Limiting Reactants – reactant that runs out first and thus limits QUANTUM NUMBERS Magnetic Quantum Number

Magnetic Quantum Number (ml) – describes the orientation of

the amounts of products that can form.
Excess Reactants – reactants present in quantities greater than
necessary to react w/ the quantity of the limiting reagent.
Urea [(NH2)2CO] is prepared by reacting ammonia w/ carbon
dioxide:
2NH3 + CO2 (NH2)2CO + H2O
the orbital in space.
Wave functions – describe the probability of finding electrons at
Values of (ml) are integers that depend on the value of the
certain energy levels w/in an atom.
angular moment quantum number : -1,…0,…+1
Atomic orbital – a wave function for an electron in an atom. ml can be any integer from –l to +l
Ex.
Orbital – (n, l, and ml) , wave function, a region of space
l=2 l=3
occupied by an electron, has energies, shapes, and orientation
in space. ml = -2,-1,0,1,2 ml = -3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3

In one process, 849.2 g of NH3 are treated w/ 1223 g of CO2. FOUR DIFFERENT QUANTUM NUMBERS Relationship between n, l, ml

(a) W/c of the two reactants is the limiting reactant? NH3 • Principal Quantum Numbers (n)
Ex: 3d Ex: 1s Ex: 4p Ex: 4f
n=3 n=1 n=4 n=4
(b) Calculate the mass of (NH2)2CO formed. 1497g (NH2)2CO • Angular momentum/ Azimuthal Quantum Numbers (l) l=2 l=3
l=0 l=1
(c) How much excess reactant (in grams) is left at the end • Magnetic Quantum Numbers (ml) ml = -2,-1,0,1,2 ml = -3,-2-1,0,1,2
ml = 0 ml = -1,-0,1
of the reaction? 126g CO2 • Spin Quantum Numbers (ms)
2NH3 + CO2 (NH2)2CO + H2O Principal Quantum Number (n) – size of the orbital.
Larger values of (n) correspond to larger orbitals.
Values of n are integral numbers: 1,2,3 and so forth.
849.2 g NH3 1mol NH3 1mol (NH2)2CO = 24.93 mol Values of n corresponds to the value of n in Bohr’s model of the
17.03g NH3 2mol NH3 Urea hydrogen atom.
Shell – a collection of orbitals w/ the same value of n.
1223g CO2 1mol CO2 1mol (NH2)2CO = 27.79 mol Spin Quantum Number (ms) – specifies the orientation of the
Azimuthal or Angular Momentum Quantum Number (l) –
44.01g CO2 1mol CO2 Urea spin axis of an electron. Electron can spin in only one of two
describe the shape of the orbital.
directions (up and down).
Values of (l) are integers that depend on the value of the
24.93mol (NH2)2CO 60.06g (NH2)2CO = 1.497g The Pauli exclusion principle (Wolfgang Pauli) – no two
principal quantum number.
electrons in the same atom can have identical values for all of
1mol (NH2)2CO Urea Allowed values of l range from 0 to n-1.
their quantum numbers.
Ex. If n=2, l can be 0 or 1.
Electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins.
2.86mol CO2 44.01g CO2 l 0 1 2 3 1 1
= 126g CO2 Orbital designation s p d f The value of ms = + or −
2 2
1mol CO2 Subshell – collection of orbitals w/ the same value of n and l.
LR: NH3 Empty
n l shape l ≤ n-1
EXCESS: CO2 Half-filled (PARAMAGNETIC) are attracted
to a magnetic field.
n=1 l=0 (s)
24.93 n=2 l=0,1 (s,p) Filled DIAMAGNETIC

- 27.79 n=3 l=0,1,2 (s,p,d)

2.86 mol CO2 n=4 l=0,1,2,3 (s,p,d,f)
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS Pauli Exclusion Principle – no two (DOWN A GROUP)
electrons in an atom can have
- Refers to the logical numerical representation of the • Atomic number increases
the same four quantum
predicted location of an electron(s) in an atom.
numbers. Each orbital can have • Number of shells
two electrons. Must have increases successively
Orbital diagram – to illustrate the distribution of electrons in an
opposite spin quantum number. (overweigh the increased
atom.
nuclear charge)
Degenerate orbitals – orbitals w/ the same amount of energy. Hund’s Rule – each degenerate • Nuclear charge increases
orbital must be filled up in first • Distance between the
s subshell has 1 degenerate orbital by a single electron before outermost shell and
p subshell has 3 degenerate orbitals pairing up. nucleus increases
d subshell has 5 degenerate orbitals
Using noble gas core electron configurations of all elements • ATOMIC SIZE INCREASES
f subshell has 7 degenerate orbitals
except hydrogen and helium are represented. Arrange the ff.
Anomalies: atoms in
increasing
3d = 4, 9 (1,2,3,5,5,6,7,8,10,10) atomic radius:
4d = 3, 6, 9 (1,2,4,5,5,7,8,10,10,10) P,Si,N=N<P<Si
5d = 8 (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,9,10,10)

In order of
PERIODIC TRENDS IN ATOMIC PROPERTIES
decreasing
Atomic size (atomic radius) – from radius: C,Li,Be
nucleus to outermost orbital. = Li>Be>C
One-half distance between two
The Aufbau Principle – electrons are nuclei in two adjacent metal
added to the lowest energy orbitals first atoms.
before moving to higher energy orbitals. (ACROSS A PERIOD)

• Atomic number
increases
• Number of
protons increases
• Nuclear charge
increases
Valence electrons – electrons in the
outermost principal quantum level of an atom. N: 1s22s22p3 • Nuclear force of attraction on outermost shell increases
Outside of [noble gas] • ATOMIC SIZE DECREASES
2 2 3
Core electrons – electrons in [noble gas] N: 1s 2s 2p
Al: [Ne] 3s23p1
Ionization Energy (I.E.)– the minimum energy (in kJ/mol) Electronegativity – tendency to attract the shared pair of (DOWN A GROUP)
required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom and electrons.
• Nuclear charge increases
convert it into a positively gaseous
M + I.E. ion. M+ + e- (ACROSS A PERIOD) • Number of shells increases successively (overweigh the
(ACROSS A PERIOD) increased nuclear charge)
• Atomic number
• Atomic size increases
• Atomic number increases increases
• Effective force of attraction on valence electrons
• Nuclear charge increases • Nuclear charge
decreases, hence lesser energy is released
• Atomic size decreases increases
• ELECTRON AFFINITY DECREASES
• Electrons are held tightly, hence greater energy is • Atomic size decreases
required to remove the electrons • Tendency to attract the shared pair of electrons ELECTRON AFFINITY ANOMALIES: 2A<1A and 5A<4A
• IONIZATION ENERGY INCREASES increases
• ELECTRONEGATVITY INCREASES
Cations are
smaller than The element with the least electronegativity is: Na, Mg, Al = Na
neutral atoms
(DOWN A GROUP)
I.E.1 I.E.2 ,
w/c is greater? • Nuclear charge increases
I.E.1 < I.E.2 < I.E.3 • Number of shells increases successively (overweigh the
size : I.E. increased nuclear charge)
• Atomic size increases
(DOWN A GROUP) • Tendency to attract the shared pair of electrons
• Nuclear charge increases decreases
• Number of shells increases successively (overweigh the • ELECTRONEGATIVITY DECREASES
increased nuclear charge) Electron Affinity (E.A.) – amount of energy released while
• Atomic size decreases converting neutral gaseous atom into a negatively charged
• Electrons are held loosely, hence lesser energy is gaseous ion by the addition of electron. X + e- X- + EA
required to remove the electrons
• The less shielding between the nucleus and outermost (ACROSS A PERIOD)
electrons, the greater • Atomic number increases
the force of attraction. • Nuclear charge increases
• IONIZATION ENERGY • Atomic size decreases
DECREASES • Effective force of attraction on valence electrons
Arrange the ff. in order of increases, hence greater energy is released
increasing ionization energy: Be, Ca, Mg = Ca<Mg<Be • ELECTRON AFFINITY INCREASES
The element w/ the greatest electron affinity: B, C, N = N
IONIZATION ENERGY ANOMALIES: 3A<2A and 6A<5A