BUSINESS SECTOR

To provide a strong market orientation, BHEL’s operations are organized

around three business sectors via Industry and International.

1.3 POWER SECTOR

The cumulative overseas installed capacity of BHEL manufactured power

plants stands at close to 10 GW. The first large turnkey project export by an
Indian company was done by BHEL in Libya (1977) and since the past few
decades, BHEL has been expanding its operations in the field of exports.
Currently, BHEL has established references in 80 countries across the globe with

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major contributions in the power sector of various countries and has contracted
power plant equipment of around 17,000 MW outside India. With the growing
impetus on the renewable sector worldwide, BHEL has reinforced its presence in
this segment with orders from Turkey and Nigeria. In 2015-16, BHEL secured
export orders from 17 countries with maiden orders from Belgium and
Mozambique.

1.4 NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCE

The company has been successful in meeting demanding requirements of

international markets, in terms of complexity of work as well as technological,
quality and other requirements viz. HSE requirements, financing packages and
associated O&M services, to name a few. BHEL has proved its capability to
undertake projects on fast-track basis. BHEL has also established its versatility to
successfully meet the other varying needs of various sectors, be it captive power,
utility power generation or for the oil sector. Besides undertaking turnkey
projects on its own, BHEL also possesses the requisite flexibility to interface and
complement other international companies for large projects, and has also
exhibited adaptability by manufacturing and supplying intermediate products.

1.5 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

BHEL places strong emphasis on innovation and creative development.

The R&D efforts of the company are aimed not only at improving the
performance and efficiency of existing products, but also developing new
products using state-of-the-art technologies and processes, relevant to the needs
of the country to remain current both in terms of technology and features vis-à-

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vis global.

With its innovation-led growth strategy, BHEL continues to rank among

the highest R&D spenders in the country in the engineering and manufacturing
segment. During the year 2015-16, the R&D expenditure of the company
was 3.34% of the turnover. 477 patents and copyrights were filed during the year
2015-16, enhancing the company's intellectual capital to 3411.

The Corporate R&D division at Hyderabad leads BHEL's research efforts in a

number of areas of importance to BHEL's product range. Research & Product
Development (RPD) Groups for each product group at the manufacturing
divisions play a complementary role.

1.6 INDUSTRY SECTOR

BHEL is a major contributor of equipment and systems to industries like

cement, fertilizer, refiners, steel paper and telecommunications BHEL has also
established four specialized institutes, viz., Welding Research Institute (WRI) at
Tiruchirappalli, Ceramic Technological Institute (CTI) at Bangalore, Centre for
Electric Traction (CET) at Bhopal and Pollution Control Research Institute
(PCRI) at Haridwar. Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell Plant at Gudgeon pursues
R&D in Photo Voltaic applications.

1.7 TRANSMISSION

BHEL supplies a wide range of products and systems up to 400kv class.

These include high voltage power and distribution transformers, instruments
transformers, dry type transformers, SF6 switch gears, capacitors.

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 For economic transmission of bulk power over long distances, high voltage
direct current systems are supplied. Series and shunt compensation has also been
developed and introduced to minimize transmission losses.

1.8 TRANSPORTATION

A high percentage of trains operated are equipped with BHEL traction

control systems at Calcutta. The company supplies 3900HP broad gauge AC
locomotives to the Indian Railways. Diesel locomotives and shunting vehicles
have also been leased to the Indian Railways. Battery powered road vehicles and
locomotives are also manufactured.

1.9 HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

Calibration and testing laboratories of BHEL are accredited under the

National Accreditation Board for Calibration and Testing Laboratories (NABL)
scheme of laboratory accreditation, which has got mutual recognition with Asia
PacifiLaboratory Accreditation Conference and International Laboratory
Accreditation Conference.

BHEL demonstrated its commitment through regular pooling of

communication of progress on the UNGC website and has also taken a lead role
in promoting UNGC principles in other Indian organizations through the Global
Compact network by organizing case studies/organizational experience sharing &
addressing the Global Compact principles in the Indian context. The company
publically advocates UN Global Compact principles to its stakeholders through

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1.10 COMPANY PRODUCT PROFILE

BAY’S PRODUCT’S MANUFACTURED

A1 Bay Collecting electrode of ESP, gates,
baskets and corrugated sheets of APH.
A2 Bay Top and bottom connecting plate
assembly of APH.
A3 Bay Rotor and modules of APH, control
dampers.
F1 Bay Radial and axial flow impeller.
F2 Bay Casing for radial and axial fans, wind
electric generators.
F3 Bay Several precision components, parts,
fuel tank.
H1 Bay Cutting and forming of sheet metal.
R1 Bay Production of ESP plates

Along with these production lines there is inventory for raw materials and
material tools, etc.

Material production shop for preparing the materials arte guided for
manufacturing components of air pre-heater and fans. The power to the whole
plant is supplied by a substation. There is also a shipping yard used for exporting
the goods and to dispatch them. The products to various sites is also used for
preservation and packing of goods.

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1.11 PRODUCT PROFILE

Fig: 1.1 Product Profile

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 BHEL- Ranipet manufactures about 6 products. They are being grouped
into two:

a) CONVENTIONAL PRODUCTS
 AIR PREHEATER.(APH)
 ELECTROSTATIC PERCIPITATOR (ESP).
 FAN BLADES (Axial Impulse and Reactor).
b) DIVERSIFIED PRODUCTS
 WIND ELECTRIC GENERATOR.
 DESALINATION.
 DEFENCE (Rocket Launch Pads)

BHEL-Ranipet has technical collaborations with the leaders for its

products

1. Sweden for ESP.

2. US for APH.
3. Germany for Fans.

These auxiliaries again play a vital role on thermal plants, some of them is
listed below:

ESP: controls Air Pollution.

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 CHAPTER 2

2. LITERATRE REVIEW

2.1. WEIGHT OPTIMIZATION OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR

(ESP) FUNNEL USING EXISTING MODEL.

The particulate matters released out of the industries such as boiler,

cement, power generation etc. received attention because of firm environmental
protection agency (EPA). Electrostatic precipitators (ESP) developed by
Frederick G. Cottrell (Professor of chemistry at the University of California,
Berkeley) is the most commonly used technologies for separation of ash particles
from the emission. The objective of this work is optimizing the stiffener size and
shape so that the weight of the hopper and funnel can be as minimum as possible.
The main aim of this work is to reduce the existing weight of the hopper and
funnel by 9-10%. In this present work, the APDL programmer is built for the
modelling of the hopper and funnel and to reduce the weight. The simulation
result shows that by taking the optimization runs the software gives the idea of
the stiffener size and shape to be used. The results show the appropriate weight
distribution and use of stiffener size where needed and all the stress and
deflection are within limit.

2.2. POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES IN ESP -A. BUEKENS

In 1906 Dr. Frederick Cottrell, professor of physical chemistry at Berkeley,

successfully precipitated sulfuric acid fumes in a small electrostatic precipitator
(ESP) test unit using a high voltage transformer and the newly-invented
synchronous mechanical rectifier. The commercial feasibility of the electrostatic

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precipitator was first demonstrated in a sulfuric acid plant of E.I. DuPont de
Nemours, where arsenic vapors were impacting the operation of their catalytic
converters. In 1911 Western Precipitation designed and constructed the first large
electrostatic precipitator, which was installed at the Riverside Cement Company
in Crest more, California for the recapture of cement kiln dust. This unit
remained in service for 54 years.

2.3. WEIGHT OPTIMIZATION OF ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR

(ESP) FUNNEL USING FEA APPROACH.

The particulate matters released out of the industries such as boiler,

cement, sugar industries received attention because of firm environmental
protection agency (EPA). The Electrostatic Precipitator’s (ESP’s) are extensively
used for cleaning flue gases from process industries by separating the ash
particles from the flue gases. They can work in comprehensive range of gas
temperature with efficiency 99.7% as compared to other mechanical devices. The
ESP involves some complex and interconnected physical mechanism like particle
charging, particle collection and removal of collection dust by rapping
mechanism. Due to corona discharge, ionic and electronic charging of gas
particles which are moving in Electro hydrodynamic field takes place and
charged particles are moved towards the collecting plates. The weight
optimization of the funnel is the main criteria behind the design. FEA simulation
and optimization plays a very important role in weight optimization of the hopper
and funnel.

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 CHAPTER 3

3. ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The particulate matters released out of the industries such as boiler,

cement, sugar industries received attention because of firm environmental
protection agency (EPA).The Electrostatic Precipitator’s (ESP’s) are extensively
used for cleaning flue gases from process industries by separating the ash
particles from the flue gases. They can work in comprehensive range of gas
temperature with efficiency 99.7% as compared to other mechanical devices. The
ESP involves some complex and interconnected physical mechanism like particle
charging, particle collection and removal of collection dust by rapping
mechanism. Due to corona discharge ionic and electronic charging of gas
particles which are moving in Electro hydrodynamic field takes place and
charged particles are moved towards the collecting plates. The weight
optimization of the hopper and funnel is the main criteria behind the design. FEA
simulation and optimization plays a very important role in weight optimization of
the funnel.

It is to be noted that for the optimization of funnel only the size and shape
of the stiffener is varied not the distance between the stiffeners. The optimization
module in the ANSYS is cross checked with the help of the analytical calculation
by taking the similar example and hence the optimization method is validated.
The weight of the ESP is very large due to the use of large sections of
stiffener, in actual practice such large sections of the stiffener is not of any use.
Due to this heavy weight unnecessary wastage of material is done and finally cost

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of production is also increased. The main aim behind the work is to minimize the
existing weight of the ESP by 8-10%.

Fig 3.1 Electrostatic Precipitator.

The dimension of the hopper and funnel is obtained from the supplier in
form of Auto Cad drawing sheet. The modeling is done with the help of the
APDL programming language so that the computation time of the software is
reduced and also the model is parametric so that the quick changes in geometry is
possible. The hopper and funnel is drawn to full scale geometry and the exact
boundary condition is considered such as wind load, dust density, temperature,
and suction pressure. The whole model is divided into two types such as stiffener
are represented as 1D elements and the other parts such as plate and supports are
represented by 2D elements.

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 Fig 3.2 Layout of Electrostatic Precipitator.

3.2 THEORY OF PRECIPITATION

Electrostatic precipitation is a method of dust collection that uses

electrostatic forces, and consists of discharge wires and collecting plates. A high
voltage is applied to the discharge wires to form an electrical field between the
wires and the collecting plates, and also ionizes the gas around the discharge
wires to supply ions. When gas that contains an aerosol (dust, mist) flows
between the collecting plates and the discharge wires, the aerosol particles in the
gas are charged by the ions. The Coulomb force caused by the electric field
causes the charged particles to be collected on the collecting plates, and the gas is
purified. This is the principle of electrostatic precipitation, and Electrostatic

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precipitator applies this principle on an industrial scale. The particles collected on
the collecting plates are removed BY methods of washing with water and hopper.

Fig 3.3 Principle Of ESP.

3.3 PLATE PRECIPITATORS

Electrodes at high voltage create a corona effect (ionized atmosphere)

surrounding them. This charges the passing particles. Once charged, particles are
subject to a transverse electrostatic force that pulls them toward the collecting
plates. Plates are periodically “rapped” (vibrated) to make the collected particles
fall down into a receiver basket in the bottom of the apparatus.

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 Fig 3.4 Plate Precipitator.

3.4 WET ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR

In wet electrostatic precipitators, charged particles (green) are collected
onto the collectors as seen in the animation here. As the particles accumulate on
the collector, a liquid (blue), typically water, runs down the plates. The water
collects and removes the particles from the plates.

3.5 DRY ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR

Dry electrostatic precipitators clean the collecting plates in a different
manner, as can be seen in the animation below. As the particles (green)
accumulate, the collectors are rapped, causing the particles to fall. During
rapping, usually a hammer or other similar device delivers a blow on the collector
at an intensity and frequency determined by the properties of the collected
material. A vertical shock wave is created that causes the collected material to fall
down the precipitator. These particles are collected in large hoppers at the bottom
of the precipitator.

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3.6 COLLECTION EFFICIENCY
The dust collection efficiency of Electrostatic precipitator is affected by the
electrical resistivity of the dust collected. In the normal resistivity area, the dust
collection efficiency is high, so dust collection is stable. Most of the aerosols
handled by Electrostatic precipitator are in this electrical resistivity area.

Particles in the low-resistivity area lose their charge as soon as they arrive
at the collecting plate, so they are re-entrained in the dust collection area, and the
dust collection efficiency is greatly reduced.

The dust collection efficiency in the high-resistivity area reduces as the

electrical resistivity of the dust increases. Also, partial discharge occurs within
the dust layer collected on the collecting plates, and as a result flashovers
frequently occur, the applied voltage is reduced, and the discharge current is
reduced. If the electrical resistivity of the dust is further increased, the discharge
current increases abnormally, and the applied voltage is reduced (back corona
phenomenon). The moving-electrode type electrostatic precipitator we developed
is suitable for high-performance collection of high-resistivity dust. Therefore, an
important factor when planning Electrostatic precipitator is the electrical
resistivity of the dust to be collected.

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 Fig 3.5 ESP Principle

The dust collection efficiency of Electrostatic precipitator is affected by the

particle size of the aerosol (dust, mist) to be collected. The theoretical migration
velocity at which a particle diameter of several µm moves towards the collecting
plate is almost directly proportional to the particle diameter. When dust collection
is performed on an aerosol with different size particles using an electrostatic
precipitator, the collection efficiency is high for the large particles, and low for
the small particles.

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 To obtain the same dust collection efficiency for an aerosol with small
particle size, the electrostatic precipitator must be larger (to increase the treating
time it takes for the process gas to pass through) than that of large-size particles.
Therefore, the particle size distribution of the aerosol to be collected is an
important factor when planning an electrostatic precipitator.

The dust collection efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator is greatly

affected by the concentration in the gas of the aerosol (dust, mist) to be collected.
For the same required value of aerosol concentration at the outlet of the
electrostatic precipitator, the higher the aerosol concentration at the inlet, the
longer the treatment time of the gas in the electrostatic precipitator, and the larger
the device.

Also, if the inlet aerosol concentration is high and the content of fine
particles smaller than several µm is high, in order to create a charge cloud of
charged fine particles between the discharge wires and the collecting plates, the
corona discharge from the discharge wires is reduced, also reducing the dust
collection efficiency (space charging effect).

The aerosol concentration at the electrostatic precipitator inlet and the

required outlet concentration are important factors when planning an electrostatic
precipitator.

Electrostatic precipitators are used to separate small particles, 1 micron or

smaller, from gas streams. This process is also used in desalters to separate salts
and sediment from crude oil feeds.

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3.7 PRECIPITATOR COLLECTING ELECTRODES

The collectors get covered with particles and are cleaned off periodically.
The particles are generally discarded but can be further processed if profitable.

Fig 3.6 Precipitator Electrode.

Electrostatic precipitators can collect a variety of particles from a gas

stream. The table below shows the wide range of collection sizes in gas streams,
from as small as x-rays and smog to as large as fly ash and pulverized coal

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 Electrostatic precipitators can be designed for horizontal flow or vertical
flow. The schematic below shows a vertical flow electrostatic precipitator. The
feed gas enters near the bottom and rises to the top. As it enters, the stream passes
electrodes creating an electric field that gives the particles a charge, usually
negative. When the stream reaches the collectors, the particles are attracted to the
grounded surface that is oppositely charged. The collector can take one of four
shapes: parallel, round, hexagonal, or square. Each design has its tradeoffs in
terms of space requirements, collection surface, power intensity, and
maintenance. The feed stream, now free of particles, exits out the top of the
precipitator. Electrostatic precipitators usually have efficiencies of greater than
99%.
In addition to horizontal versus vertical flow, electrostatic precipitators
include wet and dry precipitators. A third, specialized type of electrostatic
precipitator is desalters, which removes salts and sediment from crude oil
streams. The dust collection efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator is greatly
affected by the concentration in the gas of the aerosol (dust, mist) to be collected.
For the same required value of aerosol concentration at the outlet of the
electrostatic precipitator, the higher the aerosol concentration at the inlet, the
longer the treatment time of the gas in the electrostatic precipitator, and the larger
the device.

Also, if the inlet aerosol concentration is high and the content of fine
particles smaller than several µm is high, in order to create a charge cloud of
charged fine particles between the discharge wires and the collecting plates, the
corona discharge from the discharge wires is reduced, also reducing the dust
collection efficiency (space charging effect).

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 The aerosol concentration at the electrostatic precipitator inlet and the
required outlet concentration are important factors when planning an electrostatic
precipitator. Electrostatic precipitators are used to separate small particles, 1
micron or smaller, from gas streams. This process is also used in desalters to
separate salts and sediment from crude oil feeds.

3.8 PACKING

Fig 3.7 Packing.

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3.9 COLLECTING PLATES

The particle drift speed (we) results from a balance between the
electrostatic force due to the charge (Fe) and the resisting drag force (Fd) exerted
by the air due the relative motion between air and particle. For the drag force, we
assume that the particles are very small. (The purpose of an ESP is precisely to
catch very small particles!). So, we use Stokes’ Law with the
Cunningham Slip factor correction (refer to slide in lecture on Transport
Phenomena).

Fe= electrostatic force = charge x electric field = qE.

Fd= drag force = 3πufdpwe/ce.

Fd= Fe = 3πufdewe/ce= qE.

where
q = charge acquired by each particle
E = electrical field = voltage difference divided by electrode-plate
distance d.
Cc = Cunnigham slip factor (to be obtained from graph or formula)
Uf= fluid viscosity = 1.81 x 10-5 kg/m.s for air at ambient
temperature.
dp = particle diameter.

The charge q acquired by a particle is a certain number times the charge of

the electron, which is 1.6 x 10-19 C.

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3.10 DESALTERS
Desalters have a slightly different function and equipment design,
containing electrified grids. The feed is raw crude oil, which is mixed with wash
water before entering the desalters. This mix creates an emulsion containing fine
droplets of the immiscible liquids. The wash water absorbs most of the salt from
the crude oil feed. In the desalters, the emulsion feed separates into an oil phase,
an emulsion of water and oil, and a water phase containing dissolved salts. The
electrified grids promote further separation of salt from crude oil and the
coalescence of water droplets containing the salt from the crude oil feed. The
water and desalted oil are separated by gravity and immiscibility into the product
streams.

Fig 3.8 Desalters.

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3.11 DISCHARGE ELECTRODES

They are high voltage unit that negatively charges the particular gas it
enters. The electrodes were once wires that suspended from the ceiling and
weighted at the bottom

There are many types of configuration of discharge electrodes. The most

commonly used type of electrodes is the spike electrodes. The electrodes are
mounted to a frame in between the ceiling. the negatively particle that pass by the
electrodes and then to the counter charge of the collecting plates, make the
particular like the magnet on the refrigerator.

Fig 3.9 Discharge Electrodes

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 3.12 RAPPERS

There are many types of rappers. Rappers are used to dislodge the
particulate from the collecting plates. They used mechanical, pneumatic and the
MIGI rapper.

Mechanical rappers work like a hammer and a chisel. The hammers are
attached to the rods which are attached to a rolling cam above. The cam is turned
by an external motor and gear.

The pneumatic rapper uses compressed air to operate. Pneumatic powered.

Rappers work really fast and well as long as the conditions permit and the factory
uses compressed air.

Fig 3.10 Rappers

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 MIGI stands for magnetic impulse rapper. The MIGI uses magnetic coil to
drive the hammer up and down. The magnetic coil is wrapped around the
hammer. When the magnet is electrically energized, the hammer will be pulled
up; similar to the way a positive and a negative magnet are attracted. Once the
power is off, The hammer falls, like a magnet and its properties.

3.13 FUNNEL

The funnel is used for transferring the flue gas from the boiler to the ESP
so all the forces acts on the funnel. Since an ESP has four funnels then the overall
weight of the ESP increases, the efficiency of the funnel it must be good
otherwise it is difficult to cope up with the other forces acting on it. The pressure
at which the flue gas comes is at 600mmWC. So it should be able to withstand
the forces. And that two of a good one the weight of ESP must be less then only
the sales will go up so as to give it a chance to gain the energy it should have.

All the forces will be acting on the ESP so it will be large and cant be
overrun to get a life back and to gain the effort it has put on the ESP. The process
plan for these things is very difficult so to get what we need is to reduce the
weight and that of a small change it can make in history. After this adjustment, on
the same height of cross section, the velocity difference between every point is
small. In the same gas passage of cross section, the velocity in upper part is more
than lower part. The curve is closed to the ideal distribution curve of literature.
According the judging method of gas distribution uniformity in literature, the gas
distribution uniformity has achieved qualified level in the first and second electric
field entrance.

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3.14 MAJOR EQUIPMENTS

3.14.1 RPEF

RPEF Structures and principles RPEF consists of discharging electrode,

rotary collection plate, driving gear, brush and rapping system for discharging
electrode. Negative discharging electrode is connected with single high voltage
power supply or adjacent electrostatic field. In working conditions discharging
electrodes which have a strength frame may adheres positive charged particles
which must be cleaned by rapping system to keep a fine discharging state. While
rotary collection multi-hole plates are slowly moved by driving system, dust is
precipitating on these plates. When rotary plates shift to the button of ESP,
adhered particles are removed by brushes and no re-entrainments occurs. RPEF
could be installed in inlet or outlet. Effects and characteristics The main effects of
RPEF are that: making fine and high specific resistivity particles fully and
equally charged and enhancing collection efficiency. The characteristics of RPEF
are: Optimized electrode arrangements have stable electric performances, great
electric intensity and uniform current density; Electric force of negative charged
particles has the same direction with air flow; fixed brush in RPEF can keep
collection plate clean and effectively prevent from re-entrainment and back
corona.

3.14.2 FUEF

Structures Discharging electrodes connected with single power supply or

first electrostatic field are installed before the last layer of airflow distributing

28
plates in inlet and make up of an electrostatic field with these plates, the
electrostatic field is called FUEF which could uniform airflow and collect
particles. Otherwise rapping systems are installed both for distributing plates and
discharging electrodes. Effects and characteristics FUEF has four effects:
charging particles, agglomerating particles, collecting particles and distributing
airflow. In FUEF that electric force has the same direction with air flow benefits
for electrostatic capturing and interception; Structures of discharging electrode
and airflow distributing plate are optimized depending on flue gas and particle
conditions, so particles charge more equally and FUEF performance is more
stable; Special rapping system could keep surfaces of discharging electrode and
airflow distributing plate cleaner and V-I characteristics better.

3.14.3 RCEF

Structures Discharging electrodes system with super corona performance

makes up of RCEF which can be repeatedly installed in front of original
electrostatic fields. Effects and characteristics ECEF charges particles equally and
fully again before entering next electrostatic field and lays the foundation for
high collection efficiency. The optimized RCEF depending on electrostatic field
structure has high electrostatic field strength and high current density, so particles
especially in high consistence areas are fully charged.

3.14.4 AIRFLOW ADJUSTMENT

Structures and principles Airflow adjustment equipment consists of airflow

guide plates in pipes and in inlet, airflow distributing plates in inlet and in
electrostatic fields, airflow guard plates in bypasses and adjustable plates in
outlet. Its principles are that: before entering the flange of ESP high velocity

29
airflow is rectified and conformed to the required velocity direction by guide
plate in pipes. Then guide plates in inlet make airflow macro distributing plate’s
airflow to required airflow distribution before entering electrostatic fields.
Airflow distribution in electrostatic fields and bypass airflow interception are
respectively carried out by guide plates in electrostatic fields and guard plates in
bypass, while airflow deterioration behind the last electrostatic field is prevented
by adjustable plates in outlet.

Effects and characteristics Structures and positions of airflow adjustment

equipment are designed depending on the results of hydrokinetics numerical
analog computation. This adjustment can get special airflow distribution
(uniformity distribution or skewed airflow distribution) depending on flue gas
conditions, physicochemical properties of particles, structures and performance
of ESP.

3.14.5 ADJUSTABLE SOUND DEVICE

Structures and principles Adjustable sound device consists of com-pressed

air source, electromagnetism valve, oil water separator, decompression valve, oil
mist filter and control system. Compressed air is used as dynamical source of
Adjustable sound device, high strength membrane as Sound source. The
periodicity vibration of sound source enlarged by exponential horn forms low
frequency and high energy sound. When this sound spreading in space, dust
layers on interspaces components vibrate at the sound frequency, which conquers
the adhesive forces between component surfaces and dust layers, particles in dust
layers and makes particles floating. Coupled with gravitation and airflow effects,
particles fall off from component surfaces into hoppers. Effects and
characteristics The adjustable sound device clears particles in special areas where

30
rapping system can’t clean. That could keep all electrode arrangements uniformly
cleaned and beneficial for charged particles being collected. The adjustable sound
device is a patent technology developed by XAYQ. It over comes rapping force
decaying and defect of un-uniformly cleaning caused by traditional methods,
reduces abrasion of mechanical components (like rapping and transmission) and
operating costs, and enhances collection efficiency. Strength of adjustable sound
device could be adjusted to achieve the best performance of particle clean
depending on flue gas conditions and particle characteristics. Adjustment sound
device could be used as assistant equipment in five stage ESP technology.

3.15 OPERATING PRINCIPLE

Electrostatic precipitation is a physical process, which collects the

particulates suspended and electrically charged under the influence of the electric
field which is generated by corona in gas stream. This electric field drives the
charged particulates to a collecting surface, separating them from the gas. This
process is exceedingly complex. Electrical, mechanical, chemical and
aerodynamic phenomena are intimately involved. Three aspects of the process are

Charging the suspended particulate. Collecting the particulate under the

influence of the electric field. Removing the particulate from the collecting
surfaces and discharge electrodes and transfer from the system. An electrostatic
precipitator consists of electrically grounded plates with negatively-charged
electrode suspended between them. A gas stream with particulate (material to be
removed) is introduced between the plates. The electric charge on the electrode
creates a corona field which imparts a negative charge to the particulate. The

31
charged plates are repeatedly cleaned with film coating water spray and flushing
water spray installed above them, dislodging the particulate which falls into a
hopper beneath the plates. Periodically, the particulate is removed from the
hoppers to pond.

3.16 PARTICLE CHARACTERISTIC

ESEM were taken of deposited particles sampled from center of flow dusts
at upstream (MP1), downstream (MP2) of DFS-ESP, and the upstream flow
separator wall. Typical example of these images, where the corresponding size
distribution analysis. The ESEM images indicated that the majority of the
deposited fine particles are agglomerated structures of the near spherical shape.
The size distribution determined by ESEM image analysis shows that particles
sampled from three locations have the similar size distribution and particle sizes
from 50 to 100 nm. The mean particle diameter is estimated approximately 84
nm, 96 nm and 85 nm for locations MP1, MP2 and the upstream flow separator
wall respective.

3.17 PARTICLE SEPARATION

The particle number density for different total inlet gas flow rate at
upstream (MP1) and middle of main channel (MP3) and the corresponding size
distribution for MP1, MP2 and MP3 at 7 Nm3 /h is that the particle number
density increases with increasing total inlet flow at MP1, and decreases at MP3,
which demonstrates that more particles are separated to the ESP branch at higher
inlet gas flow. shows the particle size distribution at MP1, MP2 and MP3 for total
inlet flow at 7 Nm3 /h. First of all, fine size particles (17 nm-41nm) range at MP1
(upstream) and MP2 (downstream) is approximately 15% difference, which most

32
likely is the function of deposition of the whole DFS-ESP system. Secondly,
particles with size range larger than 162 nm occupy most of the portion at MP3.
Based on the above observations, the particles with smaller size range are
separated at DFS section, especially effective with 17 nm to 41 nm size range;
and particles show the trend of agglomeration at MP2 and MP3 at higher size
range.

3.18 GAS FLOW SEPARATION

Based on the flow velocity distribution in main branch at location MP3, the
flow rate was determined, where by subtracting the flow rate of the main channel
(MP3) from that at upstream (MP1), the flow rate in the ESP branch is
determined. The comparison for flow rates between ESP branch and mainstream
(run). Since the flow rate in the ESP branch is relatively small, the real value is
scaled 10 times to observe the trend. the main flow increases and branch flow
decreases as increasing total inlet flow rate. This demonstrates less gas flow to
the ESP branch as the total inlet flow increases. Flow separation fraction in
branch is determined by: MP1 MP 3 MP1 η = − ( )/ QQ Q Therefore, for the
different total inlet flows (5 Nm3 /h, 7 Nm3 /h and 8.5 Nm3 /h), the gas flow
separation fraction are approximately 3%, 2% and 1% respectively, where the
major gas flow is in the main flow channel and less in ESP branch.

3.19 DFS-ESP PARTICLE COLLECTION

Dust particle collection efficiency based on particle density as a function of

ESP applied voltage is for which gas flow for inlet gas temperature 165°C and
dust density 2×109 #pt/m3 -4×109 #pt/m3 . From the flow rate analysis in
previous paragraph, the ESP branch flow rates are approximately 0.2 and 0.14

33
Nm3 /h for 5 Nm3 /h and 7 Nm3 /h total inlet gas flow rates respectively, and
these information as inputs for the MESP to compare dust particle collection

Fig 3.11 DSP-ESP

Efficiency shows that particle collection efficiency based on number density

Increases with increasing total inlet gas flow rate and ESP applied voltage, where
the relatively low collection efficiency before corona-onset voltage may be due to
the diffusion and thermal effects within the entire system. The experimental
results and MESP code prediction agree qualitatively and quantitatively for above
20kV ESP voltage and 7 Nm3 /h gas flow rate, where quantitative analysis shows

34
that about 95% particle collection efficiency based on the number concentration
can be obtained at 7 Nm3 /h and ESP voltage above 20kV.

The particle mass concentration based collection efficiency is presented

where particle mass density is around 1.05 mg/cm3. Comparing with the number
density based particle collection efficiency; particle mass density based collection
efficiency is relatively smaller, where the highest value is around 76%. This
discrepancy might due to the fact that the agglomerated larger dust particles may
not well separated to reach ESP branch due to the larger inertia. Note the
detection limit of the instrument used for mass density may contain a few
percentage errors in the present range of measurement.

Further analysis for partial particle collection efficiency is conducted using

CNPC-PSS. Results are shown in Fig. 10 and 11, for the collection efficiency at
20kV ESP voltage, and 5 Nm3 /h and 7 Nm3 /h gas flow rate, respectively. It
indicates that the most particle number collection efficiency can be obtained for
fine particles in the range of 17 nm to 41 nm, which is 86.6% for 5 Nm3 /h gas
flow rate, and 95.6% for 7 Nm3 /h gas flow rate. Agglomeration of particle can
also be observed for particles’ size in the ranges of 72 to 102 nm and above 162
nm.

3.20 TYPER OF ESP’S

ESPs are configured in several ways. Some of these configurations have

been developed for special control action, and others have evolved for economic
reasons. The types that will be described here are (1) the plate-wire precipitator,
the most common variety; (2) the flat plate precipitator, (3) the tubular
precipitator; (4) the wet precipitator, which may have any of the previous

35
mechanical configurations; and (5) the two-stage precipitator.

3.20.1 PLATE-WIRE PRECIPITATOR

Plate-wire ESPs are used in a wide variety of industrial applications,

including coal-fired boilers, cement kilns, solid waste incinerators, paper mill
recovery boilers, petroleum refining catalytic cracking units, sinter plants, basic
oxygen furnaces, open hearth furnaces, electric arc furnaces, coke oven batteries,
and glass furnaces. In a plate-wire ESP, gas flows between parallel plates of sheet
metal and high-voltage electrodes. These electrodes are long wires weighted and
hanging between the plates or are supported there by mast-like structures (rigid
frames). Within each flow path, gas flow must pass each wire in sequence as
flows through the unit. The plate-wire ESP allows many flow lanes to operate in
parallel, and each lane can be quite tall. As a result, this type of precipitator is
well suited for handling large volumes of gas. The need for rapping the plates to
dislodge the collected material has caused the plat to be divided into sections,
often three or four in series with one another, which can be rapped independent.
The power supplies are often sectionalized in the same way to obtain higher
operating voltages, and further electrical section may be used for increased
reliability.

Dust also deposits on the discharge electrode wires and must be

periodically removed similarly to the collector plate. 6-6 The power supplies for
the ESP convert the industrial ac voltage (220 to 480 V) to pulsating dc voltage in
the range of 20,000 to 100,000 V as needed. The supply consists of a step-up
transformer, high-voltage rectifiers, and sometimes filters capacitors. The unit

36
may supply either half-wave or full-wave rectified dc voltage. There are auxiliary
components and a control to allow the voltage to be adjusted to the highest level
possible without excessive sparking and to protect the supply and electrodes in
the event a heavy arc or short-circuit occurs. The voltage applied to the electrodes
causes the air between the electrodes to break down electrically, an action known
as a "corona".

The electrodes usually are given a negative polarity because a negative

corona supports a higher voltage than a positive corona before sparking occurs.
The ions generated in the corona follow electric field lines from the wires to the
collecting plates. Therefore, each wire establishes a charging zone through which
the particles must pass. Particles passing through the charging zone intercept
some of the ions, which become attached. Small aerosol particles (10 µm
diameter) can absorb tens of thousands. The electrical forces are therefore much
stronger on the large particles. As the particles pass each successive wire, they
are driven closer and closer to the collecting walls. The turbulence in the gas,
however, tends to keep them uniformly mixed with the gas. The collection
process is therefore a competition between the electrical and dispersive forces.
Eventually, the particles approach close enough to the walls so that the turbulence
drops to low levels and the particles are collected. If the collected particles could
be dislodged into the hopper without losses, the ESP would be extremely
efficient. The rapping that dislodges the accumulated layer also projects some of
the particles (typically 12 percent for coal fly ash) back into the gas stream. These
restrained particles are then processed again by later sections, but the particles
restrained in the last section of the ESP have no chance to be recaptured and so
escape the unit.

37
 Practical considerations of passing the high voltage into the space between
the lanes and allowing for some clearance above the hoppers to support and align
electrodes leave room for part of the gas to flow around the charging zones. This
is called "sneak age" and amounts to 5 to 10 percent of the total flow. Anti sneak
age baffles usually are placed to force the sneak age flow to mix with the main
gas stream for collection in later sections. But, again, the sneak age flow around
the last section has no opportunity to be collected. These losses play a significant
role in the overall performance of an ESP. Another major factor is the resistivity
of the collected material. Because the particles form a continuous layer on the
ESP plates, the entire ion current must pass through the layer to reach the ground-
plates. This current creates an electric field in the layer, and it can become large
enough to cause local electrical breakdown. When this occurs, new ions of the
wrong polarity are injected into the wire-plate gap where they reduce the charge
on the particles and may cause sparking. This breakdown condition is called
"back corona" 6-7 Back corona is prevalent when the resistivity of the layer is
high, usually above 2 x 10 ohm- 11 cm. For lower resistivity’s, the operation of
the ESP is not impaired by back coronas, but resistivity’s much higher than 2 x
10 ohm-cm considerably reduce the collection ability of the 11 unit because the
severe back corona causes difficulties in charging the particles.

At resistivity’s below 10 ohm-cm, the particles are held on the plates so

loosely that rapping and no rapping 8 entrainment become much more severe.
Care must be taken in measuring or estimating resistivity because it is strongly
affected by variables such as temperature, moisture, gas composition, particle
composition, and surface characteristics.

38
3.20.2 FLAT PLATE PRECIPITATOR

A significant number of smaller precipitators (100,000 to 200,000 acme)

use flat plates instead of wires for the high-voltage electrodes. The flat plates
(United McGill Corporation patents) increase the average electric field that can
be used to collect the particles, and they provide an increased surface area for the
collection of particles. Corona cannot be generated on flat plates by themselves,
so corona-generating electrodes are placed ahead of and sometimes behind the
flat plate collecting zones. These electrodes may be sharp-pointed needles
attached to the edges of the plates or independent corona wires. Unlike place-wire
or tubular ESPs, this design operates equally well with either negative or positive
polarity.

The manufacturer has chosen to use positive polarity to reduce ozone

generation. A flat plate ESP operates with little or no corona current flowing
through the collected dust, except directly under the corona needles or wires. This
has two consequences. The first is that the unit is somewhat less susceptible to
back corona than conventional units are because no back corona is generated in
the collected dust, and particles charged with both polarities of ions have large
collection surfaces available. The second consequence is that the lack of current
in the collected layer causes an electrical force that tends to remove the layer
from the collecting surface; this can lead to high rapping losses. Flat plate ESPs
seem to have wide application for high-resistivity particles with small (1 to 2 µm)
mass median diameters (MMDs). These applications especially emphasize the
strengths of the design because the electrical dislodging forces are weaker for
small particles than for large ones. Fly ash has been successfully collected with
this type of ESP, but low-flow velocity appears to be critical for avoiding high

39
rapping losses.

3.20.3 TUBULAR PRECIPITATORS

The original ESPs were tubular like the smokestacks they were placed on,
with the high-voltage electrode running along the axis of the tube. Tubular
precipitators have typical applications in sulfuric add plants, coke oven by-
product gas cleaning (tar removal), and, recently, iron and steel sinter plants.
Such tubular units are still used for some applications, with many tubes operating
in parallel to handle increased gas flows. The tubes may be formed as a circular,
square, or hexagonal honeycomb with gas flowing upwards or downwards.

The length of the tubes can be selected to fit conditions. A tubular ESP
can be tightly sealed to prevent leaks of material, especially valuable or
hazardous material. A tubular ESP is essentially a one-stage unit and is unique in
having all the gas passes through the electrode region. The high-voltage electrode
operates at one voltage for the entire length of the tube, and the current varies
along the length as the particles are removed from the system. No sneak age paths
are around the collecting region, but corona no uniformities may allow some
particles to avoid charging for a considerable fraction of the tube length. Tubular
ESPs comprise only a small portion of the ESP population and are most
commonly applied where the particulate is either wet or sticky. These ESPs,
usually cleaned with water, have entrainment losses of a lower magnitude than do
the dry particulate precipitators

40
3.20.4 TWO-STAGE PRECIPITATORS

The previously described precipitators are all parallel in nature, i.e., the
discharge and collecting electrodes are side by side. The two-stage precipitator
invented by Penney is a series device with the discharge electrode, or ionizer,
preceding the collector electrodes. For indoor applications, the unit is operated
with positive polarity to limit ozone generation. Advantages of this configuration
include more time for particle charging, less propensity for back corona, and
economical construction for small sizes.

This type of precipitator is generally used for gas flow volumes of 50,000
acme and less and is applied to sub micrometer sources emitting oil mists,
smokes, fumes, or other sticky particulates because there is little electrical force
to hold the collected particulates on the plates. Modules consisting of a
mechanical profiler, ionizer, collecting-plate cell, after-filter, and power pack
may be placed in parallel or series-parallel arrangements. Preconditioning of
gases is normally part of the system. Cleaning may be by water wash of modules
removed from the system up to automatic, in-place detergent spraying of the
collector followed by air-blow drying. Two-stage precipitators are considered to
be separate and distinct types of devices compared to large, high-gas-volume,
single-stage ESPs. The smaller devices are usually sold as pre-engineered,
package systems.

41
3.21 ELECTRICAL OPERATING POINT

The electrical operating point of an ESP section is the value of voltage and
current at which the section operates. As will become apparent, the best
collection occurs when the highest electric field is present, which roughly
corresponds to the highest voltage on the electrodes. In this work, the term
"section" represents one set of plates and electrodes in the direction of flow. This
unit is commonly called a "field", and a "section" or "bus section" represents a
subdivision of a "field" perpendicular to the direction of flow. In an ESP model
and in sizing applications, the two terms "section" and "field" are used
equivalently because the subdivision into bus sections should have no effect on
the model.

This terminology has probably arisen because of the frequent use of the
word "field" to refer to the electric field. The lowest acceptable voltage is the
voltage required for the formation of a corona, the electrical discharge that
produces ions for charging particles. The (negative) corona is produced when an
occasional free electron near the high-voltage electrode, produced by a cosmic
ray, gains enough energy from the electric field to ionize the gas and produce
more free electrons. The electric field for which this process is self-sustained has
been determined experimentally. For round wires, the field at the surface of the
wire.

This is the field required to produce "glow" corona, the form usually seen
in the laboratory on smooth, clean wires. The glow appears as a uniform, rapidly
moving diffuse light around the electrode. After a period of operation, the
movement concentrates into small spots on the wire surface, and the corona
assumes a tuft-like appearance. The field required to produce "tuft" corona, the

42
form found in full-scale ESPs, is 0.6 times the value of E. c.

3.22 PARTICLE CHARGING

Charging of particles takes place when ions bombard the surface of a

particle. Once an ion is close to the particle, it is tightly bound because of the
image charge within the particle. The "image charge" is a representation of the
charge distortion that occurs when a real charge approaches a conducting surface.
The distortion is equivalent to a charge of opposite magnitude to the real charge,
located as far below the surface as the real charge is above it.

The notion of the fictitious charge is similar to the notion of an

image in a mirror, hence the name. As more ions accumulate on a particle, the
total charge tends to prevent further ionic bombardment. There are two principal
charging mechanisms: diffusion charging and field charging. Diffusion charging
results from the thermal kinetic energy of the ions overcoming the repulsion of
the ions already on the particle. Field charging occurs when ions follow electric
field lines until they terminate on a particle. In general, both mechanisms are
operative for all sizes of particles. Field charging, however, adds a larger
percentage of charge on particles greater than about 2µm in diameter, and
diffusion charging adds a greater percentage on particles smaller than about
0.5µm.

3.23 RAPPING REENTRAINMENT

Sneak age and rapping re entrainment are best considered on the basis of
the sections within an ESP. Sneak age occurs when a part of the gas flow

43
bypasses the collection zone of a section. Generally, the portion of gas that
bypasses the zone is thoroughly mixed with the gas that passes through the zone
before all the gas enters the next section. This mixing cannot always be assumed,
and when sneak age paths exist around several sections, the performance of the
whole ESP is seriously elected. To describe the effects of sneak age and rapping
re entrainment mathematically we first consider sneak age by itself and then
consider the effects of rapping as an average over many rapping cycles.

3.24 COLLECTION OF FINE PARTICLES

Particles having <2.5 pm diameter are of concern to human health. These

small particles are generated by clustering or condensation from the gas phase,
and attach heavy metals or absorb volatile organic compounds (VOC) on their
surface. The number of these airborne particles is large, and the emission of such
particles should be lowered. As described above, there are several methods to
increase the partial collection efficiency of such particles [39-401. These are
summarized as:
 Use of two-stage ESP to increase the area of the collecting
electrode.
 Use of pre-agglomeration device as described above.
 Reduce the dust re-entrainment by wet-type ESP.
 Reduce the operating temperature to cause condensation of
water.
This increases the diameter of the particles, and reduces the dust re entrainment
by increasing adhesion. The collection efficiency of fem. particles follows the
ESP can be used for indoor air cleaning. A 2-stage ESP has been used for this
application because of the advantage of the increased collecting electrode area.

44
3.25 MAJOR TECHNOLOGIES

3.25.1 TECHNOLOGICAL SCHEME

Scheme of FS-ESP technology is that: using original ESP shell, not

changing section area and number of electro- static fields, new technology is
adopted in the shell in order to increase collection efficiency. FS-ESP
mechanisms are: increasing dust (especially in high particle concentration fields)
charged ratio; multiple charging- collecting particles; improving ESP
mechanisms; increasing collection efficiency of fine particles; modifying rapping
intension of electrode arrangements; maximally reducing re entrainment;
modifying airflow distribution in order to increase collection efficiency.

3.25.2 CONCEPT
FS-ESP technology consists of collecting particles technology, airflow
distribution technology and cleaning particles technology. Particle collection: As
we know, common ESPs differentiate into single stage ESP and double stage
ESP. In addition to these stages, FS-ESP has the other three stages: Rotary Plate
Electrostatic Field (RPEF), Flow-Informing Electrostatic Field (FUEF) and Re
Charging Electrostatic Field (RCEF). Airflow distribution: Airflow is modified
in ESP shell in order to get uniform airflow distribution or skewed airflow
distribution. Particle cleaning: depending on working conditions and equipment
structures, Adjustable Sound Device as assistant set could be used in order to
improve dust cleaning.

45
3.25.3 PRINCLPES

Taking a two-electrostatic-field ESP as an example (see Fig. 2): After flue

gas entering ESP inlet, particles are charged when flue gas passing through
FUEF, and some of charged particles are collected. So FUEF in which rapping
System was placed have four functions: agglomeration particles, charging
particles, collecting particles, and uniform zing airflow. In FS-ESP, RCEFs are
placed in front of two original electrostatic fields, so that equality & fully
charging ratio of particles and collection efficiency could be improved. RPEF
which is installed at end of the second electrostatic field charges and collects
particles so that particle emission concentration is evidently reduced.

3.26 ABNORMAL AND ABATEMENT

3.26.1 EFFECT OF DUST RESISTIVITY ON ESP

The collection performance of an ESP is affected by the apparent dust

resistivity Pd. The measurement of Pd is therefore important to estimate the
performance of an ESP. The gas temperature, water content, and the gas
composition such as $03, affect Pd. Usually; the peak value of pd appears at -
150 to 200°CPd should be within 10' and 5x10' R m for good performance of a
dry ESP 1191. An abnormal re-entrainment of dust takes place with Pd < 10' C?
M, and back corona leads to an improper performance of ESP with Pd 2 5x10' R
m.

46
3.26.2 RE ENTRAINMENT
Re-entrainment is the re-entry of collected dust into the inter electrode
spacing. Dust particles are coagulated on a collecting electrode, and this re-
entrained dust usually is easy to collect if they are charged appropriately Some
fine particles, however, also can restrain without coagulation. These fine particles
are difficult to collect. In normal operation of an ESP, dust re-entrainment takes
place with rapping, or carried over by increased gas velocity near the collecting
electrode.
When the apparent dust resistivity becomes <fd R m, and the adhesion
of dust particles is poor, severe re-entrainment, or 'abnormal re entrainment'
Takes place. The collection efficiency of the ESP becomes very poor. Figure 8
shows abnormal re-entrainment. Conductive particles loose their charge when
they are collected, and are charged to opposite polarity due to induced charging.
These particles are lifted into the space by the electric field, and then again are
charged by the corona discharge. These particles jump on the collecting electrode
and the exhausted to the outside of the ESP. The re-entrainment can be
eliminated by the following three methods. Injection of adhesive agents
sometimes is used to minimize re-entrainment, especially to cope with abnormal
re-entrainment of conductive dust particles. Ammonia, ammonium sulfate, or oil
mists are used for this purpose.

Wet ESP is very effective to eliminate re-entrainment. Recent regulation

requires very low dust emission of 110 mg/m3. Particles with diameter ~ 2 . 5pm
also have been of concern, and these fine particles should be collected effectively
To meet these requirements, the use of wet type ESP is very effective. Wet ESP

47
can be used as the final section of a series of ESP. Alternatively, rapping, or
scraping or brushing of collecting electrodes, is effective to prevent re
entrainment.

3.26.3 BACK CORONA

When the apparent dust resistivity pd 2 5x108 R m, back corona takes
place. Inside the dust layer on the collecting electrode, an electric field Ed is
established due to the corona current With increasing Pd, Ed becomes high
And an electric breakdown takes place when Ed reaches Edb. From the
breakdown point, ions of opposite polarity to the corona discharge are emitted,
resulting in neutralization of the particle charge, and increase of corona current.
When negative corona is used, the breakdown causes positive streamers
propagating towards the discharge electrode and/or surface of the dust layer. This
streamer propagation results in a reduction of the flashover voltage. In the range
of Pd between 5 ~ 1a0nd~ IO 9 R m, back corona causes excessive sparking.
The number of the breakdown points is limited, and streamers propagate
Towards the discharge electrode. These streamers bridge the electrode spacing
and turn to flashover, or excessive sparking. The operation of the ESP becomes
unstable. With further increases in p,j>lOIO R m, the number of breakdown
points in the dust layer increases and finally the entire surface of the dust layer
glows. This is called 'general glow mode'. A large number of ions of opposite
polarity are emitted to the space. This causes an increase in the corona current.
The propagation of streamer into space is diminished. This back corona
neutralizes the particle charging, and the function of the ESP is severely
deteriorated.

48
 The apparent dust resistivity Pd can be controlled by varying the
temperature and the humidity High-temperature ESP, operating above 300°C was
used. Recently, low-temperature ESP, or colder ESP, has been developed. The
operating temperature is selected below 130"c, where Pd becomes lower. Figure
11 is an example of the effect of temperature on the collection efficiency. When
the temperature was lowered, the performance of the ESP increased sharply due
to the elimination of back corona. At the same time, the re-entrainment became
large, and proper care should be taken to suppress re-entrainment to achieve high
performance.

Intermittent energization is effective for abatement of back corona. The

applied voltage is turned off before the surface charge accumulates to trigger a
breakdown of the dust layer. During the voltage off period, the surface potential
decreases. This method is effective not only to improve the collection efficiency
of high resistivity dusts, but also to reduce energy consumption.

3.26.4 CORONA QUENCHING BY SUPERCHARGING

The peak voltage of the pulse can be higher than the dc flashover voltage,
and more uniform corona points can be obtained even with some irregularity of
electrode spacing. The ions emitted from the discharge electrode spread due to
space charge, and a more uniform corona current distribution can be obtained.
For large scale ESP having large capacitance, durations of ms or pHs can be
used. Using semiconductor switching devices, efficient pulse power supplies can
be realized. To apply a pulse voltage, the ESP capacitance should be charged, and
then discharged rapidly As shown in Figure 12, an LC oscillator circuit is used,

49
and the energy stored in the ESP capacitance can be recovered effectively.

3.27 APPLICATIONS

3.27.1 NAVAL APPLICATIONS

The flue gas from the incinerator is introduced into an afterburner, in
which the temperature of the flue gas is kept at 850°C for 2 s. This afterburner
consists of ceramic foam and a propane burner. This afterburner is effective in
decomposing dioxin. For example, 66 ng toxic equivalency quantity (TEQ)
of dioxin at the output of the incinerator can be reduced to 0.22 ng TEQ. The flue
gas is introduced to a radiator, and the gas temperature is cooled down rapidly to
170°C. After cooling, the flue gas is introduced to a scrubber, in which water is
sprayed. Then the flue gas is introduced into a wet type ESP. The diameter of the
cylindrical electrode is 300 mm, and running water is supplied on the inner wall
of the electrode. Negative dc voltage is applied to the discharge electrode. Water
is circulated, and the collected dust particles are separated from the water by a
filter. The used filter is burned at 1200°C using a separate small furnace.

3.27.2 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS

In August, 2003, five stages ESP technology was used for renovation of 60
m2 sinter two electrostatic fields ESP and achieved the expected purpose. After
six months’ running, measured emission concentration is less than 50 mg/Nm3,
emission concentrations continuously tested in 4 years are under 70 mg/Nm3. In
June 2005, five stages ESP technology was used for renovation of two ESPs
(before and after ring-sinter) and received significant improvement: emission
concentration reduced from more than 500 mg/Nm3 to less than 120 mg/Nm3. In

50
August, 2005, five stages ESP technology was used for renovation of 120 m2
sinter ESP and met desired performance, emission concentration reduced from
about 160 mg/Nm3 to less than 80 mg/Nm3.

3.27.3 INDOOR AIR CLEANING

ESP can be used for indoor air cleaning. A 2-stage ESP has been used for
this application because of the advantage of the increased collecting electrode
area. A combination of ESP and a fabric filter. Particles are recharged and thus
polarized by the electric field, enter the dust oxidized. Active charcoal or other
catalysts also can be used for simultaneous removal of dust particles and gaseous
pollutants. The exhaust of ozone should be minimized when an ESP is used for
indoor air cleaning.

3.27.4 INCINERATION
ESP’s are mainly used for pollution control on incineration units only in
Europe. However ESP’s is now being viewed as one of the most effective method
for controlling emissions from in incinerators at high gas temperatures.
 Mixing of gas with cooler.
 In directing cooling such as waste heat boilers.
 Evaporating of water droplets that are sprayed.

51
3.28 ADVANTAGES
 The pressure drop through the precipitator is a function of inlet and outlet
and precipitator length. Pressure drop not more than 0.05mm of water
 The ESP can be designed to have 99.5% collection efficiency.
 Silicon control rectifiers and other modern control devices allow s an ESP
to operate automatically.

3.29 DISADVANTAGES
 No SO2 is possible.
 High capital cost.
 If particular emission concentrations are high, a mechanical pre-cleaner is
required.
 ESP is sensitive to its design parameters. A slight change in the fuel used it
affects the efficiency.

52
 CHAPTER 4
4. FUNNEL
4.1 AIM OF THE PROJECT
1. To design the inlet funnel of the electrostatic precipitator.

2. The objective of this work is to properly use the stiffener of correct size
and shape so that the weight of the ESP can be as minimum as possible
while keeping the stress and deflection of plate and stiffener within the
allowable limit.

3. To create the model of funnel in CREO with the optimized dimensions

and import the model to ANSYS for further analysis.

The particulate matters released out of the industries such as boiler,

cement, power generation etc. received attention because of firm environmental
protection agency (EPA). The Electrostatic Precipitator’s (ESP’s) are extensively
used for cleaning flue gases from process Industries by separating the ash
particles from the flue gases. They can work in comprehensive range of gas
temperature with efficiency 99.9% as compared to other mechanical devices such
as cyclones and bag filters. The ESP involves some complex and interconnected
physical mechanism like particle charging, particle collection and removal of
collection dust by rapping mechanism. Due to corona discharge ionic and
electronic charging of gas particles. Which are moving in Electro hydrodynamic
field takes place and charged particles are moved towards the collecting plate

53
 The weight optimization of the ESP is the main criteria behind the design.
Simulation and optimization plays a very important role in weight optimization of
the ESP and also gives the stress and deflection of the stiffener within the
allowable limit. FEA plays a vital role for ensuring the optimum use of stiffener
size and shape for ESP for the weight optimization.

The aim of this work is to obtain the optimum weight by keeping the stress
and deflection levels within limit. The modeling and weight optimization is done
in ANSYS APDL itself with help of APDL programming language. It is to be
noted that for the optimization of the ESP Funnel screen are not taken into
consideration as they do not play any role in weight optimization and they are
standard design. The optimization module in the ANSYS is cross checked with
the help of the analytical calculation by taking the similar example and hence the
optimization method is validated. While the similar example is considered and
the stress and deflection of the plate and stiffener is calculated analytically and
are compared with the software simulations. The simulation results are analyzed
and are compared with the company standard and the final run are taken and the
optimized results are compared with the previous design.

The dimension of the funnel is obtained from the supplier in form CREO
modeling. The modeling is done with the help of the APDL programming
language so that the computation time of the software is reduced and also the
model is parametric so that the quick changes in geometry is possible. The funnel
is drawn to full scale geometry and the exact boundary condition is considered

54
such as wind load, dust density, temperature, and suction pressure. The whole
model is divided into two types such as stiffeners are represented as 1D element
and the other part stiffeners are represented by 2D elements. In all total ESP is
represented with 88600 computational elements.

Fig 4.1 Funnel

4.2 MODELING PROCEDURE
The modeling of funnel is done in ANSYS APDL with help of APDL
programming language to the scale provided by the customer. The modeling is
done consisting of the 1D and 2D elements. The programming language use
different commands for the modeling. For all cases the model is given with the
same boundary condition such as load, suction pressure. The optimized results
are then used and are compared with the previous optimized result and the
comparison is done. In all total 2 cases were considered for each optimization of
funnel. Each case was compared with other and the final result was concluded.

55
 L-channel and Flat on main and secondary stiffener respectively.
 C-channel and Angle on main and secondary stiffener respectively.
 All Angle on the main stiffener and secondary stiffener.
 Combination1:- I-Beam and Channel on main stiffener and Flat on
secondary stiffener.
 Combination 2:- Angle and channel on main stiffener and flat on
secondary stiffener.
 Combination 3:- L-Beam and L-Beam on main stiffener and Flat on main
stiffener.

56
 Fig: 4.2 ESP Funnel

4.3 SIMULATION PROCEDURE

3D model of funnel. The inlet velocity is converted into the pressure and is
applied to the walls of the funnel as suction pressure. The pressure applied to
the walls of the funnel is suction pressure because at the outlet of the ESP there
is suction fan located and hence the flow velocity is applied in terms of the
suction pressure. The suction pressure applied to the walls of the funnel is -660
mm WC. The velocity of 1m/s is also applied externally from the outer side of
the walls of the funnel.

57
 All the results obtained from analysis should follow the IS Standard
guidelines for uniform stress distribution. According to IS-800 the stress
induced in funnel should be within allowable stress limit, the allowable stress
depends upon various criterions such as factor of safety of material, yield stress,
temperature of operation.

58
 CHAPTER 5
5. PHASE I: EXISTING DESIGN OF FUNNEL AND ITS ANALYSIS
5.1 FUNNEL 3D MODEL

Plate thickness:6mm, stiffener span:1000mm

59
5.2 HYPER MESH OF EXISTING MODEL

60
5.3 CALCULATION
 Length of inlet section: 3500x3500mm.

 Length of outlet section: 12800x12800mm.

 Width of plate: 6200mm.

 Suction pressure: -660mmWC.

P/ρ*g=h.

P/9.81*1000=-660.

p=-0.0660 bar.
 Temperature: 140 Celsius.

 Stiffener span: 1000mm.

 Stiffener dimension: 75x75x6.

 Density: 7.85 kg/m3.

 Volume: 2.8072m3.

 Weight: 91370Kg.

61
 TABLE 5.1: GEOMETRY
Object Name Geometry
State Fully Defined
Definition
C:\Users\AppData\Local\Temp\WIN7_4000_2\unsaved_project_
Source
files\dp0\SYS\DM\SYS.agdb
Type Design Modeler
Length Unit Meters

Element Program Controlled

Display Style Part Color

Bounding Box
Length X 12.8 m
Length Y 12.8 m
Length Z 6.200 m
Properties
Volume 2.8072 m³
Weight 9827 kg
Scale Factor 1.

62
 TABLE 5.2: LOADS
Fixed Fixed Support
Object Name Pressure Pressure 2 Pressure 3
Support 2
State Fully Defined
Scope
Scoping
Geometry Selection
Method
Geometry 1 Face
Definition
Type Fixed Support Pressure
Suppressed No
Define By Normal To
Magnitude -6600.mmWC (ramped)

 Material cost: RS 35000/Ton.

 Fabrication cost: RS 12500/Ton.
 Existing model cost: RS 466782/Ton.
 Plate thickness: 6mm.

63
5.4 VON-MISES STRESS

64
5.5 BENDING STRESS

65
 CHAPTER 6

6. PHASE II: OPTIMIZED DESIGN FUNNEL AND ITS ANALYSIS

6.1 OPTIMIZED MODEL FUNNEL

66
6.2 SUCTION PRESSURE APPLIED ON OPTIMIZED FUNNEL

67
6.3 MODEL CALCULATION

 Length of inlet section: 3500x3500mm.

 Length of outlet section: 12800x12800mm.

 Width of plate: 6200mm.

 Suction pressure: -660mmWC.

 Stiffener dimension: 75x75x6mm.

 Stiffener span: 1200mm.

 Temperature: 140 Celsius.

 Density: 7.85 kg/m3.

 Volume: 2.1011 m3.

 Weight: 8352 Kg.

68
 TABLE 6.1: GEOMETRY
Object
Geometry
Name
State Fully Defined
Definition
C:\Users\AppData\Local\Temp\unsaved_project_files\dp0\SYS\DM\SYS
Source
.agdb
Type Design Modeler
Length
Meters
Unit

Element
Program Controlled
s

Display
Part Color
Style
Bounding Box
Length
12.95 m
X
Length
12.95 m
Y
Length
6.251 m
Z
Properties
Volume 2.1011 m³
Weight 8352Kg

69
 TABLE 6.2: LOADS
Object Name Fixed Support Fixed Support 2 Pressure Pressure 2 Pressure 3
State Fully Defined
Scope
Scoping Method Geometry Selection
Geometry 1 Face
Definition
Type Fixed Support Pressure
Suppressed No
Define By Normal To
Magnitude -6600.mmWC (ramped)

 Material cost: RS35000/Ton.

 Fabrication cost: RS 12500/Ton.
 Optimized model cost: 397005/Ton.

70
6.4 VOM-MISES STRESS

71
6.5 BENDING STRESS

72
 CHAPTER 7

7. CONCLUSIONS:

 The whole work is divided into three parts modeling and simulation to
the weight optimization by changing the stiffener size and shape.
 The program which is constructed for the modeling and optimization
run can be used for any type of the ESP to be optimized. The results
obtained after the optimizations are compared with the existing funnel
weight and it is found that in all 1475KG of the weight is reduced.
 Hence we were able to reduce the weight as well as the cost of
manufacturing cost for the funnel.

SL. NO: PhaseI:EXISTING MODEL PhaseII:OPTIMIZED MODEL

STIFFENER 1000mm 1200mm
SPAN
WEIGHT 2.8072m3 2.1011 m3
VOLUME 9827 KG 8352 KG
COST RS 466782 RS 397005
% - 6%(weight & cost)
OVERALL
SAVING
% - 15%
STIFFENER
SAVING

73
Stress Applied PHASE I PHASE II
Compressive Yield 2.5e8 pa 2.5e8 pa
strength
Tensile Yield Strength 2.5e8 pa 2.5e8 pa
Ultimate Strength 4.6e8 pa 4.6e8 pa
Von-Mises 2.18e8 pa 2.08e7 pa
Within the yield stress of Within the yield stress of
mild steel. mild steel.

Structural Mild Steel > Strain-Life Parameters

PHASE I
Strength Cyclic Cyclic Strain
Strength Ductility Ductility
Coefficient Strength Hardening
Exponent Coefficient Exponent
Pa Coefficient Pa Exponent
9.2e8 -0.106 0.213 -0.47 1e9 0.2

Structural Steel > Strain-Life Parameters

PHASE II
Strength Cyclic Cyclic Strain
Strength Ductility Ductility
Coefficient Strength Hardening
Exponent Coefficient Exponent
Pa Coefficient Pa Exponent
9.2e8 -1.106 1.213 -1.7 1.08e9 1.2

74
 CHAPTER 8

8. SCOPE OF WORK

 The objective of this work is to properly use the stiffener of correct

size and shape so that the weight of the hopper and funnel can be as
minimum as possible while keeping the stress and deflection of plate
and stiffener within the allowable limit.
 In this we were able to reduce the overall weight of the funnel by
around 6% as per the given standards and dimensions of the company.
By doing this the company can reduce the overall cost such as labor
and fabrication cost.
 With this the sales of the ESP’s and go high and the overall profit
made by the company increases. But this should be done without
costing any change in the quality as well as the allowable stress limit.

75
 CHAPTER 9

9. REFERENCE:

i. Nakhorn Thongleka, Chanchai Dechthummarong and Tanongkiat

Kiatsiriroat, “Soot Treatment by Using High Voltage Pulse Energized
Electrostatic Precipitator”, Sciverse Science Direct.
ii. S.H. Kim, K.W. Lee, “Experimental study of electrostatic precipitator
Performance and comparison with existing theoretical prediction
models”, Journal of Electrostatics.
iii. Cui Juemin, Xu Guosheng, Xu Libo. Retrofitting for GD-II Type ESP
before Sinter Sinter and Pelletizing.
iv. Shah M. E. Haque, M. G. Rasul, M. M. K. Khan, A. V. Deev, and N.
Subaschandar (2007), Numerical modelling for optimizing flow
distribution inside an electrostatic precipitator, International Journal of
Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, Issue 3 Volume-1. 255-
261

76