Deleanu, Florin (2013) Meditative Practices in The Bodhisattvabhumi - Quest For and Liberation Through The Thing-In-Itself

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Buddhist Meditation in the Bodhisattvabhumi
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Florin Deleanu
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Meditative Practices in the Bodhisattvabhūmi
Quest for and Liberation through the Thing-In-Itself
Florin DELEANU
The textual history of the Yogācāra tradition begins with the Śrāvakabhūmi, an
exposition of the theory and praxis of the spiritual path along lines common to a
few Northern Śrāvakayāna schools, most notably the Sarvāstivāda. In less than a
century from the conclusion of its formation, this work became part of the
Yogācārabhūmi, a monumental encyclopedic treatise which laid the foundations of
a brand-new Mahāyāna tradition — the school of meditation adepts (yogācāra),
mainly known for its theory on consciousness (vijñānavāda).1 According to it, our
common representation (vijñapti ) of the world is the only (mātra) entity actually
existing. And to make things worse, its workings distort the possibility of a true
insight into Reality (tathatā ). Though far from being spelled out in all its details,
the first clearly identifiable statement of this new view is found in the
Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra, a scripture which seems to have been independently
compiled but was later incorporated into the Yogācārabhūmi.
What made this new school, with part of its roots strongly anchored in an or-
thodox Śrāvakayāna tradition, develop a totally new outlook? Obviously, the
answer is not simple, and the origins of this novel perspective are complex. From
the standpoint of the textual history, however, one could reasonably argue that
what lies between the traditional views of the Śrāvakabhūmi and the revolutionary
ideas presented in the Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra are the Bodhisattvabhūmi and the
earlier parts of the Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī. The former is a treatise (or rather
anthology) dedicated to the philosophy and practice of the ideal Mahāyāna
virtuoso (bodhisattva) treading along the messianic path of liberating all sentient
beings and of perfecting himself for the attainment of the Awakening.2 Like the
This paper represents a revised version of my presentation at the 3rd Geumgang Interna-
tional Conference for Buddhist Studies, 'The Yogācārabhūmi and the Yogācāras' held in
Seoul, 13-14 October 2008. I should like to express my sincerest gratitude to the organizers
of the Conference, especially to Professor Dr Sungdoo AHN and Dr Changhwan PARK, for
kindly inviting me and offering me this unique opportunity. My warmest thanks are also
due to Professor Dr. Ulrich Timme KRAGH for his tireless editorial efforts and kind under-
standing.
1
Originally, the word yogācāra appears to have been a pan-Buddhist term referring to
meditation practitioners in general, whether adepts or beginners, without implying a
precise scholastic affiliation. We owe Jonathan SILK (2000) the best and most comprehen-
sive examination of this term and its historical background.
2
As well as 'herself', one may and should add retrospectively. Like many other tradi-
tional Indian texts, the Bodhisattvabhūmi employs only masculine forms ('he', 'his', etc.)
when speaking of practitioners and bodhisattvas. Seen from the paradigm of our age, the
Meditative Practices in the Bodhisattvabhūmi 885
Śrāvakabhūmi, this text also became part of the Yogācārabhūmi. The Viniścaya-
saṃgrahaṇī is the auto-commentarial portion of the Yogācārabhūmi, which glosses
and elaborates upon terms and subjects in the preceding (and most likely, earlier)
parts of the text.3
It is tempting to refer to the Bodhisattvabhūmi as a 'missing link'. 'Link' it is but
'missing' would be an overstatement. Modern scholars, mainly in Japan, have
examined many of its philosophical and philological facets. Nevertheless, to the
best of my knowledge, a systematic examination of the meditative practices in the
Bodhisattvabhūmi has not been undertaken so far.4 The present paper attempts to
fill in this gap, albeit in a very limited fashion and scope.5
usage can be taken as sexist. One should, however, be fair and add that there are also texts
which refer to female meditators (see, for instance, the examples analyzed in SILK, 2000)
and that the monastic order of nuns likewise attests to the fact that women were not barred
from spiritual praxis.
The fact that I also use sometimes only masculine forms to refer to meditators
(especially in the English translation) should be understood as an attempt to stay close to
the grammatical conventions of the traditional Indian texts. It reflects in no way a sexist
assumption that the techniques and philosophy described here are not accessible to women,
an assumption which was anyway alien to many of the Buddhist sources in spite of their
failure to express it in clear lexical forms.
3
The entire text of the Yogācārabhūmi has survived only in Chinese and Tibetan
translations. Roughly speaking, the two versions are quite similar, though structurally, they
show some differences. The Chinese translation, which structurally seems to reflect more
faithfully the Sanskrit original, consists of five main parts: (1) Běn dì fēn (本地分; Sanskrit,
*Maulyo bhūmayaḥ) (which also includes the texts of the Śrāvakabhūmi and the Bodhi-
sattvabhūmi ); (2) Shè juézé fēn (攝決擇分; Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī ) (which cites most of the
Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra); (3) Shè shì fēn (攝釋分; *Vyākhyāsaṃgrahaṇī ); (4) Shè yìmén
fēn (攝異門分; Paryāyasaṃgrahaṇī ); and (5) Shè shì fēn (攝事分; Vastusaṃgrahaṇī ). For
a more detailed discussion of the structure of the Yogācārabhūmi as well as the recon-
struction of the original Sanskrit titles of the five main parts, see DELEANU (2006.I:43-50).
4
We are indebted to the Japanese scholars for numerous references to and some
detailed discussions of various aspects of the spiritual cultivation and the bodhisattva's path
in the Bodhisattvabhūmi, the majority of which will be mentioned in the notes below.
However, as far as I know, there is no contribution in Japanese (or, for that matter, in any
other modern language) dedicated solely to the topic of meditation in the Bodhisattva-
bhūmi.
Contributions relevant to the subject are much more limited in the secondary sources
published in Western languages. I shall mention here only the most significant ones.
DAYAL (1932:278-283), discusses the abodes and stages of the bodhisattva's path in the
Bodhisattvabhūmi in the wider context of this topic in Mahāyāna literature. DEMIÉVILLE's
(1957) "Le chapitre de la Bodhisattvabhūmi sur la Perfection du Dhyâna" is an annotated
translation into French of the Chapter on the Dhyānapāramitā. Although it contains very
useful annotations and insightful remarks, this is not an analysis of dhyāna in the whole text
of the Bodhisattvabhūmi, let alone a survey of all the meditative practices – a topic much
more complex than the exposition in the Dhyānapaṭala. DE JONG (1987:168-170) makes
fairly detailed philological observations on the term pragraha, closely related to vipaśyanā,
in the Bodhisattvabhūmi. MAITHRIMURTHI (1999) represents an excellent study of the four
immeasurables (apramāṇa) in the early and middle Buddhist tradition, also containing one
section dedicated to the Bodhisattvabhūmi (pp. 233-255) and a critical Sanskrit edition as
well as a German translation of relevant portions (pp. 305-327). SAKUMA's (1990.I:59-70;
II:149-152) examination of the āśrayaparivṛtti theory, which has important consequences
for the spiritual cultivation in general, touches upon the Bodhisattvabhūmi, too, and also
886 Florin DELEANU
Before embarking upon this task, a few introductory remarks about the date of
our main scriptural protagonists might be useful. The whole discussion is, however,
far from easy. First and foremost, this is because the picture at which we can
glimpse after more than a millennia and a half is uninvitingly hazy. Most of what I
(or for that matter, arguably any student of Buddhist history) can say is bound to
be highly conjectural and frequently controversial. For the present purposes, it will
suffice to sum up some of the main hypotheses, which I believe to be the most
plausible and are partly based upon or shared with some of the most prestigious
experts in this field.6
Traditionally, the Chinese sources attribute the Yogācārabhūmi to Bodhisattva
Maitreya. The Tibetan translation and historiography, on the other hand, ascribes
the text to Asaṅga. However, to many modern students of history, the present
author included, the text does not appear to be the work of a single person. Neither
does it look like an opus of a team of scholar-monks working according to a plan
and within the span of several years. It rather seems to be a conglomerate which
grew out gradually over a long period, very probably stretching for more than one
century.
edits and renders into German relevant passages. ARAMAKI (2000:45-46) makes various
references to the spiritual cultivation described in the Bodhisattvabhūmi and its historical
development, especially to the four types of investigation (catasraḥ paryeṣaṇāḥ). The
catasraḥ paryeṣaṇāḥ are also briefly mentioned in SCHMITHAUSEN (1969a:820, n. 45), in
the context of the textual history of Yogācāra literature. Actually the most detailed
treatment of these investigations is found in the Tattvārthapaṭala, and further biblio-
graphical information related to this important chapter in the Bodhisattvabhūmi as well as
its meditative practices will be found in the notes below.
In this context, mention should also be made of the meditative practices in the
Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī. We owe to SCHMITHAUSEN (1976:242-244) and, more recently and
in detail, to SCHMITHAUSEN (2007:232-235) very insightful discussions of some meditative
practices in the Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī. Fundamental contributions to the study of this part
of the Yogācārabhūmi, also containing many relevant references to the spiritual praxis,
have recently been brought by KRAMER (2005) and TAKAHASHI (2005a) (see also note 16
below).
5
Time and space limitations do not allow me to embark upon a full discussion of the
subject, which in its earnest, would doubtless require at least one monograph. I must also
stress the fact that a detailed treatment of the spiritual cultivation in the Bodhisattvabhūmi,
as actually in most Mahāyāna sources, cannot be undertaken without paying full attention
to the bodhisattva's salvific activity. The latter is closely interwoven with the bodhisattva's
meditative training and gradual progression on the spiritual ladder. Unfortunately, this
facet of the meditative progress could not be sufficiently dealt with here. In spite of the said
limitations, I do hope, however, that the paper will at least succeed in sketching the main
contours of the subject and shed some light upon the historical background.
6
I discuss the textual history and dating of the Yogācārabhūmi in more detail in
DELEANU (2006, especially I:147-247). All necessary bibliographical references are also
found there. Here I limit myself to noting that many of my hypotheses are based upon or
inspired from the work of Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN (see mainly SCHMITHAUSEN 1969a;
1987: especially 13-14, 183-185; SCHMITHAUSEN 2000). It must be said, however, that the
dating itself (see below) largely relies upon my own conjectural views, and I alone am to be
held responsible for whatever mistakes it may contain. (How delightfully easy it is to make
such bold statements in an age like ours when one is not burnt at the stake or, to be more in
tune with my own historical background, impaled on a pike for them! — or at least, so I
hope…)
Can we pinpoint this period in concrete historical terms? As with the vast
majority of the traditional Indian works, if mathematical precision is required, the
answer must be, I am afraid, negative. But if more flexible criteria of conjecture are
allowed, the following hypothesis may not be completely off the mark. I think it is
fairly safe to surmise that the Śrāvakabhūmi and the Bodhisattvabhūmi appear to
represent the earliest strata of the Yogācārabhūmi. The beginnings of the for-
mation process of the Śrāvakabhūmi might be tentatively placed around 200 C.E.
It most likely reached its final stages in the second half of the 3rd century. The
compilation of the Bodhisattvabhūmi probably commenced a few decades later
than the Śrāvakabhūmi and was very likely more or less finished by the end of the
3rd century. There seems to be a reasonaby large amount of agreement amongst the
Buddhist scholars that the Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra seems to have been compiled in
the first half of the 4th century. Its incorporation into the Yogācārabhūmi may have
therefore taken place sometime after ca 350. I surmise that in its broad lines, the
compilation process of the entire Yogācārabhūmi (to which Asaṅga may have
participated as one of its redactors and/or late authors?) may have come to an end
in the second half of the 4th century, probably around 370-380.
I. The Concept of Reality in the Bodhisattvabhūmi :

The Ontology of the Thing-In-Itself
Although the Bodhisattvabhūmi seems to have been compiled in circles close to or
at least, familiar with the Śrāvakayāna tradition, its basic Weltanschauung is
unmistakably Mahāyānist.7 To be more precise, many of its central concepts and
philosophical premises come from the Prajñāpāramitā literature. The Bodhi-
sattvabhūmi belongs, however, to a new phase in the history of the Great Vehicle,
a phase in which the intention to bring more light upon the Prajñāpāramitā tenets
often resulted not only in refinements and elaborations but also in unique
creations and opening new venues of thought. Whether its authors were aware of
this or not, the Bodhisattvabhūmi is one of those texts clearly reflecting the latter
tendency. One of its main themes is the attempt to re-define and explore the
concept of emptiness (śūnyatā ) in more positive terms which would dispel any
misunderstandings, especially the possibility of its being misconstrued along nihilist
lines.8 Let us see how the Chapter on Reality (Tattvārthapaṭala )9 defines its notion
of 'rightly grasped emptiness' (sugṛhītā śūnyatā ):10
7
My (highly hypothetical!) views concerning the background of the formation of the
Bodhisattvabhūmi are set forth in DELEANU (2006.I:162-167).
8
One of the major misunderstandings envisaged by the Bodhisattvabhūmi authors are
the mistaken views on emptiness which deny the existence of the 'thing-in-itself'. As we
shall see later, the thing-in-itself is identified with the Supreme Reality. The upholder of
such wrong views is described as follows: "denying the thing[-in-itself], he rejects [literally,
'destroys'] [its existence altogether] saying "nothing exists in any way"." Bodhisattvabhūmi
(WOGIHARA, 1936:4518-19; DUTT, 1978:311-2): vastv apavadamāno nāśayati sarveṇa sarvaṃ
nāstīti. Such a mistake, we are told, comes from the failure to understand the actual
meaning of emptiness preached by the Mahāyāna sutras. The text continues: "Hence there
are some who having heard scriptures belonging to the Great Vehicle, which are difficult to
comprehend, abstruse, related to emptiness, [and] preached with an intended meaning, due
to lack of understanding as to the sense of the [teaching] expounded in accordance with
reality, imagining [things] in an inappropriate way, by mere reasoning improperly applied,
have such views, such theories as "All is just mere designation, this is the Truth, and he who
888 Florin DELEANU
But in what way is emptiness wrongly grasped? There are some recluses
or brahmins who do not accept that of which something is empty, nor do
regards [reality] in this way regards [it] correctly"." Bodhisattvabhūmi (WOGIHARA, 1936:
467-13; DUTT, 1978:3111-15; cf. D4037.26a2-4; T1579.488b28-c3): Ato ya ekatyā durvijñeyān
sūtrāntān mahāyānapratisaṃyuktān gambhīrān śūnyatāpratisaṃyuktān ābhiprāyikārtha-
nirūpitān śrutvā yathābhūtaṃ bhāṣitasyārtham avijñāyāyoniśo vikalpyāyogavihitena tarka-
mātrakeṇaivaṃdṛṣṭayo bhavanty evaṃvādinaḥ: "Prajñaptimātram eva sarvam, etac ca
tattvam, yaś caivaṃ paśyati sa samyak paśyatīti. Here and below, the punctuation of the
citations from the Sanskrit and Chinese originals belongs to me. As much as possible, I
have tried to apply the rules of modern punctuation, though sometimes compromises for
accommodating sandhi in Sanskrit sources and specific marks such as 、in Chinese texts
had to be made. One additional word on my style of translating into English: I have
attempted to be as faithful to the original as intelligibility in the target language allows. I do
not know whether I have succeeded, but I hope that my renderings are intelligible and not
too literal. At any rate, I have tried to stay away from the temptation of embellishing the
style or adjusting it to modern standards. Though occasionally rather clumsy (not too often,
I would dare hope!), I trust that such a style will better convey the intention of the authors
and/or editors of the Bodhisattvabhūmi.
9
This is the one of the most important chapters in the Bodhisattvabhūmi and definitely
its most philosophical one. Naturally, it has received much more attention than any other
part of the text. Partial translations, discussions, and references to the chapter are found in
many studies, especially authored by Japanese scholars. Most of these will be mentioned
below. Here it will suffice to refer to the main translations. We have an excellent critical
edition of the Sanskrit text and annotated Japanese translation by TAKAHASHI Kōichi
(2005a). There is also a complete translation of the chapter into English, accompanied by
Introduction, Commentary, and Notes, by Janice Dean WILLIS (1979). Unfortunately, the
translation is not always reliable and frequently quite free. The best rendering into a
Western language, albeit partial, remains FRAUWALLNER's (1969:270-279) translation into
German. Mention should also be made of UI Hakuju (1961), which contains numerous
fragments of the Sanskrit text, including excerpts from the Tattvārtha-paṭala, rendered into
Japanese.
10
The ideas expressed in this passage actually laid the foundations of the śūnyatā
dialectics in the Yogācāra-Vijñānavāda school and also had a strong impact on the
Tathāgatagarbha tradition. This is seen in texts such as the Abhidharmasamuccayabhāṣya
(p. 40, ll. 10-18), the Madhyāntavibhāgabhāṣya (Ch. I, Verse 1 and Commentary, pp. 17-18)
(Vasubandhu, p. 18, ll. 4-6, actually cites almost verbatim the last part of the fragment cited
below (beginning with yatra nāsti ) and identifies it as the character of emptiness (śūnyatā-
lakṣaṇa); cf. Madhyāntavibhāgabhāṣyaṭīkā p. 14, l. 10–p. 15, l. 3), the Madhyāntavibhāga-
bhāṣyaṭīkā (pp. 10-15), the Ratnagotravibhāga (Ch. I, verses 154-155; commentary, pp. 76-
77), etc.
On the interpretation of emptiness in the Yogācāra-Vijñānavāda, see SEYFORT
RUEGG (1969:319-346; also discussing Tathāgatagarbha texts and related developments of
the śūnyatā concept in Tibetan Buddhism); MUKAI (1974, 1976); MIZUO (1983a, 1983b);
HOTORI (1982, 1984b); NAGAO (1991:51-60). (The latter study is a seminal contribution,
which served as the basis for many of the other articles listed above. It is entitled '"What
Remains" in Śūnyatā: A Yogācāra Interpretation of Emptiness' and was first published in
English in Minoru KIYOTA, ed., Mahāyāna Buddhist Meditation: Theory and Practice,
1978. This actually represents a revised and enlarged version of the author's article
'Amareru mono [What Remains]' 余れるもの, first published in 1968.
There are also pertinent remarks on the topic in SKILLING (1997:350-351; 359). WOOD
(1994:7-8) briefly presents the differences in the way the Madhyāmikas and the Vijñāna-
vādins interpreted emptiness. Cf. also bibliographical references on vastu and catasraḥ
paryeṣaṇāḥ in the notes below.
they accept that which is empty. The [emptiness conceived of] in such a
way is called emptiness wrongly grasped. Why? For [the concept of] emp-
tiness holds good only as long as 11 that of which something is [said to be]
empty does not exist, but on the other hand, that which is empty exists. If,
however, all [elements involved in this relation] were non-existent, in
what respect, what would be empty, [and] of what? Verily something
being empty of [it]self [can]not hold good. Thus is, therefore, emptiness
wrongly grasped.
But [then] in what way is emptiness rightly grasped? [If] one regards that
something is empty of that which does not exist in it and correctly com-
prehends that what remains there does actually exist here, then this is
called penetration of emptiness in accordance with reality and without
distortion.12
For the Bodhisattvabhūmi authors, 'what remains there' and 'actually exists' is the
'[real] thing' (vastu) or the 'thing-in-itself' (vastumātra).13 The passage above con-
11
This is a rather free rendering of the Sanskrit ablative, but I fear that a more literal
translation would have made the English sentence too difficult to follow. In the sentence
below, the ablative is also freely rendered as a conditional clause.
12
Kathaṃ punar durgṛhītā bhavati śūnyatā? Yaḥ kaścic chramaṇo vā brāhmaṇo vā tac
ca necchati yena śūnyaṃ, tad api necchati yat śūnyaṃ. Iyaṃ evaṃrūpā durgṛhītā śūnyatety
ucyate. Tat kasya hetoḥ? Yena hi śūnyaṃ, tad asadbhāvāt, yac ca śūnyaṃ, tad sadbhāvāc
chūnyatā yujyeta. Sarvābhāvāc ca kutra kiṃ kena śūnyaṃ bhaviṣyati? Na ca tena tasaiva
śūnyatā yujyate. Tasmād evaṃ durgṛhītā śūnyatā bhavati. Kathaṃ ca punaḥ sugṛhītā
śūnyatā bhavati? Yataś ca yad yatra na bhavati, tad tena śūnyaṃ iti samanupaśyati, yat
punar atrāvaśiṣṭaṃ bhavati, tad sad ihāstīti yathābhūtaṃ prajānāti, iyam ucyate
śūnytāvakrāntir yathābhūtā aviparītā. (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 478-20; DUTT ed.
326-14; TAKAHASHI 2005a:101, §§ 5.4.1.-5.4.2). Cf. the Tibetan translation of the passage at
D4037.26b3-6, and Xuánzàng's Chinese rendering at T1579.488c22-489a2. For translations
into modern languages, cf. FRAUWALLNER (1969:278-279); SEYFORT RUEGG (1969:322-
323); UI (1961:46-47); WILLIS ([1979] 2002:162-163); HOTORI (1984b:55-56); TAKAHASHI
(2005a:166, § 5.4.1-§ 5.4.2); etc.
It should be mentioned here that the roots of this view can be traced back to early
canonical texts. The direct source of the passage seems to be a sūtra which has also survived
in the Pali Canon under the title of Cūḷasuññatasutta (MN III.104-109). See MUKAI (1974,
1983); MIZUO (1983a, 1983b); HOTORI (1984b); SŌMA (1985:9); NAGAO (1991:55);
SKILLING (1997:350-351); etc. For more details, see DELEANU (2006, vol. I:163-164).
13
FRAUWALLNER (1969:279) translates vastumātra as Ding an sich. SCHMITHAUSEN
(1969b:108) renders the term as das Wirkliche als solches or das bloße Wirkliche. Other
translations include, for example, la simple chose réelle (SEYFORT RUEGG, 1969:323), 'the
given thing only' (WILLIS, [1979] 2002:155), tannaru jibutsu 単なる事物 (TAKAHASHI,
2005a:166-167), etc.
I prefer the rendering 'thing-in-itself', as actually suggested by FRAUWALLNER. The
translation is, I think, both philologically and philosophically possible. This does not mean,
of course, that such a translation of vastu implies the whole range of philosophical
connotations carried by the concept of Ding an sich in the Kantian philosophy. Kant
believes that 'objects in themselves are quite unknown to us, and that what we call outer
objects are nothing but mere representations of our sensibility' (Kritik der reinen Vernunft,
p. 46; here cited in the English translation of Norman KEMP SMITH, p. 74). The German
philosopher also states that 'though we cannot know these objects as things in themselves,
we must yet be in position at least to think them as things in themselves' (S. XXIV; p. 27).
From the perspective of the Bodhisattvabhūmi authors, it is true that vastu remains
unknown to the ordinary person (pṛthagjana), but the bodhisattvas who have reached
advanced stages of spiritual cultivation, not to mention the Buddhas, come to know the
890 Florin DELEANU
cludes that the ascetic rightly grasping emptiness 'knows in accordance with reality
both the existing thing-in-itself and the mere designation (prajñaptimātra) [con-
structed] with respect to the thing-in-itself '.14
The Bodhisattvabhūmi uses the term vastu in a dichotomous way.15 One mea-
ning is that of 'thing' incorrectly reflected and actually distorted by designations
(prajñapti ), i.e., ordinary linguistic conventions viewed as epistemologically mis-
leading.16 This 'thing' results from and perpetuates the proliferation (prapañca) of
'thing-in-itself ' as it really is (yathābhūtam). This process is an, if not the , essential part of
the training for and experience of Awakening.
BUESCHER (2008:192-200) discusses in much more detail the parallelism between
vastumātra and the Kantian Ding an sich as well as some Hegelian interpretations.
It is interesting to note here that the term vastumātra is also used in Advaita-Vedānta
(see SCHMITHAUSEN, 1969:108).
14
[...] yathābhūtaṃ prajānāti yad uta vastumātraṃ ca vidyamānaṃ vastumātre ca
prajñaptimātraṃ (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 481-2; DUTT ed. 3218-19). Cf. D4037.
27a1; T1579.489a6-8.
15
Vastu is a key term for the philosophy and spiritual praxis of the Bodhisattvabhūmi.
The term and its place in the history of early Yogācāra has been the subject of many studies,
most of them authored by Japanese scholars. Though the list is far from exhaustive, here
are some relevant articles: ARAMAKI (1976b:25-31) (examining the role of the dual
understanding of vastu in the formation of the doctrine of three natures [trividhaḥ
svabhāvaḥ ] 三性説); HOTORI (1982:33-34); HOTORI (1983) (pointing out that the
Bodhisattvabhūmi ideas on the nature of reality influenced the relevant views in the
Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra); HOTORI (1984a); HOTORI (1984b); SŌMA (1985:5-10) (see also pp.
12-15 for a comparision of the concepts of vastu in the Bodhisattvabhūmi and tathāgata-
garbha in the Ratnagotravibhāga); IKEDA (1996a)(especially pp. 6-9, discussing how the
vastu dialectics in the Bodhisattvabhūmi contributed to the formation of the theory of the
three natures); IKEDA 1996b; TAKAHASHI (2001a, 2001b); MOTOMURA (2005)(on vastu
and nimitta in the Bodhisattvabhūmi and the Bodhisattvabhūmiviniścaya ad Tattvārtha-
paṭala); KRAMER (2005:52-60)(focusing on the Tattvārthapaṭala and its role in the forma-
tion of the theory of the five categories [pañcavastu] in the Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī ); TAKA-
HASHI (2005a:18-33)(a detailed and excellent analysis of the subject); etc. Actually, the
concept of vastu in the Bodhisattvabhūmi and its developments in the Viniścayasaṃ-
grahaṇī, i.e., the pañcavastu theory, is the subject of two outstanding monographs, both
accompanied by critical editions and annotated translations: KRAMER (2005) and
TAKAHASHI (2005a).
16
The Bodhisattvabhūmi distinguishes between two types of truth, i.e., the truth
established on the basis of world[ly criteria] (lokaprasiddhaṃ tattvam) and the truth estab-
lished on the basis of correct reasoning (yuktiprasiddhaṃ tattvam) (Bodhisattvabhūmi
WOGIHARA ed. 37,8-38,1; DUTT ed. 25,8-21). The correct reasoning (yukti ) refers to what
most Buddhist schools of that period accepted as valid means of cognition: direct per-
ception (pratyakṣa), logical inference (anumāna), and the tradition of the Trustworthy (āp-
tāgama), to wit, scriptural authority. (On the term yukti, which is similarly construed in the
Śrāvakabhūmi, see DELEANU, 2006, vol. II:494-495, n. 74.) In the definition of the former
category of truth (after all, hardly worth its name...), we read that it denotes the 'uniformity
of the views of all the worldly [persons] referring to a certain thing, [views] due to an
understanding based upon agreement, convention, [generally accepted] acquaintance, and
tradition' (Laukikānāṃ sarveṣāṃ yasmiṃ vastuni saṃketasaṃvṛtisaṃstavanāgamapra-
viṣṭayā buddhyā darśanatulyatā bhavati ) (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 378-10; DUTT
ed. 258-9; TAKAHASHI, 2005a:85-86, §§ 2.2.1-2.2.2.).
mental constructions (vikalpa),17 which are the source of defilements (saṃkleśa)

and ultimately the trigger of the cycle of rebirth (saṃsāra) and its ensuing suffering
(duḥkha).18 The other sense of vastu is that of the objective basis (āśraya) which
remains (avaśiṣṭa) after all conceptual constructions have been eliminated.19 This
'entity', called 'thing-in-itself', is identified with the inexpressible Ultimate Reality
(tathatā ) and is cognisable only to the highly trained bodhisattvas:20
By means of the profoundly penetrating cognition concerning the
essencelessness of phenomena, the bodhisattva does correctly know that
all phenomena have an inexpressible nature and [therefore] does not
mentally construct [/imagine] any phenomena in any way whatsoever.
[ What he does ] is nothing but [intuitively] grasping the thing-in-itself
[which is no other than] the Reality itself.21 And [in doing so,] it does not
occur to him, 'this is the thing-in-itself or this is the Reality itself ', but
[what] the bodhisattva [does is] to practice [focused only] on [his] object
[/goal].22 Practicing [focused only] on the supreme object [/goal], through
17
See Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 5221-532; DUTT ed. 364-11; TAKAHASHI (2005a:
174, § 8.4) as well as Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 5510-15; DUTT ed. 3724-38,2; TAKA-
HASHI (2005a:114, § 10.2; in the latter passage, see mainly the phrase tadālambanasya
prapañcapatitasya vastunaḥ 'of the thing belonging to [literally, 'having fallen into']
proliferation which has this [mental construction] as its support'). The Bodhisattvabhūmi
often qualifies vikalpa as the 'erroneous construction' (mithyāvikalpa) and classifies it into
eight types, i.e., aṣṭaviddho mithyāvikalpa, whose detailed discussion constitutes an impor-
tant topic of the Tattvārthapaṭala.
18
114, § 10.1): Tasmāc ca punar mithyāvikalpāt saṃkleśaḥ. Saṃkleśāt saṃsārasaṃsṛtiḥ.
Saṃsārasaṃsṛteḥ saṃsārānugataṃ jātiarāvyādhimaraṇādikaṃ duḥkhaṃ pravartate.
19
101-102, § 5.4.2).
20
Cf. also SCHMITHAUSEN (1969b:108). SCHMITAHUSEN (1969b:105-109) also dedica-
tes a detailed and illuminating note on the usage of the term tathatā in Buddhist literature
in general and the Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī in particular.
21
The meaning of the Sanskrit phrase nānyatra is 'not otherwise but', 'rather', etc. See
Sanskrit-Wörterbuch der buddhistischen Texte aus den Turfan-Funden, Fascicle II, p. 89,
s.v. anyatra # 4: (nach einer Negation:) vielmehr, sondern. Cf. EDGERTON ([1953] 1985,
vol. II, s.v. anyatra (2) 'except'). Cf. also TAKAHASHI's Japanese translation of this passage
(2005:120): suru hoka nai する他ない.
22
The meaning of artha in this context seems to be that of 'object [of practice]'. This
could refer to the contemplation and direct perception of the thing-in-itself = the Reality
without conceptualizing it, as actually stated in this passage. Xuánzàng seems to construe
the sentence in this way (see note 25 below). But artha could also mean 'object' [of practice]
in a wider sense, comprising the salvific goal (artha) of the bodhisattva's messianic career.
Actually, the passage immediately following the fragment cited above speaks of the result
of the vision described here: the bodhisattva obtains the supreme equanimity (paramām
upekṣām pratilabhate) and this allows him to engage unflinchingly in his salvific activities
without ever becoming tired or arrogant. Similarly, the 'supreme object' in the next
sentence of the passage quoted here may refer not only to the Absolute Reality (tathatā ) as
an object of contemplative practice and/or permanent state of mind but also to the
Mahāyānist ultimate goal of leading all sentient beings to Awakening. TAKAHASHI
(2005a:160) translates artha as taishō 対象 'object'. WILLIS' rendering of the sentence arthe
tu sa bodhisattvaś carati as 'in clear understanding the bodhisattva courses' ([1979]
2002:155) is rather mystifying.
892 Florin DELEANU
transcendent wisdom,23 he correctly regards all phenomena as being

identical with the Reality.24
The passage clearly illustrates not only the basic philosophy underlying the
Bodhisattvabhūmi but also its spiritual agenda, which is actually translated into
various techniques of meditation and reflection.25
23
Here and below I render the prajñā as 'transcendent wisdom'. I am aware that the
word 'transcendent' may evoke various (including inappropriate!) philosophical connota-
tions, but in contexts like the one above, it seems to me that the term is a possible, and even
necessary, qualification accompanying 'wisdom'. The latter may be sufficient in rendering
the meaning of prajñā in its more general sense, as often construed in Abhidharmic
treatises (cf. Abhidharmakośabhāṣya 5422: prajñā dharmapravicayaḥ, "prajñā is the discern-
ment [/comprehension] of phenomena [/factors]"). In Māhayāna literature, especially in
texts like ours as well as in the Prajñāpāramitā sutras, the sense of prajñā is, however, much
stronger and deeper. I have, therefore, used the epithet 'transcendent', which I construe in
the sense given by the Oxford Dictionary of English (s.v.): 'beyond or above the range of
normal or physical human experience'. I assume that no matter how one translates the word
prajñā, most students of Buddhism would agree that the prajñā attained by a bodhisattva,
especially in his/her higher stages of training, is something more than the average worldly
wisdom accessible to ordinary human beings.
24
Sa khalu bodhisattvas tena dūrānupraviṣṭena dharmanairātmyajñānena nirabhilāpya-
svabhāvatāṃ sarvadharmāṇāṃ yathābhūtaṃ viditvā na kaṃcid dharmaṃ kathaṃcit
kalpayati. Nānyatra vastumātraṃ gṛhṇāti tathatāmātraṃ. Na cāsyaivaṃ bhavati: "vastu-
mātraṃ vaitat tathatāmātraṃ vety",(1) arthe tu sa bodhisattvaś carati. Arthe parame caraṃ
sarvadharmāṃs tayā tathatayā samasamān yathābhūtaṃ prajñayā paśyati. (Bodhisattva
bhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 4115-21; DUTT ed. 289-14; TAKAHASHI, 2005a:92, § 4.7.). Cf.
D4037.23a7-23b2 and T1579.487b18-22. The latter reads: 又諸菩薩由能深入法無我智，於
一切法離言自性如實知已，達無少法及少品類可起分別。“唯取其事，唯取真如”
不作是念。“此是唯事，是唯真如”, 但行於義。如是菩薩行勝義故，於一切法平等平
等, 以眞如慧如實觀察。Xuánzàng probably added an explanatory phrase, i.e., 此是唯
事，是唯真如 'this is only the thing, this is only the Reality', in order to clarify the sense of
the following sentence, i.e., the bodhisattva's practicing (what in Chinese is literally
rendered as) 'meaning' 義 (= artha). The Tibetan rendering byang chub sems dpa' de don
ni spyod par byed do (D4037.23b1) follows the Sanskrit faithfully.
(1)
The WOGIHARA ed. reads: vastumātraṃ tat tathatāmātraṃ ceti (apparently follo-
wing the Cambridge MS). The DUTT ed. has: vastumātraṃ vā eitat tathatāmātraṃ caiti.
This is based on the Patna MS, but caiti appears to be DUTT's addition or decipherment.
According to TAKAHASHI (2005a:92, n. 22), the Patna MS is illegible here. On the other
hand, the Nepalese MS and the Kyoto MS read: vety. I follow here the latter, with some
sandhi emendations as suggested by TAKAHASHI. (Note that the priority given to sandhi
rules here requires some compromises in my usage of modern punctuation; a consistent
application of the latter would have resulted into vā" iti, arthe.)
25
See also the following passage which shows that the correct understanding of the
Reality is conceived as a form of the realization of the rightly grasped emptiness. 'And [the
ascetic] correctly understands the Reality, the fact that [its] essence is inexpressible. This is
called emptiness rightly grasped, rightly penetrated through correct transcendent wisdom'
(yathābhūtāṃ ca tathatāṃ nirabhilāpyasvabhāvatāṃ yathābhūtaṃ prajānāti. iyam ucyate
sugṛhītā śūnyatā samyakprajñayā supratividdheti ) (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 485-6;
DUTT ed. 3221-22). (Cf. D4037.27a2-3; T1579.489a9-11.) The DUTT ed. reads with the Patna
MS (folio 32b4): yathābhūtañ ca tathatāṃ. The Bodhisattvabhūmi Nepalese MS photo-
graphed by the Nepalese-German Manuscript Cataloguing Project (No 3-681) has the same
reading (folio 22a4R). (I am most grateful to Professor Dr Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN for his
kindly checking this manuscript reading for me.) WOGIHARA's reading yathābhūtañ ca
II. The Four Investigations and the Four Correct Cognitions:

The Cornerstone of the Epistemology of the Thing-In-Itself
Though not expressly linked to such technical terms as dhyāna or samādhi, the so-
called 'four investigations' (catasraḥ paryeṣaṇāḥ) and the 'four thorough cognitions
in conformity with reality', or simply, 'four correct cognitions' (catvāri yathā-
bhūtaparijñānāni ) are one of the most original contributions of the Bodhisattva-
bhūmi and one with lasting effects in the history of the Yogācāra-Vijñānavāda
tradition.26 They represent fundamental strategies of reflection and can also be
tathatāṃ seems, however, to be the correct one. It is supported the Chinese 如實眞如.
Tibetan yang dag pa ji lta ba de bzhin nyid probably renders a similar reading (although a
wording like *yang dag pa ji lta ba'i for the attributive usage of yathābhūtaṃ would have
been clearer). A reading like yathābhūtañ ca tathatāṃ would raise semantical problems for
the sentence. We have one adverbial yathābhūtaṃ before prajānāti, and the presence of a
second yathābhūtaṃ would hardly make sense. Also note that the Chinese translation
suggests a different wording for the last part of the sentence: 如是名爲善取空者，於空法
性能以正慧妙善通達 (T1579.489a12-11).
26
The four investigations and the four correct cognitions are the unique creation of the
Bodhisattvabhūmi, but some hints which may have influenced their formation can be
traced back to the Śrāvakabhūmi. As pointed out by TAKAHASHI (2005b:24-25, n. 1), there
are certain common elements between the examination (paryeṣanā ) of the six aspects (ṣaḍ
vastūni ) as well as the threefold realization (trivdham avabodham) in the latter text
(Śrāvakabhūmi 368-370) and the four investigations and the four correct cognitions in the
Bodhisattvabhūmi. TAKAHASHI's remarks are actually based upon a suggestion by K.
SHUKLA (1973:370, n. 1). On the six aspects (ṣaḍ vastūni ) in the Śrāvakabhūmi, with
relevant passages edited, translated and annotated, see DELEANU (2006, vol. II:447-449),
etc.
In the Yogācārabhūmi, the four investigations and the four correct cognitions also
appear listed in the Śrutimayībhūmi. The Sanskrit text of this passage has been edited in
SCHMITHAUSEN (2000a:248, §§ B.06-07) (= Ch. T1579.345b25-c1). I surmise that the
Śrutimayībhūmi is chronologically later than the Bodhisattvabhūmi, and that the set of
investigations and cognitions was borrowed by the former from the latter. Besides, the
entire Śrutimayībhūmi passage in which the four investigations and four cognitions occur
seems to contain many other late interpolations (see SCHMITHAUSEN, 2000a). This could
be an indication that the passage may actually be an accretion probably dating to the very
late phases of compilation of the Yogācārabhūmi.
The four investigations and the four correct cognitions had a comparatively strong and
lasting influence on quite a few basic Yogācāra texts. See for example, Xiǎnyáng shèngjiào
lún T1602.507c14-508a23; 516c21-22, 519c23-27; Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra Ch. XIX, Verses 47-48,
p. 168, l. 18-p. 169, l. 2; Abhidharmasamuccayabhāṣya pp. 99-100, §§ 126-127,; Mahāyāna-
saṃgraha Ch. III, Ver. 16 (LAMOTTE ed., Tome I, p. 55) (citing the Mahāyānasūtrā-
laṃkāra); and *Vijñaptimātrāsiddhi T1585.49b1-8.
The four investigations and the four correct cognitions have been the subject of several
studies dedicated to the Bodhisattvabhūmi in particular or more generally to early
Yogācāra-Vijñānavāda. Here are some of the most important ones: ARAMAKI (1976b,
especially pp. 18-19, 23-25); HAYASHIMA (1982, esp. 165-167); HOTORI (1982, esp. pp. 36-
38); ARAMAKI (2000, esp. 45-46); ARAMAKI (2002, esp. pp. 10-13); MIKOGAMI (2002);
TAKAHASHI (2005a, esp. pp. 30-31); TAKAHASHI (2005b, the most lucid analysis of the
subject). See also SCHMITHAUSEN (1969a:820, n. 45); SUEKI (1979). Complete translations
of the exposition of the four investigations and the four correct cognitions are found in
WILLIS ([1979] 2002:170-172) and TAKAHASHI (2005a:175-177, a very good rendering into
modern Japanese).
894 Florin DELEANU
regarded as contemplative techniques, or at least as underlying epistemic presup-

positions for the bodhisattva's meditation. There is no doubt that the authors of the
Bodhisattvabhūmi considered them extremely important and more than mere
doctrinal statements. The four investigations are declared to be amongst the
practices conducive to Awakening (bodhipakṣyacaryā ), together with the familiar
set of thirty-seven factors leading to Awakening (saptatriṃśad bodhipakṣyā
dharmāḥ )27 – quite a daring addition to this long-established list with canonical
roots.28 Furthermore, as we shall see below, the mastery of the four investigations
plays a crucial role at a very high stage on the bodhisattva's path of spiritual
cultivation.
The most detailed exposition of the four investigations and the four correct
cognitions is found in the same Chapter on Reality.29 The former set includes the
investigation of the name (nāmaparyeṣaṇā ), the investigation of the thing
(vastuparyeṣaṇā ), the investigation of the designation of essence (svabhāvapra-
jñaptiparyeṣaṇā ), and the investigation of the designation of distinctions (viśeṣa-
prajñaptiparyeṣaṇā ).30 The first two terms are defined as follows:
The investigation of the name is that [by means of] which the bodhisattva
looks at names as only names [or: nothing but names] [i.e., mere linguistic
conventions]. In the [same] way, the view concerning things as only things
[or: things-in-themselves] is the investigation of the thing. 31
The remaining two investigations are explained in a similar manner. Then the
passage concludes with the following assertion:
He [i.e., the bodhisattva] looks at the characteristic[s] of the name and of
the thing either as being separated or as being conjoined.32 And he rea-
27
Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 37118-22; DUTT ed. 25615-17. Cf. D4037.191b2;
T1579.566a4-7.
28
The Bodhisattvabhūmi has a whole chapter dedicated to the 'Factors Leading to
Awakening' (Bodhipakṣyapaṭala) (WOGIHARA ed. 250-284; DUTT ed. 171-192). The chap-
ter deals with many aspects of the bodhisattva's praxis and salvific activity, but the tradi-
tional saptatriṃśad bodhipakṣyā dharmāḥ are only briefly treated (Bodhisattvabhūmi
WOGIHARA ed. 2597-26010), and the readers/audience are referred to the Śrāvakabhūmi for
a detailed exposition of the topic (see note 58 below). On the saptatriṃśad bodhipakṣyā
dharmāḥ in the Yogācārabhūmi, see OZAWA (1975). For a comprehensive study of the
thirty-seven factors conducive to Awakening, especially in the Pali tradition, see GETHIN
(2001).
29
Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 533-553; DUTT ed. 3612-3720; TAKAHASHI (2005a:
111-114, Section 9). Cf. D4037.29a5-30b7; T1579.490b2-c15.
30
The Sanskrit term prajñapti can also be construed as 'postulation'. Cf. Xuánzàng's
translation jiǎlì 假立, which literally means 'provisionally establish[ing]', as well as TAKA-
HASHI's (2005a:175-177) rendering of the word into modern Japanese as kasetsu 仮説
'hypothesis' or 'assumption'.
31
Tatra nāmaparyeṣaṇā yad bodhisattvo nāmni nāmamātraṃ paśyati. Evaṃ vastuni
vastumātradarśanaṃ vastuparyeṣaṇā. (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 539-11; DUTT
ed. 3616-17).
32
The words anuśliṣṭa and anuśleṣa (in the next sentence) are Buddhist Sanskrit Hybrid
terms. According to EDGERTON ([1953] 1985, s.v. anuśliṣṭa 'clinging to, leaning on'), the
finite forms of anu-√śliṣ are unrecorded. Their meaning is, however, not difficult to
determine. Most probably, the prefix anu- reinforces the sense of √śliṣ 'to adhere, to cling,
lizes that the designation of the essence and the designation of distinc-
tions are based upon [arbitrarily] conjoining the name and the thing.33
The practice of the four investigations results in four corresponding cognitions.

They include the correct cognition resulting from the investigation of the name
(nāmaiṣaṇāgataṃ yathābhūtaparijñānam), the correct cognition resulting from the
investigation of the thing (vastveṣaṇāgataṃ yathābhūtaparijñānam), the correct
cognition resulting from the investigation of the designation of the essence
(svabhāvaprajñaptyeṣaṇāgataṃ yathābhūtaparijñānam), and the correct cognition
resulting from the investigation of the designation of distinctions (viśeṣaprajñapty-
eṣanāgataṃ yathābhūtaparijñānam).34 The explanation of these cognitions is quite
detailed, and for the present purposes, it will suffice to cite here only the definition
of the first one.
What is the correct cognition resulting from the investigation of the name?
Having examined the name as being just a name,35 the bodhisattva does
thus cognize the name as it is in reality. A certain name is established
with reference to a thing with a certain meaning for the very purpose of
conceiving [/perceiving] [it], of understanding [it], of attributing [it quali-
ties, etc.]. 36 If [for instance,] the name 'matter' (rūpa) is not established
to unite', etc. (see MONIER-WILLIAMS, [1899] 1986, s.v.). Both Tibetan 'brel ba (D4037.30a1)
'to combine' and Chinese hé 合 (T1579.490b12) 'to unite' support the sense suggested above.
33
Sa nāmavastuno bhinnañ ca lakṣaṇaṃ paśyaty anuśliṣṭañ ca. Nāmavastvanuśleṣa-
samnniśritāṃ ca svabhāvaprajñaptiṃ viśeṣaprajñaptiñ ca pratividhyati. (Bodhisattvabhūmi
WOGIHARA ed. 5314-16; DUTT ed. 3618-20).
34
The word ºāgataṃ in nāmaiṣaṇāgataṃ yathābhūtaparijñānam, vastveṣaṇāgataṃ
yathābhūtaparijñānam, etc., can be construed in two ways: (1) correct cognition 'coming
from, generated by' the investigation of the name, etc. This seems to be Xuánzàng's
understanding: 尋思所引如實智, 事尋思所引如實智, etc.; (2) correct cognition 'having
attained/reached' the [purpose of practicing/state of perfect?] investigation of the name, etc.
Tibetan ming tshol bar gyur pa yang dag pa ji lta ba bzhin du yongs su shes pa, dgos po tshol
bar gyur pa yang dag pa ji lta ba bzhin du yongs su shes pa, etc. translates āgata with gyur pa
'having become' (a rendering also used in other sources; see CHANDRA, [1959] 1971:s.v.).
This appears to suggest the second interpretation, but it is not excluded that it may simply
be a calque translation of the Sanskrit term. I find the first way of construing the compound
more natural.
35
The literal rendering of nāmni nāmamātratāṃ paryeṣya is 'having examined with
regard to the name the fact that it is only a name'.
36
I render the sentence rather freely. A more literal translation would sound as follows:
'Such-and-such a name is established with reference to a thing with such-and-such a
meaning verily to the extent that [this is] for the purpose of ideation, for the purpose of
viewing, for the purpose of attribution.'
Here I translate saṃjñā as 'conceiving [/perceiving]'. Usually, I prefer the rendering
'ideation' because its usage in Buddhist literature goes beyond our modern concept of
'perception'. Abhidharmakośabhāṣya 1015-16 defines saṃjñā as 'having the nature of
grasping characteristics' (saṃjñā nimittodgrahaṅātmikā ). Examples of it include not only
colors like 'blue', etc., but also more abstract notions such as 'friend' and 'foe'. My rendering
above as 'conceiving [/perceiving]' seems, however, more appropriate for our context. The
purport of the passage is clear: 'ideation' is linguistically conditioned and the arbitrary links
which we make in our daily usage of the language pervert our perceptions and conceptions.
Another word needing an explanation is upacāra, which I translate as 'attribution'.
The term is employed in Indian logic with the general sense of 'to be in use' and with a more
896 Florin DELEANU
with reference to the thing which is conceived [/perceived] as matter, etc.,

no one [can] thus conceive of that thing as having the name 'matter'. Not
[being able to] conceive [/perceive], [people] would not become attached
[to things] due to [their] superimposition [of values, etc.]. Not becoming
attached, [people] would not [try to] express [things].37
The arbitrariness of the linguistic sign, a matter of fact for any student of lan-
guage, is for the authors of the Bodhisattvabhūmi the main culprit of ignorance
and ultimately of human suffering. Their condemnation of language is double.
'Naming', a process upon which our basic cognitive functions are based, is not only
an act of beclouding the ontic purity of the thing-in-itself. 'Naming' is equally and
inevitably 'coveting', and in Buddhist perspective, the latter is the unmistakable
trigger of the chain of rebirths. From the viewpoint of our text, the only way of
putting an end to the saṃsāric tragedy is to refrain from making use of language as
well as its ensuing ideations, at least in any real attempt to grasp the essence of the
reality. This frees the bodhisattva's spiritual quest from the distorting shackles of
relying upon language and conceptualization. Eventually, it leads to a genuine,
unmediated grasp of the thing-in-itself, equaled, as we have seen, to the Supreme
Reality-the sine qua non epistemic condition for attaining the Awakening. The
blueprint for deepening the insights set forth by the four investigations and the
four correct cognitions is no other than the samādhi repertoire.
III. Samādhi : The Recipe for Realizing the Thing-In-Itself

No doubt, the Bodhisattvabhūmi belongs to a spiritual tradition which regards the
diversified perception of reality, based upon and produced by language, as the
greatest epistemic obstacle to Awakening. The Reality and the state of experien-
cing It presumably is a trans-linguistic locus of perfect uniformity. And in order to
attain It, the bodhisattva must undergo a long spiritual process of obliterating
ideations. Such a view, mainly associated with mystic trends and experiences, is
certainly not limited to Buddhism and can be found in many cultures and ages. To
be sure, not all Buddhist schools and strains would subscribe to this spirituality.
Yet, there is little doubt that such ideas and practices have a long history going
back to the earliest strata of Buddhism.
In the Tattvārthapaṭala, we find clear instructions on how this spiritual process
should be carried out. The Bodhisattvabhūmi (WOGIHARA ed. 4915-507; DUTT ed.
3322-3411; TAKAHASHI, 2005a:104-105, § 6.2.3.1.) first cites a canonical fragment,
which has parallels in both the Pali Aṅguttaranikāya (AN V.324-326) and the
Chinese Saṃyuktāgama (T99.235c-236b; T100.430c-431a). It teaches the meditator
that all ideations (saṃjñā ), e.g., that of earth, water, space, or anything which
specific nuance of 'using something by attributing it some false qualities' (see NAKAMURA,
1983:207, s.v.). The latter appears to be the meaning in the passage here.
37
Nāmaiṣaṇāgataṃ yathābhūtaparijñānaṃ katamat? Sa khalu bodhisattvo nāmni
nāmamātratāṃ paryeṣya tan nāmaivaṃ yathābhūtaṃ parijānāti. Itīdaṃ nāma, ity
arthavastuni vyavasthāpyate yāvad eva saṃjñārthaṃ dṛṣṭyartham upacārāthaṃ. Yadi
rūpādisaṃjñake vastuni rūpam iti nāma na vyavasthāpyate, na kaścit tad vastu rūpam ity
evaṃ saṃjānīyāt. Asaṃjānaṃ samāropato nābhiniveśet. Anabhiniveśan nābhilapet.
(Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 5321-541; DUTT ed. 3625-371; TAKAHASHI, 2005a:112, §
9.3.2.1) (I follow here the text established by TAKAHASHI, but due to my use of modern
punctuation, the citation contains some minor sandhi differences.) Cf. D4037.30a3-5; and
T1579.490b16-22.
might serve as a contemplative object, should be eliminated (vibhūta).38 Then the

Bodhisattvabhūmi sets forth its own interpretation:
Concerning the thing which [is conceived by means of the] ideation of
earth, etc., such a name, a convention, a designation like 'earth', etc., is
called ideation of earth, etc. And furthermore, this represents a superim-
position or a reduction concerning the thing which [is conceived by
means of the] ideation of earth, etc. Perceiving a thing [as] having an
essence which consists of that [earth, etc.] is a superimposition. And per-
ceiving [a thing in such a way as] to annihilate the thing-in-itself, [i.e.,] the
Supreme Truth, is called a reductionist ideation.39
The obliteration of the ideative processes should become the basic framework
underlying all meditative techniques associated with the traditional path of
cultivation.
The path of practice40 shall be correctly followed in order to eliminate
that [ideation]. Through understanding, thoroughly exercised41 upon all
objects of knowledge, [and] by [keeping in mind only] the ideation that
the ideations of all phenomena [are nothing but] adventitious,42 you
should thus repeatedly remove any ideation [conducive to] the prolifera-
tion directed at all phenomena and should consistently dwell on the
thing[-in-itself] by a non-conceptualizing mental state which is focused on
grasping only the object [perceived] without any characteristics. Thus you
will obtain the concentration [stemming] from the lineage of [those prac-
ticing] the pure contemplation of the Tathāgata's Supreme Cognition.
[Even] when you practice [the meditation on] the impurity, you should
not relinquish this mental orientation. [Likewise, even] when you practice
[the meditation on] friendliness, dependent origination, analysis of ele-
38
The canonical sources of the passage as well as the roots of this tradition in the
Bodhisattvabhūmi are pointed out and discussed by HOTORI (1984a:90-92; ODANI, 2000:
231-235; TAKAHASHI, 2005a:169, n. 33, see also pp. 169-170 for the Japanese translation of
the Bodhisattvabhūmi fragment). Cf. also WILLIS ([1979] 2002:122-125).
Furthermore, HOTORI (1984a:92) shows that the meditative practice of elimination
(vibhāvanā) is also stressed in the Śrāvakabhūmi (see pp. 395-396).
39
Pṛthivyādisaṃjñake vastuni yā pṛthivīty evamādikā nāmasaṃketaprajñaptiḥ, sā
pṛthivyādisaṃjñety ucyate. Sā punaḥ (1) pṛthivyādisaṃjñake vastuni samāropikā cāpavādikā
ca. Tanmayasvabhāvavastugrāhikā samāropikā. Vastumātraparamārthanāśagrāhikā cāpa-
vādikā (2) saṃjñety ucyate. (WOGIHARA ed. 509-13; DUTT ed. 3412-16; TAKAHASHI, 2005a:106,
§ 6.2.3.12).
(1)
WOGIHARA ed. omits pṛthivyādisaṃjñety ucyate sā punaḥ, probably because the
Cambridge MS is illegible here. The reading is contained in all the other MSS. See
TAKAHASHI (2005a:106, n. 6).
(2)
WOGIHARA ed. and Cambridge MS omit ca.
40
Or: 'path of preliminary practice' (?). In quite a few contexts, prayoga simply means
'practice', being virtually identical with yoga. In the Bodhisattvabhūmi itself (WOGIHARA
ed. 8118-21; DUTT ed. 5819-21), prayoga is defined in very general terms as continuous and
arduous practice in various types of training (śikṣāpadeṣu). It is true that in its more
technical, Abhidharmic sense, prayogamārgaḥ should be rendered as 'the path of prelimi-
nary practice' (e.g. Abhidharmakośabhāṣya 32014), but in the context above, it is rather
unclear whether the stricter meaning of 'preliminary' is present or not.
41
Literally, 'well-investigated'.
42
Literally, 'by the ideation of adventitious[ness] directed at the ideations of all
phenomena'.
898 Florin DELEANU
ments, mindfulness of breathing, the first absorption [and so on] up to

the station of neither ideation nor non-ideation [as well as] the bodhi-
sattva's countless meditations, supernatural faculties, contemplations,
and attainments, you should not relinquish precisely this mental orienta-
tion.43
The three contemplations (trayaḥ samādhayaḥ), an old canonical set of praxis

raised to new heights in Mahāyāna Buddhism, are likewise tailored to suit the
Bodhisattvabhūmi emphasis on the thing-in-itself rather than on a non-committing
or non-substantialist view like much of the Prajñāpāramitā philosophy:44
43
Tasyā vibhavāya prayogamārgaḥ samyak parigṛhīto bhaviṣyati. Sa tvam evaṃ sarva-
jñeyasuvicāritayā buddhyā (1) sarvadharmasaṃjñāsv āgaṃtukasaṃjñayā sarvadharmeṣu
sarvaprapañcasaṃjñām apanīyāpanīya nirvikalpena (2) cetasā nirnimittenārthamātragraha-
ṇapravṛttenāsmin (3) vastuni bahulaṃ vihara. Evaṃ te tathāgatajñānaviśuddhisamādhi-
gotrāc (4) cittasyaikāgratā (5) pratilabdhā bhaviṣyati. Sa tvaṃ saced aśubhāṃ manasikaroṣi,
enaṃ manasikāraṃ mā riñciṣyasi. Sacen maitrīm idaṃpratyayatāpratītyasamutpādaṃ
dhātuprabhedam ānāpānasmrṝtiṃ prathamaṃ dhyānaṃ vistareṇa yāvan naiva-
saṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatanam (6) apramāṇabodhisattvadhyānābhijñāsamādhisamāpattīr manasi-
karoṣi, etam eva manasikāraṃ mā riñciṣyasi. (WOGIHARA ed. 39612-25; DUTT ed. 27316-25).
Cf. D4037.203b2-5; T1579.572a3-14. Parts of the same passage are translated into Japanese in
HOTORI (1984a:91-92).
(1)
DUTT ed. adds evaṃ te after buddhyā.
(2)
DUTT ed. reads nirvikāreṇa. See, however, the Tibetan rendering rnam par mi rtogs
pa'i sems (D4037. 203b2) and the Chinese translation 無分別 […] 之心 (T
1579.572a6).
(3)
WOGIHARA ed. reads °tasmin. Tibetan reads here de (D4073.203b3), while the
Chinese renders it as 此 (T1579.572a7). Both readings, i.e., WOGIHARA ed. and
DUTT ed., are possible, but I adopt here the latter.
(4)
WOGIHARA ed. reads °jñānā °.
(5)
The Chinese rendering has 無倒心一境性 *aviparītā cittasyaikāgratā. Tibetan reads
together with the Sanskrit original, without any trace of something like *aviparītā.
(6)
DUTT ed. reads: °saṃjñāyanam.
44
The set of meditative techniques known as the three contemplations or the con-
templation triad (samādhitraya) or the three gates of liberation (trīṇi vimokṣamukhāni ) are
already seen in the early Canon. They also discussed in the Abhidharma literature, and
come to enjoy a very important role in Mahāyāna Buddhism, especially in the Prajñā-
pāramitā sutras. A brief but excellent introduction to the three contemplations is found in
LAMOTTE (1944-1980, vol. III:1213-1215). The understanding of the praxis in Prajñā-
pāramitā literature does not seem to differ fundamentally from the canonical sources. The
definitions given in the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā 20816-22, for instance, are quite similar to
those found in the Chinese translation of the Ekottarāgama 增一阿含經 (T125.630b) (cf.
LAMOTTE, 1944-1980, vol. III:1213). Their role in the bodhisattva's spiritual training is,
however, much more strongly emphasized, and in quite a few contexts, they seem to be the
central praxis leading to Awakening (e.g., Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā 58-9; cf. T223.224c23-24; cf.
also DELEANU, [2000] 2005). They may actually have been amongst the few samādhi s, a
term ubiquitous in most of the Mahāyāna scriptures, which actually denoted concrete
manners of meditative practice.
The Bodhisattvabhūmi is no exception to the hyperbolic usage of the term samādhi.
They reach astronomic figures, especially as the bodhisattva climbs the spiritual ladder
towards Buddhahood. However, with the notable exception of the samādhitraya and few
other contemplations, it seems (at least to me) that even in those cases when concrete
samādhi names are mentioned, they represent nothing more than rhetoric enumerations of
doctrinal slogans, i.e., states of mind which the bodhisattva should and could attain.
What is the bodhisattva's contemplation of emptiness (śūnyatā-

samādhi )? Here,45 the bodhisattva’s stable state (sthiti ) of mind looking
at the thing[-in-itself ] in its inexpressible essence (nirabhilāpyasvabhāva),
which is free from the essence consisting in all [kinds of] verbal expres-
sions, is called his contemplation of emptiness.
What is the desireless contemplation (apraṇihitaḥ samādhiḥ)? Here,
the bodhisattva's stable mental state observing this very thing[-in-itself]
which has an inexpressible essence [but nonetheless becomes] corrupted
with variegated defects on account of coming under the sway of the de-
filement and suffering springing up from wrong imagination (mithyā-
vikalpa), [this mental state] consisting in lack of desire for such a thing [to
be grasped] in the future is called his desireless contemplation.
What is the signless contemplation (ānimittaḥ samādhiḥ)? Here, the
bodhisattva's stable mental state which appropriately (yathābhūtam)
brings peace [to his mind] and focuses his attention after having removed
all characteristics [brought about by] conceptual proliferation (vikalpa-
prapañca) [adventitious to] the very thing[-in-itself] whose essence is in-
expressible, this is called his signless contemplation.
Why, furthermore, are only these three contemplations postulated,
not [others] beyond these, not a larger number than this? Because there
are two [ontological categories, to wit,] existence and non-existence. The
conditioned as well as the non-conditioned [factors] are existent, [while]
the Self and what pertains to the Self are non-existent. The desireless
contemplation has been established because [the bodhisattva] [does] not
[feel any] desire and [is filled with] abhorrence when [it comes] to the
conditioned [factors]. The signless contemplation, on the other hand, has
been established because [the bodhisattva feels] desire, [a desire which is]
included in the right [/admissible] delight, for Nirvana [which is a] non-
conditioned [factor]. Moreover, regarding the thing which is actually in-
existent, the bodhisattva does not generate any desire or lack of desire.
However, since [such a thing] is actually inexistent, this must be known as
such. And the contemplation of emptiness should be understood as refer-
ring to this [way of] viewing [the reality].
Therefore, the bodhisattva thus applies his efforts to these three con-
templations. And thus he correctly comprehends their establishment.
And he also correctly comprehends other aspects [related to] the three
contemplations through the process of right establishment and the pro-
cess of spiritual cultivation, [aspects] which the disciples [i.e.,
Śrāvakayāna followers] practice and accomplish.46
45
I construe iha as meaning 'here [= in this work/context]'. The definition given to the
three contemplations in the Bodhisattvabhūmi is quite unique, and the authors may have
wished to stress that 'here, in this work' this is how they understand these terms and praxis.
46
Tatra katamo bodhisattvasya śūnyatāsamādhiḥ? Iha bodhisattvasya sarvābhilāpātma-
kena svabhāvena virahitaṃ nirabhilāpyasvabhāvaṃ vastu paśyataḥ yā cittasya sthitiḥ, ayam
asyocyate śūnyatāsamādhiḥ.
Apraṇihitaḥ samādhiḥ katamaḥ? Iha bodhisattvasya tad eva nirabhilāpyasvabhāvaṃ
vastu mithyāvikalpasamutthāpitena kleśena duḥkhena ca parigṛhītatvād anekadoṣaduṣṭaṃ
samanupaśyato yāyatyāṃ tatrāpraṇidhānapūrvakā cittasthitiḥ, ayam asyāpraṇihitaḥ samā-
dhir ity ucyate.
Ānimittaḥ (1) samādhiḥ katamaḥ? Iha bodhisattvasya tad eva nirabhilāpyasvabhāvaṃ
vastu sarvavikalpaprapañcanimittāny apanīya yathābhūtaṃ śāntato manasikurvato yā
cittasthitiḥ, ayam asyocyate ānimittaḥ samādhiḥ.
Kasmāt punar eṣām eva trayāṇāṃ samādhīnāṃ prajñaptir bhavati, nāta uttari, nāto
bhūyaḥ? Dvayam idaṃ sac cāsac ca. Tatra saṃskṛtam asaṃskṛtaṃ ca sat. Asad ātmā vā
ātmīyaṃ vā. Tatra saṃskṛte saty apraṇidhānataḥ prātikūlyato 'praṇihitasamādhivyava-
sthānaṃ. Asaṃskṛte punar nirvāṇe praṇidhānataḥ samyagabhiratigrahaṇato 'nimitta-
900 Florin DELEANU
It would be wrong, however, to present that the bodhisattva's meditative trai-

ning as consisting merely in a process of cognitive refinement ultimately leading to
the full realization of the thing-in-itself. The Bodhisattvabhūmi is strongly
committed to the Mahāyāna agenda of universal salvation, and this spirit per-
meates even the apparently self-centred praxis of contemplation. This stance is
best reflected in the treatment of the perfection of meditation.
IV. The Perfection of Meditation:

Vita Contemplativa and Beyond
The main interest of the Chapter on Meditation (Dhyānapaṭala)47 lays not so much
in technical details but rather in revealing the place occupied by the perfection of
meditation (dhyānapāramitā ) in the bodhisattva's messianic career. 48 Like many
other Mahāyāna scriptures, the attitude towards meditative praxis is dual. On the
one hand, the bodhisattva is supposed to become fully conversant with the
traditional repertoire of yogic exercises. On the other hand, becoming too much of
an adept may easily lead to the betrayal of the bodhisattvic vows of universal
salvation. Meditating too much not only keeps the bodhisattva away from his/her
salvific task but it also gives him/her an excessive dose of spiritual efficiency. Put in
the bodhisattva's hands (or rather minds!), meditation can bring the Awakening
much too early – a possibility beyond doubt, yet one which is not to be courted by a
samādhivyavasthānaṃ. Yat punar etad asad eva vastu, tatra bodhisattvena na praṇidhānaṃ
nāpraṇidhānaṃ karaṇīyam. Api tu tad asad ity eva yathābhūtaṃ draṣṭavyaṃ. Tac ca
darśanam adhikṛtya śūnyatāsamādhivyavasthānaṃ veditavyaṃ.
Evaṃ hi bodhisattva eṣu triṣu samādhiṣu yogaṃ karoti. Evaṃ ca vyavasthānaṃ
yathābhūtaṃ prajānāti. Tadanyākārān api trīnsamādhīn yathābhūtavyavasthānanayapra-
veśena bhāvanānayapraveśena ca yathābhūtaṃ prajānāti, yeṣu śrāvakāḥ śikṣante samud-
āgacchanti ca. (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 2762‑2774; DUTT ed. 18715-1888). Cf.
D4037.145b5-146a6 and T1579.543c7-28. Parts of this passage have been translated into
Japanese in ARAMAKI (1976b:19-20) and HORIUCHI (2004:59-60).
(1)
DUTT ed. reads: animittaḥ.
Let us note that the order of the three contemplations differs from the classical list, i.e.,
śūnyatāsamādhiḥ , ānimittaḥ samādhiḥ, and apraṇihitaḥ samādhiḥ , which is seen in
canonical sources and such sutras as the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā 20816-22, etc. The placement
of the signless contemplation (ānimittaḥ samādhiḥ) after the desireless contemplation
(apraṇihitaḥ samādhiḥ ) seems to be characteristic of the Northern, mainly Sarvāstivādin,
Abhidharma treatises. See, for instance, *Abhidharmāmṛtarasa (T1553.975c1-9) (cf. VAN
DEN BROECK, 1977:187-188; LAMOTTE, 1944-1980, vol. III:1214-1215), Samāhitā Bhūmiḥ
140-143 (= T1579.337a-c); etc. (I am grateful to Dr. Martin DELHEY for kindly drawing my
attention to the latter source).
47
The Chapter is found at Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 207-211; DUTT ed. 143-
145. Cf. Bsam gtan gyi le'u in the Tibetan translation (D4037.111a1-113a5) and Jìnglǜ pǐn
静慮品 in Xuánzàng's Chinese rendering (T1579.527b-528b). The chapter has been
translated into French by DEMIÉVILLE ([1957] 1973).
48
Technically, like the other five perfections described in Part I (Ādhārayogasthāna) of
the Bodhisattvabhūmi, the dhyānapāramitā is analyzed from the viewpoint of nine aspects
(navākāram). Some of them appear to be mere theoretical classifications and clarifications.
I focus here only upon the most distinctive features of the perfection of meditation in the
overall progression of the bodhisattva on the spiritual path.
follower of the Great Vehicle. This basic Mahāyāna dilemma is also reflected in
the Bodhisattvabhūmi.49
Although the perfection of meditation is declared to be a fundamental practice
upon which Awakening is based,50 the authors/editors of the Bodhisattvabhūmi are
quick to point out that dhyāna is not just a passive exercise aimed at selfish
cultivation. Dhyāna is categorized as meditation for blissful dwelling in the present
life (dṛṣṭadharmasukhavihārāya dhyānam), meditation for triggering the qualities
[necessary for] the bodhisattva's concentration (bodhisattvasamādhiguṇ̣anirhārāya
dhyānam), and meditation for [accomplishing] acts for the benefit of [all] sentient
beings (sattvārthakriyāyai dhyānam).51 The last two categories, with their obvious
Mahāyānist flavor, are peculiar to the Bodhisattvabhūmi. It must be added, how-
ever, that these categories do not seem to refer to special methods.52 They rather
49
On this bodhisattvic dilemma, see SCHMITHAUSEN (2000b), DELEANU ([2000] 2005),
etc.
50
See, for instance, the following passage occurring at the end of this chapter: "Thus is
the immeasurable meditation [engendering] the fruit of the Great Awakening of the
bodhisattvas. Based upon it, having fully accomplished the perfection of meditation, the
bodhisattvas [thus] awakened [in the past], will [thus] awaken [in the future], and are [thus]
awakening [in the present] to the Unsurpassed, Perfect, Complete Awakening." (Ity etad
dhyānam aprameyaṃ bodhisattvānāṃ mahābodhiphalaṃ yad āśritya bodhisattvā dhyāna-
pāramitāṃ paripūryānuttarāṃ samyaksaṃbodhim abhisaṃbuddhavantaḥ abhisaṃ-
bhotsyante abhisaṃbudhyante ca.) (Bodhisattvabhūmi, WOGIHARA ed. 2114-8; DUTT ed.
14523-25). One is tempted here to follow the conjectural emendation suggested by
DEMIÉVILLE ([1957] 1973:319 n. 12), according to which we should add udayām 'producing'
after mahābodhiphalaṃ. (DEMIÉVILLE spells udāyām, but I assume this to be a typo.) In
favour of this emendation, the French scholar adduces the parallel occurrence at the end of
the Chapter on [the Perfection of] Forbearance (Kṣāntipaṭala): kṣāntiṃ vipulāṃ apramā-
ṇāṃ mahābodhiphalodayāṃ (Bodhisattvabhūmi, WOGIHARA ed. 19828-1991; DUTT ed.
1371-2, the latter spelling: mahābodhiphalo[dayāṃ] ). One can also add here that the
Tibetan byang chub chen po'i 'brus bur gyur pa (D4037.113a4) and Chinese 能得菩薩大菩
提果(T1579.528b22) (my underlining) would equally support a reading which contains a
word like 'producing' or 'effecting'. However, the reading given by the two Sanskrit editions,
elliptic as it may be, is not impossible: "the immeasurable meditation [which eventually
becomes] the fruit of the Great Awakening of the bodhisattvas." Actually, a similar reading
is found at the end of the Chapter on [the Perfection of] Vigour (Vīryapaṭala): bodhisattvā-
nāṃ vīryaṃ mahābodhiphalaṃ (WOGIHARA ed. 20617; DUTT ed. 14217-18).
Concerning this passage, we should also notice that Xuánzàng's Chinese translation
adds an extra word "[the bodhisattvas] quickly awakened, will [quickly] awaken, and are
[quickly] awakening" (速疾已證，當證，今證。(T1579.528b24)(my underlining). It is
difficult to ascertain whether this reflects a different manuscript reading used by Xuánzàng
or is an explanatory addition by the Chinese master and/or his team of editors and
assistants.
Last but not least, I should like to add that though my remark concerning the
importance of meditation on the path to Awakening does not diminish, it should be noted
that similar statements are made about such perfections as forbearance and vigour (see
WOGIHARA ed. 19827-1992; DUTT ed. 1371-3, and WOGIHARA ed. 20616-20; DUTT ed. 14217-19
respectively).
51
Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 2079-2089; DUTT ed. 1439-1444.
52
Some types of meditative practices, otherwise well known from canonical sources,
are mentioned in relation with the bodhisattvasamādhiguṇanirhārāya dhyānam, but
nothing unique to this category is described here.
902 Florin DELEANU
appear to stress the importance of relating one's meditative accomplishments to

the ideals of the Greater Vehicle. For example, sattvārthakriyāyai dhyānam
includes eleven acts performed for the sake of all living beings. Thus, the bodhi-
sattva, presumably fortified by his/her praxis of meditation, eliminates the suffering
of those in pain (duḥkham apanayati duḥkhitānāṃ),53 teaches the [correct] method
[of Buddhism] (nyāyam upadiśati ), protects sentient beings from terror
(bhayebhyo rakṣati), provides with means of subsistence those who lack them
(upakaraṇavikalānām upakaraṇopasaṃhāraṃ karoti ), etc. The only clear link
between such acts and dhyāna appears to be the fact that the altruistic deeds are
said to rely on meditation (dhyānaṃ niśritya). We are not told, however, exactly
what kind of techniques the bodhisattva employs for each of the eleven acts.
One way in which the traditional methods could directly help the bodhisattva in
his noble endeavor is their potentiality of engendering supernatural powers.
Amongst the various classifications in the Dhyānapaṭala, we actually find such
categories as meditation for the generation of magical creations (nirmitanirmāṇāya
dhyānam), meditation for triggering the qualities [necessary for] the powers of
supernatural faculties (abhijñāprabhāvaguṇanirhārāya dhyānam), meditation
which serves as the support for the magical formulae making effective the allevia-
tion of such calamities as poison, thunderbolt, violent fever, daemonic possession,
etc. (viṣāśaniviṣamajvarabhūtagrahādyupadravasaṃśamakānāṃ siddhaye mantrā-
ṇām adhiṣṭhāyakaṃ dhyānam), 54 and so on.
53
Both the WOGIHARA ed. and DUTT ed. end the sentence after apanayati, and read
duḥkhitānām with the next sentence. However, as also pointed out by DEMIÉVILLE ([1957]
1973:305, n. 5), this is unnatural and is not supported by Xuánzàng's rendering (於有苦者
能爲除苦).
54
Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 20918-20; DUTT ed. 14426-27. As also argued by
DEMIÉVILLE ([1957] 1973:316, n. 3), the reading ºviṣamajvara º (actually the reading found
in the Cambridge MS and the Patna MS) is preferable to ºviṣa-jvara º, the emendation
suggested by WOGIHARA (p. 209, n. 1). The compound viṣamajvara, which denotes a type of
fever, is attested in traditional medical treatises such as the Carakasaṃhitā (Sūtrasthāna
II.31 = SHARMA ed., vol. I, p. 17; see also related commentarial materials in ibid., vol. IV,
pp. 68-69), the Suśruta, etc. The term is rendered by P. SHARMA, the editor and translator
of the Carakasaṃhitā, as 'intermittent fever' (vol. I, p. 17) or 'destroying intermittent fever'
(vol. II, p. 811). BÖTHLINK and ROTH ([1855-1875] 1990, vol. VI:1247), on the basis of
Suśruta I.179; I.188; etc., render the compound as unregelmässiges Fieber. MONIER-
WILLIAMS ([1988] 1986:996, s.v.), also referring to the Suśruta, registers the word as
'irregular (chronic) fever'. The Tibetan rendering of our passage has rims drag po
(D4037.112a7), most probably in the sense of 'noxious epidemic' (see ZHĀNG, Yísūn (ed.),
1993, vol. II:2704, s.v.). Xuánzàng's translation dúrè 毒熱 (T1579.528a20) could be
construed as two separate words, i.e., 'poison and fever', but it is more likely that the two
characters were used here as a binome. Its literal meaning is 'poisonous fever', but the
binome is attested in a variety of sources in the sense of 'terrible/violent fever' (see LUÓ,
Zhúfēng (ed.), 1990-1994, vol. VII:826b, s.v.). The latter sense is actually quite close to
'destroying intermittent fever', i.e., one of the translations suggested by SHARMA for
viṣamajvara. It is not excluded that the Bodhisattvabhūmi authors may have understood
the word as strictly referring to the particular type of intermittent fever described in the
Carakasaṃhitā, Suśruta, etc., but a more general sense of 'violent fever', as suggested by the
Chinese rendering, is not to be ruled out. Provisionally, I have opted for the latter in my
translation above.
For the bodhisattva, the concentration and/or contemplative states brought

about by dhyāna could also provide the basis for composing correct philosophical
treatises, hymns, and doctrinal lists, etc. (aviparītaśāstrakāvyamātṛkānibandha-
vyavasthānāya saddharmacirasthitikatāyai dhyānam) (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGI-
HARA ed. 21010-11; Dutt ed. 14510-11). Apparently, meditation can even assist in the
acquisition of such worldly skills as writing, calculation, and (why not?...) making
everyday goods like seats, shoes, etc.55
As intimated above, the Chapter on Meditation gives very scanty information
on the concrete techniques practiced by the bodhisattva. When it does, it is more
likely to make hints at methods like the four immeasurables (Bodhisattvabhūmi
WOGIHARA ed. 2093-5; DUTT ed. 14417), obviously in tune with the authors'
intention to stress here the altruistic dimension of the meditative training.56 We
should not be, however, too harsh with their treatment of the subject. The
Dhyānapaṭala serves well its aim of dealing with meditation as a bodhisattvic
activity conceived on a much larger scale than a yogic manual. And roughly
speaking, the Bodhisattvabhūmi is not very generous with details about the actual
way in which meditation was practiced. We must remember that our text took
shape in an age in which such detailed instructions were more likely to be given by
the master orally and directly to the disciple rather than being committed to
writing.
We know, however, from other references, part of which are presented in this
paper, that the authors of our text had a clear vision on how spiritual training must
be carried out. Apart from its unique meditative methods and reflective strategies,
the Bodhisattvabhūmi also refers to traditional techniques such as the meditation
on the impure, mindfulness of breathing, etc.57 Furthermore, as far as details
concerning traditional practices are concerned, the authors also make use of other
materials, canonical or post-canonical. Amongst the latter, the Śrāvakabhūmi
seems to have been their main source. This is unmistakably indicated by several
direct references to this treatise.58 Such a situation can be better understood if one
55
Laukikānāṃ śilpakarmasthānānām arthopasaṃhitānāṃ sattvānugrāhakāṇāṃ lipi-
gaṇananyasanasaṃkhyāmudrādīnāṃ mañcapīṭhacchattropānahādīnāṃ ca vicitrāṇāṃ vivi-
dhānāṃ bhāṇḍopaskarāṇām anupravartakaṃ dhyānam. (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA
ed. 21011-15; DUTT ed. 14511-14). Cf. the Chinese translation: 於諸世間工巧業處能引義利
饒益有情種種書、算、測度、數印、床座、傘屧，如是等類種種差別資生衆具能
隨造作靜慮。(T1579.528b8-10)
56
For a detailed discussion of these techniques in the Bodhisattvabhūmi, see MAITHRI-
MURTHI (1999:233-255; cf. also pp. 305-327).
57
See Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 39612-25; DUTT ed. 27316-25 cited above.
58
For example, the thirty-seven factors of Awakening are not explained in detail.
Instead we are told that these are to be understood differently in accordance to the
principles (naya) of Śrāvakayāna, on the one hand, and those of Mahāyāna, on the other.
As to the former, the Bodhisattvabhūmi adds, it must be known as expounded in the
Śrāvakabhūmi : Tatra śrāvakanayena yathābhūtaṃ prajānāti tadyathā Śrāvakabhūmau
sarvaṃ yathānirdiṣṭaṃ veditavyam. (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 25913-15; cf. the
Chinese translation T1579.539c5-6). The passage already appears in Dharmakṣema's Chine-
se translation of the Bodhisattvabhūmi : 聲聞乘方便如實知，如聲聞地所說。(T1581.
929c23-24). In the Śrāvakabhūmi (28819 ff.), we actually find a very detailed treatment of the
thirty-seven factors of Awakening. (Cf. also SHIMIZU, 1997).
Another example is that of the category of persons dominated by sensual passion
(rāgacarita). The Bodhisattvabhūmi says that such persons should practice the meditation
904 Florin DELEANU
assumes, as I do, that the Bodhisattvabhūmi took shape in circles closely asso-
ciated with or under the influence of the Śrāvakabhūmi community.59
V. The Path of Spiritual Cultivation:

The Bodhisattva's Long and Winding Road towards Awakening
How does the bodhisattva's meditative path progress? The answer is far from
simple. If one expects a well-organized model like the Abhidharmic abhi-
samayavāda, then the Bodhisattvabhūmi is not exactly the place to look for it. Part
of the reason stems from the situation touched upon in the preceding section:
much of the actual training took place under the direct guidance of the master and
many details did not survive as written documents. To this, we can add the fact that
there is not one single model but a few of them. Another factor is, I believe, the
textual history of the Bodhisattvabhūmi, which does not seem to be the work of a
single author. The proto-Bodhisattvabhūmi was probably a collection of various
teachings and practices regarded as the foundation (bhūmi ) of the bodhisattva 's
spiritual quest, but these were not systematically arranged like many of the
Abhidharma treatises.60 I conjecture that this ur-text contained most or large parts
on the impure (aśubhā ) as explained in detail in the Śrāvakabhūmi : rāgacaritānam aśubhā

vistareṇa tadyathā Śrāvakabhūmau. (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 3892-3; for Xuán-
zàng's Chinese rendering, see T1579.570a6-7; cf. also Dharmakṣema's translation: 貪欲觀不
淨廣說如聲聞地。T1581.956c20-21). This seems to refer to passages like Śrāvakabhūmi
2023 ff. and 41114 ff. which indeed deal in detail with the meditation on the impure.
59
See DELEANU (2006, vol. I:162-167).
60
I think that the primary sense of °bhūmi in titles of the Bodhisattvabhūmi and the
Śrāvakabhūmi, especially in the early phases of their textual history, must have been that of
'foundation', 'source' rather than 'stage'. The latter is certainly one of the meanings of the
word, a meaning which is more prominent in such works like the Daśabhūmikasūtra. We
must note, however, that as shown by ITŌ (1968; 1970), even in the Daśabhūmikasūtra, one
of the basic senses of bhūmi was that of ākara 'a rich source of anything, place of origin'
(ITŌ, 1968:134). The meaning of 'foundation' in the title of the Yogācārabhūmi is also
attested in later commentarial works like the *Yogācārabhūmivyākhyā (T1580.884c25-26)
(see DELEANU, 2006, vol. I:48, n. 3). Similarly, in his Sūtrālaṃkāravṛttibhāṣya, the Yogā-
cāra exegete Sthiramati (ca. 510-570) glosses upon the term pañcavidhā yogabhūmiḥ
(occurring at Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra 6516ff.), usually construed as 'five types of stages of
spiritual practice', as follows: "The[se] five types of factors are called 'foundations of
spiritual practice' (yogabhūmi ) due to [their] being the basis (*āśraya) and the ground
(*nidāna ;*adhiṣṭhāna ?) of the cultivation (*bhāvanā ) of spiritual practice (yoga)." See
D4034.189a4-5: chos rnam pa lnga rnal 'byor bsgom pa'i rten dang gzhir gyur pas na rnal
'byor gyi sa zhes bya'o //. The polysemy of the word bhūmi is undeniable, and it is not
excluded that even in the same context, more than one denotation or connotation may have
been present. It seems to me, however, more natural to construe the original meaning of
the titles of the Bodhisattvabhūmi and the Śrāvakabhūmi as 'The Foundation of the
Bodhisattva['s Path]' and 'The Foundation of the Disciple['s Path]'. Yet, it is true that things
may have become more complicated once the two texts became part of the 'mega-opus'
which the Yogācārabhūmi is. But even in the latter, °bhūmi has not a straightforward,
unequivocal meaning of 'step' on a ladder of spiritual progression. In other words, there is
no implication that the yogi must first practice according to the Śrāvakayāna, then follow
the Pratyekabuddha's path of training, and then engage in the bodhisattvic course of salvific
activity and spiritual cultivation. If there is a sense of bhūmi as 'level' in context of the titles
of the textual units making up the Yogācārabhūmi, then it must be one of hierarchical
of what today survives as Ādhārayogasthāna, Part One of the Bodhisattvabhūmi.

The other two main parts of our text, i.e., Ādhārānudharmayogasthāna and
Ādhāraniṣṭhayogasthāna, seem to be later additions.61 In the Ādhārayogasthāna,
evaluation of religious ideals from the perspective of the Great Vehicle: Śrāvakayāna, the
lowest Vehicle, is placed first; this is followed by the path of the Solitary Buddhas; and
finally the Mahāyāna course of praxis is set forth in the Bodhisattvabhūmi. (I feel now that
my translation in DELEANU 2006 [vol. I, p. 13 and passim] of the title of the Śrāvakabhūmi
as 'The Disciples' Level' should be corrected in the light of the above discussion or at least
presented in more nuanced terms.)
61
I am not the first one to advocate a gradual formation of the Bodhisattvabhūmi.
More than 30 years ago, the German scholar Gustav ROTH (1977:409-410) argued that Part
I, i.e., Ādhārayogasthāna, appears to be the earliest stratum of the text. ARAMAKI (2000:40
n. 4; 44; 59-60) also regards the Bodhisattvabhūmi as consisting of several historical layers.
The Japanese scholar apparently considers that different strata exist even within the
Tattvārathapaṭala, the central philosophical chapter of the text (id., p. 44). ARAMAKI does
not elaborate upon his hypothesis, but the lines which he suggests are certainly worth
pursuing. A careful analysis of the Bodhisattvabhūmi may reveal subtler distinctions of
different strata within the Ādhārayogasthāna (and theoretically speaking, maybe even
within Part II, i.e., Ādhārānudharmayogasthāna, and Part III, i.e., Ādhāraniṣṭhayoga-
sthāna).
A complete account of the formation of the Bodhisattvabhūmi is, however, much more
complex and cannot be attempted here. Apart from the pertinent reasons adduced by
ROTH (1977:409-410), there are two other aspects which I should like to add as possible
pieces of evidence pointing towards a stratigraphical compilation of the Bodhisattvabhūmi.
First, the model of six pāramitā s central in the Ādhārayogasthāna, on the one hand, vs the
scheme of ten perfections in the Ādhārānudharmayogasthāna and the Ādhāraniṣṭhayoga-
sthāna, on the other, seems to indicate different dates in the history of the text. The
Ādhārayogasthāna discusses the six perfections in detail, each being treated in a separate
chapter. On the other hand, in the Vihārapaṭala (a chapter of the Ādhārānudharmayoga-
sthāna), we see the phrase daśapāramitāpramukhāḥ (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed.
3479), and the Caryāpaṭala (a chapter of the Ādhāraniṣṭhayogasthāna) clearly spells out
what these ten perfections are: Tatra ṣaṭ ca pūrvanirdiṣṭāḥ pāramitā upāyakauśalapāramitā
ca praṇidhānapāramitā ca balapāramitā ca jñānapāramitā ca itīmā daśa pāramitā
abhisamasya pāramitācaryety ucyate. (WOGIHARA ed. 3714-7). It is true that as showed by
SHIMIZU (1986:77-81), the content of the additional four perfections which make up the
daśapāramitā model is already suggested or briefly expounded in the Ādhārayogasthāna. I
think, however, that this detail does not invalidate my hypothesis. It is not so important
whether the content of the four extra perfections, or for that matter the daśapāramitā
model itself, was known to the authors of the Ādhārayogasthāna or not. Most likely, it was,
but the issue here is that they did not consider this model to be the most important one.
Had they regarded it as more authoritative than the classical six-pāramitā model, they
would have dedicated separate chapters for each of the ten perfections. The ten-pāramitā
model must have been adopted later, and one of the reasons probably was the introduction
of the complex vihāra -based path and the need to have more perfections corresponding,
whenever possible, to each major stage. (On the pāramitā -theory in the Bodhisattvabhūmi
in general and its influence on later Yogācāra texts, see SHIMIZU, 1987.)
The second aspect which may point to the fact that the Ādhārānudharmayogasthāna
and the Ādhāraniṣṭhayogasthāna may be chronologically later is the large number of
references which one finds in them to Part I of the Bodhisattvabhūmi. The readers (or in
the beginning, probably the audience) are frequently referred to the Ādhārayogasthāna for
the main exposition of the matter in question. Such cross-references may suggest that the
last two parts came into being as a sort of a large appendix collecting further details, new
906 Florin DELEANU
the only clear map of the bodhisattva's progression is the hierarchical set of the six
perfections (pāramitā ), but this is only a very general outline known to any
Mahāyāna follower.62 I venture to surmise that one of the chief reasons for the
addition of the last two parts of the Bodhisattvabhūmi was the need to offer a
more detailed exposition of the spiritual path. In doing so, the authors and/or
editors of the Ādhārānudharmayogasthāna and Ādhāraniṣṭhayogasthāna may have
collected various materials available in their community. This actually resulted in
two models: the twelve (or thirteen) abodes (dvādaśa bodhisattvavihārāḥ)63 and
the seven stages (sapta bodhisattvabhūmayaḥ).64 The former model, which is the
arrangements, and additional clarifications of topics and doctrines, some of which had
already been treated in the Ādhārayogasthāna. See, for instance, the numerous lists of
concepts in the Caryāpaṭala, which is part of the Ādhāraniṣṭhayogasthāna, introduced or
accompanied by the compound pūrvanirdiṣṭa 'explained above' (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGI-
HARA ed. 3715; 37121; etc.). One can also add in this context that the Caryāpaṭala gives
further technical elucidations about the ten perfections (daśapāramitā ) such as the three
reasons for their being placed in the order set forth in the Bodhisattvabhūmi (WOGIHARA
ed. 37210-37317), their relation to the three trainings (tisraḥ śikṣā ) (WOGIHARA ed. 37318-24),
etc.
I must stress once again that the issue of the formation of the Bodhisattvabhūmi is too
intricate to be dealt with in a few lines. One additional aspect which further complicates the
picture is that the text has survived not only in the Sanskrit original as well as in the Tibetan
translation and Xuánzàng's Chinese rendering. We also have two earlier Chinese
translations done in the first half of the 5th century by Dharmakṣema and Guṇavarman
respectively. These versions suggest that the text may have also circulated independently
even after its inclusion into the Yogācārabhūmi. Furthermore, they do not always agree
with the extant Sanskrit original as well as with the Tibetan translation and Xuánzàng's
rendering. Though not completely different recensions, they may represent versions
reflecting earlier stages in the development of the Bodhisattvabhūmi. To make things
worse, as with many other renderings into Chinese, one has to keep in mind and if possible,
carefully check whether the translators and/or their teams of scholar-monks added their
own interpretations, editorial arrangements, etc. I briefly discuss the problem in DELEANU
(2006, vol. I:183-184; 199-200; 230, n. 191). Apart from the relevant bibliographical data
found in DELEANU (2006), I should like to add here some further studies dedicated to this
problem: TSUCHIHASHI (1951), NAITŌ (1962), OKIMOTO (1973), SUEKI (1979), and SUEKI
(1980).
62
There is a mention of the six stages (bhūmi ) of the bodhisattava's path (Bodhi-
sattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 8421-857; DUTT ed. 5927-607) as well as an attempt to connect
the ten types of bodhisattva to various bhūmi s (WOGIHARA ed. 29815-29914; DUTT ed.
20218-2038). These are, however, too brief to qualify as a guide for the bodhisattva's
progression. Cf. SHIMIZU (1986:67-68).
63
The thirteenth stage results from the addition of the final step, or rather result, of the
bodisattvic path: the Tathāgata abode (tathāgatavihāra)(see below for more details).
64
This model comprises the following stages: (1) stage of [entrance into the
bodhisattva] lineage (gotrabhūmi ), (2) stage of the practice of conviction [or: practice of
zealous application] (adhimukticaryābhūmi ), (3) stage of the pure resolve (śuddhādhyā-
śayabhūmi ), (4) stage of practice and virtuous behavior (caryāpratipattibhūmi ), (5) stage
of [attaining] certainty [or: of [becoming] well-established] (niyatā bhūmiḥ), (6) stage of the
practice of certainty (niyatacaryābhūmi ), and (7) stage of attaining the culmination [of the
bodhisattva's path] (niṣṭhāgamanabhūmi ). The Bodhisattvabhūmi devotes one chapter en-
titled Bhūmipaṭāla, rather brief, to the exposition of the seven stages (see WOGIHARA ed.
367-370; DUTT ed. 253-255; cf. Tibetan translation: Sa'i le'u at D4037.189b1-191a3; Xuán-
zàng's Chinese rendering: Dì pǐn 地品 at T1579.564c-566c).
main one and is dealt with in greater detail, seems to represent the original
contribution of the Bodhisattvabhūmi, though it was clearly inspired from and is
explicitly collated with the Daśabhūmikasūtra.65
How does meditation relate to the thirteen-abode path? References to spiri-
tual cultivation, whether actual indications of meditative praxis or hyperbolic lists
of banner-waving samādhi s, are spread all along the bodhisattva's path towards
Awakening. However, obtaining a clear and continuous picture of how the yogic
progression unfolds is far from easy, and the following presentation should be
taken with quite a few grains of salt in order to make its simplifications 'dige-
stible'.66
After the preparatory stages of (1) the abode of [entrance into the bodhisattva]
lineage (gotravihāra) and (2) the abode of the practice of conviction (adhimukti-
caryāvihāra), the bodhisattva attains (3) the joyful abode (pramuditavihāra)
marked by the crucial act of taking the great resolve of Awakening (bodhicitta). (4)
This is followed by the abode [of the practice directed] at moral training (adhi-
śīlavihāra).67 (5) The abode [of the practice directed] at the mind (adhicittavihāra)
Many of the technical terms occurring in the above names would need further lexi-
cological and doctrinal clarification, but here I limit myself to a few remarks on adhimukti
of the second stage, i.e., adhimukticaryābhūmi. The word is clearly polysemic encom-
passing both the dynamic process of 'zealous application', more often than not of a spiritual
nature, and attaining the state of 'conviction'. For a more detailed discussion, see DELEANU
(1996, vol. 2:471-473, n. 15; cf. also EDGERTON, [1953] 1985, vol. II, s.v.; DAYAL, [1932]
1978:53-54; etc.). Though below I usually render the term as 'conviction', it should be
remembered that its semantic range is much wider.
65
There is a great deal of overlapping between these two models, and the authors
and/or redactors of the Bodhisattvabhūmi are clearly aware of this and try establish a
pattern of correspondence between the two (WOGIHARA ed. 3671-16; DUTT ed. 2563-13).
Why both models were necessary is not perfectly clear. They seem to represent two
different traditions. The bhūmi -model probably reflects an early and authoritative
Prajñāpāramitā tradition, which the Bodhisattvabhūmi authors/editors may have felt
somehow obliged or necessary to keep. As argued above, the 12/13 vihāra -pattern is in all
likelihood the contribution of the Bodhisattvabhūmi itself, which, however, developed
under the influence of the Daśabhūmikasūtra. The Bodhisattvabhūmi makes very clear its
indebtedness to the latter and frequently refers to it when drawing parallels between its
own 12/13 vihāra-path and the 10-bhūmi model of the Daśabhūmikasūtra. See, for example,
yāś ca Daśabhūmike sūtre daśa bodhisattvabhūmayaḥ (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed.
33221-22); yathā Daśabhūmike vimalāyāṃ bhūmau (WOGIHARA ed. 33424); tadyathā Daśa-
bhūmike prabhākaryāṃ bhūmau (WOGIHARA ed. 33817); etc.
On the 7 bhūmi - and 12/13 vihāra -models in the Bodhisattvabhūmi (as well as their
relations to the Daśabhūmikasūtra), see DAYAL (1932 [1978]:278-283); SAKAMOTO (1939);
HIRAKAWA (1989:546-550); SHIMIZU (1986; 1989; 1993), etc. On the problem of the stages
of bodhisattvic path in general, see DAYAL (1932 [1978]:270-291); ARAMAKI (1983);
HIRAKAWA (1989:399-564), etc.
66
The Bodhisattvabhūmi itself first offers an overview of the entire path (WOGIHARA
ed. 31810-3223; DUTT ed. 2184-22021; cf. D4037.164b7-166b5; T1579.553a20-553c29), on which
my presentation above mainly relies. Our text then proceeds by treating each of the abodes
in great detail. Some of the aspects described in the latter treatment will also be touched
upon in my discussion below.
67
The prefix adhi- in adhiśīla, adhicitta, and adhiprajñā can be construed either as
'superior' or as 'with reference to'. The Śrāvakabhūmi explains the compound in both ways
(see DELEANU 2006, vol. I:38-39, n. 27). The meaning adhiśīlavihāra could, therefore, be
908 Florin DELEANU
is described as the stage at which the bodhisattva practices the mundane medita-
tions, contemplations, and attainments (laukikadhyānasamādhisamāpatti) (Bodhi-
sattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 3205-7; DUTT ed. 21912-14). (6) In the abode [of the
practice directed] at the transcendent wisdom connected to the factors conducive
to Awakening (bodhipakṣyapratisaṃyukto 'dhiprajñavihāraḥ), the bodhisattva,
relying on the mundane meditative attainments, cultivates 'the thirty-seven factors
leading to Awakening, beginning with the correct applications of mindfulness'
(samyaksmṛtyupasthānādīnāṃ saptatriṃśad bodhipakṣyāṇāṃ) (Bodhisattvabhūmi
WOGIHARA ed. 3208-12; DUTT ed. 21914-17). (7) These are the foundation of the next
stage, the abode [of the practice directed] at the transcendent wisdom connected to
the Truths (satyapratisaṃyukto 'dhiprajñavihāraḥ), during which the bodhisattva
mainly strives to realize the Four Noble Truths (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed.
32012-15; DUTT ed. 21918-19). (8) The Noble Truths are likewise the focus of the
eighth stage, i.e., the abode [of the practice directed] at the transcendent wisdom
connected to the generation and cessation of the dependent origination (pratītya-
samutpādapravṛttinivṛttipratisaṃyukto 'dhiprajñavihāraḥ). 68 At this level, the
bodhisattva gains full understanding of the cause of suffering and its cessation. (9)
The next stage, the signless abode of the uninterrupted functioning of the path
accompanied by effort and mental orientation (sābhisaṃskāraḥ sābhogo niś-
chidramārgavāhano nirnimitto vihāraḥ ),69 is described as being 'the abode atten-
ded by the cultivation of the non-conceptualizing transcendent wisdom [directed
at] the Ultimate Reality in [or: with regard to] all phenomena' (sarvadharmeṣu
tathatānirvikalpaprajñābhāvanāsahagato vihāraḥ) (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA
ed. 32019-24; DUTT ed. 21923-26). (10) Because of his intense cultivation of this non-
diversified state lacking any characteristics (nirnimittasya vihārasya bhāvanā-
bāhulyāt ), the bodhisattva comes to dwell in a stage called the signless abode of the
uninterrupted functioning of the path without effort and mental orientation
(anabhisaṃskāro 'nābhogamārgavāhano nirnimitto vihāraḥ) (Bodhisattvabhūmi
WOGIHARA ed. 32024-3212; DUTT ed. 21927-2202). (11) Based upon the utterly pure
and unmovable samādhi of the transcendent wisdom (supariśuddhaṃ niścalaṃ
prajñāsamādhiṃ niśritya), the bodhisattva attains the abode of the thorough
cognitions (pratisaṃvidvihāra), in which he gains complete mastery over the
preaching tools indispensable to his/her salvific prowess (Bodhisattvabhūmi
WOGIHARA ed. 3213-7; DUTT ed. 2203-5). (12) In the abode of the supreme
completion (paramaḥ pariniṣpanno bodhisattvavihāraḥ), the bodhisattva finally
reaches the full Awakening (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 3217-13; DUTT ed.
either 'the abode of the superior [training in] morality' or 'the abode [of the training
directed] at morality'. I adopt the latter rendering here.
68
In the section dedicated to its detailed description, the stage is simply called the
'abode [of the practice directed] at the transcendent wisdom connected to the dependent
origination' (pratītyasamutpādapratisaṃyukto 'dhiprajñavihāraḥ) (Bodhisattvabhūmi WO-
GIHARA ed. 343 ff.).
69
The word °niśchidra ° can also mean 'flawless, perfect'. The words niśchidra-
mārgavāhana as well as anābhogamārgavāhana (in the name of the next abode, i.e.,
anabhisaṃskāro 'nābhogamārgavāhano nirnimitto vihāraḥ) may have been influenced by
the terminology of the Śrāvakabhūmi. In one of its classifications of manaskāra, it uses the
terms niśchidravāhana and anābhogavāhana (Śrāvakabhūmi 36611-19) (cf. DELEANU, 2006,
vol. I:259).
2206-9). (13) And the state enjoyed by the Fully Awakened One is called the
Tathāgata abode (tathāgatavihāra).
It seems that the middle parts of this path, i.e., stages (4) to (8), reflect canoni-
cal and Abhidharmic models. Not only are they structured according to the
tripartite division of the spiritual training (tisraḥ śikṣāḥ), to wit, morality (śīla),
mind (=meditation) (citta), and transcendent wisdom (prajñā), the latter being
allotted here three distinct vihāra s. The idea of practicing mundane meditations,
followed by the 'the thirty-seven factors conducive to Awakening, beginning with
the correct applications of mindfulness', and then by the realization of the Four
Truths may also echo the Abhidharmic model of placing the smṛtyupasthānāni as
the main praxis for attaining the four wholesome roots (kuśalamūla) leading to
penetration (nirvedhabhāgīya). The latter, together with path of vision (darśana-
mārga) and path of cultivation (bhāvanāmārga), have the Noble Truths as their
main object just like part of the adhiprajñavihāra training.
We must not forget, however, that even when the similarities with the
Śrāvakayāna path and techniques are conspicuous, their basic interpretation is
consistently Mahāyānist and the bodhisattva must be fully engaged in his salvific
activity throughout all abodes.70 Furthemore, at almost all levels, traditional yogic
methods appear interspersed with meditative techniques peculiar to the Great
Vehicle in general and the Bodhisattvabhūmi in particular. And the higher the
bodhisattva moves on the ladders of his inner pilgrimage, the more dominant the
typically Mahāyānist practices become.
Crucial for the full realization of the ultimate spiritual ideals seem to be stages
(8) to (10). It is actually in the abode [of the practice directed] at the transcendent
wisdom connected to the dependent origination that the bodhisattva attains full
comprehension of the ten kinds of uniformity of phenomena[/Reality] (daśa
dharmasamatāḥ ). These modes of the non-diversified state of the Ultimate Reality
include the signless uniformity of the essence [seen from the perspective] of the
Supreme Truth in regard to all phenomena (sarvadharmeṣu pāramārthikasya sataḥ
svabhāvasya nirnimittasamatayā ), the characterless uniformity of the linguistic
expression, the [mental] activity 71 and the image (abhilāpābhisaṃskāraprati-
bhāsasyālakṣaṇasamatayā ), etc. (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 34322-3449;
DUTT ed. 23427-2359), etc. (Note the quasi-Vijñānavādin tones of the latter type of
uniformity!) It is also at this stage that after having thoroughly examined all kinds
of dependent origination, the bodhisattva activates the three contemplations
(trayaḥ samādhayaḥ ).72 This causes all ideations of self and others, doer and
70
In this context, it is also important to note that the Bodhisattvabhūmi often stresses
the qualitative superiority of the samādhi s practiced by the bodhisattva. The latter's
meditative attainments far surpass the similar contemplative techniques and states which
the disciples (śrāvaka) and solitary Buddhas (pratyekabuddha) can reach. See, for instance,
Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 34811-13 (cf. T1579.560b1-2).
71
This is how I tentatively render abhisaṃskāra here. See also UI's (1961:344) transla-
tion: shii 思惟 'thought'. Note, however, that Xuánzàng renders it as zàozuò 造作 'creation'
(T1579.559a26). The term abhisaṃskāra in Buddhism is polysemic, and translations sugge-
sting both ways of construing it are attested (see NAKAMURA 1981, s.v.; a sense like the one
registered at p. 767c would be the closest to the meaning which I conjecture here).
72
The three samādhi s are also mentioned at other stages, but it is in this abode that
they seem to be fully activated. They are either referred to as three samādhi s or the triad of
the Liberation-Gates (vimokṣamukhatraya) (see Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 34414).
910 Florin DELEANU
experiencer, existence and non-existence to cease their functioning (tato nidānaṃ

cāsyātmaparakārakavedakabhāvābhāvasaṃjñāḥ na pravartante) (Bodhisattva-
bhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 34415-16; DUTT ed. 23513-14).
Judging from the numerous references to the three samādhi s, they continue to
be the center of the spiritual praxis at the next stage, too. The bodhisattva is now
able to show firm acceptance of the Truth of non-arising (anutpattikadharma-
kṣantyavabhāsitam) (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 34818-19; DUTT ed. 2381).
And though dwelling in the Absolute, he would not attain the Nirvanic Cessation –
indeed a true bodhisattvic miracle beyond comprehension. 73
In the signless abode of the uninterrupted functioning of the path without
effort and mental orientation, the bodhisattva fully attains the ultimate acceptance
of the Truth of non-arising by means of the four investigations and the four correct
cognitions.74 The bodhisattva's training in these techniques apparently commences
quite early, at the second stage of the path, i.e., the abode of the practice of
conviction (adhimukticaryāvihāra). However, the cognitions are not obtained in a
pure form before the tenth abode.75 Having gained perfect mastery over them, the
attachment brought by wrong mental constructions is entirely removed, and the
bodhisattva ascertains that all defilements have ceased and will never arise again.76
VI. The Bodhisattvabhūmi : Its Spritual Legacy

To be sure, the Bodhisattvabhūmi contains none of the most representative
doctrines of the full-fledged Yogācāra-Vijñānavāda system.77 Nonetheless, this text
constitutes a major, if not indispensable, step before the great leap made by the
Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra.78 Its merciless condemnation of language and the accom-
panying ideative processes as the main source of obscuring the Reality further
prepared the ground for declaring the mind, after all the locus of language, to be
the principal culprit in deceiving us. And since the entities presupposed by the
common usage of language are false, they could be regarded as non-existent.
73
Idaṃ cāsyātyadbhutaṃ karmācintyaṃ, yad bhūtakoṭīvihāreṇa ca viharati na ca
nirodhaṃ sākṣātkaroti. (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 34823-3491; DUTT ed. 2384-5).
74
Ihasthaś cānutpattikeṣu dharmeṣu paramāṃ bodhisattvakṣāntiṃ suviśuddhāṃ
labhate. Sā punaḥ katamā? Catasṛbhiḥ paryeṣaṇābhir ayaṃ bodhisattvaḥ sarvadharmāṃ
paryeṣya yadā caturbhir eva yathābhūtaparijñānaiḥ parijānāti. (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGI-
HARA ed. 35025-3514; DUTT ed. 23913-15).
75
Catvāri ca yathābhūtaparijñānāni tāny adhimukticaryāvihāram upādāya yāvat
sābhoganirnimittād vihārān na suviśuddhāni bhavanti. (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed.
35110-12; DUTT ed. 23919-21)
76
Tadā sarvamithyāvikalpābhiniveśeṣv apanīteṣu sarvadharmāṇāṃ dṛṣṭe ca dharme
sarvasaṃkleśānutpattyanukūlatāṃ paśyati. Saṃparāye ca sarveṇa sarvaṃ niravaśeṣato
'nutpattiṃ paśyati, teṣām eva pūrvamithyāvikalpābhiniveśahetusamutpannānāṃ dharmā-
ṇāṃ. (Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 3514-8; DUTT ed. 23915-18)
77
This is already pointed out in SCHMITHAUSEN (1969a:823, n. 53). See also ARAMAKI
(1976b:17); etc.
78
We must add here that between the Bodhisattvabhūmi and the Saṃdhinirmocana-
sūtra lie the earlier parts of the Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī. This was suggested by SCHMIT-
HAUSEN (1976:238-244), and has been brilliantly analyzed in a series of recent contributions
by the young Japanese scholar TAKAHASHI Kōichi (see especially 2005a and 2006).
Unfortunately, time limitations do not allow me to explore here this intermediate junction
in the history of Yogācāra philosophy. See also SCHMITHAUSEN (2005:232-235) for an
excellent discussion of some aspects of the spiritual path in the Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī.
Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN (1976:239; 243-244) aptly describes the basic phi-

losophical stance of the Bodhisattvabhūmi as 'nominalistic'.79 This nominalism
unmistakably added a new steppingstone on the road towards the birth of the
Representation-only doctrine.80 Declaring the ordinary man's world to be created
by erroneous mental constructions (mithyāvikalpo bālānāṃ [...] lokanirvartakaḥ)81
is not idealism in the strictest sense of the term.82 Yet it undoubtedly further
develops the illusionist tendency inherited from the Prajñāpāramitā tradition.
The epistemic distrust of language is also a Prajñāpāramitā theme,83 and this
was better articulated and refined in the Bodhisattvabhūmi theory and praxis of
the four investigations, which was to have a lasting influence upon the literature of
the Yogācāra-Vijñānavāda school. As far as ordinary people (pṛthagjana) are
concerned, the world which they see and reflect in their language is inaccurate and
ultimately illusory. In this sense, one could say (and later the full-fledged Vijñāna-
vādins would clearly conclude) that in the case of ordinary man, the only thing
which actually exists is his mind. Though the Bodhisattvabhūmi authors do not use
such terms or descriptions, it seems that an incipient idea of 'mind-only' was, so to
speak, almost on the tip of their tongues.
The influence of the Bodhisattvabhūmi is not limited to the genesis of the
vijñaptimātratā concept. As argued by Noritoshi ARAMAKI,84 the text also played a
crucial role in the birth of the doctrine of the threefold nature (trividhaḥ sva-
bhāvaḥ ). The similarities between the mental construction (vikalpa) in our text and
the falsely imagined nature (parikalpitasvabhāva) in the later Yogācāra-
Vijñānavāda philosophy are obvious. Yet, it must be added and admitted that the
former is basically a continuation of a Prajñāpāramitā tenet. What the Bodhisattva-
bhūmi contributed in a more unique and decisive way was its theory and praxis of
the 'thing-in-itself', equaled to the Supreme Reality, which ultimately led to the
idea of the absolute nature (niṣpannasvabhāva). The vehement stress and rare
clarity of its vastumātra doctrine has no precedence in Mahāyāna literature, and
this line of thought did inaugurate a hermeneutic framework which the Yogācāra-
Vijñānavāda fully embraced.
79
As pointed out in SCHMITHAUSEN (1976:239), the Bodhisattvabhūmi also used the
term prajñaptimātra 'mere denominations' with regard to finite entities (giving as example
the occurrence at Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 4327). See also WOGIHARA ed. 481-2,
cited above.
80
The origins and proto-history of the vijñaptimātratā doctrine are quite complex. I
have briefly presented a general picture as well as relevant secondary sources in DELEANU
(2006, vol. I:174).
81
Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 554-5; DUTT ed. 3721-22; TAKAHASHI (2005a:114,
§10.1). Cf. T490.c16-19: 愚夫於此四如實智有所闕故, 不現前故。便有八種邪分別轉。能
生三事能,起一切有情世間及器世間。(my underlining).
82
See also the notion of abhilāpābhisaṃskārapratibhāsasyālakṣaṇasamatayā "charac-
terless uniformity of the linguistic expression, the [mental] activity, and the image" at
Bodhisattvabhūmi WOGIHARA ed. 34322-3449; DUTT ed. 23427-2359, referred to in Section
V above.
83
See HAYASHIMA (1982:165-168).
84
See especially ARAMAKI (1978a) and (1976b, mainly pp. 17-25, examining the role of
the Bodhisattvabhūmi ). See also ARAMAKI (2002). I must, however, add that although
ARAMAKI's studies contain many insightful observations, there are a number of details for
which I would hypothesize rather different scenarios.
912 Florin DELEANU
Last but not least, its meditative ideals of attaining the 'uniformity of pheno-
mena' (dharmasamatāḥ ), i.e., a non-conceptualized state far from our maddening
'world' of language, conceptualization, and diversification, most probably contri-
buted to the Yogācāra-Vijñānavāda formulation of the Awakening experience as a
transcendence of the duality of object and subject.85 No doubt, the idea of 'uni-
formity' is, once again, a Prajñāpāramitā motif, but in the hands of the Bodhi-
sattvabhūmi authors, it gained new dimensions.86 The identification of the signless
abode of the uninterrupted functioning of the path without effort and mental
orientation with the attainment of the thing-in-itself by means of the four investiga-
tions and the four cognitions means that 'uniformity' is more than a simple
meditative exercise. It is an epistemologically relevant act of penetrating into the
Supreme Reality which also effects the complete elimination of defilements.87
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Chinese Dictionary of Buddhist Terminology (Based on Yogācārabhūmi) (瑜伽師
地論に基づく梵蔵漢・蔵梵漢対照佛教語辞典), Tokyo: Sankibo Busshorin
Publishing Co., Ltd.
ZHĀNG, Yísūn (张怡荪)(ed.-in-chief)(1993): Bod rgya tshig mdzod chen mo / Zàng Hàn dà
cídiǎn (藏漢辞典), vol. 1-2 (stod cha & smad cha), Beijing: Mi rigs dpe skrun
khang.
HARVARD ORIENTAL SERIES
Edited by MICHAEL WITZEL
VOLUME SEVENTY-FIVE
The Foundation for Yoga Practitioners
The Buddhist Yogācārabhūmi Treatise and
Its Adaptation in India, East Asia, and Tibet
Edited by
Ulrich Timme KRAGH
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2013
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Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data
The Foundation for Yoga Practitioners: The Buddhist Yogācārabhūmi Treatise and Its
Adaptation in India, East Asia, and Tibet
Harvard Oriental Series; v. 75

ISBN 978-0-674-72543-0
I. Ulrich Timme Kragh 1969-
II. Title
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Buddhist Meditation in the Bodhisattvabhumi

Article · May 2013

A History of Meditation in Indian Buddhism View project

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I. The Concept of Reality in the Bodhisattvabhūmi :

mental constructions (vikalpa),17 which are the source of defilements (saṃkleśa)

transcendent wisdom,23 he correctly regards all phenomena as being

II. The Four Investigations and the Four Correct Cognitions:

regarded as contemplative techniques, or at least as underlying epistemic presup-

The practice of the four investigations results in four corresponding cognitions.

with reference to the thing which is conceived [/perceived] as matter, etc.,

III. Samādhi : The Recipe for Realizing the Thing-In-Itself

might serve as a contemplative object, should be eliminated (vibhūta).38 Then the

ments, mindfulness of breathing, the first absorption [and so on] up to

The three contemplations (trayaḥ samādhayaḥ), an old canonical set of praxis

What is the bodhisattva's contemplation of emptiness (śūnyatā-

It would be wrong, however, to present that the bodhisattva's meditative trai-

IV. The Perfection of Meditation:

appear to stress the importance of relating one's meditative accomplishments to

For the bodhisattva, the concentration and/or contemplative states brought

V. The Path of Spiritual Cultivation:

on the impure (aśubhā ) as explained in detail in the Śrāvakabhūmi : rāgacaritānam aśubhā

of what today survives as Ādhārayogasthāna, Part One of the Bodhisattvabhūmi.

experiencer, existence and non-existence to cease their functioning (tato nidānaṃ

VI. The Bodhisattvabhūmi : Its Spritual Legacy

Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN (1976:239; 243-244) aptly describes the basic phi-

Other Chinese translations are referred to occasionally,

MIKOGAMI, Eshō (神子上恵生)(2001/2002): "Indo Yugagyō-yuishiki gakuha ni okeru

RAHDER, J. (ed.)(1926): Daśabhūmikasūtra et Bodhisattvabhūmi Chapiters Vihāra et

________________________ (1989): "Yuga ron Bosatsu ji ni mirareru bosatsu shisō no

TATIA, Nathmal (ed.)(1976): Abhidharmasamuccaya-bhāṣyam, Patna: K.P. Jayaswal

Edited by MICHAEL WITZEL

PUBLISHED BY THE DEPARTMENT

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

Harvard Oriental Series; v. 75

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