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Basic Aerodynamics Theory

Understanding how an aeroplane derives lift with the Bernoulli's equation, and looking at the forces acting on an aeroplane in flight.

Contents
Introduction
1. Introduction
Aero-dynamics is the study of the dynamics associated with the motions of air over a moving object. When an aircraft accelerates 2. Airflow Over An Aerofoil
down the runway to take off, it produces a relative motion between the air and the aircrafts wings. It is this rush of airflow over 3. Forces Acting In Flight
and below the wings, created by the aircrafts forward motion, which produces lift and consequently makes all forms of powered 4. Page Comments
flight possible.

Key Facts
Gyroscopic Couple: The rate of change
of angular momentum (\tau) = I\omega
\Omega (In the limit).
I = Moment of Inertia.

\omega = Angular velocity

\Omega = Angular velocity of

Diagram 1 An aerofoil in a steady, streamlined, and precession.
incompressible flow of air. Image Courtesy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfoil

The contours of the upper and lower surfaces of the wing contribute largely to the pressure differences that occur between the Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) was a French
two surfaces. The resulting pressure leads to a net force that provides 'Lift' to the wing. mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer

In this section, we use the Bernoulli's and Euler's equations to understand how an aeroplane derives lift. We also look at the four and Catholic philosopher.

principle forces acting on an aircraft in flight, at ALL times.

Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) was a
pioneering Swiss mathematician and
Airflow Over An Aerofoil physicist.

Bernoulli's Equation Key Facts

As with all applications of the Bernoulli's principle, we shall assume that the flow of air around the aerofoil is:
Definitions
Steady, Law of Conservation of Energy Energy
Incompressible, and can neither be created, nor destroyed. It
Frictionless. can only be said to change its state from
one to another. As such, the total energy
in any given system is always a constant.

Bernoullis principle
For a perfect incompressible liquid,
flowing in a continuous stream, the total
energy of a particle remains the same,
while the particle moves from one point to

Diagram 2 Aerofoil section in a Wind Tunnel experiment.

another.

Bernoulii's equation, considering the two points 'a' and 'b' in the airflow (refer Diagram 2), is given by: Kutta condition
A body with a sharp trailing edge which is
\frac{P_a}{\rho g} + \frac{v_a^2}{2g} + z_a = \frac{P_b}{\rho g} + \frac{v_b^2}{2g} + z_b = K (Constant) (2)
moving through a fluid will create about

where, itself a circulation of sufficient strength to

hold the rear stagnation point at the
P_a and P_b is the Pressure of the fluid at Point a and b respectively
trailing edge.
v_a and V_b is the Velocity of the fluid at Point a and b respectively
Lift
z_a and z_b is the vertcal elevation at Point a and b respectively
It is the component of force acting
\rho is the Density of the fluid upwards and perpendicular to the line of
g is the acceleration due to gravity flight, in a steady, undisturbed stream of
air. It is important to note that 'upwards'
For our calculation, we shall consider the values of \rho and g to be constant at both points a and b. We shall also assume implies to the roof of the aircraft in all
the values of z_a and z_b to be negligible in a wind tunnel experiment. The equation can then be written as: attitudes of flight, i.e. Upright, Banked (as
during a turn), and Inverted.
P_a + \frac{v_a^2}{2} = P_b + \frac{v_b^2}{2} = K (3)

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Since a is at a point in the airflow that is unaffected by the passage of the aerofoil through the air, the values of pressure
and velocity at this point can be considered to be the same as that of ambient air.

Diagram 3 Aerofoil section 2 in a Wind Tunnel experiment.

Now consider a Point c (Diagram 3 above ) that is located below the aerofoil section.
Using Bernoulli's equation from (2), equating the values of pressure and velocity at this point (c) with those of ambient air,
we get:

P_a + \frac{v_a^2}{2} = P_c + \frac{v_c^2}{2} = K (4)

From Eq (3) and (4) we have:

P_b +\frac{v_b^2}{2}=P_c + \frac{v_c^2}{2} = K (5)

According to the Kutta condition of circulation, the airflow over the upper surface of the aerofoil is faster than that below the
underside of the aerofoil.
i.e. v_b > v_c

Therefore, to satisfy the condition given in Eq(5),

P_b<P_C

The net result is an upward acting force which is termed as 'Lift'.

Forces Acting In Flight

In the following diagram, we see four forces acting on an aircraft at all times.

Diagram 4 Four Forces in Flight

When an aircraft is in level flight, all the four fources are balanced and the aircraft can be said to be in a state of Equilibrium.
Lift(L) = Weight(W), and
Thrust(T) = Drag(D)
In such state the aircraft will be travelling at a steady height, at a uniform velocity, and fixed heading.

Climbing And Descending

The following discussion explains the relationship between these four forces when an aircraft is in the phase of gaining
altitude (climbing), and when the aircraft descends.

Forces during a Climb

In the above diagram, consider the angle of climb to be \alpha.

Resolving the vectors about W, we get:

component W sin \alpha directly opposing Thrust T; and,

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component W cos \alpha directly opposing Lift L.

Therefore,
T = D+ W \sin \alpha (6)
Implying that in a climb,
T>D
T \propto \alpha

Also,
L= W \cos \alpha (7)
Implying that
L < W (It is important to note the definition of Lift in this context)
L \propto \frac{1}{\alpha }

Forces during a Glide or Controlled Descent

In the above diagram, consider the angle of descent to be \alpha.

Resolving the vectors we find that the Total Force, acting equal and opposite to the weight (W), is a resultant of the Lift L
and Drag D vectors. That is,
\tan \alpha = D/L (8)
This implies that
L/D \propto \frac{1}{\alpha}

Or,

Higher the value of the ratio L/D, the flatter the gliding angle - the more appropriate (for man and machinery) the descent
from altitude.

Note : As we shall see in a later section, the ratio of L and D also has a significant effect on the Range and the
Endurance(in other words the Performance) of the aircraft.

Note regarding Numericals In working out numericals associated with the Forces in Flight, it is important to note that the
vectors (L, W, T, D) are merely representative, and do not indicate their actual position. This is further explained in the
diagram below.

The Two Opposing Couples

In low wing aircrafts, the W vector is often located ahead of the L vector; providing a couple with a nose-down pitching
moment. Similarly, and directly opposing this (L-D) couple, the T vector is located below the D vector; providing a couple
with a nose-up pitching moment.

Note: In the event of loss of power (T),the nose-down pitching moment takes precedence, allowing the aircraft to enter into
a glide. If a nose-up pitching moment was provided in such an event, the aircraft would inevitably stall and descend
uncontrollably earthward. Thus the need for Weight and Balance of an aircraft, and the need to ensure that the C of G is
within limits. This will be further analysed in future pages.

In addition,the forces acting on the Mainplane (Wings) are balanced by similar forces acting on the Tailplane (Stabilizer). All
such numericals can be solved withe reference to the law of moments.

Example - Level Flight - With No Tail Plane Load

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Problem
Example: 1 2 3
A seaplane of mass 20000 Kg. is flying in Straight and Level Flight. The thrust vector is located 1.2m ABOVE the drag vector. If
the Lift/Drag ratio is 5:1, calculate the position of the lift vector. Consider the forces on the tail plane to be absent or negligable.
Assume
Workings

By resolving the vectors it can be seen that in this case the Thrust and drag vectors produce a nose-down pitching moment. To
oppose this, the Lift and Weight vectors will produce a nose-up pitching moment, i.e. Lift vector ahead of weight.

Let be the moment arm between and In st. and level flight we
know,

= = 20000g kN

ratio = 5:1

Therefore, D = 4000g kN =

Resolving the moments we get,

(1)

Solution

= 0.24m

The Lift vector is positioned 0.24m ahead of the Weight vector.

Last Modified: 17 Dec 11 @ 09:15 Page Rendered: 2018-11-07 01:32:53

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