FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA,

81310 UTM JOHOR BAHRU, JOHOR

TIMBER IN CONSTRUCTION

(GROUP)

LECTURER'S NAME: PROF. DR. ABDUL RAHMAN MOHD. SAM

NAME MATRIX NUMBER

NOR AQIRA BINTI ROSLI A17PP0067

MURNI FAHIRAH BINTI MAHMUD A17PP0055

SITI NUR MADEEHAH BINTI ISMAWI A17PP0093

NUR AZLIN IDAYU BINTI MD ADAM @ MOHD ADNAN A17PP0072

 CONTENTS

No. CONTENTS PAGE

NUMBER
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1

2.0 FUNCTIONS OF TIMBER IN CONSTRUCTION 2

3.0 TYPE OF TIMBER USED IN CONSTRUCTION 3-5

4.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TIMBER 6-7

5.0 SEASONING OF TIMBER 8 - 11

6.0 DEFECTS OF TIMBER 12 -18

7.0 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TIMBER IN 19 - 20

CONSTRUCTION

8.0 COMPARISON BETWEEN TIMBER AND BRICKS 21

9.0 CONCLUSION 22

10.0 REFERENCES 23
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Timber is a type of wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in the process
of wood production. Lumber is mainly used for structural purposes but has many other uses as well.
There are two main types of lumber. It may be supplied either rough-sawn, or surfaced on one or more
of its faces. Besides pulpwood, rough lumber is the raw material for furniture-making and other items
requiring additional cutting and shaping. It is available in many species, usually hardwoods; but it is
also readily available in softwoods, such as white pine and red pine, because of their low cost. Finished
lumber is supplied in standard sizes, mostly for the construction industry – primarily softwood, from
coniferous species, including pine, fir and spruce (collectively spruce-pine-fir), cedar, and hemlock, but
also some hardwood, for high-grade flooring. It is classified more commonly made from softwood than
hardwoods, and 80% of lumber comes from softwood.

The production process of the timber is not linear because other factors must be considered,
including marketable and non-marketable goods, financial benefits, management practices, and the
environmental implications of those management practices. Forests include market and non-market
products. Marketable products include goods that have a market price. Timber is the main one, with
prices that range from a few hundred dollars per thousand board feet (MBF) to several thousand dollars
for a veneer log. Others include grazing/fodder, specialty crops such as mushrooms or berries, usage
fees for recreation or hunting, and biomass. Forests also provide some non-market values which have
no current market price. Examples of non-market goods would be improving water quality, air quality,
aesthetics, and carbon sequestration. The more biodiversity the hardwood-forest ecosystem, the more
challenges and opportunities its managers face.

Managers aim for sustainable forest management to keep their cash crop renewing itself, using
silvicultural practices that include growing, selling, controlling insects and most diseases, providing
manure, applying herbicle treatments, and thinning. Fertilization can stop the growth rate and amount
of plant material, thus possibly increasing the number of wildlife that can inhabit a site. Invasive species
control maintains an area's structure and native composition. But management can also harm the
ecosystem; for example, machinery used in a timber harvest can compact the soil, stress the root system,
reduce tree growth, lengthen the time needed for a stand to mature to harvest ability. Machinery can
also damage the understory, disturbing wildlife habitat and prevent regeneration.

The standard size that is often used for timber is dimensions mean nominal sizes with the
moisture content of the sawn timber at 20%. The most common lengths vary between 2.7 m and 5.4 m
in steps of 300 mm. Other lengths and modules must be agreed separately. Thickness and width
dimensions mean the nominal sizes of the timber at a moisture content of 20%. There are a lot of
machines and equipment that have been used to handle timber such as wood working machines, wood
cutting blade and planner machine.

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2.0 FUNCTION OF TIMBER IN CONSTRUCTION

There are many visible, but also certain hidden, uses of timber involved in the construction of a project.
Construction trades are in need of timber for the construction process itself; scaffolding boards are made
of wood, as are the fences surrounding the building site and some of the tools. Even mucking boards,
used for mixing concrete for small projects, are made of timber.

1) Frame Work
In certain parts of the world such as Scandinavian countries, houses will be entirely built of timber
because it is suitable to climatic conditions. Elsewhere, house builders can choose to support the house
by wooden frames or stud walling. Roof truss rafters are made entirely of wood, and timber shuttering
can be chosen for concrete work. In addition, some construction plans require a massive wooden bearing
beam that will balance the entire structure.

2) Decor
The most visible use of timber is displayed in the finishing process of a construction project. Staircases,
door frames, skirting and floor boards as well as boiler, meter and pipe boxes are wooden. Custom-built
cupboards are also mostly wooden, as are fitted kitchen appliances.

3) Outdoor Features
Construction of commercial and some private projects will also include exterior work. Outside features
such as patios, porches and decking will be made of wood. Additionally, garden architects will require
timber for raised plant containers and fencing, while garden sheds and garages are often constructed of
timber.

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3.0 TYPE OF TIMBER

Wood has been used in construction for thousands of years and remains to be seen as one of
the most important building materials available. Its malleability, strength, appearance and long life span
means that it has well and truly stood the test of time. But to get the best out of wood, the right type
needs to be chosen for the right job. This is because unlike other materials the characteristics of wood
can vary dramatically, meaning that a lot of factors will have accounted for. For example, the age, type,
color, structure and water content of wood, are all factors that need to be considered before using it for
construction purposes. To make life easier all woods are divided into one of two categories; these
categories are “hardwoods” and “softwoods”.

Hardwoods:

Mahogany - Dark in color and extremely durable. It has a distinctive grain which makes it appealing
to many, but unfortunately it’s prone to warping and may have problems interlocking with other pieces
of wood. Typically this is used to create high end furniture as its dark appearance is often seen as being
very attractive. However, it has a price tag to match and therefore is only really suitable for people with
big budgets.

Oak - One of the better known hardwoods, oak has a honey brown color and an open grain. It’s strong,
durable, long lasting and tough, making it a highly sought after timber that is also extremely appealing.
Unfortunately, the acid present in the wood has been known to rust steel fittings, while it has always
been an expensive option. All drawbacks aside, it remains a beautiful wood.

Beech - Beech is one of cheaper hardwood options. It can be used to create wooden constructions as its
strong, durable and fairly inexpensive. However, drawbacks include warping and slightly lower weather
resistance when compared to other woods. Some may argue that it is difficult to work with, but it still
remains a good all-rounder.

Maple - Maple wood can vary in appearance from a fairly light color, to a darker more yellowish
appearance. It is commonly used to create furniture and hardwood flooring which typically results in a
beautiful end product. However, it is notoriously hard to work with and remains in the mid to upper
range price tier.

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Softwoods:

Pine - Pine wood is cheap and easy to work with. It’s commonly used to create furniture, wall panelling
and flooring, while it’s generally seen as a good all-rounder for construction purposes. Appearance wise
it is fairly light in color and has a close grain. Unfortunately pine can be knotty and prone to warping.

Spruce - A fairly dense wood for “softwood”, spruce is hardwearing and durable and can be noted for
its resistance to decay. It is light in appearance with a tight grain, making it easy to use. As spruce tends
to be both strong and lightweight it is an ideal candidate for timber used in construction, but its best
used for internal purposes (e.g. drywall framing).

Cedar - Cedar wood is pale in appearance and produces very little resin. It is strong, dense, solid and
robust making it a great choice for structural applications. In addition to this, its fine texture can create
an almost seamless effect when joined, meaning that it is a highly sought after wood in the construction
industry. However, cedar wood needs to be properly maintained as it can crack and warp if not properly
looked after.

Fir - Fir woods are commonly used for construction purposes as they are easy to work with and can
create a decent finish. They are light in appearance and fairly soft, but this does not stop them from
being used on doors, windows and structural frames. Fir is a reasonably cheap wood that provides a
strong resistance to decay, while being extremely versatile. However, if left untreated fir wood can warp
and shrink.

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The differences between hardwoods and softwoods

HARDWOOD SOFTWOOD
DEFINITION Hardwoods derive from deciduous trees, meaning Softwoods are conifer trees,
that they will lose their leaves seasonally. meaning that they will keep their
leaves all year round.
USED Often used in furniture. Can be used in Often used in construction.
construction but usually nearer the latter stages. Typically used to build joists, rafters
E.g. doors and floors. and the frame of a building.
COST Usually more expensive than softwoods. Usually less expensive than
hardwoods.
DENSITY A high density creates a hardwood, hence the term Lower density than hardwoods.
“hardwood”.
AREAS FOUND Found almost everywhere. Specific regions Found in the northern hemisphere.
include the Americas and the Tropics.
GROWTH RATE Slow. Fast
PROPERTIES Typically harder (but there are some exceptions). Softer and less dense. Lower
Broad leaves and enclosed nuts. High levels of durability. More knotty.
density
EXAMPLES Beech, Oak, Mahogany, Teak, Balsa, Maple, Elm, Pine, Fir, Cedar, Aspen, Spruce, etc.
Walnut etc.

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4.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TIMBER

1) Appearance

A freshly cut surface of timber should exhibit hard and of shining appearance.

2) Colour

A colour should preferably be dark.

3) Defects

A good timber should be free from series defects such as knots, flaws, shakes etc.

4) Durability

A good timber should be durable and capable of resisting the action of fungi, insects, chemicals,
physical agencies, and mechanical agencies.

5) Elasticity

The timber returns to its original shape when load causing its deformation is removed.

6) Fibres

The timber should have straight fibres.

7) Fire resistance

A dense wood offers good resistance to fire.

8) Hardness

A good timber should be hard.

9) Mechanical wear

A good timber should not deteriorate easily due to mechanical wear or abrasion.

10) Shape

A good timber should be capable of retaining its shape during conversion or seasoning.

11) Smell

A good timber should have sweet smell. Unpleasant smell indicates decayed timber.

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12) Sound

A good timber should give a clear ringing sound when struck.

13) Strength

A good timber should be sufficiently strong for working as structural member such as joist, beam, rafter
etc.

14) Structure

The structure should be uniform.

15) Toughness

A good timber should be tough (i.e.) capable of offering resistance to shocks due to vibration.

16) Water permeability

A good timber should have low water permeability, which is measured by the quantity of water filtered
through unit surface area of specimen of wood.

17) Weathering effects

A good timber should be able to stand reasonably the weathering effects (dry & wet).

18) Weight

The timber with heavy weight is considered to be sound and strong.

19) Working conditions

Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the teeth of saw.

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5.0 SEASONING OF TIMBER

By seasoning of timber, it is understood that the controlled reduction of moisture from the
wood. This is necessary for reducing the unnecessary weight of timber, for effecting an increase in its
strength, to improve its workability, to reduce the possibility of development of shrinkage defects and
to ensure durability or long life of timber. The moisture content of standing trees may be as high as 40-
60 percent or even more. After careful seasoning, it could be brought down to 4-6 percent by (kiln
seasoning) or 14-16 percent by (air seasoning). Two general methods of seasoning of timber as applied
today are air seasoning and Kiln seasoning. In air seasoning, timber in properly cut forms is stacked in
a proper manner in the open air for losing moisture by process of evaporation. The Stacks are so
constructed to allow free circulation of air around each part as far as possible. The stacks are properly
sheltered from direct sun and winds and rain. It may take 6 months to 4 years for bringing down the
original moisture content to allowable limits of 14-16 percent by this method. Sometimes logs are
placed in running water before subjecting to air seasoning. This helps in replacement of “sap” from
wood cells by water. The water-saturated wood dried quicker as compared to sap-rich wood. The
process of placing timber logs in water is sometimes referred as water-seasoning. In kiln seasoning,
timber is dried for specific periods and under very controlled conditions of temperature and humidity
in specially designed kilns. Tunnel type kilns can also be used for this purpose. Among the other
methods of seasoning of timber and wood, the chemical seasoning and electric seasoning are of some
importance. Timber can be also made fire proof to some extent by giving external coats and treatment
of fire retarding chemicals like sodium silicate, sodium arsenate or borax.

Water in Timber.

As already said trees contain a lot of moisture in the standing condition. The mode of occurrence of
water in wood issue is rather complex and must be understood thoroughly. It is because a number of
important properties of wood and timber depend on its moisture content and the way in which it is
present in the wood. The wood tissue stores water in cell walls and the cell cavities.

(a) The water present in the cell walls is called the bound water, the hygroscopic water or the imbibed
water. It is this water, loss or gain of which will affect the dimensional stability of the timber. It makes
25-30 percent of the dry weight of the wood tissue when all the cell walls are fully saturated with water.
This situation, in which all the cell walls of wood are fully saturated with water (and the cavities are
empty) is termed fiber saturation point.

(b) The water present in the cell cavities of the wood tissue is called the free water. Its presence effects
the mechanical properties of the timber. If the total moisture content in a species of timber is 75 percent,
and its fiber saturation point is 30 percent, then, the free water is 45 percent. Whenever a freshly cut
wood log is laid for drying, it is the free water (from the cell cavities) that is lost first. Once cell cavities

8
are empty, and drying is continued, then the water from the cell walls will start moving out due to drying
effect. And it is only the loss of water from the cell walls that will cause shrinkage in the wood.
Similarly, if a dry piece of wood is left out in a humid atmosphere, wood will start absorbing moisture.
(Because, as already said, wood is a hygroscopic material). Supposing the original moisture content of
the dry wood is only 6 percent and the humidity of the atmosphere is 40 percent, then the wood will go
on absorbing moisture till its moisture content is the same as that of the atmosphere in which it is
exposed. This is called the “equilibrium moisture content” of the wood. When water is absorbed by the
wood, it is the cell walls that must be saturated before the cell cavities are allowed to get any water.
This is the reason doors and windows made of wood show swelling effect during rainy seasons
immediately after a few days of rains, especially when they are located where rain water can fall directly
on them.

Objectives of Seasoning of Timber.

The objectives of seasoning of timber in five sentences:
1. Reduces much of the useless weight of timber
2. Increases its strength considerably
3. Improves the workability of the timber
4. Decreases the chances of development of shrinkage defects
5. Increases the life of timber, i.e. makes it more durable
Methods of Seasoning of Timber.
At present timber can be seasoned by a number of methods. These can be conveniently discussed under
two headings:
1. Natural Seasoning of Timber.
Air Seasoning of Timber.
This is as yet the most common process of seasoning of timber used throughout the world. In this
process, timber sleepers, planks, etc., cut from the wood logs are stacked in open air. This method
requires careful preparation of;
(a) Stock ground: It should be level, free from debris and on dry land. It may be a few “cm” below the
ground level.
(b) Stack Pillars: These are constructed at regular intervals out of bricks or masonry or concrete and
may be of 50 cm height from the ground level. Their top surfaces should be flat and level with each
other.
(c) Stack Proper. These are made of sawn timber shapes (sleepers, planks). One stack should have
timber of one shape and same length and width. The timber shape to be seasoned is stacked in layers in
such a manner that:
1. Enough space is left between one layer and another layer above it;
2. Enough space is left between one part and another part in the sum layer:

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 3. Enough space is left between one stack and another stack.
The stack length and height depend upon the length of the wood part being seasoned. A single stack
may be 3 to 4 meters in height. The most essential consideration in making such a stack is ensuring free
circulation of air around each part of the wood placed in a stack. It is also essential that the stack should
be safe from direct winds and direct scorching heat. This is because in air seasoning of timber, the loss
of water is due to evaporation. The rate of evaporation will depend to a great extent on the atmospheric
conditions. Efforts should be made to maintain a uniform rate of evaporation. Scorching heat and strong
winds can cause excessive evaporation that may lead to the development of shrinkage cracks. The
seasoning stack should also be protected from rains because wood being hygroscopic material can
absorb moisture quickly.
Outline of Stacking Arrangement: The time taken for air seasoning of timber depends on climatic
conditions and thickness of the timber. It may take 1-4 years to bring down the moisture content to 16-
17 percent level.

Water Seasoning of timber

This is a process of natural seasoning of timber that gives good results with logs of freshly cut trees.
When the logs are placed in running water, the sap from the cells can be easily washed out. In place of
sap, the cells get filled with ordinary water. When such logs are taken out and wood from them placed
for air seasoning, it takes comparatively less time to become dry. The timber logs can also be placed in
stagnant water if running water is not available nearby. In such a case, the water should be replaced
every week. Placing the logs in water also saves them from unequal shrinkage (at the cut ends and along
the length) if left for more time in the open without sawing into smaller pieces.
2. Artificial Seasoning of Timber (Kiln).
This is the modern method of seasoning any type of timber in a short time. It involves drying the timber
in a specially designed kiln where there is perfect control over temperature, humidity and air circulation.
With the help of kiln seasoning of timber, it is possible to reduce the moisture content to as low level
as 6 percent. The method involves broadly the following steps:
(a) Timber is stacked properly in the kiln keeping open spaces for air circulation. The kiln is then heated
to low initial temperatures, only slightly higher than the atmospheric temperature outside. It is kept at
that temperature for some time. This initial low heat is essential to avoid cracking or splitting of timber
which would become certain if the temperature is suddenly raised to high drying rates. In that case,
moisture from the surface of the wood will dry out fast (causing shrinkage) whereas moisture in deeper
cells will be slow in moving out. In slow heating, this risk is adequately covered.
(b) Once the timber has been at low heat and good humidity for some time, the temperature of the kiln
is raised. Humidity is reduced and air circulation is made faster. In this way a continuous process of
loss of moisture from the deeper cells to the outer cells of the timber and from there to ‘outside’ the kiln
starts.

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(c) During the heating process, all efforts are made to maintain a uniform circulation of the air so that
all the parts of timber in the pile receive the same amount of heat. This aspect is the most difficult one
in kiln seasoning and requires expert handling for good quality seasoning. Many modifications of kilns
for seasoning timber are available. It is a costly method, no doubt But the quality of seasoned timber is
highly satisfactory.
3. Chemical Seasoning of Timber (Salt Seasoning).
This may be grouped under processes of artificial seasoning. In this method, the timber piece to be
seasoned is treated with a chemical solution like sodium chloride, sodium nitrate or urea. The essential
quality of such a solution is that it reduces the vapor pressure on the surface of application. Once such
a treated timber is exposed to natural drying, it is the water (sap) from the inner cells mat moves to outer
cells at lower vapor pressure. The wood surface remains moist while moisture from the interior goes on
diffusing to the exterior. In other words, chemical seasoning of wood enables the timber to dry first
from inside. It is definitely an advantage as it prevents the risk of cracking of outer shell.
4. Electrical Seasoning of Wood.
It is of theoretical importance only. Dry wood is a non-conductor of electricity. But when a high
alternating current is passed through a piece of green timber, heat generated is enough to dry out the
moisture of the cells which do conduct some electricity. In this way, the timber pieces are dried quickly.
The technique involves costly equipment and even the consumption of electricity is so high that the
process is uneconomical. Moreover, heating of cell walls causes considerable weakness in them.
5. Seasoning by Boiling.
This is also a quick method of removing sap from within the cells. The timber to be seasoned is
immersed in water and the same is raised to boiling temperature. It is kept boiling for four to five hours.
The sap is washed out by this process. On placing in the air, such boiled timber dries quickly. But, at
the cost of the strength and elasticity of the fibers. Hence, this method is also rarely used.

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6.0 WOOD DEFECTS

No tree is perfect. It’s subject to defects from the time it emerges as a seedling to the last stages
of seasoning. A defect is simply an abnormality or irregularity found in wood. There are many different
types of defects arising from many different causes. For instance, there are natural and acquired defects
caused by a broken limb or other injury, insect and fungal attack, or rapid tree growth. There are innate
defects caused by the natural characteristic of wood to shrink or expand in response to water vapor in
the air. And, there are artificial and mechanical defects caused by incorrect sawing or machining
(conversion), improper drying (seasoning), or improper handling and storage. Defects may be
responsible for reducing wood’s economic value, lowering its strength, durability and usefulness,
marring its appearance, and in some cases, causing its decay.

1. Natural Wood Defects

During its lifetime, a tree is subjected to many natural forces that cause defects in the wood.
Woodworkers are quite familiar with these defects – knots, splits, ugly dark streaks or stains, worm
holes, even decay. Some of the more common wood defects all woodworkers face include

Bark pockets

Formed when a small piece of the bark protrudes into the lumber. This area is generally considered
unsound.

Bird pecks

Caused by birds, especially woodpeckers, which peck on trees mainly to cause panic to the insects
living in or under the bark and in the wood of the tree. This causes the insects to come out enabling the
birds to eat them. Bird pecking can cause small injuries to the tree, resulting in grain changes that later
show up as various forms of figure in the wood (figure is the “look” or appearance of a piece of wood).

Burls

Burls are a deformed growth formed when a tree receives a shock or injury in its young age. Due to its
injury, the tree’s growth is completely upset and irregular projections appear on the body of the timber.

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Continued tree growth follows the contour of the original burl deformity, producing all manner of twists,
swirls and knots in the wood fiber. Usually, this results in spectacular patterns in the wood that can be
used to great effect in woodworking. Burl wood is normally darker than the rest of the tree and, in some
cases, may be a significantly different color altogether.

Coarse grain

If the tree grows rapidly, the annual rings are widened. It is known as coarse grain timber and possesses
less strength.

Fungal damage

Fungi generally damages timber or wood by discoloration and/or decay. The resulting wood is generally
weaker or of a different color than is typical for that species. The more common effects of fungal
damage include:

● Blue stain – Common in pine, maple, and many other woods, blue stain (also called “sapstain”) is
caused by a fungus that feeds on the sap. It does not live in live trees due to lack of oxygen. The bluish
color (sometimes gray or dark gray) is the fungus itself, not the color of the sapwood. The color does
not degrade the cellular structure and does not count against wood in the grading process.

● Brown rot – A form of wood decay found only in softwoods that destroys the wood’s cellulose,
eventually causing cracks across the grain. Advanced brown rot tends to leave the wood more brown
than normal. It is a precursor to dry rot.

● Dry rot – After the wood infected with brown rot dries out, the cell walls of the remaining wood
turns into dry powder when crushed. This is called dry rot.

● Heart rot – This is formed when a branch has come out of the tree. The heart wood is exposed to an
attack of atmospheric agents. Ultimately, the tree becomes weak and it gives a hollow sound when
struck with a hammer.

● Wet rot – Some kinds of fungi cause chemical decomposition of a wood’s timber and in doing so
converts timber into a grayish brown powder known as wet rot. Alternative wet and dry conditions
favor the development of wet rot. If unseasoned or improperly seasoned timber is exposed to rain and
wind, it easily becomes vulnerable to wet rot attack.

● White rot – This is just the opposite of brown rot. In this type of fungi attack, the wood’s lignin and
the wood itself assumes the appearance of a white mass consisting of cellulose compounds. Some of
the white rots during their early stages of development form what is commercially termed “spalted
wood.” This wood has a unique color and figure, and some woodworkers highly prize it.\

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Insect defects

There are a number of insects that eat wood. Many other insects use wood as a nesting place for their
larvae which results in holes and tunnels in the wood. The damage they cause ranges from minor to
catastrophic. Some of the more common insects include:

● Wood boring beetles – Wood boring beetles, such as buprestid, powder post, ambrosia, furniture,
and longhorn, tunnel through wood to deposit their larvae. Some larvae eat the starchy part of the wood
grain. Many species attack live but usually stressed trees, while others prefer recently dead hosts.

● Pin-hole borers – They damage fresh-cut logs and unseasoned lumber, but also attack weakened,
stressed, dying trees, and healthy trees with bark injuries.

● Termites – Termites not only tunnel through wood in various directions, but eat away the wood
from the cross-section core. They usually do not disturb the outer shell or cover. In fact, the timber
piece attacked by termites may look sound until it completely fails.

Knots

A knot is the base of a branch or limb that was broken or cut off from the tree. The portion of the
remaining branch receives nourishment from the stem for some time and it ultimately results in the
formation of dark hard rings known as knots. As the continuity of wood fibers are broken by knots, they
form a source of weakness. There are several types of knots:

● Sound (or tight knots) are solid and cannot be knocked loose because they are fixed by growth or
position in the wood structure. They are partially or completely intergrown with the growth rings.

● Unsound knots (or loose knots) are knots which fall out of the lumber when pushed or have already
fallen out. They are caused by a dead branch that was not fully integrated into the tree before it was cut
down.

● Encased knots are those which are not intergrown with the surrounding wood.

● Knothole is a hole left where the knot has been knocked out.

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● Spike knots are limbs which have been cut across or cut lengthwise, showing the endwise or
lengthwise section of the limb or knot. These knots generally have splits and severe grain deviations
near them.

Raised grain

Anything that gives the wood a corrugated feel. Typically, this is caused by the harder summerwood
rising above the softer springwood in the growth ring. The growth rings do not separate.

Shake

A lengthwise crack or separation of the wood between the growth rings, often extending along the
board’s face and sometimes below its surface. Shakes may either partly or completely separate the wood
fibers. The separations make the wood undesirable when appearance is important. Although this is a
naturally occurring defect possibly caused by frost or wind stress, shakes can also occur on impact at
the time of felling and because of shrinkage in the log before conversion.

There are two types of shakes:

● Star Shake: A group of splits radiating from the pith or center of the tree in the form of a star. It is
wider on the outside ends and narrower on the inside ends. Star shakes are usually formed due to
extreme heat or severe frost during the tree’s growth. Also referred to as heart shake.

● Ring Shake: Also known as “cup shake” or “wind shake,” this rupture runs parallel to the growth
rings. A ring shake is not easily detected in green logs and lumber, but only becomes apparent after
drying. It’s caused by any one of numerous factors, including bacteria, tree wounds, tree age, and
environmental conditions such as excessive frost action on the sap when the tree is young.

Split

A split is a rupture or separation in the wood grain which reduces a board’s appearance, strength, or
utility. One of the more typical ruptures of this type is called ring shake. In a ring shake (also known as
cup shake or wind shake), the rupture runs parallel to the growth rings. It’s not easily detected in green
logs and lumber, but only becomes apparent after drying. It’s caused by any one of numerous factors,
including bacteria, tree wounds, tree age, and environmental conditions.

Stains

Stains are a discoloration that penetrate the wood fiber. They’re caused by a variety of conditions and
can be any color other than the natural color of the wood. A number of non-wood destroying fungi can
cause stains or discoloration. Some stains may indicate decay or bacteria are present.

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Spalting

Any form of wood discoloration caused by fungi. It’s typically found in dead trees, so if the wood isn’t
stabilized at the right time it will eventually become rotten wood. There are three types of spalting that
are typically incorporated into woodworking as design elements: pigmentation (“sapstain”), white rot,
and zone lines.

Twisted fibers

These are known as wandering hearts and caused by twisting of young trees by fast blowing wind. The
timbers with twisted fibers is unsuitable for sawing.

Wood defects due to conversion

Conversion is the process of converting raw timber to forms suitable for woodworking or construction
projects. During this process, the following defects may occur:

Chip mark

Shallow depressions or indentations in the surface of a board caused by shavings or chips getting
imbedded in the surface during the process of dressing. They may be formed by a planer or jointer.

Diagonal grain

Wood in which the annual growth rings are at an angle with the axis of a piece as a result of sawing at
an angle. In other words, rather than running parallel to the long edge of a board, for example, the grain
runs at an angle to it. Such wood is not permitted for structural applications in the American Forestry
Association guidelines because it lacks the same structural strength as an equal-sized piece that has the
grain running parallel to the edge.

Torn grain

An irregularity in the surface of a board where wood fibers below the level of the dressed surface have
been torn or broken out by a planer.

Wane

The presence of bark or the absence of wood on the corners or along the length of a piece of lumber.
Wane, in the form of bark, is more commonly associated with rough milled lumber. In the case of
construction lumber (e.g., 2x4s), it can be bark or missing wood.

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Machine burn

A darkening of the wood due to overheating by machine knives or rolls when pieces are stopped in the
machine.

Machine bite

A depressed cut of the machine knives at the end of the piece.

Machine gouge

A groove cut by the machine below the desired line.

2. Wood defects due to seasoning

Seasoning is the process of drying lumber (either in a kiln or air drying) to an appropriate level of
moisture for woodworking and other commercial uses. During this process, a board may become
warped.

The term “warped” is a nonspecific term that refers to a distorted or misshapen board. More specific
terms for warping include cupping, twisting, bowing, crook, and spring. Common seasoning defects,
including types of warping, include:

Bowing

A curvature formed in the direction of the length of timber. A bowed board is flat, but bent, like a road
going over a hill.

Check

A check is a crack which separates the fibers of wood. It does not extend from one end to the other. It
occurs across the growth rings and is usually caused by poor or improper drying processes.

Crook

Where the board remains flat, but the ends move away from the center. Another type of warp.

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Twisting

Where the board curves in length and width like a propeller.

Cupping

Where the face of a board warps up across its width such that if one looks at the end of the board, it will
look like a shallow letter “U.” Is common with plain-sawn lumber.

Spring

Occurs when the board remains flat in width, but curves in length like a river going around a bend.

Case hardening

When lumber or timber is dried too quickly, wood shrinks much at the surface, compressing its damp
interior. This results in unrelieved stress. Case-hardened wood may warp considerably and dangerously
when the stress is released by sawing. Extreme cases of case hardening leads to honeycombing.

Honeycombing

During drying, internal stresses cause various radial and circular cracks to develop in the interior portion
of the wood resembling a honeycomb texture. Honeycombing is among the worst of drying defects
because it’s irreversible and usually cannot be detected by looking at the face of the lumber.

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7.0 ADVANTANGES AND DISADVANTANGES OF TIMBER IN CONSTRUCTION
Advantanges
1. Excellent insulator: Houses they are built out
of bricks also known to have outstanding
insulating properties, but timber manages to
surpass them.
2. Timber is an elastic material: At the
opposite of brick or concrete walls, timber
walls don’t need to be very thick. A 20m
timber wall for example, is strong enough to
protect the internal space against the winter
cold, in conjunction with a proper treatment.
3. Easy and fast to build: A timber construction
can be build very easy and fast in contrast to
a common brick or concrete construction.
4. Sustainable: Timber is a renewable resource.
5. Reusable: Timber can be used more than
once. It is easy to recycle.
6. Strength: Timber framings are strong in real
structural terms.
7. Esthetic appeal: Timber is a beautiful
material for both internal and external
appearance.
8. Variation: There are more than 5000 kinds of
woods in the world. Their specific gravity,
Disadvantanges
1. Shrinking and swelling: Timber has a natural
ability to absorb water which is also known as
Hygroscopy.
2. Fire resistance: If timber has not passed a
special treatment which ensure a special fire
rating, timber is highly combustable.
3. Discolouration: With the time untreated
timber which is exposed to the different
weather influences it discolours turns to a dark
and dirty optic.
4. Mouldiness: If timber is treated wrong or the
installation is not regulated accordingly, timber
has the ability to mould.
5. Fungi: Oxygen is essential for the growth of
fungi. In the absence of oxygen no fungi will
grow. It is well known that storage of wood
under water will protect them against attacks
by fungi.
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 macroscopic and microscopic structures are
different. Accordingly, their physical,
thermal, acoustic, electrical and mechanical
properties are also different. Because of this
variety, it is possible to find wood suitable for
needs.

9. Working Properties: It is easy to repair and

maintain wood. While old woods can be
renewed by special touches other materials
are highly difficult and costly to maintain and
to repair. Therefore they are usually disposed
of.

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8.0 COMPARISON BETWEEN TIMBER AND BRICK

Brick:

There is a benefit to how nice brick looks on a home. Not only does it tend to add a sophisticated
aesthetic, it also adds value to your home. This will make it easier to sell your house when the time
comes. It's a natural choice, and bricks can come in various shades and hues, depending on the specific
rock material you used. It's also great for cold weather because brick retains natural heat and stays warm
for longer. This means your household's expenses for gas and heat will decrease and save you money
in the long run. Brick protects your home from damage during particularly harsh storms. It's fireproof,
termite proof, and durable over a long period of time. In addition to this, it's low maintenance because
it doesn't require painting, it won't chip or wear down. All it needs is a light spray with a hose
periodically.

Timber:

Wood is more of a traditional material for your home. Typically "stick built" houses are more affordable
than block homes. These types of homes are fairly easy to work with and the material is lightweight,
too. It's also pretty accessible because you can find it at any lumber yard or home improvement store.
Generally, wood is more convenient, especially in certain settings. In areas where erosion and silt
accumulate, wood stands up better because it damages brick walls, whereas wood is resistant. Wood is
also a great insulator. On cold nights you have a better chance of keeping your heat in and staying warm.
Wood absorbs humidity, and is a natural air conditioner. It can be wood paneling, or a log house.
Another advantage is that it's more flexible than brick.

TIMBER BRICK

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9.0 CONCLUSION

As conclusion, we need to better understand how the elements that make up the
structure of wood contribute to its various properties at a macro scale. At the largest scale,
engineering mega buildings with timber may require material properties that do not yet exist in
timber. Bringing these two scales together through research should increase the already
significant potential for using plant material at a large scale in the built environment. Timber
excels where strength (or stiffness) to weight is more important than absolute strength (or
stiffness). Specific architectural and engineering designs can maximise this relationship, but it
also suggests that timber buildings may be fundamentally different from steel or concrete
buildings in structural and spatial layout. The open research questions highlighted point to areas
to develop that would greatly enhance the viability of timber in big buildings worldwide. We
look forward to results from those and similar questions that bring together the wood science,
engineering, and policy that ensure the best environmental outcomes for constructing with
natural materials. In modern building practice, timber and other wood product are extensively
useful and normal they are used for walls and floors of buildings, carpentry and graded plank
items, as well as prefabricated standard wooden cottages. This high usage of timber has brought
great growth of economy of a country also growth of cities and town. A great quantity of wood
is consumed in building and installation work for making piles, poles, various load-bearing
components formworks, scaffolds. Currently, wood waste is utilized to manufactures polymer
and cement based fibreboard and wood shavings board. This also allows manufacturing
materials of better physical, mechanical and decorative properties than wood.

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10.0 REFERENCES

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumber
 https://www.woodproducts.fi/content/standard-sizes-thicknesses-widths-and-lengths
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardwood_timber_production
 https://dir.indiamart.com/indianexporters/wood-working-tool.html
 http://kettyle.com/wood-and-timber-types-html/
 https://be1341mortonw15036394berl.wordpress.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-
timber/
 http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN,98769/wood-as-a-building-material-it39s-benefits-and-disadvan-
.html
 http://www.massrealty.com/articles/brick-homes-vs-wood-homes
 http://www.northstonehampark.co.uk/our-news/blog/timber-vs-brick-construction/
 http://civilblog.org/2015/06/17/10-most-important-qualities-of-good-timber/
 https://www.slideshare.net/aadilkihan/timber-a-construction-material
 https://sites.google.com/site/brhsconstructiontech/home/common-wood-defects
 https://www.woodworkingnetwork.com/best-practices-guide/solid-wood-
machining/understanding-working-wood-defects
 https://failures.wikispaces.com/Assessment+and+Remediation+of+Wood+Defects
 http://www.sema-soft.de/en/software/timber-construction/
 file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/117_Sample_Chapter.pdf
 https://www.slideshare.net/aadilkihan/timber-a-construction-material?qid=8490998f-3744-
44d6-b8ce-f96efd8164eb&v=&b=&from_search=8
 http://www.civilengineeringx.com/traditional-materials/seasoning-of-timber/
 https://www.slideshare.net/SHERLYheartCHRISTIAN/kayu-53763557

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