Peak Performance 1 Prelim PDHPE

Peak
Performance
Preliminary PDHPE
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Peak
Performance Preliminary PDHPE
Darryl Buchanan
Wayne Cotton
Karen Ingram
Jo McLean
Donna O’Connor
Peter Sinclair
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First published 2010 by
MACMILLAN EDUCATION AUSTRALIA PTY LTD
15–19 Claremont Street, South Yarra 3141
Visit our website at www.macmillan.com.au
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throughout the world.
Copyright © D. Buchanan, D. O’Connor, K. Ingram, J. McLean and Macmillan Education Australia 2010
All rights reserved.

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National Library of Australia

cataloguing in publication data
Title: Peak performance 1 : preliminary PDHPE / Darryl Buchanan ... [et al.].
ISBN: 9781420228816 (pbk. + CD-ROM)
Notes: Includes index.
Target Audience: For secondary school age.
Subjects: Health–Textbooks.
Physical fitness–Textbooks.
Other Authors/Contributors: Buchanan, Darryl.
Dewey Number: 613
Publisher: Ben Dawe
Project editor: Hannah Koelmeyer
Editor: Kate McGregor
Illustrators: Paul Lennon and Guy Holt
Cover designer: Polar Design Pty Ltd
Text designer: Polar Design Pty Ltd
Photo research and permissions clearance: Jan Calderwood
Typeset in Melior 10pt by Polar Design Pty Ltd
Cover image: Getty Images/Jonathan Wood
Indexer: Martin Lindsay
Printed in Malaysia
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At the time of printing, the internet addresses appearing in this book were correct. Owing to the dynamic nature of the internet,
however, we cannot guarantee that all these addresses will remain correct.
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Contents
Preface x
About the authors xi
Preliminary Core 1 Better health for individuals
chapter Health and individuals 3
1 Meanings of health
Definitions of health
Dimensions of health
Relative and dynamic nature of health
3
3
4
6
Perceptions of health 8
Perceptions of individual health 8
Perceptions of the health of others 9
Implications of different perceptions of health 9
Perceptions of health as social constructs 10
Impact of the media, peers and family 11
Health behaviours of young people 12
The positive health status of young people 12
Protective behaviours and risk behaviours 18
Chapter review 31
chapter Influences on the health of individuals 34
2 The determinants of health

Individual factors
Sociocultural factors
Socioeconomic factors
34
34
36
40
Environmental factors 43
The degree of control individuals can exert over their health 44
Modifiable and non-modifiable health determinants 45
Changing influence of determinants through different life stages 46
Health as a social construct 48
Recognising the interrelationship of determinants 48
Challenging the notion that health is solely an individual’s responsibility 50
Chapter review 51
chapter Strategies for promoting health 53
3 What is health promotion?

Settings for health promotion
Responsibilities for health promotion
Individuals
53
55
56
57
Community groups/schools 58
Non-government organisations 60
Government 62
International organisations 66
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Health promotion approaches and strategies 68
Lifestyle/behavioural approaches 68
Preventative medical approaches 71
Public health approaches 75
The Ottawa Charter 78
Developing personal skills 79
Creating supportive environments 79
Strengthening community action 80
Reorienting health services 81
Building healthy public policy 81
Principles of social justice 85
Equity 86
Diversity 86
Supportive environments 86
Chapter review 87
Preliminary Core 2 The body in motion
chapter Musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems 91
4 Skeletal system
Major bones involved in movement
Structure and function of joints
Joint actions
92
94
97
100
The muscular system 104
Major muscles involved in movement 104
Muscle fibres 108
Muscle relationships 108
Types of muscle contraction 109
Respiratory system 110
Structure and functions 110
Lung function 112
Exchange of gases 112
Circulatory system 114
Components of blood 114
Structure and function of the heart 115
Structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries 116
Pulmonary and systemic circulation 116
Blood pressure 118
Chapter review 120
chapter Physical fitness, training and movement 122
5 Health-related components of physical fitness

Cardiorespiratory endurance
Muscular strength
Muscular endurance
122
122
128
130
Flexibility 132
Body composition 134
vi
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Skill-related components of physical fitness 138
Power 138
Speed 140
Agility 140
Coordination 141
Balance 142
Reaction time 143
Aerobic and anaerobic training 145
FITT principle 145
Immediate physiological responses to training 148
Heart rate 148
Ventilation rate 149
Stroke volume 149
Cardiac output 150
Lactate levels 151
Chapter review 152
chapter Biomechanical principles and movement 155
6 Motion
The application of linear motion, velocity, speed, acceleration and momentum
in movement and performance contexts
Balance and stability
155
155
162
Centre of gravity 162
Line of gravity 164
Base of support 164
Fluid mechanics 166
Flotation 166
Centre of buoyancy 169
Fluid resistance
Force 173
How the body applies force 173
How the body absorbs force 175
Applying force to an object 177
Chapter review 181
Preliminary Options
chapter First aid 185
7 What are the main priorities for assessment and management of first aid patients?
Setting priorities for managing a first aid situation and assessing the casualty
Crisis management
How should the major types of injuries and medical conditions be managed
185
185
190
196
in first aid situations?
Management of injuries 196
Management of medical conditions 204
vii
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What does the individual need to consider in administering first aid? 211
Physical environment 212
Infection control and protection 213
Legal and moral dilemmas 214
Support following first aid situations 216
Chapter review 218
chapter Composition and performance 220
8 How do the elements of composition apply to different movement mediums?

Space
Dynamics
Time and rhythm
220
220
228
230
Relationships 234
How are the elements used to compose movement? 237
The process of creating movement 238
The process of combining and arranging movement 242
What is the role of appraisal in the process of composing and performing? 247
Ways of appraising 247
Aspects for appraisal 250
Establishing and applying criteria 252
Chapter review 255
chapter Fitness choices 257
9 What does exercise mean to different people?

Meanings of exercise
The value that people place on exercise and fitness
What are the ways people choose to exercise for fitness?
257
257
260
263
Individual fitness activities 264
Group fitness activities 267
What influences people’s choice of fitness activities? 272
Settings for exercise 272
Advertising and promotion 277
Motivators and barriers to participation 281
Chapter review 284
chapter Outdoor recreation 286
10 What is the value of outdoor recreation?

Reasons for participation in outdoor recreation
What are the technical skills and understanding needed for safe participation
in outdoor recreation?
286
287
289
Planning skills 289

Campsite selection 293
Conservation skills 294
Navigation skills 298
Emergency management skills 307
Skills needed for other outdoor activities—relevant to the experience 310
viii
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What impact does group dynamics have on the outdoor experience? 310
Leadership styles 311
Understanding group dynamics 312
Facilitation skills 314
Understanding strengths and weaknesses 315
Chapter review 317
Suggested answers 320

Glossary 331
Acknowledgments 339
Index 341
ix
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Preface
Peak Performance 1 is an exciting new text written expressly for the recently
revised Stage 6 Personal Development, Health and Physical Education
syllabus in NSW.
Written by a team of leading educators, everything a Preliminary student
needs to perform at their ‘peak’ is included here. Peak Performance 1:
• Covers all core and option topics in an accessible, well illustrated way
• Addresses every syllabus dot point comprehensively, clearly and
succinctly
• Strikes the ideal balance of covering the breadth of syllabus content in
the appropriate depth. This approach supports all students to access the
material while ensuring great scope for deeper learning.
• Maintains a clear focus on what students specifically need to know and be
able to do in Stage 6 PDHPE
• Provides ample opportunities for critical thinking and analysis, including
a broad range of relevant and specific examples to support practical
application
The use of Peak Performance 1 will help teachers deliver the Preliminary
Personal Development, Health and Physical Education course with
confidence. Collecting together the best teaching and learning practice
available, Peak Performance 1 will make Personal Development, Health and
Physical Education enjoyable and relevant for a new generation of students.
About Visualcoaching® Pro

Visualcoaching® Pro is a world-leading exercise software system, created
by a team of experts in the fields of sport science, education, information
technology and international business. Screenshots and video provided
courtesy of Visualcoaching® Pro appear in this book/CD package as part of
a professional association between Visualcoaching® Pro and Macmillan.
Visit <www.visualcoaching.com> for information about trialling and using
Visualcoaching® Pro.
About the CD
Peak Performance 1 includes an interactive PDF with embedded video files
(courtesy of Visualcoaching® Pro software).
978 1 4202 2881 6
© Darryl Buchanan, Donna O’Connor, Jo McLean and Karen Ingram 2010
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About the authors
Darryl Buchanan has over 20 years professional experience in education. He has
been a PDHPE teacher, Head of Department, Year Coordinator and has authored
and co-authored eleven PDHPE and PASS books as well as several other resources.
Darryl has been involved in syllabus writing teams for PDHPE and PASS and
has extensive experience as a Senior Marker in HSC PDHPE. Darryl is employed
by the Association of Independent Schools where he provides professional
development support for schools and teachers.
Karen Ingram is an experienced PDHPE teacher, having been a classroom
teacher, Year Coordinator and Head of Department. She has been a HSC Marker
and has been part of BOS Stage 6 PDHPE Syllabus Projects. She has a keen
interest in implementing ICT into the PDHPE curriculum. Karen is a board
member for ACHPER NSW and has been involved in the development and
presentation of PDHPE resources and programs for ACHPER and the Association
of Independent Schools. Karen is a lecturer for undergraduate PDHPE students
at various universities and has worked as an international Physical Education
consultant in the Middle East.
Jo McLean has over 20 years professional experience in education at
secondary, primary and tertiary levels. She has been Head of PDHPE and Dean of
Students, has lectured to students studying pre-service PDHPE and the Graduate
Diploma in Education, and has also worked in Outdoor Education. Jo has had
extensive experience in HSC marking including three years as a Senior Marker of
PDHPE and has been involved in the amendments to the Stage 6 PDHPE syllabus
for 2010. She is the Vice President of the NSW branch of ACHPER and is a board
member of the NSW PDHPE Teachers’ Association. Jo currently works as an
education consultant supporting the professional development of teachers in
independent schools.
Donna O’Connor is an Associate Professor in the Faculty of Education and
Social Work at the University of Sydney. She lectures in the Human Movement
and Health Education program (exercise physiology, fitness training: theory and
practice; sports medicine) and is the course coordinator of the graduate program
in Coach Education. Donna has received a number of teaching awards including
a Carrick Citation for Outstanding Contribution to Student Learning and the
University’s Vice Chancellor’s award for outstanding teaching. Donna has worked
with the Wallabies and Waratahs coaching staff, Australian Touch teams, North
Queensland Cowboys and national league teams in basketball and netball. She
has been the strength and conditioner trainer with the Opals (Australian Women’s
Basketball team) since 2003.
Wayne Cotton is a lecturer in Human Movement and Health Education at the
University of Sydney. He has extensive experience in teaching Outdoor Education
in both New South Wales and Victorian schools. He regularly presents at national
and international conferences and still leads adventure expeditions to remote
locations around the globe. Wayne also provides risk management consultancy to
local and international adventure programs.
Peter Sinclair is a senior lecturer in Exercise and Sport Science at The
University of Sydney. He has particular interest in the biomechanics of human
movement and has extensive scientific publications applied to the fields of
sport science and rehabilitation. Peter conducts research projects with both the
Australian and NSW Institutes of Sport and serves on committees advising on
curriculum for the Australian Association of Exercise and Sport Science.
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Preliminary
Core
Better health
for individuals
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Health
and individuals
What does health mean to individuals?
Health is a changeable concept that can mean many different things to different people.
It is made up of a number of components that interact with each other to impact upon an
individual’s level of health. The meaning of health to an individual may change over time
depending on their circumstances and is shaped by a variety of factors, including
the perceptions of the person about their own heath and that of others, other people’s
perceptions of health and the influence of such things as the media, a person’s family and
their peers. Young people form their own meanings of health and these meanings have a
direct correlation to their health behaviours and whether they are health enhancing or
health compromising.
Meanings of health
Definitions of health
The question of health and how is it defined is the source of much debate.
The concept of health has been around for thousands of years and it is often
seen as something that people aspire to. Health has frequently been equated
purely with physical aspects of the body and whether or not a person is well
or unwell. However, more holistic views of health take into consideration
other components of a person’s life and make up. The term ‘health’ means
different things to different people and this fluidity makes it difficult to come
up with one definitive explanation.
Pericles (495–429 BC) an Athenian statesman and general believed
health to be ‘… that state of moral, mental and physical well-being, which
enables a man to face any crisis in life with the utmost facility and grace’.
While New Zealand poet and author Katherine Mansfield (1888–1923) stated
that, ‘by health I mean the power to live a full, adult, living, breathing life
in close contact with what I love … I want to be all that I am capable
of becoming’.

4 Peak Performance 1 Preliminary PDHPE
In 1946, the World Health Organization (WHO) defined health as: ‘a

state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity’. This definition has become the international
foundation explanation of health on which all health organisations base their
policies and procedures. However, even this definition is seen by some as
not truly reflecting all facets of health or the capacity of people to be healthy.
In 1986, the WHO added to the discussion around the meaning of health by
suggesting, in the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion, that:
‘To reach a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, an
individual or group must be able to identify and to realise aspirations,
to satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health is,
therefore, seen as a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living.
Health is a positive concept emphasising social and personal resources,
as well as physical capacities.’
While having set definitions of health gives us a starting point in

understanding what health is and is not, there are a number of other aspects
that need to be taken into consideration before forming our own beliefs about
the nature of health.
Close examination of the various definitions of health reveal that health is
not made up of just one component but rather is a complex balance between
many different dimensions. These dimensions relate to all parts of a person’s
being and continually interact with each other. These complex interactions
determine the health of the person; they can differ on a daily basis from
person to person and in different contexts.
The five commonly regarded dimensions of health are as follows:
1 Physical—the physical dimension of health refers to the functioning of
the body and the things that relate to this, such as physical activity, good
nutrition, fitness and absence of disease.
2 Social—the social dimension of health relates to one’s ability to interact
with other individuals. It involves building healthy relationships, fostering
a positive self-image, improving interpersonal social skills and accepting
diversity. It includes one’s interactions with family, friends and the
community.
3 Emotional—the emotional or mental dimension of health refers to a
person’s capacity to cope, adjust, and adapt to challenges and changes.
It also includes a knowledge and acceptance of one’s feelings and
emotions, the ability to manage stress in an appropriate manner, the
ability to be resilient in tough times and having a well-developed sense
of self.
4 Cognitive—the cognitive, or intellectual, dimension of health includes
being able to access, process and use knowledge to assist in decision
making, reasoning, weighing up the consequences of actions, life planning
and career development.

Health and individuals CHAPTER 1 5
5 Spiritual—the spiritual dimension of health involves finding purpose

and meaning to life. While it can include a belief in a higher being, it can
simply mean having a sense of one’s self as part of a bigger picture and is
closely related to one’s personal value system. It often involves finding a
sense of inner peace or strength, a connection with nature, or optimism for
the future.
Figure 1.1
Health is made up of a
number of interacting
dimensions
Physical
Cognitive/intellectual
Physical
Spiritual
Social
Emotional/mental
The key to good health is exercising each of the dimensions and

maintaining a balance between them. This skill often requires practice.
Balancing the different dimensions of one’s health may not necessarily
mean devoting equal time and energy to each dimension but rather combining
them in such a way that a person gains an overall sense of wellbeing. As Wellbeing a person’s
the dimensions are interrelated, a person may find that prioritising one experience of feelings of
happiness, contentment and
dimension may see a flow-on of beneficial effects in other areas. For example, satisfaction.
a focus on the physical dimension of health may help a person reach a
desired level of fitness and lower their blood pressure and cholesterol. They
may do this through involvement in team sports, which in turn will have
positive outcomes in the social and emotional dimensions of their health.
The opposite can also be true. Prioritising one dimension of health may be
detrimental to other aspects of a person’s health. A person who spends all
their spare time at the gym, excluding time for social activities, family and
friends, may find they are stressed, experience recurring injuries, are unable
to see the consequences of their actions and may not be able to relate to
anyone outside the gym scene.
Many health-enhancing behaviours that a person can incorporate into their
lifestyle fall into each of the dimensions of health.

Table 1.1 Health-enhancing behaviours
Dimension Health-enhancing behaviours

Physical • Consider the Dietary Guidelines for Australians and seek advice on nutrition
• Adhere to the National Guidelines for Physical Activity
• Adhere to the Australian Guidelines to Reduce Health Risks from Drinking Alcohol
• Have regular health checks e.g. pap smears, cholesterol checks
Social • Spend time with family and friends

• Join recreational, sporting and/or leisure groups
• Practice good communication skills such as listening, complementary body language and conflict resolution
• Be a positive thinker
Emotional/ • Learn and adopt a variety of stress management techniques
mental • Recognise positive and negative emotions and respond to them accordingly
• Have strategies in place to cope with anger and disappointment
• Identify people and/or agencies that can help in difficult times
Cognitive/ • Learn and practise effective decision making skills
intellectual • Set goals to work towards
• Regularly challenge yourself
• Stimulate yourself through courses, further study and reading
• Make informed decisions based on factual information and after weighing up the consequences of various choices
Spiritual • Volunteer for community service or charity work • Practise yoga
• Become involved in a church or religious group • Read inspirational books
• Find time for meditating and/or quiet thinking • Take nature walks
Relative and dynamic nature of health

As can be seen from the health definitions and dimensions discussed, health
is not something that remains static. Our health can alter almost daily
according to our circumstances, age, environment and interactions. A person
may rate their health highly on a particular day as they are employed, have a
number of friends, are involved in various social and sporting activities and,
as a result, have a positive self-image and high self-esteem. However, they
may arrive at work one day to discover they have been made redundant. This
can result in a change in economic circumstances, an inability to participate
in social activities due to a lack of funds, which in turn leads to a decrease
in their feelings of self-worth. This person would then rate their health
very differently.
Dynamic characterised by Health is seen as dynamic in nature as it is constantly changing. It is not
energy or effective action,
active, forceful; the opposite something that we achieve and then do not have to worry about any more.
to static. If we were to rate our health on a continuum ranging from extremely good
Figure 1.2
A person’s health is Last week Today
constantly changing
depending upon their
A month ago A year ago
circumstances, age,
environment and
interactions with others EXTREMELY EXTREMELY
POOR GOOD
HEALTH HEALTH

health to extremely poor health, the placement of our rating would move
continually, as we shift from being well to unwell to well again, happy to
unhappy or productive in our work or study to struggling with workplace
demands. Our health will also change, reflecting its dynamic nature, as we
mature, develop, interact with others and take on new life experiences.
Health is also seen as relative, that is, it tends to be defined in relation Relative something that
to something else. We see our health in relation to our previous health, the exists in comparison to
something else; it has some
health of others, our current circumstances and our potential for health. relation to something else.
A 22-year-old professional athlete with a persistent injury may consider
themself unhealthy in relation to their health when they are at peak fitness Potential the possibility of
something occurring, a yet to
and performance. Alternatively, a 70-year-old man who is recovering rapidly be reached capacity.
from major surgery, which has increased his life expectancy, may consider
his health excellent in relation to what it was before the operation. A child in
Iraq may equate health to whether or not they can attend school without being
in constant fear for their life, whereas a child in Australia may see health as
being able to participate in sports and games at school.
Our health may also change in relation to the different contexts we may
find ourselves in. For example, a social runner may rate their health highly
when they are with family and friends but if they join a serious running group
with people who are training for an event, the social runner may rate their
health differently compared to the other people in this context.
We all have a maximum health potential, which changes throughout our
lifetime. Our health potential can be at a high level when all five dimensions
of health are interacting smoothly, however, we may suddenly be subject
to an illness or injury, such as diabetes or chronic back pain. We can still
lead a healthy lifestyle and function well in the circumstances but our
level of health and our health potential has changed in relation to others
and ourselves.
Health is also relative according to the stage of a person’s life. Younger
people may relate their feelings of health and wellbeing to fitness, energy,
wellness or physical strength whereas older people may equate health to
wholeness, an ability to cope and inner strength. Each will rate their level of
health accordingly and this does not mean that one is more or less healthy
than the other is.
Understand and apply

1 Discuss the different definitions of health, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses.
2 Synthesise your understandings of the dimensions of health and write your own definition
of health.
3 Draw up your own continuum of health and place yourself on it, based on how you rate
your health now. Be sure to take into account all five dimensions of health. Do the same for
a week ago, a month ago and a year ago. Compare your ratings with a friend’s and explain
why you placed yourselves where you did.
4 Outline which of the dimensions of health you feel you could improve upon, if any. Propose
realistic strategies that you could employ to include more health-enhancing behaviours in
these areas.

Perceptions of health
When we talk about health and what it means to individuals, it is important
to consider how and why people form their varying views. Through our life
experiences and interacting with others, we gain and use knowledge to form
understandings and beliefs about different things. An individual’s picture of
what health means, how it looks, and what they recognise as good or poor
health can be referred to as their perceptions of health.
Perceptions of their health

A variety of factors shape an individual’s perceptions of health, including
their education, family, culture and personal experiences along with their
values and opinions. Individual perceptions of health are also related to
widely held beliefs or understandings within society. If a particular society
or group has a certain way of seeing, talking and thinking about things, then
these ideas tend to shape the way we perceive the world and ourselves within
that world. It is often difficult to judge one’s own health, as everyone has
different perceptions about what is normal. When asking the questions ‘How
healthy am I?’ and ‘How healthy do other people think I am?’, an individual
needs to take into account a number of factors.
Criteria standards or It is very important to consider who sets the criteria that determine
principles by which something whether an individual is healthy or not. Very often, perceptions of our own
can be judged or decided.
health are based on appearances and physical health measures. An individual
may establish their judgments of individual health on narrow ideals, such as
the idea that someone can only be healthy if they are slim and tanned or tall
and muscular. As an individual moves through life, they tend to become
more informed and gain a wider range of knowledge about what makes
up health, which can then assist them in evaluating how realistic their
perceptions of health are. When making judgments about health, an
individual should also remember the relative nature of health and be
careful in comparing their health to that of others, who may have different
circumstances or contexts.
Table 1.2
Studies have shown that a person’s own perceptions and self-assessment
Self-assessed of their health are good indicators of their actual health and wellbeing, and a
health status of valid predictor of their future health. In the Australian Institute of Health and
young people aged Welfare’s (AIHW) 2007 report, Young Australians: Their health and wellbeing,
15–24 years, sex and
age group, 2004–05 more than 90 per cent of young people rated their health as excellent, very
(per cent) good or good.
Health status 15–17 years 18–24 years 15–24 years

Males Females Males Females Males Females Persons
Excellent or very good 85.1 79.3 64.7 64.1 70.9 68.5 69.7
Good 11.3 15.7 28.0 27.9 22.9 24.4 23.6
Fair or poor 3.6 5.0 7.3 8.0 6.2 7.1 6.7
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Note: parents responded for young people aged 15–17 years.

AIHW analysis of the ABS 2004–05 National Health Survey confidentialised unit record file

Perceptions of the health of others

When an individual makes judgments about their own health based on their
values, attitudes and beliefs, it is easy to use those same measures to judge the
health of others. Generally, one’s perceptions of the health of other people are
based on their experiences when interacting with others. These experiences
can be positive or negative. Individuals will use these experiences to make
comparisons and/or judgments about the health of that group of people. For
example, older people may perceive young people to be lazy, self-centred
and not concerned about their health and may base their perceptions on a
combination of media messages, a possible negative altercation with a young
person and by watching young people in their local community. Based on
these experiences they may have a tendency to generalise about the health of
all young people.
The meanings different people give to health will also be a contributing
factor to their perceptions of whether they believe others to be healthy or not.
A person who equates health to socialising, enjoyment and fun may perceive
someone who works long days and weekends as unhealthy. However, that
person may consider themself healthy, as they are able to work everyday and
provide for their family. Due to stereotyping, many people would perceive
a homeless person as unhealthy, based on our beliefs of the prerequisites
for health. On the other hand, that homeless person may see themself to be
healthy, as they may have removed themself from an abusive situation, their
homelessness may be only temporary and they consider they now have some
control over their life.
An elderly person may evaluate their health based upon the presence or
absence of chronic disease, while someone else may automatically judge them
as unhealthy because they are less able to do the things they could once do.
Children tend to use social measures to judge their health, for example, they
may feel they are healthy when playing with their friends and, therefore,
perceive their parents or other older people as unhealthy because they do not
partake in the same activities.
Mental health is an area where perceptions may skew our judgments
about the health of others. Many people are not well informed about mental
illnesses and there is some stigma associated with them. Someone who does
not have a mental illness and has a lack of understanding about this area may
perceive a person with a mental illness to be very unhealthy. However, if a
person’s mental disorder has been diagnosed and they are taking medication,
that person may well rate themself at the extremely healthy end of the
continuum, as they will be functioning at an optimum level.
Implications of different perceptions of health

We have highlighted how different people have different perceptions of health
and how these perceptions can form the basis of our decisions about whether
or not we, or others, are healthy. A number of implications may arise from Implication what might
these different perceptions of health. A person’s beliefs about health may happen as a result of
influence their perceptions of the costs and/or benefits of engaging in various something else.
health-compromising behaviours. For example, a young person’s perception Stigmatise to disapprove

of parental disapproval about a particular behaviour they are considering may of a person or group because
they are perceived as being
serve as a deterrent to them making a poor health choice.
different; making it clear
Young people can become stigmatised by the behaviour of a minority of that something is socially
youth. This behaviour is reported in the media and informs society’s unacceptable.

perceptions about young people’s health and

wellbeing. Young people may then miss
opportunities that would otherwise be available
to them because of these stereotypical
perceptions.
In addition, we may treat people differently
based on our perceptions of health. For example,
we may automatically assume that a person in a
wheelchair is unhealthy and not involve them
in activities we are planning, as they do not
conform to our perceptions of what it means to
be healthy. We could also miss warnings signs
that someone is depressed, which affects their
health. The person may satisfy society’s general
criteria for being physically healthy but many
people do not perceive health to be made up of
other dimensions.
Figure 1.3
Wheelchair sports Perceptions of health as social constructs
help promote positive As discussed, health is much more than a matter of being sick or well. Our
perceptions of health for perceptions of health are recognised as being based on social constructs,
groups with special needs
that is, formed or put together because of social influences such as culture,
religion, media, education, income, family and friends. The degree to which
A construct is something perceptions of health are socially constructed can be illustrated by looking
that is formed or put together at young people and their health behaviours around cars. Cars and driving
as a result of various ideas or
influences.
are extremely important to young people and can mean independence,
status, credibility and a social avenue. Individuals may decide to engage
in many health-compromising behaviours while driving such as speeding,
Figure 1.4
drink driving, overcrowding, driving without a seat belt, text messaging and
Cars play a role in peer drag racing. While a young driver may realise the health risks associated
approval for young men with these behaviours, many other sociocultural and socioeconomic factors
influence their decision to sometimes take
these risks. These include the value placed on
peer acceptance, approval and connectedness;
the gender messages they receive from society
about expected driving behaviour for males
and females; the role models they see around
them; and the norms and rituals associated with
independence.
The extent to which sociocultural factors play
a role in constructing health perceptions can
vary. Most people are well aware of the dangers
associated with smoking, binge drinking, eating
foods high in fat and speeding while driving but
many still choose these behaviours. This may be
because the other factors influencing their health
behaviours are stronger than the knowledge of
what is ‘good’ for their health. For example, body
image is an important issue for young women.
Some girls smoke as a weight-control measure.
Although they know the health risks associated

with smoking, the sociocultural pressure of body image is a far stronger

influence on their health perceptions and their health behaviours than the fact
that if they smoke they may reduce their life expectancy.
Impact of the media, peers and family

The media, along with a person’s family and peers, can have both positive
and negative impacts upon our perceptions of health. We are subjected
to media messages about health and how to be healthy every day. These
messages emphasise particular ideas or meanings about health, which are not
necessarily accurate. For example, the media very often promotes a slim body
as an ideal for women and a muscular body as an ideal for men. Unrealistic
images of this perceived health norm can be detrimental to an individual’s
beliefs about their health, and many individuals go to damaging lengths to
mimic them. The media can also structure its coverage to support certain
stereotypes about health and the health of subgroups within society, such
as young people. For example, the media often depicts young people as an
unhealthy group highlighting incidents of extreme risk taking, a propensity
to abuse alcohol and other drugs, and a sedentary lifestyle coupled with poor Figure 1.5
Family and friends can
eating habits. If this negative picture of young people is all that is shown
have an impact on our
in the media, eventually young people will believe that they all fit into this perceptions of health
picture, regardless of whether their health behaviours are different to the and on the way we
ones portrayed. The mass media’s perpetuation of negative stereotypes can value health.
damage the self-esteem of young people and possibly lead to
decreased opportunities.
The media can also have a positive impact upon our
perceptions of health. For example, a concerted media campaign
designed to de-stigmatise mental illness has led to greater
awareness and a changed community perception of the health
status of people who suffer from illnesses such as depression,
bipolar disorder and schizophrenia.
Families can have a tremendous impact on an individual’s
perception of health and the meanings they give to health. If a
person’s family perceives physical activity as a healthy pursuit
and a fun way to spend time with friends, then the individual
is more likely to participate in physical activity and value the
health benefits it brings. If a person is surrounded by active
people, they are more likely to be active themself. Conversely,
families who perceive physical activity as boring or difficult tend
to be more sedentary and would judge their health according
to other measures. Families influence the health perceptions
of their members by the values they hold and the lifestyles
they espouse.
A young person’s peer group can also have an impact on
their perception of health concerning health-compromising
behaviours such as binge drinking. If the peer group perceives
binge drinking to be an important part of their social agenda,
those who do not participate may be ostracised from the group
and, therefore, rate their health as poor. Alternatively, the peer
group can view binge drinking as a health risk, which in turn
will affect an individual’s health choices and what they perceive
to be healthy behaviours.


1 Explain why people have different perceptions of health and how these perceptions are
formed.
2 Consider whether the health status of your group of friends would be different from another
group of Year 11 students who may have had different experiences. Justify your answer.
3 Critically analyse whether media images and newspaper stories challenge or reinforce
people’s perceptions of the health of young people.
4 Examine how people’s perceptions of the health of others can influence the way they relate
to them.
5 Discuss how an individual’s perceptions of health may affect their behaviours and wellbeing.
Health behaviours of young people

The media constantly highlights the health status and health behaviours of
young people, provoking much discussion and debate.
The positive health status of young people

In order to discuss the health status of young people, it is important to first
define who young people actually are. According to the Australian Institute
of Health and Welfare (AIHW), young people range from 12 to 24-years-old
and make up 18 per cent of the total Australian population. Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander young people account for less than 1 per cent of young
Australians. Young people in Australia are an eclectic group made up of those
born in Australia, those born overseas, those living in cities, those living in
rural, regional and remote areas, a relatively equal mix of males and females,
Socioeconomic status varying religions, different socioeconomic status (SES) and a diversity of
(SES) individual’s or a family’s family types. Young people certainly are not a homogeneous group and this
income, education, occupation
and standing in the community.
should be considered when exploring their health status.
The authors Strauss and Howe said in 1991, ‘If you believe what you see
Homogenous alike and read, you would think our schools are full of kids who can’t read in
or all the same.
the classroom, shoot one another in the hallways, spend their loose change
on tongue rings, and couldn’t care less who runs the country’. This is an
interesting quote, as it refers to the broad generalisations that are very often
made about young people in society. Commonly, the media and other groups
of people like to clump all young people into one group and make statements
about their health and wellbeing. More often than not, these statements
highlight negative features or behaviours and would have you believe that all
young people act, feel, relate and behave in this manner. For example, articles
about illicit drug use often imply that all young people are using drugs, stories
about teenage pregnancy would have you believe that all young people are
engaging in unprotected sex, and stories about the ‘obesity epidemic’ suggest
that all young people lead a sedentary lifestyle and have poor nutritional
habits. Are these accurate societal perceptions or is there another side to the
story of the health status of young people?
According to recent studies into the health and wellbeing of young people,
there is a lot of good news regarding their health status.

The AIHW’s 2007 report, Young Australians: Their health and wellbeing,
gives the key message that most young Australians’ health and wellbeing is
faring quite well. While the report emphasises some areas for concern, the
overall health status of young Australians is positive and many young people
are engaging in health-enhancing behaviours. This is highlighted by the
following findings:
Over 90 per cent of young people rate their health as excellent, very good
or good.
The life expectancy of young Australians has improved.
Mortality rates have halved since the late 1980s. Mortality rates death rates.
Mortality rates for motor vehicle accidents and suicide have decreased.
The rate of melanoma has decreased. Melanoma a malignant
Asthma prevalence rates have declined and the number of asthma cancer of the skin. Melanoma
is the fourth most common
hospitalisations have halved since the 1990s. cancer.
The incidence of vaccine-preventable illness such as measles, rubella and
meningococcal disease is low.
There has been a decline in the notification rates for communicable
diseases such as Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B and HIV. HIV Human Immunodeficiency
A large number of young people are free of tooth decay. Virus.
Most young people live in two-parent families.

Most Year 7 students meet the benchmarks for literacy and numeracy.
Figure 1.6 Trends in injury and poisoning deaths for young people aged 12–24 years, 1985–2004
90 Notes
Deaths per 100,000 young people
Male 1 Age-standardised
80
Female to the Australian
70 population as at 30 June
2001.
60
2 Includes deaths
50 registered during 2004
for which an ‘external
40
cause’ was coded as
30 the underlying cause
of death (ICD-9 codes
20
E800–E999 and ICD-10
10 codes V01–Y98).
0
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Year
AIHW National Mortality Database

Figure 1.7 Death rates for young people aged 12–24 years 1980–2004
140
Male Note: age-standardised
Deaths per 100,000 young people
120 Female to the young Australian

population as at 30 June
Persons
100 2001.v
80
60
40
20
0
1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Year

Figure 1.8 Asthma hospital separation rates for young people aged 12–24 years, 1996–97 to 2004–05
350
Hospital separations per 100,000 young people

Notes
1 Age-standardised Male
to the Australian 300
population as at Female
30 June 2001.
250
2 ICD-9-CM code
493 (1996–97 to
1997–98) and 200
ICD-10-AM codes
J45 & J46 (1998–99
to 2004–05). 150
100
50
0
1996–97 1997–98 1998–99 1999–00 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05
Year

Other major studies also point towards the many positive aspects of
the health status of young people. The NSW Schools Physical Activity and
Nutrition Survey 2004 (SPANS) found that almost three quarters of the
boys and girls in the survey met the recommendation of at least one hour of
moderate to vigorous physical activity daily, and that physical activity levels
Figure 1.9 had increased for both males and females since the last similar survey. They
Proportion of students also found that the performance of fundamental movement skills such as
spending at least an hour
running, throwing, catching, jumping and kicking had improved markedly.
a day on moderate to
vigorous activity, Research indicates that young people who have better fundamental movement
by gender and school year skills are more likely to be more active, fitter and have better self-esteem than
(summer) for 1997 and 2004 those who have poor skills in these areas.
100 Year 8 boys

Year 8 girls
Prevalence of 1 hour/day of MVPA
Year 10 boys
80
Year 10 girls
60
40
20
0
1997 2004
Year
NSW Centre for Overweight and

Obesity (2006). NSW Schools Data from the Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) shows a decline in road
Physical activity and Nutrition
Survey (SPANS) 2004: Short Report, deaths across the population and in particular for young people. The national
Sydney, road toll in 2008 was 395, which is the lowest since 1944 despite Australia
having twice the population, eleven times as many drivers and fifteen times
more vehicles on the road.

Figure 1.10
900 Road traffic injuries
0 to 18 per 100 000 population,
Injuries per 100 000 population

800
All ages 0–18-year-olds, all ages,
700
1976–2007
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008
Year
Figure 1.11
30 Road traffic fatalities
0 to 18
Fatalities per 100 000 population
per 100 000 population

All ages
25 0–18-year-olds, all ages
1976–2008
20
15
10
0
1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008
Year
Figure 1.12
Road-related deaths
600 2002–2007
Total road deaths
Speed related deaths
500
Speed related crashes
involving young drivers
400
or riders
300
200
100
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Year
NSW Centre for Road Safety
The 2007 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (conducted by AIHW

every three years) looks at the use of non-illicit and illicit drugs across the
Australian population. A comparison of the use of these drugs from survey
results since 1998 shows a decline in the use of almost all categories of drugs.
In particular, there has been a decrease in the number of females and males
in the 14–19 year age group who report recently using cannabis. Information
about the age of initiation for tobacco and alcohol use varies depending on the
source, but generally appears to be at about 14 years for both drugs.

Figure 1.13
100
Recent use of cannabis: 1995
males 1995 to 2007 90 1998
2001
80 2004
2007
70
60
Percentage
50
40
30
20
10
0
14–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60+
Age
Figure 1.14
100
Recent use of cannabis: 1995
90 1998
females 1995 to 2007 2001
80 2004
2007
70
60
Percentage
50
40
30
20
10
0
14–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60+
Age
2007 National Drug Strategy Household Survey
Table 1.3 National Drug Strategy Household Survey 1998—2007, summary of drug use:
proportion of the population aged 14 and over
Lifetime Use Recent Use*

Drug
1998 2001 2004 2007 1998 2001 2004 2007
Tobacco 50.8 49.4 47.4 44.6 24.9 23.2 20.7 19.4
Alcohol 86.9 90.4 90.7 89.9 80.7 82.4 83.6 82.9
Cannabis 39.1 33.6 33.6 33.5 17.9 12.9 11.3 9.1
Inhalants 3.9 2.6 2.5 3.1 0.9 0.4 0.4 0.4
Heroin 2.2 1.6 1.4 1.6 0.8 0.2 0.2 0.2
Methamphetamine 8.8 8.9 9.1 6.3 3.7 3.4 3.2 2.3
Cocaine 4.3 4.4 4.7 5.9 1.4 1.3 1.0 1.6
Hallucinogens 9.9 7.6 7.5 6.7 3.0 1.1 0.7 0.6
Ecstasy 4.8 6.1 7.5 8.9 2.4 2.9 3.4 3.5
* Recent use means used in the last 12 months.

* For tobacco and alcohol recent use means daily, weekly

These surveys tend to report on the amount of people who have used
drugs, which means looking at drug usage from a deficit model. If we are
to focus on the positive health status of young people and break down the
common perception that all adolescents use drugs, it is a valuable exercise
to view the statistics from a non-usage perspective.
Figure 1.15
100 Recent non-use of all drugs:
90 14 years and over
80
70
Percentage
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Cocaine Heroin Ecstasy Hallucin- Meth/amp- Inhalants Cannabis Tobacco Alcohol
ogens hetamine
2007 National Drug Strategy Household Survey
Regarding sexual health, the 2008 National Survey of Secondary Students

and Sexual Health reports that young people have high levels of confidence
when talking to their parents about sex and sexual health-related matters.
A large percentage of students surveyed have sought information from a
variety of sources in relation to sexual health and there has been a marked
improvement since the previous similar survey in 2002 in the knowledge
levels of young people around sexually transmitted infections. Of those
students surveyed who are sexually active, 69 per cent reported using a
condom the last time they had sexual intercourse and half of the sexually
active students reported always using a condom.
This data, from a variety of sources, serves to provide a pleasing and Figure 1.16
Recent surveys suggest
positive picture of the health status of young people and certainly challenges
that a large percentage of
some of the widely held societal perceptions, which are often sensationalised young people are confident
by the media. However, while not losing sight of the positives, it is important and well-informed about
to acknowledge that there are still areas of concern about the health status sexual health matters.
of young people. Identifying ways to
achieve further gains in adolescent
health and wellbeing is very important.
In particular, there are a number of
inequities between the health status of
young Indigenous Australians, youth
from low SES backgrounds and young
people living in rural and remote areas,
when compared with the health of other
young people throughout Australia. We
will discuss other areas of concern later
in this chapter, in relation to protective
and risk behaviours.


1 According to the information provided on the previous pages, there appears to be many
positive trends relating to the health status of young people. Explain why you think the
picture that many people have of the health of young people is different to this.
2 Outline the benefits of presenting statistics about young people and drug usage from the
point of view of how many people have not used particular drugs as opposed to how many
people have taken a particular drug.
Protective behaviours and risk behaviours

Adolescence is an important stage of development not just physically but
also socially and emotionally. It is a period when young people begin to form
their values and attitudes and is a critical time for the development of health
Modifiable able to be behaviours. Health behaviours are modifiable actions taken by a young person
changed or altered. that have the potential to enhance or compromise their health. Studies have
shown that the health patterns young people develop in their adolescent years
will often continue into adulthood. These health behaviours are an important
determinant of both current and future health status. As our health-related
behaviours affect our short and long-term health, adolescence is the perfect
Reinforce to strengthen. time to establish and reinforce positive health and social behaviours.
Protective behaviours are those actions a young person engages in that
support good health, for example regular physical activity, not smoking,
being actively involved in leisure and community activities, having a range of
friends and having people to talk to when feeling anxious or sad. Protective
behaviours also include skills such as effective communication, decision
making and conflict resolution. Most protective behaviours need to be learned,
developed and practised and, often, may not be the most popular or easiest
choice, particularly when a young person is interacting with their peer group.
Risk behaviours are those that a young person engages in that may
Detrimental damaging or be detrimental to their health, for example speeding, having unsafe sex,
making something worse. excessive dieting, substance use, deliberate self-harm or binge drinking.
Everything we do has a degree of risk associated with it, however, for young
people, engaging in high risk behaviours may seem part of growing up and
establishing their sense of identity. They may be prompted by a need to
connect with other people, to push boundaries, to influence others or to fit
in with their peers.
A young person’s perception of what is and is not risky behaviour may be
clouded and may differ from what an older person believes is risky. Current
research around brain development indicates that a person’s brain may not be
fully developed until they reach their early to mid-20s. The front parts of the
brain, which control judgment and caution, are shown to be the last to develop.
Therefore, a young person may not be aware of the potential risks of a situation
and may not consider the resulting consequences of a particular behaviour.
This, coupled with inexperience and possible peer pressure, can mean that
young people may engage in much more high-risk behaviour than other people
do. A further issue related to the health behaviours of young people is that they
tend to engage in a number of risky behaviours at the same time and this can
increase the risk, along with any negative consequences. For example, young

people who choose to binge drink may then put themselves in danger from
other risk behaviours, such as engaging in unprotected sexual activity, being a
passenger or driver in a vehicle while under the influence of drugs or alcohol
or becoming involved in a violent altercation.
Not all risk behaviours are harmful and there are both positive and
negative outcomes of risk taking. Adolescence is a time of opportunity,
creativity and learning. Taking risks can result in a person learning about
themself and others, developing skills such as conflict resolution and problem
solving and, perhaps, finding a flair or ability for something. However, it
all depends on what type of risk behaviours a person is involved in. There
is a difference between the controlled risks of playing extreme sports
or challenging yourself to do something you have not done before and
uncontrolled risks such as train surfing, drug use or drink driving.
A young person’s practice of protective and risk behaviours tends to occur
in key contexts, and these may influence the type of behaviour a person Context the circumstances
engages in and the degree of risk associated with it. For example, in the surrounding a particular
situation, the setting in which
school and home environment protective behaviours are often taught and
something occurs.
modelled and there is more opportunity to participate in safe and controlled
risk taking. However, a young person’s peer group may discourage certain
protective behaviours and encourage risk taking in various forms; this means
the degree of risk is increased, as the safety of the situation may be decreased.
For young people to stay safe and healthy, while at the same time enjoying
new experiences and taking on challenges and adventures, it is important to be
able to recognise risk behaviours associated with health issues relevant to them.
Once these behaviours are recognised, a young person can then reduce the
potential for harm around these health issues by developing a suite of protective
behaviours that allow them to plan for the safety of themselves and others; to
seek help if required and, in doing so, enhance their health and wellbeing.
A number of health issues are relevant to young people and it is
worthwhile to explore the protective and risk behaviours that are associated
with these. Some of these health issues are more significant to some groups
than others. Many protective factors are protective for general health and
wellbeing and can be employed in a variety of situations, while others are
specific to a particular health issue.
Mental health
As discussed earlier in this chapter, one of the dimensions of health is our
emotional or mental health, which refers to the way we think, act and feel,
and to our ability to cope with challenges. While many young people rate
their health highly, recent studies indicate that just over 25 per cent of young
people, aged 18 to 24 have been diagnosed with a mental disorder. Mental
disorders are the leading contributor to the burden of disease for young
people, with anxiety and depression being the most common problems.
Mental disorders can affect almost every aspect of a young person’s
life and, if untreated, can be a risk factor for self-harm and suicide. While
many young people experience mental disorders, very few seek help and,
therefore, they may suffer unnecessarily. Diagnosis, treatment and appropriate
management can greatly reduce a person’s suffering and allow them to
increase their level of health and wellbeing. Life is a rollercoaster for young
people and having a broad repertoire of skills and strategies to help deal with
all the things life throws in their direction can be extremely empowering.

Table 1.4 Protective and risk behaviours for mental health
Protective behaviours Risk behaviours
• Acknowledging that ordinary people can suffer from mental • Blocking feelings and emotions
health issues and that everyone is different • Believing that mental problems are a sign of weakness
• Understanding the mental health issues can be treated • Believing that you can solve all your problems yourself
and managed
• Thinking you are the only person in this situation and that
• Being able to put things in perspective others will not understand
• Making connections with a supportive and caring adult in • Not seeking help from friends, family or qualified
your life e.g. teacher, coach, church leader professionals
• Learning and practising stress management skills • Catastrophising
• Regularly expressing feelings through keeping a journal or • Overgeneralising
blog, talking to someone or writing a letter
• Self-harming
• Knowing where you can go for help e.g. the internet, youth
centres, school counsellor • Taking drugs
• Developing social networks with a variety of people • Binge drinking
• Participating in community, volunteer or service activities • Isolating yourself and not being involved in social events
or activities
• Taking some time out
• Seeking out opportunities to engage in high risk and
• Avoiding the use of drugs and alcohol unsafe activities
• Exercising and eating well
• Developing and practising coping skills such as goal setting,
problem solving and assertive behaviour
• Knowing it is okay to say ‘no’ sometimes
• Having a positive family environment

1 A protective behaviour for mental health is being involved in community, volunteer or
service activities. Visit the ActNow website at <www.actnow.com.au> and explore some
of the ways this site can assist you to become more community minded.
a Go to Health >Actions. Select two of the action topics (such as Body Image Action and
Depression Awareness Action) and as a class, choose one of the actions they suggest
e.g. writing letters to your member of parliament about different issues or holding a
seminar at school to undertake as an activity.
b Go to My Community >Organisations >Centre for Volunteering. Investigate the Student
Community Involvement Program that this organisation runs to discover ways your class
can get involved in your local community.
c In a small class group, select an issue you feel strongly about and contribute an opinion,
story, interview, blog comment or discussion post to the ActNow site.
2 Investigate what services are available to young people in your local community to assist
them with a mental health issue or concern. Using this information, compile a directory
that could possibly be included in your school diary. Include the name of the organisation,
contact details and a short summary of the services they offer. Do not forget to include
internet sites as well as physical organisations.

Food habits
Waistlines are increasing in Australia society and the results of SPANS
support this with the finding that 25 per cent of young people are overweight
or obese. Other findings from the survey showed that a large proportion of
young people exhibit poor eating habits.
Less than a quarter of young people eat the recommended amount of
vegetables per day (4 serves).
55 per cent of boys and 4 per cent of girls drink more than one glass
of soft drink per day.
Less than a quarter of young people drink low fat milk.
80 per cent of young people eat at fast-food outlets at least once a week.
Many young people skip breakfast.
Around 30 per cent of young people eat their evening meal in front of
the television.
Being overweight or obese can have a significant impact on the lives Figure 1.17
of young people. It can seriously affect their self-esteem and may subject The Australian Guide
them to bullying and negative stereotypes. Poor eating habits, which lead to to Healthy Eating
being overweight or obese, can
increase the likelihood that a
young person will suffer from
asthma, diabetes, high blood
pressure, high cholesterol, fatty
liver disease and a range of other
social, emotional and physical
problems in both the short and
long term. The incidence of type
2 diabetes, which was normally
associated with older people,
is increasing among young
people. Poor eating habits are
also associated with being under
weight and disordered eating in
young people, and these factors
can also lead to health problems.
Many factors influence a
young person’s food habits
and these will be discussed in
chapter 2, however, the following
table identifies some common
risk behaviours associated with
food habits and some protective
behaviours that can be put in
place.

Table 1.5 Protective and risk behaviours associated with food habits
• Enjoying foods without overindulging • Overindulging in foods e.g. having large

• Seeking out good information about food through magazines, the internet, helpings and going back for seconds or thirds
health clubs and your local doctor • Drinking soft drinks, energy drinks and sports
• Eating a variety of foods in accordance with the Dietary Guidelines for drinks that are high in sugar on a regular basis
Children and Adolescents and the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating • Skipping meals and then snacking on foods that
• Making plans to eat more healthily are high in fat, salt and sugar
• Establishing healthy routines, such as getting up a bit earlier to allow you • Not being informed about the nutritional value
to eat breakfast or preparing healthy snacks to keep in the fridge of foods
• Bringing lunch from home rather than buying it every day • Eating meals in front of the television or
computer
• Being proactive in your school by organising a group to survey students and
give suggestions to the canteen as to what healthy foods you would like to • Not eating breakfast
see on the menu • Regularly eating at fast-food outlets
• Experimenting with fruit and vegetables to find some you enjoy • Rarely eating fruit and vegetables
• Not being too strict on yourself in relation to foods—it is okay to have • Always buying lunch and recess snacks from
chocolates or chips sometimes the school canteen
• Talking to other people about their food habits • Getting in the habit of coming home from
• Drinking plenty of water school, sitting in front of the computer or
television and snacking on high-fat foods
• Learning to read food labels
• Not being aware of what is in processed foods
• Talking to your parents about family meals, offering suggestions for health
i.e. not reading food labels
choices, going on food shopping trips and helping in preparing family meals
• Asking to eat meals as a family around the table a few times a week rather
than sitting in front of the television
Physical activity
Many young people are involved in physical activity and although the general
trend is towards an increase in physical activity levels, there are still concerns
in this area. The Australian Physical Activity Recommendations for Children
and Young People state that all young people should be involved in at least
60 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity per day. While a high
percentage of young people meet this recommendation, activity levels tend to
decline with age. Other issues relating to physical activity include that more
boys are physically active than girls, that younger students tend to be more
active than older students, all young people are more active in the summer
months of the year, and young people who live in rural areas tend to be more
active than those who live in urban areas.
The amount of time spent in sedentary activities is also of concern. The
Australian Government recommends that students should not spend more
than two hours a day using electronic entertainment such as television,
computers and hand-held games. However, the SPANS found a high
proportion of boys and girls spending much more time than this engaged
in these non-active pursuits. Less young people are using active means of
transport to get to school and to get around on the weekends than in the past.
It is more common for young people to be driven to school and other activities
or to take public transport than to walk or ride a bike. While there are many
reasons for this trend, it means that a potential avenue for physical activity is
not often used.

There are many short and long-term benefits associated with physical
activity, such as the development of social skills and social networks through
team sports, the increased likelihood of healthy blood-pressure levels, low
cholesterol and low insulin levels, building stronger bones, maintaining a
healthy weight range and increasing self-esteem. Putting in place protective
factors around physical activity can assist in gaining these and other benefits.
Table 1.6 Protective and risk behaviours for physical activity
• Becoming involved in a team sport • Spending increasing amounts of time in sedentary

• Limiting the amount of time spent on small-screen activities activities
• Walking or riding to school or getting off the bus a few stops earlier and • Always using cars and public transport rather than
walking part of the way walking or riding
• Finding a sport or physical activity that really suits you—it may be an • Finding excuses to skip physical education classes
individual or team activity • Being in a group that encourage physical inactivity
• Planning for physical activity and looking for ways to be physically active • Believing you are not able to change your skill
in everyday life e.g. walking the dog, riding your bike, parking further level in relation to physical activity
away from the shops • Spending large amounts of time working or
• Organising a group at school to talk to teachers about your physical studying and not balancing this with some form of
education uniform (if you are reluctant to participant in physical activity physical activity
because of the clothes you have to wear, maybe you can lobby for the • Using drugs or alcohol
uniform to be changed)
• Not eating a healthy diet
• Encouraging your friends to be involved in some form of sport or physical
• Not being aware of the opportunities available for
activity as a group
physical activity in your school or local area
• Going to a workshop to assist in developing skills in a particular sport or
• Not having suitable clothing to participate in
activity
physical activity
• Having a healthy, balanced diet
• Seeing physical activity as an inconvenience not as
• Seeing physical activity as a form of stress release an opportunity
• Making a list of what you perceive to be the personal benefits of being
involved in physical activity
• Looking for opportunities to be physically active

1 Discuss why statistics show that young women are less physically active than young men are.
2 Account for the decline in physical activity levels as people get older.
Body image
Body image is a person’s attitude towards their body—how they see themself,
how they think and feel about the way they look and how they believe others
perceive them. Many young people identify body image as a concern; and a
range of things, such as a person’s attitudes and beliefs as well as the media,
our peers and society, can influence their thoughts. A young person’s body
image can have a huge impact on their health and wellbeing. Poor body image
can affect self-esteem and a young person’s social adjustment.

Research into body image among young people shows a growing trend
towards a more distorted and negative perception of the body and, as a result,
a large degree of dissatisfaction with their body. This generally manifests
itself in a desire among young women and men to be slimmer, and a desire
for a more muscular body shape in young men. A distorted body image and
body dissatisfaction can lead to many damaging behaviours and may also lead
to disordered eating patterns such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa.
Young people need a great deal of encouragement and support around issues
relating to body image due to the pervasive nature of the media in putting
forward unrealistic stereotypes.
Table 1.7 Protective and risk behaviours for body image
• Looking for ways to develop positive self-esteem e.g. working hard at • Participating in ‘yoyo’ or fad dieting or fasting
school, finding activities you are good at, surrounding yourself with • Excessively exercising or lifting weights
positive friends
• Using steroids
• Using media literacy to help deconstruct stereotypical images of a
• Following disordered eating patterns
‘normal’ body
• Constantly comparing yourself and your body to
• Developing coping skills such as good communication, conflict resolution
media images, models and movie stars
and problem solving
• Not having a range of friends and activities to be
• Making connections with a positive, caring adult
involved in
• Being aware of and using relaxation and stress management techniques
• Believing that there are ‘good’ and ‘bad’ foods
• Being proud of yourself and your achievements
• Believing that having a different body will make
• Having a good support network you happier
• Knowing that it is okay to eat a balanced diet that includes all foods, • Feeling guilty about what you eat
some in moderation
• Not critically analysing media messages about
• Wearing the right clothes for your body shape what is a ‘normal’ body
• Being involved with different groups of friends who have similar interests • Having no one to talk to about problems,
and who encourage you concerns or issues
• Knowing where you can seek help or advice about problems and concerns • Feeling ‘out of control’ in relation to your body
to do with your body
• Using drugs or alcohol
• Celebrating diversity

1
Visit the Dove ‘Campaign for Real Beauty’ at <www.campaignforrealbeauty.com.au/dove-
self-esteem-fund> and view the advertisements Evolution and Onslaught.
a Assess the impact you believe these advertisements may have on a young person’s
perceptions of body image.
b Discuss what media literacy skills these advertisements are advocating.
c Propose other ways that young people can be informed about the unrealistic messages
the media portrays about body image.
2 Debate the following statement: ‘You cannot believe everything you see in the media’.

Drug use
Adolescence is a time when young people may choose to experiment with
drug use and, even though large numbers of young people do not use or abuse
drugs, there are some areas of concern. The earlier young people are initiated
into the use of drugs such as tobacco, alcohol and illicit drugs, the more likely
they are to continue to use these substances and develop problems that may
affect their future health.
The AIHW’s most recent findings around young people and tobacco use
show that while there has been a steady decrease in the amount of smokers
between 12–24 years of age, 17 per cent of young people are smokers and, of
this figure, there are slightly more female smokers than males. This may be
connected with issues around body image and the perception that smoking
supresses the appetite.
The use of illicit drugs is decreasing for young people, in all areas
except for ecstasy use. While the percentage of young people using ecstasy
is still less than 10 per cent of 16–19-year-olds, it is still important for young
people to be aware of the associated risks and for them to put in place
protective behaviours to ensure they make health-enhancing decisions
around illicit drugs.
Table 1.8 Protective and risk behaviours for drug use
• Hanging out with people who have common interests that • Binge drinking Binge drinking the act of
do not involve substance use • Drink driving or getting into a drinking heavily over a short
period or drinking continuously
• Joining a sporting team or recreation group car with someone who is under
over a number of days or
• Practising positive peer pressure e.g. challenging people the influence of alcohol or other weeks. People who binge drink
not to drink or take drugs, and getting involved in drugs tend to drink with the sole
alternative activities • Mixing drugs and alcohol purpose of getting drunk.
• Trying to cultivate other interests that are not related to • Accepting drugs from an
drug taking unknown source
• Practising positive stress management and relaxation • Using drugs alone
techniques • Having limited interests
• Having a range of skills to seek help • Being aggressive towards
• Being able to talk to other people others when under the influence
• Practising peer refusal skills of alcohol or other drugs
• Having a plan before you go out, to avoid risky situations • Drink spiking
that involve drugs or alcohol e.g. how to get home: money • Having minimal coping skills
for a cab, contract with parents to pick you up • Not knowing where to seek
• Practising harm-management strategies if you do intend help
to drink e.g. spacing drinks, avoiding shouts, drinking non- • Using alcohol or other drugs to
alcoholic or low-alcohol drinks mask a problem or concern
• Avoiding drinking games • Underage drinking
• Practising assertive responses to peer pressure • Getting involved in drinking
• Having a positive family environment games Drink walking walking
whilst drunk. Drink walkers are
• Knowing first aid and what to do in an emergency situation • Having no social support
likely to stagger onto the road,
involving drugs or alcohol networks not use pedestrian crossings
• Not taking drugs or drinking alcohol alone • Drink walking and may fall asleep or lie down
on the road. These factors
• Learning how to manage anger in a positive manner
increase their risk of being hit
• Having connections with a caring adult by cars, and seriously injured
or killed.

Some young people drink alcohol in amounts that put them at risk of
alcohol-related short-term harm. The immediate effects of alcohol combined
with the tendency of adolescents to engage in a range of risk-taking behaviours
greatly increases the risk of serious injury or death. Young people are the group
most at risk of alcohol-related harm such as motor vehicle accidents, physical
and sexual assaults, falls, drowning and suicide. Alcohol harm is not limited
to the young person but also affects their peers, families and bystanders. The
National Health Medical Research Council’s Australian Guidelines to Reduce
Health Risks from Drinking Alcohol 2009 recommends that the safest option
for children and young people less than 18 years of age is not to drink alcohol
at all. They suggest that children under 15 years are at the greatest risk of harm
from drinking and that not drinking alcohol at all in this age group is very
important. For young people aged 15–17 years, they suggest that delaying the
initiation of drinking as long as possible is safest. To view all the Guidelines
visit <www.nhmrc.gov.au/your_health/healthy/alcohol>.
Sexual health
Sexual health is an important issue for young people but frequently this
issue is not given the attention it requires due to its sensitive nature. Sexual
health can be a confusing issue for young people and often they do no not
know where to turn to for advice. Inadequate sexual health information can
result in poor overall health outcomes for young people. It is important that
young people feel comfortable with their sexuality and, when they do receive
information on sexual health, it needs to be relevant, engaging, culturally and
gender specific and from a trustworthy source.
According to the 2008 Secondary Students and Sexual Health Survey the
majority of young people (78 per cent), in Years 10 and 12 have participated
in some form of sexual activity ranging from deep kissing through to
sexual intercourse. The proportion of students who have experienced
sexual intercourse has increased markedly in the six years since the previous
survey in 2002, along with an increase in the number of sexual partners.
The percentage of young people having oral sex has also increased, with
a number of the students surveyed reporting having oral sex with three or
more people in the past year. Of those students who are sexually active, it is
concerning to note that just under a third of them had experienced unwanted
sex at some time, generally due to being drunk or being put under pressure
by their sexual partner. The number of young women experiencing
unwanted sex has increased by 10 percent since the 2002 survey. A number
of sexually active young people state that they were drunk or high during
their most recent sexual encounter. A small percentage of young people
report being same-sex attracted, which can put them at risk of marginalisation
and depression.
While young people are using condoms during sexual intercourse, they
are mainly doing so to prevent pregnancy rather than to protect themselves
from sexually transmitted infections (STI). Knowledge about HIV/AIDS
Chlamydia is a sexually
transmitted bacterial infection,
and other STIs has improved since 2002 but is still quite low, which certainly
which can affect the penis, can have an impact on health behaviours and health status. Chlamydia is
cervix, fallopian tubes, anus, the most commonly reported STI and notification rates of this disease
and throat; it can cause serious
have doubled since 2001.This could be partly due to increased awareness
health problems, such as pelvic
inflammatory disease and and testing, but the increase also relates to some young people engaging
infertility, if left untreated. in unprotected sex and having multiple sexual partners. Many young

1,000 Notes
Notifications per 100,000 young people

Male 1 Age-standardised
900 to the Australian
Female
800 population as at
30 June 2001.
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Year
National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System Figure 1.18

Chlamydia notification
people report that they are not aware that Chlamydia can cause infertility. rates for young people aged
Knowledge about Human Papillomavirus (HPV) and cervical cancer among 12–24 years, 1995–2005
the surveyed students was generally poor.
Males are more likely than females to have
multiple partners and to use condoms. These
health behaviours could be influenced by
societal double standards regarding sexual
activity for males compared to females.
Girls may feel they will be labelled ‘easy’ if
they carry and suggest the use of condoms
and may think that it is alright for a boy to
have a number of sexual partners but not
for a girl. Of concern is the finding that
one in ten sexually active young people
used the withdrawal method as a means of
contraception in their last sexual encounter.
Young people are the most common users of
the morning after pill at Australian family
planning clinics.
Sexual health should incorporate breast
checks, pap smears, testicular checks and
regular sexual health checks if a young person
is sexually active. The Penrith Panthers rugby
league team have recently teamed up with
Family Planning NSW to inform young men
about the importance of testicular checks with
the slogan ‘Penrith Panthers know the feel of
their balls—do you?’
Michael Jennings, NSW Origin representative. Figure 1.19

Posters created to promote the importance of Regular testicular checks
testicular self-examination among young men
as part of looking after their reproductive and are part of maintaining
sexual health. Developed by Penrith Panthers sexual health.
<penrithpanthers.com.au>, Andrology Australia
<andrologyaustralia.org> and Family Planning NSW
<fpnsw.org.au>

Table 1.9 Protective and risk behaviours for sexual health
• Abstaining from or delaying sexual intercourse • Early initiation of sexual activity

• Practising safe sex, if sexually active • Having unprotected sexual
• Having well-developed communication skills and strategies intercourse
• Regularly doing a breast self examination (BSE) • Having sexual intercourse when
drunk or high
• Regularly doing testicular checks
• Having sexual intercourse when
• Having the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination to protect against cervical cancer
pressured to do so
• Getting regular pap smears if you become sexually active
• Coercing someone into having
• Getting regular sexual health checks if you become sexually active sexual intercourse
• Being well informed about STIs and various methods of contraception • Not being informed about STIs
• Learning and practising being assertive in different situations • Feeling confused about your
• Looking out for your friends if they are drunk or high sexuality but not talking to anyone
• Researching where to seek advice, help and support regarding sexual health about it
• Having respect for others • Avoiding regular health checks
and tests, particularly if sexually
• Having good social and communication skills
active
• Practising how to negotiate safety
• Delaying the initiation of sexual activity
• Having connections with, and being able to talk to, a caring adult
Road safety
Wheels user this term Road safety, incorporating driver, passenger, pedestrian and wheels user
incorporates bicycle riders, safety, is an important health issue for young people. Injury is still the
skateboarders, roller-bladers
and roller-skaters.
leading cause of morbidity and mortality for young people and, while there
has been a decline in overall road deaths in Australia, young people (males
Morbidity rates illness and in particular) remain overrepresented in traffic accident statistics. This is
injury rates in a population.
concerning particularly as they are only a small proportion of the population
who hold a driver’s licence. Some of the factors influencing these statistics for
young people include:
greater levels of independence
inexperience with new situations, which may require new skills
overconfidence and a sense of impunity (‘it won’t happen to me’ attitude),
which results in higher levels of risk taking
the stage of brain development during adolescence means that hazard
perception and decision-making skills are not fully developed
the influence of peers
experimentation with alcohol and other drugs
busy lifestyles, which means that young people may be tired or distracted.
Road safety around cars is an integral component of investigating
protective and risk behaviours for young people. Getting a driver’s licence and
being able to either drive themself or travel with friends who can drive is an
important marker of adulthood. Driving brings opportunities, freedom and
status but, at the same time, can bring increased risk. Statistics from the NSW
Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) show that a 17-year-old driver is four times
more likely to be involved in a fatal crash than someone who is aged 26 years
or older. Statistics also show that young people are more likely to be involved
in motor vehicle accidents when driving at night and that the likelihood

of being involved in a fatal crash increases when there are two or more
passengers in a young person’s car. Speeding is the main cause of road crashes
in NSW but other high-risk behaviours that contribute significantly are driver
fatigue, drink driving and not wearing seat belts.
Recent initiatives by the NSW government to improve the safety of young
drivers include:
The graduated licensing scheme introduced in 2000, specifically to
improve training and licensing arrangements for new drivers.
Zero tolerance for P1 drivers for speeding offences.
P2 drivers caught speeding from 1 kilometre per hour to 30 kilometres per
hour over the limit will lose an additional demerit point from July 2009,
which means they will lose their licence for a second speeding offence.
Zero alcohol Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) levels for L- and P-plate
drivers.
A ban on P-plate licence holders driving high performance vehicles.
This scheme aims to prohibit young driver access to vehicles that are
overrepresented in young driver crashes.
The P1 Peer Passenger Condition, which means that P1 drivers under the
age of 25 must not drive a vehicle with more than one passenger under
21 years old between 11 pm and 5 am. A one-passenger condition also
applies to any provisional (P1 and P2) driver who has been disqualified for
Figure 1.20
a driving offence. After the disqualification period, the licence holder can
A protective behaviour for
only carry one passenger at all times while driving, for a 12-month period. young drivers is minimising
No mobile phone (even hands free) use by learner and P1 drivers and the distractions in and
provisional riders. around the car when driving

Other areas relating to road safety and young people are passenger safety,
pedestrian safety and safety while riding bikes or skateboards. There is a
range of protective behaviours that young people can put in place to reduce
their risk of injury when involved in these activities. These have been
included in the table below.
Table 1.10 Protective and risk behaviours for road safety
• Being assertive to safeguard your own and others’ safety, • Having a sense of invulnerability or impunity—
especially in cars an ‘it won’t happen to me’ attitude
• Not assuming ‘it won’t happen to me’ • Driving with a BAC above the legal limit
• Not drinking and driving • Driving under the influence of other drugs
• Organising a designated driver who will not be using any alcohol • Drink walking
or other drugs • Talking on a mobile phone while driving
• Arranging to be picked up after a party or function • Sending and reading text messages while driving
• Using public transport or a taxi if under the influence of alcohol • Driving with lots of passengers in the car
or other drugs
• Having loud music in the car when driving
• Arranging to stay overnight rather than drive if you plan to drink
at a function • Changing the CD or song on your mp3 player while
driving
• Using the graduated licence scheme to your advantage
e.g. encourage your instructor to give you lots of hours driving • Speeding
experience in lots of different environments • Driving while sleep deprived
• Planning long trips to include rest stops and using the stop, revive, • Driving long distances without a break
survive centres and designated rest areas on NSW roads • Not using a seat belt
• Not driving at times when you would normally be asleep • Overcrowding your car or putting people into the boot
• Sharing the driving whenever possible • Driving at night
• Wearing seat belts • Not crossing the road at traffic lights or pedestrian
• Wearing helmets and protective clothing when riding motorcycles crossings
• Obeying road rules including different speed signs and warning • Cycling without a helmet
signs • Taking risks in your vehicle when encouraged
• Wearing safety gear when using skateboards, roller blades etc. by friends
• Wearing a properly fitted, approved bicycle helmet • Daring your friends to take risks e.g. speeding, playing
• Being a positive influence on your peers (positive peer pressure) chicken with cars etc.
e.g. always using a seat belt or helmet, not driving under the • Drag racing
influence etc. • Not driving to suit the road conditions e.g. rain,
• Being a responsible passenger snow, ice
• Learning how to recognise risky situations • Driving a ‘bomb’ car that may not be roadworthy
• Minimising distractions in your vehicle • Driving a high performance car
• Turning your mobile phone off in the car • Driving aggressively and letting yourself become
• Stop, look, listen and think when crossing the road ‘road raged’
• Obeying road rules relating to pedestrians e.g. using the pedestrian

crossing, not jay walking
• Wearing highly visible clothing as a pedestrian or cyclist,
especially at night
• Having driving lessons


1 Visit the RTA’s website Geared at <www.geared.com.au>.
a Go to Feature Articles >Driven to Distraction. Watch the video and read the information
about distractions for young drivers. Propose a variety of strategies that young people
can employ to minimise the number of distractions in their vehicle when driving.
b Go to Driving >All articles in Driving. Read the Driving Skills article on ‘Girls on guys in
cars’. Analyse the impact you think reading this article might have on young male drivers
and their driving habits.
2 Critically analyse the graduated licensing scheme as a means of providing young drivers
with more experience in a range of driving situations.
3 Discuss the impact that the peer passenger condition may have on motor vehicle-related
accidents for young people.
4 Plan a road trip from Sydney to the Gold Coast to attend the Big Day Out. Include in your
plan what you will do in preparation for the trip, and the rest stops you will make along
the way.
chapter review
Recap
Health can be defined in a number of ways and is made up of five different dimensions—
physical, social, cognitive, emotional and spiritual.
The dimensions of health should be balanced so that the individual gains an overall
sense of wellbeing.
An individual’s health is constantly changing and is affected by their circumstances, age,
environment and interactions and, as such, is referred to as being dynamic.
Health is also seen as relative, as it is often defined in relation to something else, such
as an individual’s previous health, the health of other people, their current situation or
environment and their potential for health.
An individual’s perceptions of health are shaped by a variety of factors including their
education, family, culture and personal experiences, along with their values and opinions.
A person’s perceptions of their health and that of others may lead them to form opinions
of others or act towards them in a certain way.
Our perceptions of health are seen to be socially constructed as they are formed because
of social influences such as culture, religion, media, education, income, family and
friends.
Young people in Australia are a diverse group and, for the most part, are faring quite well
with their general health and wellbeing. However, there are some inequities in health
among different groups of young people.

The health patterns developed by young people in adolescence will often continue
into adulthood.
A young person’s health behaviours can include positive behaviours, those which
support and enhance their health, and risk behaviours, those which may be detrimental
to their health.
Useful websites for study

Organisation Current URL Useful for …
Australian Institute of www.aihw.gov.au Access to statistics and other

Health and Welfare information on the health and
wellbeing of Australians, in
particular, access to the publication
Young Australians: Their Health and
Wellbeing
Reach Out www.reachout.com.au Information about all health issues

relating to young people—contains
fact sheets, a forum to discuss
issues, a chill-out space and
information about how to develop
and improve coping skills
Beyond Blue: the www.beyondblue.org.au Information relating to mental health

national depression
initiative
Somazone www.somazone.com.au/about-somazone.html Information about youth health issues

by young people for young people
Federal government’s www.redi.gov.au/ecstasy_drugs/default.htm Uses case studies to provide

chapter review
ecstasy and other information to young people, parents

drugs site and teachers about ecstasy and
other drugs
DrugInfo clearinghouse www.druginfo.adf.org.au Easy-to-access information on

alcohol, other drugs and prevention
Kids Helpline www.kidshelp.com.au Information about seeking help and

24-hour counselling for young people
Don’t turn a night out www.drinkingnightmare.gov.au Federal government website related

into a nightmare to risky drinking; information for
under-18s, over-18s and parents
Adios Barbie www.adiosbarbie.com A site devoted to all body shapes

and sizes
National Cannabis www.ncpic.org.au Information for young people, teachers

Prevention and and parents about cannabis, including
Information Centre fact sheets, real stories and a helpline

chapter review
Completely Gorgeous www.completelygorgeous.com.au Information about all issues related
to young people’s health including
some good links
Get Clued Up www.getcluedup.com.au Information about Chlamydia
NSW Centre for Road www.rta.nsw.gov.au/roadsafety Information related to all aspects of

Safety safe driving
Family Planning NSW www.fpnsw.org.au Information about sexual health:

search under
Sex Matters for fact sheets and FAQs
Exam-style questions
1 Give an outline of the five dimensions of health, highlighting the (4 marks)
interaction between each of them in relation to health.
2 Explain how a person’s perceptions of health are socially constructed. (6 marks)
3 Select one of the following health issues—mental health, body image, (10 marks)
drug use, sexual health, food habits, physical activity or road safety.
Identify a range of risk and protective behaviours for this health issue
and investigate how risk decreases or increases when multiple
factors interact.

Influences on
2 the health
of individuals
What influences the health of individuals?
The health of an individual is subject to many influences, some of these have a positive
effect on a person’s health outcomes, while some may be detrimental. These influences
tend to act in various combinations and a person can exert differing amounts of control
over them dependent upon their social, economic and environmental circumstances.
The influences that affect an individual’s health construct their meanings around
health, the value they attach to health and their health behaviours, whether these
are health enhancing or health compromising. Because some influences on an
individual’s health may be out of their control, the health of an individual becomes
the joint responsibility of both the individual and the society in which they live.
The determinants of health

An individual’s health is influenced by a range of factors, which are
commonly referred to as the determinants of health. These determinants
are the conditions, circumstances and environments in which people are
born, live, learn, work and play and they have a large impact on the way
a person grows and develops as well as on the choices they make. While
each individual has some responsibility for their health behaviours, there
is growing recognition that the context of people’s lives can also greatly
determine their health. Each determinant is important in its own right but,
Interrelated something at the same time, they are interrelated. Often the network of interacting
that is connected or linked to
determinants increases or decreases a person’s health status.
something else.
Individual factors
Our health can be shaped by individual factors, which include our
knowledge, skills and attitudes, along with our genes. Our genes determine
the characteristics passed on from parents to their children. These inherited
Trait a distinguishing feature, traits can determine our potential in terms of physical development,
characteristic or quality. intellectual capacity, life expectancy and the likelihood of developing certain
diseases. Genes also establish a person’s gender, which can influence an

Influences on the health of individuals CHAPTER 2 35
individual’s health. For example, males have an increased risk of developing

various conditions, such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease and males
generally have a shorter life expectancy than females.
Individual health knowledge is acquired through a variety of means
and helps a person develop skills that are important in supporting health-
related decisions and choices. These skills, or personal health practices, are
what people use to interact effectively with the world around them and to
deal with the events, challenges and stresses they encounter in their day-
to-day lives. They are sometimes referred to as coping skills; and effective
coping skills enable individuals to be self-reliant, solve problems and make
informed choices that enhance their health. Effective coping skills also allow
people to face life’s challenges in positive ways, without recourse to risky
behaviours. A young person with well-developed coping skills, such as
problem solving, may be able to assess a risky situation, look at other options
available, weigh up the consequences of each and make an informed decision Consequences what may
that will enhance their health. Other determinants may come into play, which happen because of a particular
action.
will also affect the individual’s choices and decisions. However, research tells
us that people with a strong sense of their own effectiveness and ability to
cope with various circumstances in their lives are likely to be most successful
in adopting and sustaining healthy behaviours and lifestyles.
Figure 2.1
Decision Well-developed and
making
effective coping skills can
assist a person in making
Effective Problem health-enhancing decisions
communicating solving
INDIVIDUAL
COPING
Goal SKILLS Conflict
setting resolution
Anger Stress
management management
techniques
When we look at individual factors as a determinant of health, we should

also consider a person’s attitudes and values. These are shaped by many
things, including their personality, priorities, motivation levels, temperament,
expectations, roles and responsibilities, ability to think and learn, ability to
connect with others, and their sense of self. All these factors interact in the Sense of self how a person
formation of values and attitudes, and influence our health decisions. For perceives themselves. The
unique qualities that make up
example, motivation is what helps us to set goals and move towards them in an individual.
a positive manner. Our motivation to do things can be extrinsic, that is, we
act in a certain manner for the external rewards, or intrinsic, where we act in
a certain way as it gives us personal satisfaction and we believe the outcome

will be personally rewarding. Concerning health behaviours, some young

people may be motivated to make certain choices out of a need to belong and
feel valued by their peer group rather than by what is best for them, which
may result in poor health choices such as using drugs.

1 Think about the coping skills you believe you possess. Examine the strategies you can employ
to improve your coping skills and build on any areas in which you feel you are lacking.
2 Research the steps involved in the decision-making process for problem solving. Design a
flow chart that summarises the main points people should consider when assessing a risky
situation and deciding what course of action to take.
3 Define intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and discuss which of these would be most effective
for assisting individuals to change their health behaviours.
Sociocultural factors
Sociocultural factors refer to the influence of a person’s family and peers,
their religion and culture, and the media on the personal health practices they
adopt for their health. These determinants exert some influence on a person’s
life and are ever-present when people make health-related decisions. As with
all determinants of health, sociocultural factors can have a positive impact on
the choices we make but, conversely, they may make it difficult for a person to
Health-enhancing adopt health-enhancing behaviours.
behaviours behaviours Our health-related habits are closely associated with the examples set by
beneficial to a person’s
health, such as healthy our parents and family. As discussed in chapter 1, the beliefs and perceptions
eating, physical activity, of one’s family in relation to all aspects of health are inextricably linked
communicating with others to our health choices. If a person grows up in a household where a healthy
and not smoking.
diet and regular physical activity are valued, where skills such as effective
conflict resolution and good communication are regularly modelled and
where risk-taking behaviour is encouraged in the context of sport, recreation
and work challenges; the individual has support mechanisms already in
place to assist them in making positive health choices. On the other hand, a
family may have poor relationships and communication skills, not be aware
of or value the benefits of healthy eating and exercise, and may engage in
risk behaviours such as smoking and excessive alcohol consumption. A
person may find it difficult to adopt health-enhancing behaviours in such an
environment. For example, a young person may be made aware of the benefits
of a low-fat diet with plenty of fruit and vegetables through PDHPE lessons
at school and may be keen to incorporate these practices into their lifestyle.
However, their parents do all the shopping and cooking for the family and the
choices they make for meals tend to be processed meals that are high in fat,
salt and sugar rather than fresh foods. This then becomes a barrier to making
positive health choices for the young person and may determine their level
of health.
The family can also have strong influences in areas related to other
dimensions of health. For example, a family who do not spend a lot of time
together talking and building relationships and who encourage the family

members to keep their emotions to themselves rather than discuss them may Figure 2.2
make it difficult for a young person to talk about any problems they may be The quality of family life
experiencing. This can be distressing for a young person and, if they do not influences our health status
have the resources to seek help from other means, it may have a negative
impact on their health status.
Our peers are those who share something in common with us, such as age,
background, interests and experiences. People tend to gravitate to those who
share their values and attitudes, and their likes and dislikes. Often, the peer
group is also the benchmark by which a person measures what is appropriate
behaviour, along with determining their sense of self-worth. Everyone
has peers with whom they interact throughout their lifetime, but during
adolescence, a young person’s peer group is held in the highest esteem and
has a tremendous impact on the decisions and choices that person makes.
Humans are social beings and have many needs related to relationships,
such as a need to feel valued, to belong and be accepted, to have friends
and to develop a sense of identity. If our needs are not met, some of us may
become prone to depression, drug use, anxiety and feelings of hopelessness,
which can affect all aspects of health. The peer group meets many of these
needs and can be a very positive determinant of good health through
developing productive social relationships. If peer group membership results
in a sense of satisfaction and wellbeing, it can be seen as a buffer against
health problems. A young person may find that their peer group includes
others with whom they can discuss health issues, take on challenges, seek
help for problems if needed and generally be a good support network.
The need for belonging, however, can be very strong in adolescence and
can sometimes overcome other needs, such as safety, resulting in poor health
choices. For example, a young person may chose to partake in an activity that
compromises their health and wellbeing, such as smoking marijuana, in order
to satisfy their need to be an integral part of their peer group, as they believe
the group would not accept them if they did not participate.

Figure 2.3
The peer group meets many
needs and can be a positive
determinant of good health

1 Examine further examples of how sociocultural factors such as family and/or peers can have
an influence on a person’s health behaviours.
2 Visit the Reach Out website at <www.reachout.com.au>. Spend some time exploring the site
and then critically analyse how useful it may be for young people to assist them in dealing
with issues, seeking help and making health-enhancing decisions.
Culture and religion can be important determinants of our health as either

risk factors or protective factors. Different cultures have different values
and beliefs about health. There are also practices that are associated with
particular cultures that can either enhance or compromise health. Belonging
to a particular culture can provide an individual with social support and a
sense of community, which can have positive effects on their health. However,
Marginalise to regard if a person is marginalised or discriminated against because of their culture,
a group of people as less the effects of this will adversely affect their health and wellbeing. Cultural
important than others,
treating them differently and
beliefs may affect the health decisions a person makes, for example, whether
not affording them the same or not to seek healthcare for health concerns. Traditional diets associated
advantages as others. with different cultures can affect a person’s health status. For example, a
Japanese diet, which is low in fat and uses a lot of fresh fish and vegetables,
can have a positive impact on a person’s physical health, whereas a culture
that uses large amounts of oil, cream, meats and fats in their cooking may
contribute to the risk of cardiovascular disease in people from that culture.
The way different cultures view health can also affect a person’s health status.
Holistic viewing health as For example, the Chinese philosophy around health is very holistic, seeing
something that involves the a strong link between mind and body. The health practices someone from
whole person (mind, body and
spirit) rather than just looking
this culture may adopt, such as participating in tai chi, can have a positive
at an illness or disease. influence on the physical, spiritual and emotional dimensions of their health.

Cultural expectations can be a deterrent to the uptake of healthy practices. Abstinence not partaking
Adolescents in Australia have consistently low levels of adherence to sun in a particular activity or
behaviour, for example,
protection recommendations despite being well aware of the consequences of drinking alcohol or having
ignoring this advice. This is, in part, due to the strongly held societal belief sexual intercourse.
that to be healthy one must be tanned and the cultural expectation that you
Explicit an idea or concept
need to be a ‘bronzed Aussie.’ Other sociocultural determinants that interact that is very clearly expressed.
with the choices young people make around sun-protection behaviours
include peer approval, the notion that to belong you must fit a certain image, Implicit an idea or concept
that is implied rather than
and a desire for a tan associated with images in the media. clearly stated.
Religion as a social determinant can provide positive health outcomes
such as social support, a sense of purpose, and a belief system to follow.
Figure 2.4
Religious beliefs may also influence a person’s health behaviours by An example of the
encouraging abstinence from alcohol, smoking, or sexual activity before ‘Speeding: no one thinks
marriage. Some religions, while advocating these behaviours, will also teach big of you’ campaign
about the importance of family and relationships and
this can have a positive impact on an individual’s
health status. Other religious beliefs may have negative
health outcomes, such as the illegal practice of female
circumcision or not allowing blood transfusions as a
treatment for serious illness or injury.
A final sociocultural factor that can determine
the health of an individual is the media. Due to its
pervasive nature, the media has the ability to be a
powerful influence on the health behaviours of people
and, in turn, on their health and wellbeing. Media
messages comment on all aspects of our lives and
often tell us what we need in order to be happy, what
products we should purchase in the pursuit of health
and how people from different genders, cultures and
age groups are meant to behave. The media can be very
explicit in its health messages. For example, specific
advertisements relating to positive health behaviours,
such as ‘How do you measure up?’, ‘Go for 2 and 5’,
’Speeding: no one thinks big of you’ and ‘Don’t turn a
night out into a nightmare’, inform people about issues
that may affect their health and provide suggestions
and strategies to address these issues.
At the same time, the media can send implicit
messages about health and what is valued in regard
to health. For example, the constant portrayal of
unrealistic images of male and female
bodies in magazines and newspapers,
online and on television can lead people
to believe that this is the norm, resulting
in the increased prevalence of dieting,
disordered eating, smoking and drug taking
for weight control, and obsessive exercise
Figure 2.5
The ‘How do you measure up?’ health campaign encourages
people to consider the impact of their health behaviours

as people strive for the ‘ideal’ body. The 2008 Mission

Australia National Survey of Young Australians
reported that body image was of major concern to a
third of the 45 558 young women and men surveyed.
The media can play an educative role around health
issues and serve as a tool to debunk common myths,
such as coffee being able to sober up an intoxicated
person. The media also has a great influence over
how people perceive an issue or problem, such as, for
example, the ‘obesity epidemic’. Media messages can
sometimes provide misinformation in relation to health
issues. It can often be difficult for people to determine
what is fact and what is fiction, so that they can make
informed decisions that will benefit their health.
Figure 2.6
Self-image is powerful but can be deceptive

1 Explain how you believe cultural expectations are formed and the impact they may have on
an individual’s health behaviours.
2 Justify the following statement: ‘A person who is periodically discriminated against on the
grounds of their culture, beliefs or race is likely to experience poorer health than someone
who has never experienced discrimination’.
3 Visit the websites of the following health-related media campaigns:
• Go for 2 and 5 <www.gofor2and5.com.au>
• Don’t turn a night out into a nightmare <www.drinkingnightmare.gov.au>
• How do you measure up? <www.measureup.gov.au>
• Speeding: no one thinks big of you <www.rta.nsw.gov.au/roadsafety/
speedandspeedcameras/campaigns>.
Comment on whether you believe these campaigns put across explicit messages about
health-enhancing behaviours. Discuss what other sociocultural factors could be present
in an individual’s life that may interact with these media messages to either encourage or
discourage a person to change their health behaviours.
Socioeconomic factors
Some persons or groups in society may face additional health risks because
Social gradient the term of the socioeconomic environment in which they live. Social gradient is
used when referring to the link the term used by the World Health Organization when referring to the link
between socioeconomic status
(SES) and health. between socioeconomic status (SES) and health. There is a direct correlation
between a person’s susceptibility to disease and their social environment in
particular their income, their education and their social status. High income
and social status is linked to good health, whereas low SES is closely tied to
poor health. A person’s SES affects their life expectancy and their wellbeing,
and there are a number of reasons for this.

The health status of people in low socioeconomic situations is affected by

a number of interrelated factors. Very often, people from low socioeconomic
backgrounds can only obtain work in low-paid jobs that are associated with
manual labour and are, therefore, exposed to greater risks and workplace
stresses than those who work in other jobs. People in blue-collar work tend to
have less control over their working environment and fewer opportunities for
advancement. This has a detrimental effect on their health. People who have
more control over their work circumstances and fewer stress-related demands
of the job are generally healthier and often live longer.
However, having some paid work, regardless of income, has some
protective factors for our health and wellbeing as it not only provides us with
money, but also with a sense of identity and purpose, social contacts and
opportunities for personal growth. When a person loses these benefits through
retrenchment or redundancy or is unable to get a job, the results can be
devastating to both the health of the individual and their family. Unemployed
people have a reduced life expectancy and suffer significantly more health
problems than people who have a job.
People from low SES backgrounds tend to have limited housing choices,
which may mean they need to live in areas that are overcrowded, polluted, Mastery to have knowledge
in and control over something.
have high crime rates and limited access to health-care services—all elements (In physical activity, it is the
which will have an impact on a person’s health status. ability to perform a skill or
Education is closely tied to socioeconomic status. Education contributes movement at a high level. It
involves perfecting the move.)
to health by equipping people with knowledge and skills for problem
solving and helps provide a sense of control and mastery over their life Debilitating something
circumstances. It increases opportunities for job and income security and job that is weakening; stopping a
person from moving forward.
satisfaction along with improving a person’s ability to access and understand
information to help keep them healthy. People from low SES backgrounds
tend to have lower levels of education and are therefore restricted in their
knowledge about positive health practices. For example, they may not be
aware that poor nutrition and a sedentary lifestyle is linked to diabetes, or of Figure 2.7
People may find themselves
the risk of contracting a range of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as
in a vicious cycle in relation
Chlamydia through engaging in unprotected sex. Low levels of education can to their health because
lead to poor health literacy levels, and people from low SES backgrounds may of social and economic
experience difficulty accessing health services. circumstances
Low-income levels can result in reduced
options and choices for problem solving. For
example, not being able to afford private health
cover may result in reduced health-care options, Reduced
Low
while only being able to shop for food in cheaper housing
socioeconomic
options
stores may limit the availability and choice of status
fresh fruit and vegetables. A lack of finances
and education can be a debilitating problem
for many young people and can reduce their
options in relation to further education, housing
Lack of Poor
and employment. They may find themselves in finances education
a vicious circle in relation to their health due
to their social and economic circumstances.
The longer people live in stressful social and Limited
economic conditions, the greater the negative work
opportunities
impact on their health, wellbeing and life
expectancy.

Affluence at the heart of long life BY MARTIN LAVERTY
Preventative health should focus solely profit hospitals, believes the quality dropping out of high school. This does
on the way we treat our bodies, right? of our hospitals and strength of the not mean biological factors play no role;
Quit smoking, get more exercise, cut health workforce is centrally important of course they do. But it also presents
down the drinking, cut out the junk food: to providing care for all Australians, an opportunity. It means we can lower
this has been the mantra of preventa- particularly those for whom health costs the incidence of chronic disease by
tive health proponents for decades. mean they may go without. encouraging kids to finish Year 12.
Addressing Australia’s collective lifestyle Yet as the largest non-government Similarly, researchers who conducted
certainly appears to be the sole priority provider of hospital services in Australia, a three-year clinical trial showed that
of the Preventative Health Taskforce, we understand that what decides a education levels were more influential
which is no doubt busy preparing its person’s health occurs outside of any than some drug therapies in determin-
national strategy. hospital or doctor’s clinic. The social ing whether a person will die of a heart
The fact is, when it comes to reducing determinants of health is a catch-all attack.
chronic disease and extending people’s phrase describing the set of events Again, the answer to keeping
lives, improving lifestyle is only a small that influence a person’s average life people alive longer is encouraging
part of the picture. The most powerful expectancy and the likelihood of them school completion and post-school
factors in determining whether you get experiencing chronic disease. qualifications.
chronic disease and how long you are Health researchers have found these The cost of ignoring these confound-
likely to live are decided in the womb, in determinants include the experience of a ing social determinants of health is im-
the home, in the classroom and at work. baby in the womb, early childhood, mense. We can see it already. For people
I once would have argued smoking, school participation, transition to work, living in the affluent north shore of
blood pressure and cholesterol were levels of income, geographic location Sydney today, men can expect to live on
the best indicators of the likelihood of and social connectedness. Overwhelm- average for 80.3 years and women for
heart disease. ing evidence is that a child’s first 84.5 years. Drive a few hours across the
But evidence is now firm that the few years are the most important in Great Dividing Range, and men in
job you work in, as a measure of socio- establishing the health outcomes for western NSW will die 4.3 years earlier at
economic status, is in fact a far better their entire life. 76, and women 2.6 years earlier at 81.9.
predictor of cardiovascular death than To put this in simpler terms, the law Of course for indigenous Australians
cholesterol levels, blood pressure and of averages means a person living in a the gap is wider. Most of us know
smoking status combined. middle to high-income household will indigenous Australians will die 17 years
Indeed evidence suggests a person’s be healthier than a person in a low to earlier on average than non-indigenous
wealth is the most important factor to no-income household. Australians.
their health. In fact, low-income earners have been The World Health Organization last
Don’t interpret this to mean we can found to face twice the risk of avoidable year outlined a blueprint for member
avoid healthy eating and exercise to death as high-income earners. countries to act to improve the health
focus on getting a better job. Looking Nearly all the social determinants of of the poor by raising social incomes,
after your health is obviously important. health occur outside the health system, improving school retention for children,
What it does mean, though, is that the yet health policy rarely pays them tackling violence and family breakdown,
factors you don’t discuss with your attention. Deputy Prime Minister Julia and supporting the isolated so they can
doctor—and that the Preventative Gillard’s education revolution is a start. participate in society.
Health Taskforce must examine—are The report of the National Health The Australian Government has yet
more important to your health and life and Hospitals Reform Commission to respond to the WHO blueprint. It can
expectancy than a prescription or also took a good step in acknowledging do so by broadening the scope of the
lifestyle change. the importance of tackling social Preventative Health Taskforce.
Many people believe the health of the determinants but didn’t go all that far in To really improve the health of the
nation, and particularly the health of no outlining how. nation, we need to give children a better
or low-income earners, is determined It may sound a little overwhelming start in life, we need to keep them at
by the quality of hospitals or universal but the how is actually pretty easy. school and we must ensure all have
access to general practitioners. For example, researchers have shown financial resources to live well.
My organisation, Catholic Health biological factors are less of a risk in Martin Laverty is the chief executive of
Australia, which oversees 75 not-for- developing several chronic diseases than Catholic Health Australia.
The Australian, 4 April 2009


1 Discuss the suggestion by the author that ‘… a person’s wealth is the most important factor
to their health’. Include in your answer whether you believe that some determinants have a
greater impact on an individual’s health than others or whether they all have equal influence.
2 Explain what the author of this article means when he states that ‘… we can lower the
incidence of chronic disease by encouraging kids to finish Year 12’.
Environmental factors
People’s health is influenced by the conditions in which they live. In order to
function adequately and to feel safe and happy, we need to have a number of
basic needs met in relation to our physical environment. Safe water; clean
air; healthy workplaces; safe houses, communities and roads; and easy access
to health services all contribute to good health. The government has a large
role to play in providing positive environments for people’s health.
Some environments have limited infrastructure, for example, poor public Infrastructure the basic
transport, limited facilities, few public recreation spaces and poor street framework of a community; the
roads, railways, schools and
lighting. These may be coupled with high levels of community violence
other permanent structures.
resulting in people being afraid for their safety. Built-up areas in cities can be
crowded and have greater levels of pollution and a lower quality of air and
water. Environments such as these can hinder a person’s health in a number
of ways.
Geographic location can certainly have an impact on a person’s health and
their ability to make wise health choices. Those living in areas that are isolated
from major towns can find they have a lack of access to health services and to
people who can provide them with help and guidance about various health
issues. They may have to travel large distances to see a doctor and therefore,
may neglect regular health check-ups such as pap smears, breast checks and
bowel cancer screening. Having no close neighbours may limit social contact
and opportunities for recreation, which are beneficial to health. Food choices
are limited, particularly fresh foods, and some food items may not be available
at all. People who live in rural and remote environments may also be subject
to climatic conditions that can affect their health such as droughts, floods, fires
and dust storms. The negative impact that the drought in rural Australia has
had on people’s emotional health is quite severe, as people experience a loss of
self-worth and feelings of hopelessness when they are unable to earn a living
due to the weather conditions.
Access to health services may also be restricted for those living in urban
areas, due to overcrowding. An increase in the population in some areas due
to more affordable housing has seen increased waiting times to see doctors,
and to have medical procedures and gain referrals to health experts, which
can affect the health of an individual.
The access to health information via technology is an area that can assist
people to make informed health choices. Rural and remote areas of Australia
have been disadvantaged in their access to health services for some time. The
Australian government has made a commitment to deliver affordable online
access to communities in rural and regional Australia, and this may mean that
individuals in these environments will have the opportunity to further their
health knowledge through access to the internet.

The design and development of urban areas in recent years has addressed
some areas of concern regarding physical environments and their influence on
the health of individuals and, in turn, of communities. The provision of bicycle
and walking tracks and better public transport such as T-ways promote better
health and gives people more choices to enable them to make good health
decisions. Governments who include these considerations in their transport
policies are going a long way in combating sedentary lifestyles and maintaining
a healthy environment for people to live in. Cycling and walking tracks and the
use of public transport can decrease air pollution, reduce injury through motor
Social cohesion the things vehicle accidents, increase exercise levels and increase social cohesion; all of
that bond people within a which can have an impact on the health of individuals.
society; including tolerance,
social equality and fairness. Various levels of government and a range of health organisations are
also considering how different city environments can encourage people,
particularly young people, to make positive health decisions. Many local
councils provide a range of free youth friendly health services within the
local area, in an attempt to provide positive environments for young people
to meet, socialise and seek advice. The National Youth Mental Health
Foundation (Headspace) has recently set up 30 centres across Australia.
These serve as an entry point for young people to access a broad range of
services that are available in their local community and which address
health issues to do with mental health and substance use.

1 The council of Sunnyville Shire are proposing the development of a new suburb in their
area. They have called for tenders from local developers and your company has won the
contract. Your team has been given the responsibility of designing an exciting suburb where
people will be keen to live and where healthy lifestyles are supported. In pairs, develop a
proposal for the types of infrastructure (e.g. roads, cycle paths, parks, walkways etc.) and
other facilities (e.g. community health centres, youth drop-in centres) that your company
feels should be included in the new suburb to make the physical environment more
conducive to positive health choices. You must justify your recommendations, being sure to
take into account the influence that environmental factors have on the health of individuals.
2 Visit the Headspace website at <www.headspace.org.au>. Investigate the services provided
at the Headspace offices in NSW and the ACT, and assess these centres in terms of their
ability to provide a positive and accessible environment for young people in relation to
their health.
The degree of control individuals

can exert over their health
As can be seen from the previous discussion, an individual’s health can be
determined by a range of factors acting in various combinations that influence
health outcomes. Individuals can exert some control over their health; however,
they may not be able to control many of the determinants directly. The key is
to be able recognise those factors one can influence some control over and then
work on developing positive behaviours to support those factors.

By doing this, an individual can tilt the balance in favour of those factors they
can exert some control over and reduce the risk of those determinants over
which they have little or no control.
Modifiable and non-modifiable health

determinants
The factors that make up the determinants of health can be categorised into
those that are modifiable and those that are non-modifiable. A non-modifiable
health determinant is one that cannot be changed, modified or controlled.
Non-modifiable health determinants include:
Age—a person’s age is a non-modifiable health determinant and, although
age does not necessarily have to be synonymous with poor health, as
people get older the likelihood of them developing certain diseases
increases, for example, cardiovascular disease (CVD), diabetes and
osteoporosis.
Gender—as mentioned previously, a person’s gender can affect their
health. Being male puts an individual at greater risk of developing a
number of diseases and in many countries, including Australia, is linked
to shorter life expectancy. Being female is a risk factor for certain diseases
such as breast cancer; however, women tend to live at least five years
longer than men do. Australia has the joint third-highest female life
expectancy (for non-Indigenous women) in the world.
Family history—most chronic diseases and many illnesses have family
history as a prominent determining factor for their development. An
individual’s chance of developing certain diseases and illnesses is greatly
increased if they have someone in their family who has had that disease, Figure 2.8
for example, many different types of cancers, hypertension, diabetes, In order to increase a
person’s health status
CVD and depression. The more immediate the family member, the more
it is important to try to
increased the risk; for example, having a mother or sister who has had tip the balance in favour
breast cancer is a greater risk factor for an individual than having a of modifiable health
grandmother who has had breast cancer. determinants
Race/ethnicity—an individual’s race or
ethnicity can be a determining factor
of their health status. The risk of some
diseases is more likely for people from
certain races or ethnic backgrounds;
for example, African Americans are
more likely to suffer from sickle cell
anaemia and Indigenous Australians
are more likely to experience CVD,
diabetes and glaucoma.
Non-modifiable
Modifiable determinants of health are health
determinants
those factors that have an influence on
our health status but have the potential Modifiable
health
to be changed or altered in some way; determinants
for example, aspects of lifestyle such as
an individual’s nutritional habits, their
tobacco and alcohol consumption and
their physical activity levels.

Our health potential may be determined by things such as age and genetics,
however, it is possible for an individual to positively adjust their lifestyle
and/or environment to reduce the risk of ill health and to maximise their
health potential. That said, the degree of control that can be exerted over
various determinants differs depending upon the individual’s personal
circumstances and the degree to which they are in a position to change their
health outcomes. For example, an adult may be in a better position to alter
socioeconomic factors, such as where they live, the type of employment they
are in or their level of education, than may be possible for a child.
It is important for a person to be aware of the non-modifiable health
determinants that may apply to them so they are able to make informed
decisions about how they can alter their modifiable health determinants to
ensure the best possible health outcomes for their life.
The changing influence of determinants

through different life stages
Each of the determinants has an influence over the health of an individual to
varying degrees. The level of this influence may change over time depending
upon the life stage of the person, what is important to them at the time
(values), and the extent to which they believe they can control the events and/
or circumstances which affect them (locus of control). Life contains a series of
transitions for each individual and these changes can affect health, by having
people move onto a more or less advantageous path.
A young child’s health is predominantly influenced by their family.
Parents make health decisions for their children, shape their health-related
values, choose the school they attend and decide where they live. The
decisions a parent makes on behalf of a child are influenced by a number of
health determinants, including their knowledge, skills and attitudes, their
culture, their level of SES, their education and their immediate environment.
When a child becomes an adolescent, the influences on their health
broaden. There is a definite shift of influence from parents to peers and, as
previously mentioned, a young person’s peer group can work in positive or
negative ways in relation to health. The influence of socioeconomic factors
may alter if a young person gets a part-time job, which can change their level
of income and, in turn, the possible options they have available to them.
A young person will begin to develop their own values and beliefs in relation
to health based on influences of the media, their teachers and their peers, and
these may be different to those of their parents. A young person may begin
to question aspects of their religion or culture and, as a result, the influence
of these factors on their health may increase or decrease. As a young person
develops their health-related knowledge, they may then be able to alter the
influence of environmental factors such as access to health services as they
learn what is available to them in the community and how to access support
and assistance via the internet or telephone services such as Kids Helpline.
A young person may have opportunities to move away from the environment
they have been brought up in, such as taking on a job, or going to university
or Technical and Further Education (TAFE). This can alter the influence that
this determinant of health has upon the individual. For example, gaining
further education and qualifications can mean a positive change in SES for
a young person.

Figure 2.9
Kids Helpline assists
young people in need
Adulthood also can mean a change in the influence of the various

determinants of health. Life experiences can affect an individual’s knowledge
and skills, which in turn can affect their health behaviours. Adults tend to be
less influenced by their peers and the media, and their individual attitudes
may have a greater effect on their health. Socioeconomic factors such as
employment and income may have a greater influence on an older person
than sociocultural factors, for example, as they strive to pay their mortgage,
provide for their family and find a work/life balance. Elderly people can find
that environmental factors such as geographic location may have a greater
influence on their health as they age. For example, if they become unable to
drive and they live in an area that does not have adequate public transport
options, they may become isolated from social contact and reliant on others
to provide for their health needs, such as grocery shopping and medication
provision. A person in a situation such as this can feel a lack of control over
their ability to make health-enhancing decisions.

1 Assess whether genetic predisposition to certain diseases for some races is the only
determinant influencing an individual’s health or whether other determinants of health,
such as socioeconomic and environmental factors, play a role in the development of disease.
2 Give suggestions as to what individuals can do to modify the determinants they have little
control over.
3 Explain how the level of influence of the determinants of health on an individual changes
over time.

Health as a social construct

Why is it that the life expectancy for non-Indigenous Australians is markedly
less than that of Indigenous Australians? Why do some young people make
positive health decisions and others make poor ones, even though they attend
the same school and receive the same health information? Why is it that the
health status of people with a low socioeconomic status is different to that
of those with a high socioeconomic status? Health was once thought to be
the sole responsibility of the individual, and health status the direct result of
their behaviours and actions. While ultimately individuals do make decisions
about their health, it must be acknowledged that many sociocultural and
socioeconomic factors impact upon a person’s health, the meanings a person
gives to health and the judgments they make relating to their health. It is
becoming more and more apparent that health is socially constructed, which
means that people develop their meanings of health depending upon their
social circumstances and that this view of health shapes a person’s beliefs,
behaviours and practices.
Recognising the interrelationship of

determinants
The determinants of health do not operate in a vacuum. They function on
multiple levels and interact with each other to influence health outcomes.
A good way to understand the concept of health as a social construct and
to see the interrelationship of the determinants is to look at young people’s
health behaviours around drinking alcohol. The meanings that young people
give to alcohol are very much socially constructed and involve a number of
factors working together to influence decisions.
Despite an awareness of alcohol-related harm, many young people engage
in health-compromising behaviours when it comes to consuming alcohol
(individual factors). Drinking alcohol is intrinsic to Australian culture and
the activity is seen as normal, sociable and expected. Alcohol consumption
is associated with celebrations, sport, relaxation and enjoyment and is
sometimes part of religious and cultural ceremonies. Adolescents are
constantly subject to social and cultural messages from their family, sporting
organisations, the media and their peers that using alcohol, often at harmful
levels, is acceptable (sociocultural factors).
As previously mentioned, adolescence is a time when young people are
endeavouring to find their sense of self and have a strong need to belong and
fit in. Drinking is often seen as an activity that can foster a sense of social
cohesion and solidarity among friends. It is a highly social activity, rarely
occurring in isolation. Young people negotiate the meaning of alcohol in
their social group and, for some, risky levels of drinking equate to popularity
and can be used to strengthen their position among their peers. Many young
people are concerned about the immediate social consequences of alcohol
rather than the less immediate or non-social consequences. For example, they
would rather drink excessively and risk the related harms than to abstain
from drinking and risk not being able to fit in at a social event (sociocultural
factors). Pleasure and hedonism are very dominant values among generations
X and Y and, if drinking is perceived as being associated with enjoyment, this
can also shape young people’s drinking behaviours (individual factors).

Increasingly, young people have a great amount of leisure time and

often lack recreational facilities in which to participate in productive and
structured activities. Another characteristic associated with generations X and
Y is the desire for instant gratification. If leisure time is perceived as boring
and alcohol is associated with fun and socialising, drinking may become
a desired leisure time activity. Access to communication technologies, for
example, mobile phones, the internet and social networking sites such as
MySpace, Facebook and Twitter, has created new ways for young people to
interact socially, to access broader social networks and to arrange their leisure
time. Communication technologies can affect young people’s drinking by
facilitating the organisation of ‘big nites out’. Young people can also have high
Figure 2.10
levels of expendable income due to part-time jobs, which may mean they have There are interrelated
more opportunities to purchase alcohol (environmental, socioeconomic and determinants for young
sociocultural factors). people drinking
Young people’s drinking
behaviours can also be influenced by
the traditional rites of passage into
adulthood. Alcohol is perceived to
be liberating and empowering, and
getting drunk in many Australian
communities is the badge of being an
adult. From adults, adolescents can
develop many preconceived ideas
about what celebrations should entail
and, more often than not, young
people are introduced to alcohol
by their parents or other significant
adults in their lives. There is a
close relationship between alcohol
consumption and sport—young
people either see intoxication
modelled by their sporting role
models or are supplied with alcohol
as a reward for athletic performance
(sociocultural factors).
Every day in Australia, young people are exposed to high levels of alcohol
advertising and marketing. Alcohol advertising and promotion encourages
positive associations with alcohol, and links drinking alcohol with attractive
symbols and role models. For example, beer advertisements often suggest that
the product can help the drinker to be more relaxed, happy and successful,
and advertisements for spirits and ready mixed drinks (RTDs), also known as
alcopops, often link the consumption of the particular drink with personal,
social or sexual success. In addition, alcohol advertisements tend not to
portray the negative consequences of risky or excessive drinking, such as
drunkenness and potential health and other risks.
Other forms of media can also influence a young person’s meanings of
health and their health behaviours. Modelling of risky drinking behaviours
often occurs in popular movies and television shows. This depiction of
intoxication portrays consequence-free drinking and links alcohol with
enjoyable and normal social activities, which serves to glamorise drinking.

The placement of a particular type of drink in movies and television shows

can give the impression that ‘everyone’ is consuming it (sociocultural,
socioeconomic and individual factors).
Finally, geographic location may influence the drinking behaviours of
young people. For example, hotels and clubs are traditional community
meeting places and centres of activity, particularly in rural areas
(environmental factors, sociocultural factors).
People may initially be highly critical of young people and their
behaviours around alcohol consumption. However, by looking at the way the
various determinants of health interact to determine beliefs about alcohol
and responses to the health challenges associated with alcohol, we can
gain a clearer understanding of how health and health attitudes are socially
constructed. The government and other agencies seeking to address concerns
around young people’s alcohol consumption patterns need to consider how
young people’s health is socially constructed, if their campaigns are to have
any impact on youth.
Challenging the notion that health is solely

an individual’s responsibility
Acknowledging that health is socially constructed certainly challenges the
idea that each individual is purely responsible for their own health. It shows
an understanding that the meanings of health change over time and that
health can mean different things to different people in varying contexts. The
lens through which we view a person’s health behaviours needs to be much
broader than simply asking what is the person doing or not doing in relation
to their health. We need to extend these questions to include an exploration
of why they are engaging in certain behaviours. For example, poor nutritional
habits may be much more than an individual’s decision to select and cook
unhealthy foods. The choices the individual makes may be influenced by
Figure 2.11
a lack of education about nutritious foods and how to prepare them; a low
Is healthy eating solely an income, meaning a person cannot afford to purchase fresh and nutritionally
individual’s responsibility? sound food; and geographic isolation resulting in limited access to support
and advice around nutrition. In situations such
as these, it becomes increasingly difficult for
individuals to take full responsibility for their
own health, and simply telling that person they
need to change their diet will not bring about
behaviour change.
Many people are critical of the health
behaviours of Indigenous Australians, however,
we should consider the many factors that
influence the decisions of people within
Indigenous communities. The social constructs
of Indigenous health are quite different to those
of non-Indigenous health, and blaming the
individuals for their health status does not go
far towards addressing the inequities between
Indigenous and non-Indigenous health. Good
health can best be achieved through the

combined efforts of both the individual and the wider community. Viewing
health as a social construct recognises that society has a role to play in the
achievement of good health, and that everyone has a right to good health
despite their social or economic circumstances.

1 Debate the following statement: ‘Good health is your responsibility.
Act now!’
2 Summarise your understandings of the notion that health is
socially constructed.
3 Choose an example related to risky youth health behaviours
(e.g. speeding, not using sun protection) and critically analyse
how the interrelationship of the determinants of health impact
upon a young person’s decision to engage in, or abstain from,
these behaviours.
chapter review
Recap
An individual’s health is influenced by a range of factors that are commonly referred to
as the determinants of health.
The determinants of health are categorised into four areas: individual factors (e.g.
knowledge and skills, attitudes, genetics), sociocultural factors (e.g. family, peers,
media, religion and culture), socioeconomic factors (e.g. employment, income,
education) and environmental factors (e.g. geographical location, access to health
services and technology).
There is a social gradient in relation to health, which indicates that high income, formal
education and social status are linked to good health, whereas low SES and a lack of
education are closely tied to poor health.
Modifiable health determinants are those that a person can exert some control over,
such as peers and education; whereas non-modifiable health determinants are those that
are not able to be changed or controlled, for example, genetic factors (age and gender),
family history and race.
A person should be aware of the non-modifiable health determinants that may be an
influence on their health status and then assess how they may be able to change their
modifiable health determinants in order to maximise their health.
The level of influence that certain determinants have on a person’s health alters
according to their particular stage of life.

Health is socially constructed, that is, it is formed or put together because of social
influences such as culture, religion, media, education, income, environment, family
and friends.
People develop their meanings of health dependant upon their social circumstances,
and this view of health shapes a person’s beliefs, behaviours and practices.
There is a strong interrelationship between the determinants of health in shaping
a person’s attitudes and behaviours around health.
An individual’s health should be the combined responsibility of both the individual and
the community. Everyone has a right to good health despite their social or economic
circumstances.

World Health Organization www.euro.who.int Information on the determinants of health
Headspace www.headspace.org.au Australia’s National Youth Mental Health Foundation

providing information and services related to mental
health issues and substance use
Australian Institute of www.aihw.gov.au Access to the publication ‘Australia’s Health 2008’,

Health and Welfare which provides comprehensive information on the
determinants of health and the health status of
different population groups
Kids Helpline www.kidshelp.com.au Information about seeking help and 24-hour counselling
for young people
1 Outline how the media can influence the health of individuals. (3 marks)
2 Propose ways an individual can modify two of the determinants of health (5 marks)
in order to have more control over the influence these determinants have
on their health.
3 Critically analyse how the determinants of health interrelate to affect the (12 marks)
health status of young people from low socioeconomic backgrounds.

Strategies for
promoting health
What strategies help to promote the health of individuals?
Enhancing the health of individuals is a positive step to improving the health of a nation.
Governments, organisations, communities and individuals all play a role in promoting healthy
3
behaviours. Providing effective programs that empower individuals to take positive measures
in improving their health is a key factor in improving overall health levels. Key stakeholders
need to work in partnership to support individuals in adopting positive health behaviours.
Using a variety of strategies to target unhealthy behaviour patterns to bring about positive
change is essential to improve an individual’s health.
What is health promotion?

Given the dynamic nature of health, it is important that individuals are
supported to increase control over their health. Health promotion is about
individuals and communities working together to take action to improve their
health using a combination of personal and social resources. Health promotion
recognises the need for change in the way individuals live their lives and the
environment they live in to improve their health. Effective health promotion
works with people, uses community groups to support healthy practices,
is directed at a variety of causes that affect an individual’s health, and
emphasises the positive components of health.
In order for improvements in health to occur, individuals and communities
need to be advocates for health. When individuals and their communities Advocate someone who argues
work together to obtain political commitment, support or acceptance for a for a cause as a supporter or a
defender, in this case, of positive
particular health issue, they are able to make it a priority to improve their health.
living conditions and, thus, their health. Through partnerships, individuals
and communities are able to strengthen their cause by arguing, supporting
and defending their right for improved environmental, social and economic
conditions that affect their health. For example, reducing pollution levels in
their local area, which will assist in the reduction of asthma levels; lobbying
for more open spaces, which are safe and structurally appropriate for physical
activity and, therefore, reduce obesity levels, cardiovascular disease and
diabetes; or using the mass media to lobby the government to change laws for

P-plate drivers to reduce accidents, therefore, reducing injuries to individuals

and society. Allowing individuals to take action for themselves, or on behalf
of others and to create positive living conditions to improve health is a key
element of advocacy. Health professionals play a significant role in advocating
for the health of society across all levels.
Figure 3.1
Open spaces and facilities
that enable people to be
active are important for
health promotion
Enable to provide an Health promotion is also about enabling and empowering individuals to
individual with the skills or adopt or strengthen their skills and capabilities to increase their control
opportunity to make decisions.
over improving their health. Ensuring the equitable distribution of health
Empower to give an services and resources for people within the community is essential in
individual the knowledge, skills enabling individuals to learn, refine and develop skills necessary for positive
and understanding to make a
difference. health gains. Providing safe environments, which enable individuals to
take responsibility for their actions, is essential for achieving good health.
Examples of health promotion might include:
Developing people’s confidence in learning how to access health services
for preventive measures, such as breast screening to reduce or detect breast
cancer in its earliest stages.
Printing health information on domestic violence in a variety of languages
to enable migrants to understand the anti-violence messages to reduce
mental health and injury rates.
Providing healthy food, such as fruit and vegetables, at reduced prices
so that people on a low income can make healthy choices to reduce
cholesterol, cardiovascular disease or diabetes.
Communities that are empowered have a greater influence over their
environment and can influence the quality of life and health of their
community; whereas empowering individuals to make positive decisions,
which give them greater control over, their own health is a key component of
health promotion.
Developing partnerships between individuals, communities and different
sectors to tackle health issues is essential for effective health promotion.
Mediate different parties Mediating ways in which these groups and government authorities, private
coming together to work health sectors, non-government and voluntary organisations and the media
towards a common health goal
or issue.
can work together to promote and protect health is vital for improvements in
health and crucial in assisting individuals and communities make changes to
improve their health. While change can bring conflict among various groups

Strategies for promoting health CHAPTER 3 55
in society, these groups have a major responsibility to bring people together to

work for the greater good of society for future health benefits.
All health promotion programs should be adapted to the needs of the
community to ensure that these programs are appropriate for the various
groups within that area. The intersectoral collaboration of many sectors in the
community is crucial for effective health promotion. When various sectors
work together, there is greater equity in health outcomes and greater awareness
of how policies and decisions impact different communities.
Intersectoral collaboration, or developing partnerships between different
sectors of society, public, private and community, enables a broader approach
to improving the overall quality of an individual’s health. For example, if the
government provides funding for health issues in Kings Cross, is it best used for
a needle exchange program or for a program aimed at reducing mental health
issues for homeless people? When determining health needs of a community,
various sectors need to work in partnership. In this instance, the local council,
church groups, such as Mission Australia, and, in the case of a needle exchange
program, HIV/AIDS organisations would need to work together.
Settings for health promotion

In order for health promotion to be effective, it is paramount to target the
settings in which an individual interacts and engages daily. The interaction
of an individual with their community, home, school, workplace and their
personal characteristics has a significant impact on their health. These
settings need to be supportive of health outcomes, to ensure good health Health behaviour any
behaviours are adopted or supported. activity by an individual that
aims to promote, protect or
Individuals belong to a variety of communities, which can be used as maintain their health.
health-promoting settings. Local communities are a great place to engage
individuals in positive health behaviours through strategies such as:
hosting local community meetings on road safety for young people
holding community festivals to raise awareness of heart disease
providing support services for the elderly to assist them with their daily
needs
maintaining parks and walkways to encourage individuals to be physically
active
providing blood pressure checks at local shopping centres.
The use of a community’s facilities, such as churches, parks, cycleways,
shopping centres and community halls, allows various health promotion
programs to be offered to all members of the community, which assists in
developing good health.
Using the home environment as a setting for promoting health is an
effective way to assist individuals to achieve good health. People can
implement many strategies to ensure their home environment promotes
health. These include ensuring the house is structurally sound to reduce
the likelihood of injuries, providing nutritious and healthy foods, actively
participating in physical activity together, parents setting rules and
expectations for behaviour and curfews to ensure personal safety, adults
drinking responsibly and not smoking, and families spending time together
talking about problems and working towards solutions.
Schools are an excellent setting for promoting health. As individuals are in
a safe and supportive environment, various strategies to raise awareness and
enhance the skills of individuals can be easily achieved.

Most individuals spend their time in some sort of work environment.

Workplaces are, therefore, an effective place to assist individuals to adopt
and refine their health behaviours. Workplaces can use strategies such as
providing gym or physical activity facilities within the workplace to increase
physical activity levels, presenting seminars on stress management to reduce
mental health issues or lower blood pressure, following Occupational Health
and Safety (OH&S) laws to reduce workplace injuries, providing healthy work
canteens to reduce obesity, and having recycling programs and smoke-free
environments. Using workplaces to promote health will support individuals
to adopt behaviours to improve their overall health.
A variety of strategies can be used for health promotion, such as:
radio advertisements
television commercials
billboards
posters
newspaper articles
guest speakers
stickers
badges
community events such as the Mother’s Day Classic
laws and regulations
increasing taxes on unhealthy practices
health education
use of famous people to promote/endorse a health issue, for example,
Kylie Minogue and Kids Help Line.

1 Investigate the various health promotion initiatives that are in your:
a home b school c workplace.
2 Evaluate the effectiveness of these initiatives in promoting health. Propose strategies to
improve the health within these settings.
3 Explore other settings where health promotion can occur, such as the media. Assess how
these settings enhance an individual’s or community’s health.
4 Critically analyse the statement, ‘Every aspect of society is a setting for health promotion’.
Responsibilities for health promotion

Health promotion Health promotion interventions are the responsibility of all levels of society.
interventions measures Effective health promotion encompasses a variety of settings and strategies
taken to effect positive change
in an area of health at both
to ensure sustainable and effective promotion of a health issue or lifestyle
individual and community pattern. Targeting a variety of levels within society to promote health is
levels. beneficial for positive health benefits. Table 3.1 outlines the types of strategies
and sustainability of targeting a specific level of the population for health
promotion.

Table 3.1 A typology of interventions and sustainability
Intervention Intervention strategies Program sustainability Effect sustainability

level
Individual Focus on information, modelling, Relatively short time frame Low impact on behavioural outcomes
education and training to promote for initial implementation, but at both the individual and population
individual change in knowledge, requires ongoing resources if level in the absence of other levels of
attitudes, beliefs and behaviour program to be maintained intervention; often requires multiple
regarding health risks, such as exposures and attempts
smoking, eating and physical activity
Organisational Focus on organisational change Requires few ongoing High impact on individual action and
and consultancy to change resources once physical organisational change, but
organisational policies (rules, roles, organisational change has significant resistance to organisational
sanctions and incentives) and been implemented, but a change may occur and organisations
practices that produce changes in longer-term time frame for may not have the processes and
individual risk behaviour; greater establishing the program and structures to implement change; also,
access to social, educational and a systematic process for the setting may have only a limited impact
health resources that promote withdrawal of resources are on individuals
health required
Community Focus on social action and Often requires significant High impact on individual action
action social planning to create new additional resources over an and physical environment once new
settings (organisations, networks, extended time frame, but may settings are created, and settings may
partnerships) to produce change be systematically withdrawn have pervasive effects on individuals,
in organisations and redistribute once new settings have but significant resistance may be
resources that affect health been created and resource encountered over an extended period of
redistribution occurs time and the evidence for sustainability
is mixed
Institutional Focus on social advocacy to Often requires significant High impact on a wide range of
change change legislative, budgetary resources over an extended settings and thereby on the physical
and institutional settings that time frame, but may be environment and individual action once
affect community, organisational withdrawn once institutional institutional change has been achieved,
and individual levels of social change has been achieved but significant resistance to institutional
organisation change is usually encountered
Health Promotion International
Individuals
Individuals play a significant role in achieving
good health. Changing an individual’s health- Attitude
related behaviours such as those related to smoking,
unhealthy eating habits and speeding, will assist
in improving the leading causes of mortality and
morbidity for Australians. It is important to note,
however, that an individual’s social, economic and
cultural environments contribute to their health
practices. Individual factors interrelate to impact on a
person’s health. While individuals can develop their
knowledge on health issues, which aim to impact Knowledge Behaviour
on their behaviour, if an individual’s attitude is not
supportive of the new knowledge they have gained,
it is hard for their behaviour to change. For example,
Figure 3.2
young people learn about the dangers of smoking and The health–behaviour
developing lung cancer in the future, however, young triangle

girls may think it is cool to smoke and that it can assist them with weight
loss, therefore, their behaviour does not change, despite them knowing that
smoking is bad for their health.
An individual’s motivation levels also affect their health choices.
If a person is motivated to reduce their stress levels, then by choosing
to implement effective time-management strategies such as checklists,
completing tasks before due dates and organising relaxation sessions they
will contribute to reducing their stress levels. However, a lack of motivation
can negatively affect an individual’s health, for example, a person who is not
motivated to exercise. By sitting on the couch watching television and eating
chips they will put on weight, which can lead to obesity, cardiovascular
disease or diabetes.
While there are external factors that influence an individual’s health, there
are certain factors for which, ultimately, the individual is responsible if they
are to improve and promote their health and wellbeing.

1 For each of the following scenarios explain the actions and responsibilities individuals can
undertake to improve their health and the health of others.
a Samantha is in Year 10 and enjoys going out with friends on the weekend, going to bed
late and sleeping in. She leaves her assessments to the last minute, and she usually
rushes them as they cause her stress. Samantha fights with her parents as they nag her
to stay home more as her schoolwork is suffering.
b Joshua is in Year 12 and works part time. He recently broke up with his girlfriend and
spends his weekend at dance parties to deal with the break-up of his relationship. Joshua
has started to lose weight and become unmotivated, missing some of his shifts at work.
c Matthew is a single father who has two young children. He works two jobs and finds it
easier to buy takeaway food each night than to prepare dinner for his children.
d Mia is married with three children. She works long hours in order to get her work
done. Mia rarely spends time with her family, which causes fights between her and her
husband. She rarely has time to watch her children play sport, which is disheartening
for them.
2 Analyse the statement, ‘Motivation is all individuals need to improve their health’.
3 Using the health–behaviour triangle model, provide examples of how these three factors
work to:
a improve the health of an individual
b reduce the health of an individual.
Community groups/schools
Communities play a significant role in supporting individuals to adopt
health-promoting practices and ensure the environment in which people
live is conducive to healthy living. Various community groups work towards
improving the health of society. These include mobile playgroups, church
groups, sporting groups and schools. These community groups can serve many
purposes in supporting and enhancing an individual and their environment.

School communities have an instrumental role in promoting opportunities

for positive health behaviours. Providing activities for all the school
community members allows a holistic approach towards health. Schools can
offer health-promotion strategies for their communities through:
teaching compulsory PDHPE lessons from kindergarten through to Year 10
educating individuals about the risk factors of lifestyle diseases such as
smoking, inactivity and unhealthy eating choices
implementing school policies such as ‘no hat, no play’ to reduce skin cancer
implementing anti-bullying policies to reduce mental health issues
bringing in guest speakers to raise the awareness of topics, such as
domestic violence or ways in which to access health services
offering lunchtime sport competitions to improve physical activity levels
conducting peer support programs to ensure individuals feel connected
and supported
presenting seminars to parents on safe partying and how to assist their
children with stress and coping
selling healthy foods in the canteen
holding multicultural days to highlight and accept diversity of the different
cultures within the school.
Depending on the needs of a local community, support groups such as
Alcoholics Anonymous, English-speaking courses for new migrants and
health facilities, such as a baby health clinic, can assist a population to
improve their health. Community groups, such as the Lions Club, fundraise
for their local communities and assist in times of disaster, such as bushfires
and floods. Communities have a significant role in improving the health
status of their members. They help develop personal and social identities
through common beliefs, values and norms, which assist people to live.
Communities have a greater ability to empower people to take action towards
changing their environment for the better. When groups of people are bound
together for a common cause, there is a greater capacity to bring about change.
Community groups are a key stakeholder in promoting health, however, they
can be more effective in delivering programs if supported by organisations
who are working towards the same health goal. Working collaboratively
with organisations can improve the resources, infrastructure and services a
community has to improve the overall health of their population.
Groups such as Healthy Canteens, Rotary Clubs, and Life Education
Australia (Healthy Harold) are other examples of community groups that work
towards achieving good health for their local communities.

1 Investigate the various community groups within your local area. Outline the services each
of these groups provide. Discuss how these community groups promote health.
2 Propose strategies that your local community could undertake to meet the health needs of
your community.
3 Debate the statement: ‘Communities have all the resources needed to improve individuals’
health’.

Non-government organisations
Non-government organisations (NGOs) play a key role in promoting health.
Specialised organisations that are independent from the government provide
a greater focus on specific heath issues. Examples of non-government
organisations include the following.
The Heart Foundation

The Heart Foundation actively promotes health linked to the heart. They
contribute to the health promotion in the community through their research,
support for health professionals, health promotion campaigns, educating
the public and supporting people with cardiovascular disease. They target
issues linked with cardiovascular disease, such as poor nutrition, lack of
physical activity and smoking, though various health promotion campaigns.
Figure 3.3 Well-known health promotion campaigns such as the Heart Foundation
The Heart Foundation ‘Tick’, Jump Rope for Heart, Heart Foundation Walking and Heart Week are
actively promotes
effective in promoting a healthy lifestyle.
cardiovascular health
The foundation has a variety of tools to assist people to improve their
health, such as a website with information on healthy living and on heart
health, community speaking programs, advocating for cardiovascular disease
prevention in the community, a heart health information call centre and
an extensive range of health publications for patients and the general public.
The Heart Foundation works in partnership with a variety of organisations
that assist them in the sponsorship and delivery of health promotion
programs. For example, Tetley is a supporter of the Heart Foundation’s
‘Go Red for Women’ campaign. These strategies and health promotion
programs can enable and empower individuals and the community to
improve their health.
Asthma Foundation NSW

The purpose of Asthma Foundation NSW is to support people living with
Asthma today and free the community from Asthma tomorrow. Asthma
Foundation NSW works to change the community’s attitudes and actions
towards asthma through disseminating information and education to
individuals and communities. They advocate for the needs of individuals
with asthma and assist communities to create asthma-friendly environments.
Their continued research into asthma builds greater knowledge on its causes
and treatments. Asthma Foundation NSW has a variety of health promotion
programs, such as Asthma Friendly Schools, community networks in rural
and remote communities, Asthma Friendly Campsites and a new free online
Figure 3.4 information service known as Asthma Assist. Asthma Assist, the Asthma
The Asthma Foundation Information Line, their onAIR e-newsletter and website, provide people
NSW advocates for the with information relating to asthma. This includes the latest research
needs of individuals with
and treatments of asthma as well as online surveys and polls. As a result,
asthma
increasing awareness of asthma within the community is possible. Asthma
Foundation NSW has developed partnerships within the community to assist
in their delivery of health promotion programs and key messages.

Black Dog Institute

The Black Dog Institute is an educational, research, clinical and community- Mood disorders affect a
oriented organisation that focuses on mood disorders, such as depression and person’s emotional balance.
Mood may be too low
bipolar disorder. They aim to raise awareness through improving knowledge (depression), too high (mania)
on mood disorders by continued research, education and training. The Black or too high at some times
Dog Institute uses a variety of strategies to promote understanding of mood and too low at others (bipolar
disorder).
disorders through their a website. The Institute:
provides information for both the public and health
professionals
provides support groups for people with mood disorders
hosts Information Hubs where individuals can access
resources relating to mood disorders
runs school education programs such as the Insight
program
runs workplace education programs
offers e-cards, writing competitions and access to research
through their site.
A number of health promotion programs, such as the Rural Ambassador’s
program, are conducted to enable and empower people to improve their Figure 3.5
health. The Black Dog Institute works in partnership with the Prince of The Black Dog Institute
raises awareness about
Wales Hospital in Randwick and is affiliated with the University of New
depression
South Wales. These partnerships enable greater access to individuals and
communities.
Cancer Council NSW

The Cancer Council NSW’s focus is to educate, inform, advocate and
provide services to individuals and families about cancer. They use a variety
of strategies to promote information about cancer both as a preventative
measure and for those who have been diagnosed with the disease. Strategies
such as ongoing research into the causes and treatment of various cancers,
a comprehensive website that provides individuals with information on
cancer, access to services linked to cancer, online support communities, real-
life stories, consumer research forums, accommodation lodges, the magazine
Smart Living with latest news and stories about cancer, a telephone helpline
and a section on the website for health professionals, assist in enabling
and empowering individuals and communities. The Cancer Council NSW
conducts various health promotion programs in partnership with various
agencies such as the Cancer Council Outreach Service NSW tour sponsored
by Coles and the ‘How do you Measure up?’ campaign in conjunction with
the Australian Government. These strategies and health promotion programs
Figure 3.6
endeavour to assist people in developing and adopting healthy behaviours in The Cancer Council NSW
order to improve their health. focuses on promoting the
SunSmart message


1 Create a table of the companies you know that sponsor health-related events organised by
NGOs. Discuss why these companies have chosen to sponsor particular events.
2 Debate the following statement: ‘Should companies whose products harm an individual’s
health be able to sponsor sporting events?’
Government
The Australian Government plays a significant role in funding, researching
and promoting good health. It is imperative that governments focus on health
promotion as doing this reduces the burden of health care and services
needed over time and ensures the future of Australia’s health is in good shape.
Some of the various agencies provided by the government to serve the health
needs of Australia include the following organisations.
Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing

The branch of the federal government that looks after health is the Department
of Health and Ageing. The department has the overall responsibility for
working towards improving the health of all Australians. They aim to
provide quality healthcare through affordable access to quality medical,
pharmaceutical and hospital services as well as assisting people in the
promotion and prevention of illness and disease. They advise the government
on health policy development and research health issues. They regulate and
work in partnership with other health organisations and health professionals
to ensure quality healthcare is delivered, and work with all the states to
ensure healthcare is accessible to all Australians.
The department has a key focus on preventative measures such as
providing information about healthy lifestyles and early prevention and
intervention strategies. The Department of Health and Ageing is responsible
for financing health projects across all sectors of the community. In order
to effectively address the health needs of Australia, the department works
in partnership with other government agencies in promoting health and the
delivery of healthcare. These include the Australian Institute of Health and
Welfare, Cancer Australia and the Private Health Insurance Administration
Council. Various health promotion campaigns they run include:
‘How do you Measure up?’—focusing an obesity, diabetes and physical
activity
‘Go for 2 & 5’—focusing on healthy eating
‘Get Moving’—focusing on increased physical activity, and the
‘National Drugs Campaign’—focusing on drug prevention for young
people.
Various strategies, such as online resources on different issues, healthcare
services, men’s and woman’s health, brochures, posters, billboards,
newspaper articles and radio advertisements, are used to inform and educate
individuals to make healthier choices.

NSW Department of Health Figure 3.7

The Department of Health
Each state is responsible for the health care of their population. They receive and Ageing developed the
funding from the Australian Government to provide health services, facilities ‘Get Moving’ campaign
and care. Ensuring the public health system is performing to meet the needs
of the NSW population is an important element of this government branch.

Figure 3.8
The NSW Department of Health developed the
‘What are You Doing to Yourself?’ campaign
There are a variety of services that

support the NSW Department of
Health to deliver effective health
promotion. These include:
220 public hospitals
500 community, family and
children’s health centres
area health-services, responsible
for care in all areas of NSW from
the country to the city
the Ambulance Service of NSW,
responsible for the delivery of
pre-hospital care and health-
related transport
the Children’s Hospital at
Westmead, which provides
education workshops for
individuals and families on
various health needs, treatment
of illnesses and diseases and
health promotion programs to
enhance the lives of children.
The NSW Department of Health also uses strategies such as brochures on

domestic violence in a variety of languages, television commercials, articles
in local newspapers on health issues and youth week celebrations. These
strategies all enable individuals to access information to make informed
health choices. The NSW Department of Health also conducts a variety of
health promotion campaigns such as ‘What are You Doing to Yourself’ to
combat binge drinking, ‘Good for Kids, Good for Life—Water’ campaign to
encourage young people to drink water instead of soft drinks, and the ‘Winter
Campaign’ to educate people about the dangers of illness during winter. All of
these services aim to assist people in adopting healthy behaviours in order to
improve their health both now and in the future.
Roads and Traffic Authority

A branch of the NSW State Government, the Roads and Traffic Authority
(RTA) is responsible for issues surrounding road safety. They work towards
ensuring individuals and communities are safe when using the road.

The RTA provides assistance with funding to local councils to ensure roads
are structurally sound for use. They also play a significant role in educating
and equipping skills for individuals to use on the road. Strategies such
as booklets with road rules, brochures relating to drinking driving, car
maintenance and research into road issues such as speeding, fatigue and
overcrowding of cars to inform government policies and laws are some
examples the RTA uses to educate, empower and inform individuals and
communities on road safety. The RTA has developed numerous health
promotion strategies that have had positive impact on road users. These
campaigns include:
‘No one Thinks Big of You’—an anti-speeding message
‘Paranoia’—about mobile random breath test for drink driving
‘No Belt No Brain’—encouraging the use of seat belts
‘The Brain’—about the effect of alcohol and drugs.
The RTA works in partnership with organisations to promote road safety, Figure 3.9
for example with the Lions Clubs providing ‘Stop, Revive, Survive’ stations The RTA promotes
during long weekends and school holidays in conjunction with the RTA’s road-safety messages
health promotion campaign
‘Microsleeps’, which focuses on
driver fatigue. The RTA works
to educate individuals on the
dangers individuals can face on
the road and ways in which to
reduce these harms to improve
the health of drivers, passengers
and bystanders on and around
the road.

1 Evaluate the statement, ‘There is no more the federal, state and local governments can do
to improve the health of individuals’.
2 Research other government agencies linked to health. How accessible are these agencies for
individuals seeking health assistance?
3 Create a brochure of all the government health agencies within your local area and the
health services/products they offer.
4 Discuss the importance of governments and individuals working together to improve the
health of communities.
5 The RTA’s speeding campaign ‘No one Thinks Big of You’ has been deemed as one of the
most recognisable health promotion programs produced. Investigate the campaign and its
purpose and propose the reasons why this campaign has been so successful.

International organisations
Global health issues affect everyone, regardless what country a person
lives in. Health varies considerably from country to country. International
collaboration is important to improve Australia’s health, as Australia is able to
learn from and contribute to international and regional health issues. Working
with health ministers in other countries, and with international organisations
and health and medical institutes enables Australia to set health standards
and structures of support for health promotion. International organisations
can and do assist Australia in developing health policies and resources and in
providing information on how Australia’s health is progressing in comparison
with the health of other nations.
Figure 3.10 The United United Nations

Nations was formed by 51
countries after the end of
The United Nations (UN) helps millions of people around the world. They
World War II aim to give people a voice to share their struggles and fears. The United
Nations plays a crucial role in assisting countries to address issues that they
cannot resolve on their own. The key focus of the United Nations includes
issues relating to children, education, poverty, peace, health, HIV/AIDS,
human rights, climate change, emergencies, and women. Partnerships with
broadcasting networks; celebrities such as Angelina Jolie, Michael Douglas
and Nicole Kidman; non-government organisations, foundations and United
Nations agencies all help to advocate for those less fortunate in the world.
Extending from the United Nations are the United Nations Systems of
Organisations, which play a significant role in assisting Australia to enhance
its health. Organisations such as the World Health Organization (WHO),
World Bank Group, World Trade Organization (WTO), United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the United
Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) promote sustainable living conditions and
basic human rights for all people. Australia works through this international

organisation to enhance the security and economic wellbeing worldwide by

addressing global and national challenges such as conflict prevention, climate
change and terrorism, which ultimately affect the health of the nation.
The World Health Organization

A specialised branch of the United Nations, the World Health Organization
aims to work with others to promote the health of all people. Conferences and
forums allow discussions to take place around health issues that have a global
impact. The main functions of the World Health Organization are:
to give worldwide guidance in the field of health
to cooperate with governments to strengthen the planning, management
and evaluation of national health programs
to develop and transfer appropriate health technology, information and
standards for human health.
As a result of their work, the World Health Organization has assisted in
the reduction of deaths, provided health services, assisted in the campaign to
fight infectious disease and assisted in the development of countries becoming
healthier. Australia is a member of the World Health Organization and in
documents compiled by the Australian Government, such as Australia’s
Health, we show comparisons of Australia’s health to that of other developed
countries. The government then uses these comparisons to develop policies,
procedures and infrastructure to further develop Australia’s health.
World Bank
The World Bank focuses on the inclusion and sustainability of globalisation
to developing countries. The assistance provided through financial and Developing countries
technical support enables developing countries to improve the health those with lower-level
economies whose citizens are
and infrastructure of their populations. In order to achieve this, the two mostly agricultural workers.
development institutions, the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA),
assist countries to make investments in education, health, agriculture and
environmental and natural resource management in order to improve the Natural resource
health of individuals. management the sustainable
management of Australia’s
While Australia is not a developing country, it does have strong links with natural resources, such as
the World Bank and seeks advice on global issues that can affect Australia’s our land, water, marine and
public health. For example, refugees coming to Australia from war-torn biological systems.
countries such as Iran or Iraq, who may have developed mental health issues,
will ultimately affect the health of Australia and the public health care
system. Alternatively, an infectious disease outbreak in a country can affect
a person who has been travelling to that country and once they return to
Australia, can transfer this infectious disease into the Australian community.
Keeping up to date on health issues within the world enables the Australian
Government to plan and implement measures to ensure these issues have
minimal impact on the health of Australians.
Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development

The Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
monitors and evaluates economic trends in countries around the world.
Economic trends have a significant impact on a country’s health status.
The OECD aims to assist countries to achieve sustainable economic growth

and employment, promote trade among countries, promote policies that

demonstrate best practice for the economic and social welfare of a country’s
population and assist developing countries to improve their economies.
The OECD produces comparative data for each country to use in their
planning and development of economic and social welfare. The Australian
Government uses documents such as ‘OECD Health Data 2008—How does
Australia compare’ to identify areas of health that are below global standard’s
or below the standards of other countries. This information is also used in our
government’s biannual document ‘Australia’s Health’ to show improvements
or declines in Australia’s health, health care services and systems and funding
allocation for health promotion and expenditure. The OECD provides the
Australian government and other health agencies with information that can
assist them in developing policies, infrastructure, research and education to
improve the nation’s health.

1 Investigate the various health promotion campaigns or programs one of the international
organisations undertakes. Discuss how this can improve the health of Australia.
2 Assess the statement: ‘What happens in other parts of the world does not impact on the
health of individuals in Australia’.
3 Assess the statement, ‘Individual organisations alone can improve the health of individuals’.
Health promotion approaches

and strategies
Lifestyle/behavioural approaches
Lifestyle a way of Various programs target an individual’s lifestyle and behaviour in order to
living where individual improve their health. These programs aim to develop individual skills to
characteristics combine with
the social and environmental empower people to take control of their behaviour and attitudes. Lifestyle/
conditions. behavioural approaches ensure that individuals:
Develop accurate knowledge about the health consequences of their
lifestyle behaviour, for example, knowing the short- and long-term effects
of obesity on the body.
Find personal meaning and relevance in changing their behaviour/lifestyle,
for example, realising that reducing their drinking habits will bring about
stronger family relationships.
Feel positive towards the outcomes of their behaviour change—feeling a
sense of achievement as they reach milestones.
Are empowered in their ability to make the behaviour change.
Are accepted by their peers and communities positively as a result of their
behaviour change.
Are equipped with skills to cope with difficult situations or relapses to
their previous lifestyle/behavioural patterns.

Recapturing the active Australian

Knowing is not enough; it is doing problems that frequently accompany ‘People tend to be more biased
that counts, writes Julie Robotham. chronic illness. towards the present,’ says Olver, the
‘There is nobody who smokes who Workforce participation among chief executive of Cancer Council
doesn’t know it’s bad for them. Nobody people who rate their own health very Australia.
who is obese, who doesn’t know it’s good or excellent is double that of He says health messages must
bad for their health,’ says Professor Ron those who say their health is only fair acknowledge the power of instant
Penny. ‘The question is, why don’t they or poor, according to Victorian sta- gratification. ‘The benefits of not
stop smoking? Why don’t they lose tistics. The World Health Orga-nization getting skin cancer are well down the
weight?’ says a country’s economic growth can track,’ he says. ‘But sunburn is painful
The National Health and Hos- be linked directly to citizens’ health. tomorrow.’
pitals Reform Commission pulls no Disease prevention is a government Even the basic assumption that
punches in nominating chronic dis- dream—one of few defences against people know what is good for them
ease—mainly caused or worsened by the looming tsunami of health-care may be misplaced. Trevor Shilton,
un-healthy lifestyles—among the most demand from ageing baby boomers. the Heart Foundation’s physical ac-
critical problems facing any future The reform commission has pro- tivity spokesman, said a recent West
Australian health system. posed a new statutory agency, in- Australian survey showed people un-
But Penny, a senior clinical ad- dependent of the health department, derstood broadly that regular exercise
viser to NSW Health and one of 10 to oversee prevention and health pro- was good, but only a small minority
commissioners who wrote this week’s motion activities. could nominate specific health ben-
first-draft health blueprint, says the It would, in the commission’s words, efits—which include less likelihood
solutions are less obvious than they ‘translate the sometimes easy rhetoric of developing heart disease and
might seem. [of prevention] into hard reality’ with diabetes.
Cast-iron evidence links poor diet research and campaigns and agitating Many people see exercise as a means
to heart disease, diabetes and cancer, for all portfolios to consider the health of losing weight and do not appreciate
but that alone does not change people’s impact of new policies. its independent effects, Shilton says.
behaviour. The scientific study of what The last point acknowledges health He also favours accentuating the
might influence people, nudging them professionals’ concern that the basic positives—especially the immediate
out of a lifetime of sloth and junk food infrastructure of modern life—long ones.
into better habits, is in its infancy, working hours, disproportionately ex- ‘What else can you take once a
and—since an individual’s health pensive fresh food, suburbs that repel day that gives you all those benefits
changes subtly over years—it can be pedestrians—can thwart individual and no side-effects?’ he says, arguing
hard to attribute improvements directly good intentions. promotion of physical activity should
to a single lifestyle change. But the problems go deeper still. concentrate on pleasure and social
After researchers packed up and Half the population, by the Bureau of opportunity.
left people to their own devices, Statistics’ reckoning, has insufficient And well-meaning, homespun cam-
many initiatives proved unsustainable. literacy, numeracy, form-filling or paigns ‘pale into insignificance com-
Failed diets, abandoned gym mem- problem-solving ability to navigate pared to the advertising of alcohol and
berships and smoking relapses are so everyday life and work—or, by ex- junk food’, Shilton says, estimating a
common as to look like the natural tension, manage their own health. national exercise marketing campaign
order. Add to that some fundamentals intense enough to enter the collective
But the stakes are high enough to of human nature. One difficulty in consciousness would cost $200 million
keep trying. Perhaps two-thirds of convincing people to modify their a year.
long-term diseases could be improved lifestyle, says Professor Ian Olver, is More compelling still would be
by what might appear simple changes that the benefits accrue in the distant the opportunity to change by ex-
to food, physical activity or alcohol future. The prospect of sun-induced ample. Once a critical mass of people
and tobacco use. The same measures melanoma in middle age may be starts cycling to work, it becomes
could cut cancer deaths by a third—a beyond the imaginative reach of the unremarkable for others to join them.
conservative estimate. pre-teen who loathes her dorky school ‘We like to think of ourselves as
And the costs of not making such hat. Bowel cancer risk statistics are healthy, active Australians,’ he says.
changes spread well beyond those unlikely to redirect someone with a ‘Unfortunately that culture has some-
individuals whose potential is blighted bacon craving towards the Bircher what deserted us. We need to recapture
by the poverty, pain and psychological muesli. that.’
Sydney Morning Herald,

21 February 2009

Lifestyle and behavioural change can be difficult if left solely up to

the individual. Health promotion programs, such as the National Tobacco
Campaign, assist individuals to change their behaviour through a variety of
measures, such as the QUITLINE phone service, a free service where people
trying to quit smoking can access someone at any time if they need information
about changing their smoking patterns, support when they are trying to quit,
or reinforcement that reaching a milestone, such as not having a cigarette for
two weeks, is a positive change in their behaviour. Alternatively, the makers
of Nicorette deliver a health promotion program through their website, which
provides information on why individuals should quit smoking, what happens
when you quit smoking and tips to help you quit (as well as promoting their
product). Providing individuals with the knowledge and skills to make changes
in their lifestyle and behaviour is an essential component of this approach.
This form of health promotion is usually successful for an individual who is
motivated to change their behaviour, is well educated and has greater control
over the social and material resources that affect their lives.
While these programs are a good starting point to change an individual’s
health behaviours, combining lifestyle/behavioural approaches is more
effective when in partnership with other means of health promotion. If
individuals are to change their lifestyle, then health promotion needs to target
not only the individual but also the social and living conditions in which they
interact. The ideal lifestyle for optimal health varies for people depending
on their culture, income, family, gender, age and current health status. It is
imperative, therefore, that when health promotion programs aimed at lifestyle
or behaviour changes are developed, the current needs of the population it is
targeting are addressed.

Refer to the article ‘Recapturing the active Australian’ to complete the following questions.
1 If, as stated in the article, ‘There is nobody who smokes who doesn’t know it’s bad for them.
Nobody is obese, who doesn’t know it’s bad for their health’. Discuss why individuals do not
just stop smoking or lose weight.
2 Explain why unhealthy lifestyles are the most critical problems facing any future Australian
health system.
3 Propose why strategies targeting individuals, such as fad diets and gym memberships, fail
to bring about positive behaviour change.
4 Outline the reasons given in the article for why individuals find it hard to change unhealthy
behaviours.
5 Critically analyse the statement, ‘We like to think of ourselves as healthy active Australians’.
6 Propose strategies individuals can undertake to enhance their health.
Giving individuals the opportunity to gain knowledge about health issues

through health education in schools, workplaces or local communities is
essential in equipping individuals with the knowledge and skills necessary to
make healthy choices. Health education will take into account the social and
environmental factors, which significantly affect the decision-making skills of

an individual, as well as the risk factors and behaviours individuals display.

Providing health education opportunities empowers individuals to take
control of their lives and advocate for health issues relevant to them.
Preventative medical approaches

Many illnesses and diseases can be prevented using vaccinations and health
screenings. Using these measures can protect people from developing certain
health issues. If an individual has a genetic predisposition to a particular
health problem, preventative measures can be put in place to reduce the
likelihood of the illness or disease occurring. Preventative approaches include
childhood immunisation and cancer screenings. These approaches have Immunisation to make
immune, especially by
proven to be effective in enhancing the health of individuals.
inoculation.
Immunisation
Immunisations are recommended for population groups who are at higher risk
from vaccine-preventable diseases. The government funds some vaccinations
free of charge, such as the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination that
protects young women and girls against most cervical cancers. The Australian
Immunisation Program distributes and administers various immunisations
through states and territories. While immunisation is clearly a preventative
measure and considered a preventative medical approach, it is also
considered a public health measure as it can be administered through public
health programs.
Childhood immunisation
Immunisation is a key preventative approach throughout childhood. The
National Immunisation Program Schedule in 2006–2007 covered children’s
vaccinations for diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), polio,
measles, mumps, rubella, meningococcal type C disease, varicella (chicken
pox), pneumococcal disease, hepatitis B and rotavirus. Additionally for
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children living in high-risk areas,
hepatitis A is covered.
Table 3.2 Childhood vaccinations by state and territory, 2006–2007
Provider type NSW Vic Qld WA SA Tas ACT NT Aust (a)

General practice 940 229 528 876 675 433 215 650 180 666 65 738 30 698 1 968 2 639 258
Local government council 46 102 400 437 52 862 17 449 64 488 6 508 0 0 587 846
Community health centre 81 743 3 159 57 742 61 397 19 875 475 23 760 51 598 299 841
Hospital 14 140 8 242 25 750 18 729 1 294 155 245 6 200 74 950
Aboriginal health service or worker 5 712 1 589 9 034 3 380 1 825 0 36 7 353 28 929
State/territory health department 0 0 68 25 859 333 0 17 109 26 386
Other 238 20 2 149 0 128 0 0 0 2 535
Total 1 088 164 942 323 823 038 342 464 268 609 72 876 54 756 67 228 3 659 745
(a) Includes Cocos/Keeling Island, Christmas Island, Norfolk Island and unknown; therefore rows do not add to the
‘Australia’ column.
Medicare Australia unpublished data


1 Explain why the government vaccinates children against each of the diseases or illnesses
listed above.
2 Using table 3.2, explain why these places have been chosen to administer vaccinations.
3 Propose places where it may be more effective to deliver immunisations to children.
4 Investigate whether you were immunised as a child. Explain why your parents chose or
chose not to immunise you against these childhood illnesses.
Deadly danger of dismissing shots

BY KATE SIKORA AND CLEMENTINE CUNEO
ANCIENT diseases wiped out by vac- levels at 95 per cent—enough to ward ‘An outbreak of measles in
cines are festering in pockets across off the diseases. Queensland can be traced back to areas
the state where parents continue to But health officials are already with low immunisation rates around
refuse to vaccinate their children. extremely concerned about the spread the Sunshine Coast. That’s why the
Health experts last night warned of the of whooping cough, with 3356 cases measles outbreak has happened—and
return of potentially deadly illnesses, already diagnosed this year. in unvaccinated kids.
as a whooping cough epidemic already Newborn babies could soon be ‘We want to keep immunisation
sweeps across NSW. given whooping cough vaccines fol- rates really high because some children
The National Centre for Immun- lowing an outbreak that has reached can’t be protected because they have
isation Research and Surveillance has epidemic proportions and this week disease or illness or problems with
identified four areas in which diseases claimed its first life in a decade. their immune system.’
are incubating because parents do not But Australian Vaccination Net-
vaccinate their children. Editorial: The jabs that stop disease work, which is against immunisation,
The centre’s director Peter McIntyre On Monday, a four-week-old baby de-fended parents’ rights.
has warned that children living on the from the Tweed Heads area died of President Meryl Dorey said parents
North Coast, South Coast, Southern whooping cough. who did not vaccinate their child
Highlands and in the Blue Mountains Following that tragedy, NSW Health should still be entitled to claim the
were most at risk. announced it would offer free vac- maternity immunisation allowance.
Suburb by suburb: Vaccination per- cines for new parents, grandparents ‘A lot of people start vaccinating
centage rates. How does your area and those who care for new babies. and then their child has a reaction so
stack up? It also will lower the age at which they start researching and then stop.
‘About 25 to 30 per cent of children the vaccine can be given to a baby, from ‘What we are annoyed at is that
on the North Coast aren’t getting their eight weeks to six weeks. parents who get their child vaccinated
whooping cough vaccine,’ Professor However, in the future babies could are getting a payment from the
McIntyre said. ‘Your child is at risk.’ be given the vaccine from birth. Government,’ she said.
On average, just 3 per cent of A trial by the National Centre for ‘It’s a bribe and we don’t support
children in NSW are not vaccinated. Immunisation Research Surveillance it. It’s very hard to get good, objective
Professor McIntyre warned that at Westmead, conducted last year, advice on both sides of the story.’
if the current level of immunisations proved successful and is now being South Coast mother Karen Nelson
drops, it could bring the return of extended to involve hundreds of started her children on a vaccination
diseases including polio and tubercu- children this year. program but stopped when one
losis, effectively wiped out through ‘Anti-vaccination groups say that became blind in an eye. She said it was
widespread vaccination. clean living and good food is (the a personal choice for her family.
Lazy few are gambling with lives reason) we have low rates of diseases ‘I did my own research and my
However, he said there is no need for and that a healthy lifestyle is better husband was never vaccinated,’ she
panic as there has not been a recorded protection but there’s a lot of things said. ‘I do get a lot of questions and
case of polio or diphtheria in Australia that clean living cannot protect us remarks when I tell people. It’s an
in decades, with current immunisation from,’ he said. individual choice.’
The Daily Telegraph, 12 March 2009


Read the article ‘Deadly danger of dismissing shots’ and complete the following questions.
1 Outline why health experts are concerned about some potentially deadly illnesses returning
in some areas of NSW.
2 List the areas where immunisation levels are lowest. Describe the impact this could have on
health in these areas.
3 Outline the health issues experts are most concerned about for young children.
4 Discuss the benefits of immunising children at a young age.
5 Discuss why the government has introduced the maternity immunisation allowance for
some families.
6 Propose why the Eastern Suburbs, a wealthy and highly educated area, has the lowest levels
of immunisation.
7 Assess the role immunisation plays in enhancing the health of an individual and community.
8 Debate the following topic: ‘All children should be immunised against childhood diseases’.
Adult immunisation
Influenza and pneumococcal vaccines are provided free to all Australians
aged 65 years and over, and Indigenous Australians aged 50 years and over.
These population groups are at greater risk of these illnesses and diseases
due to their reduced immunity. These vaccinations assist in lessening the
severity of the disease or illness. Some workplaces such as schools or
day-care centres offer their staff free vaccinations for influenza, as they are
in an area of high contamination, particularly during winter, and employers
want to minimise the chances of their staff being infected.
Screening
Screening plays a significant role in preventing illness and diseases. Testing
for, or having a procedure to check for, a disease or illness before it occurs
is important in ensuring good health. Screening can also assist people in
the early detection of an illness or disease. There are a variety of screening
services in the community, such as full-body screening, heart screening and
cancer screening. These procedures enable individuals to take greater control
of their health if they are susceptible to certain illnesses and diseases.
National screening programs for breast, cervical and bowel cancers are
conducted to reduce the mortality and morbidity of these cancers. The
Australian Government provides these screening programs free for people
who are in the high-risk target age group for these diseases. For example,
the BreastScreen Australia program provides free mammogram screening to
women aged over 50 years and the National Bowel Cancer Screening Program
offers free screening for men and women with a family history of bowel
cancer. Other health agencies offer screening at a cost, such as screening of
moles for skin cancer.
BreastScreen Australia is jointly funded by federal, state and territory
governments. It aims to reduce mortality and morbidity from breast cancer
by actively recruiting women in the target age group 50–69 years who do

not have symptoms to undergo screening. The program comprises a network

of dedicated screening and assessment services throughout metropolitan,
rural and remote areas of all Australian states and territories. Services are
available through both fixed and mobile centres. They provide free twice-
yearly mammograph screening and follow-up of any suspicious breast areas
identified at screening, to the point of either diagnosis of breast cancer or
confirmation of the absence of the cancer. As well as those from the target age
group, females aged 40–49 years and 70 years and over may use the screening
service. Attendance at the service does not require a doctor’s referral.
Table 3.3
Participation of
Years of screening Target population Participation rate (per cent)
females aged 50–69
1996–1997 844 626 51.4
years in BreastScreen
Australia 1996–1997 to 1998–1999 975 511 55.7
2004–2005
2000–2001 1 063 585 56.9
2002–2003 1 118 146 56.2
2004–2005 1 188 720 56.2
Note: rates are the number of females screened as a percentage of the eligible female population calculated as the
average of the Australian Bureau of Statistics estimated resident population and age-standardised to the Australian
population at 30 June 2001.
AIHW analysis of BreastScreen Australia data

1 Morbidity rates for breast cancer have increased over the years; discuss how screening has
affected this increase.
2 Justify why 50–69-year-old women should have free breast cancer screening rather than to
other population groups.
3 Propose ways to encourage more women from the target age group to participate in
BreastScreen Australia’s screening programs.
The National Bowel Cancer Screening Program aims to reduce the

incidence and mortality of bowel cancer through early screening to detect
abnormalities of the colon and rectum. The first phase of the National Bowel
Cancer Screening Program has three components:
initial screening of people aged 50, 55 or 65 years of age
re-screening of those people who participated in the Bowel Cancer
Screening Pilot Program
screening of people who were invited to participate in the Bowel Cancer
Screening Pilot Program but declined.
Unlike the breast or cervical screening programs, eligible people are
personally invited to participate in the program. Invitation packs, including
a faecal occult blood test (FOBT) kit, are sent directly to eligible people
by Medicare Australia and participants are asked to post their completed
FOBT to the program’s pathology laboratory for analysis. Participants with a
positive result, indicating blood in their faeces, are advised to consult their

general practitioner to discuss further testing. The program is coordinated at

the national level by the Australian Government Department of Health and
Ageing with assistance from the states and territories.

1 Investigate the various screening processes available to check for illnesses and disease.
2 Create a poster to advertise the benefits of one of the health screenings available in your
local area.
3 Discuss the role screening plays in improving the health of individuals.
4 Examine other health issues that would benefit from free screening programs to enhance
an individual’s health.
Public health approaches

Public health approaches are undertaken on a large scale. They seek to
include a large number of people with maximum involvement. Usually these
approaches endeavour to improve the health and safety of all individuals by
addressing underlying risk factors. Public health approaches try to encompass
whole communities to embrace positive behaviour change. A number of
public health approaches have been used in Australia, such as health-
promoting schools and WorkCover. These approaches are implemented on a
mass scale to ensure maximum involvement and coverage of individuals.
Health-promoting schools
Health-promoting schools are a key public health approach used in Australia.
The approach focuses on the interaction between health and education sectors
to improve the health of children and young people. It has an organised set of
policies, practices, activities and structures, designed to protect and promote
the health and wellbeing of students, staff and the wider school community Figure 3.11
members, while providing consistent messages to school, home and within Health-promoting schools
the community. follow strategic principles
A health-promoting
school encompasses three
Provides safe,
important areas that interrelate Addresses the supportive Promotes health
intrinsically to enhance the health and environments and wellbeing
wellbeing of staff of students
health and learning outcomes
of its community. The three
areas are:
Collaborates Uphold social
curriculum, teaching and with the local
Principles of
justice and
learning practices community Health Promoting equity concepts
Schools
school organisation, ethos
and environment
partnerships and services. Integrates Involves
into the school’s student participation
ongoing activities and empowerment
Links health and
education issues

The curriculum, teaching

health promoting
passive
and learning practices are
student centred teaching shade schools policy
experiential
recreation areas
resource allocation
specific to the content delivered
clean physical
planned sequential
learning for health
activity areas to students and staff. They
curriculum school
curriculum
teaching
organisation,
caring ethos underpins
social interactions
involve health-related topics
ethos and occupational health
preservice and learning
environment and safety integrated into all subject areas,
inservice training
respectful of diversity based on social
justice principles
for example, reading a story that
health topics integrated
into other subjects
friendly waste disposal covers drug issues in English,
staff health
and welfare painting pictures of healthy
and unhealthy foods during
local health services
contribute to school health partnerships
community use of
school facilities
art, cross-age peer tutoring and
through – screening, and services
immunisation, education of alliances formed with cooperative and collaborative
teachers and parents, expert health, welfare and local
advice on referral and policy community agencies learning. They entail sequencing
development school welfare services
school community members involved in of content so that students can
initiation, development and implementation of
school health policies and program build, refine and enhance their
health literacy skills to make
informed health choices.
The school organisation, ethos and environment encompass school
policies relating to health: acceptance of diversity through school events, such
as international week; a safe and caring environment that respects students,
Figure 3.12 staff and parents; and allocating resources to improve health facilities.
Health-promoting schools Examples of policies and programs include providing extra space for physical
model activity, anti-bullying policies, and installing shade cloths over play areas.
Establishing partnerships and services to enhance the health of the school
involve working with outside organisations. Examples include school visits
by police to talk about safe partying, experts on raising teenagers giving
workshops to parents and staff of the school, and sharing school facilities
such as gymnasiums and ovals with community groups to enhance physical
activity opportunities.
A health-promoting schools’ approach is able to target many individuals
at once: students, staff, families and the wider community. Through the
provision of education, school organisation, ethos and environment, and
improved partnerships within the community, this approach to health
promotion can have positive impacts on the health of individuals.

1 For each of the areas incorporated in a health-promoting school:
a curriculum, teaching and learning
b school organisation, ethos and environment
c partnerships and services.
Identify the various strategies your school undertakes for each area. Propose strategies to
improve each area at your school.
2 Summarise why some schools struggle to become health-promoting schools.
3 Assess the role school environments play in enhancing the health of individuals.
4 Propose ways in which your school can enhance partnerships with health agencies in your
local community.

WorkCover
WorkCover NSW is a statutory authority
that works in partnership with the NSW
community to create safe workplaces,
effective return-to-work procedures
and security for injured workers. They
administer and enforce compliance with
occupational health and safety (OH&S),
injury management, return-to-work and
workers’ compensation legislation and
manage the workers’ compensation system.
They have access to all workplaces and are,
therefore, able to target specific issues to
enhance individuals’ health. WorkCover has
undertaken a number of health promotion
initiatives to improve safety and wellbeing in
the workplace. The ‘Homecoming’ campaign
uses a television commercial to highlight the
affect of a worker potentially not returning
from work because they might have had an
accident and showing the effect on their
family. The campaign also uses posters to
remind individuals that workplace safety
doesn’t just affect those at work.
Other strategies, such as information on
sun safety at work, managing safety risks,
workplace safety summits are effective
methods implemented by WorkCover to
enhance the safety and health of individuals Figure 3.13
in the workplace. More information Sun safety is one of the
many workplace health
relating to WorkCover can be found in
and safety issues that
Peak Performance 2 HSC PDHPE. WorkCover promotes

1 Recall all the strategies you know that improve health and safety in the workplace.
2 Assess the statement, ‘All workplaces have a duty of care to their employees to keep them
safe, regardless of age, gender or nationality’.
3 Investigate a workplace and examine the strategies in place to enhance the health of
individuals. Propose strategies to improve the health of this workplace.
4 Health promotion strategies aim to improve the health of young people. Using various
health-promotion programs targeting young people, for example, ‘the dark side of tanning’.
Assess the effectiveness of these programs in improving the health of young people.
5 Improving the health of all Australians takes a variety of health promotion approaches.
Propose other actions that may improve the health of all Australians. Justify why you think
these actions would enhance the health of Australians.

The Ottawa Charter

As a response to the emergence of the new public health approach towards
health, in 1986 the first International Conference on Health Promotion took
place in Ottawa, Canada. The conference built upon previous progress in
health relating to the Declaration on Primary Health Care at Alma-Ata, the
publication WHO Targets for Health for All, and an intersectoral approach
for health. The Ottawa Charter Framework for Health Promotion underpins
all work surrounding health promotion, as it addresses not only the social
and cultural factors that can alter an individuals behaviour to make positive
health choices, but also ensures equity—as achieving good health is attainable
for all individuals.
The Ottawa Charter recognises that these factors must work together to
improve the health status of individuals and communities through five areas:
developing personal skills
creating supportive environments
strengthening community action
reorienting health services
building healthy public policy.
Subsequent health promotion conferences have led to further development
in the promotion of health. These developments continue to build on, or
stand alongside, the Ottawa Charter Framework for Health Promotion.
Australia, 1988, Adelaide Declaration—a new concept of health public
policy was clarified and a call for political commitment to health by all.
Sweden, 1991, Sundsvall—the concept of supportive environments
conducive to health and the links with sustainable development were
established, as was the priority of tackling health inequalities.
Indonesia, 1997, Jakarta Declaration—key focus on bringing health
promotion into the twenty-first century included: promoting social
responsibility for health, increasing investments for health development,
consolidating and expanding partnerships in health, increasing community
capacity and empowering the individual, securing an infrastructure for
health promotion.
Mexico, 2000, Mexico City Declaration—key focus on addressing the
determinants of health and ensuring greater equity in health through
strengthening the ‘science and art’ of health promotion, and strengthening
political skills and actions for health promotion.
Thailand, 2005, Bangkok Charter—key focus for health promotion
includes: placing health on a global agenda, ensuring the promotion of
health is a core responsibility for all governments, the promotion of health
as a key focus for communities and society, and that the corporate sector
has a responsibility in ensuring good health and safety practice in the
workplace.
In addition to these key focuses, the World Health Assembly has also
ratified frameworks and strategies specific to various health issues.
These include the 2004 ratification of a Framework Convention on
Tobacco Control, adopting resolutions on the promotion of healthy
lifestyles, and the Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health.
These frameworks and strategies are developed by various regions in the
world to address the wider health issues of the region.

Developing personal skills

In order for individuals to achieve good health, they must develop the
personal skills and abilities, so they can make the positive behaviour changes
to meet the demands of everyday life. Individuals need to refine and modify
poor health behaviours to improve their health. Providing individuals with
information, education and life skills enables them to exert control over their
actions and increases the options available to them. Enabling or empowering
people to develop skills that will assist them in preventing or treating disease
or illness, is a positive step towards individuals achieving good health.
Developing personal skills such as decision making, problem solving,
self-awareness, critiquing information, planning for change, developing
time-management skills, and refining communication and assertiveness
skills will assist individuals to make positive health decisions.
Enabling people to make positive behaviour changes can be achieved
through:
compulsory PDHPE lessons in schools from kindergarten to Year 10 where
skills on coping with change, resilience and lifestyle diseases are taught
television and radio commercials that encourage individuals to make
positive health choices
making sure brochures on accessing health services are provided in a
variety of languages to cater for the diversity of communities
time-management seminars to develop skills around organising time to
look after your health
development of communication skills, such as assertiveness skills
developing health literacy skills to enable individuals to understand
different health products and services
English-speaking courses for new migrants to Australia.
Creating supportive environments

The environments in which we live, work and play have a significant impact
on an individual’s health. Communities play a significant role in ensuring
these environments are conducive to good health. Supportive environments
aim to take care of the members of the community, as well as caring for
their environment. Within these environments people are able to develop
their capabilities to expand and improve their health status. Collaboratively
working with communities, workplace and social groups to recognise and
support individuals in healthy lifestyle choices is important. Ensuring
supportive environments are protected, maintained, safe, stimulating and
enjoyable is essential to sustain good health.
Creating supportive environments can be achieved through:
childcare centres in workplaces
needle exchange programs
safety electrical switches in the home
speed humps, roundabouts and speed limits
sun protection for outdoor areas
modifying sports for young children e.g. kanga cricket, netta netball
providing counsellors where needed e.g. in schools.

Strengthening community action

When communities join to take action for their health, we can see positive
improvements. Communities who make decisions, plan strategies and
implement them to improve health for their population generally see
improved health benefits. When communities take ownership of the health
issues they face and advocate for change, they are more likely to embrace
these changes. Empowering communities to take control of their needs and
decide how they can best work towards meeting these needs is essential for
positive health behaviour change. In order for communities to take action,
forming partnerships with health agencies or government or non-government
agencies can assist them to implement strategies, access and gain information,
and create opportunities to improve their community’s health.
Strengthening community action can be achieved through:
family planning and HIV/AIDS clinics in communities
community events such as the City2Surf
events such as ‘Clean up Australia Day’
communities lobbying for improvements to their environment, for
example, overhead bridges for students to cross busy roads near schools
encouraging traditional cultural activities within various ethnic groups for
the community, such as Chinese New Year and Greek Easter celebrations
single-parent support groups
YMCA or drop-in centres for young people
text messages to young people to remind them to eat healthy and to
exercise.
On a mission to find homes for the needy

HEATHER QUINLAN
RUNNING 14 kilometres in The Sun-Herald City2Surf to ‘When I was 14, I walked alone up Main Street in Gosford
raise funds for Mission Australia will seem an easy task for and I saw this man lying in a pool of his own urine and
race debutant Sonia Lipski, compared with the difficulties I was appalled at the fact that he was homeless and that
endured by homeless people. people were just walking past like he wasn’t there,’ Ms Lipski
The Miss World Australia runner-up has spent time this said.
year volunteering with the charity’s Missionbeat service on ‘Since then I have always wanted to be more involved
its patrols through the inner city assisting those in need. with the problem of homelessness and to make my own
Ms Lipski, 20, who won Miss World’s 2008 Beauty With contribution.’
a Purpose category for her committed charity work, said she Ms Lipski said she intended to enter the Miss World
was thrilled to be participating in the City2Surf on Sunday, competition next year and continue to work towards
August 10, alongside several Mission Australia clients. combating homelessness.
‘Not only is the City2Surf an amazing, exciting event, but Participants in this year’s City2Surf, along with supporters
people have the chance to fund-raise for a great cause,’ Ms and members of the public, can contribute to the charity
Lipski said. challenge.
Mission Australia—one of four City2Surf partners in this Entrants can set up a personalised fund-raising
year’s charity challenge—works to eliminate homelessness web page, which can be emailed to friends, family and
through its crisis care and services such as financial colleagues, simply by entering the City2Surf at www.
counselling and training assistance. sunherald.com.au.
Each night there are 100 000 people without a home, half Even those not taking part this year can donate via the
of whom are younger than 25, the charity states. race website.
Sun-Herald, 27 July 2008


1 Read the article ‘On a mission to find homes for the needy’. Describe why this person is
participating in the City2Surf.
2 How does the City2Surf strengthen community action to improve health?
3 Investigate what community events exist in your local area. Describe how these events meet
the health needs of your community.
4 Critically analyse how intersectoral collaboration assists communities in taking action to
improve the health of their population.
Reorienting health services

Health services in a community need to be specific to the needs of the
population. They also need to be varied to accommodate the diversity of
health issues that a population faces. The types of health services available
need to incorporate intersectoral collaboration between health institutions,
governments and health practitioners. Using health services can assist in
preventing ill health and in diagnosis, health promotion and rehabilitation.
In some communities, such as in rural locations, health services are limited
and therefore, can affect the health of a population negatively. In order to
ensure equity and access to health services, communities in regional centres
may have mobile services such as breast cancer vans, travelling nutritionists
and The Royal Flying Doctor Service, who visit communities throughout
the year. Ensuring health services are easily accessible to all members of the
community is important to ensure good health is achieved. Reorienting health
services can be achieved through:
mobile vans by youth community groups such as Point Zero patrolling the
streets on weekends to assist young people in need of assistance relating to
alcohol or drugs
local governments providing free bus services late at night on weekends so
people avoid drink driving
cholesterol and blood pressure checks in shopping centres
companies such as Banana Boat handing out free sunscreen at the beach
during summer
increased funding for research on alcohol
baby healthcare centres near public transport to enable mothers without
cars to access help
cervical cancer vaccinations being conducted in schools.
Building healthy public policy

In order to assist individuals and communities to improve their health,
governments, organisations, workplaces and schools need to implement
policies, guidelines and rules that work towards achieving good health. These
policies are aimed at providing supportive environments in which individuals
and communities can lead healthy lives. Policies enable governments and
organisations to be accountable. Policies can assist or hinder an individual’s

or community’s health and, therefore, governments and organisations are

accountable in ensuring policies are aimed at improving health outcomes.
Policies need to encompass every aspect of an individual’s life, if they are to
be effective in improving the health status of a population.
Some healthy public policies are:
anti-discrimination laws
guidelines on the use of solariums
school anti-bullying policies
age restrictions for drinking alcohol
age restrictions for different levels of driving, e.g. learner’s permit 16 years,
P-plate drivers 17 years
compulsory third-party car insurance, to cover someone if they are injured
physical activity guidelines for children and adults.
Planning a Healthier Environment

The Planning Institute of Australia The National Planning Guide and as schools, shops, parks and public
and its partners believe we need website, and associated advocacy transport; provision of walking and
‘Healthy Spaces and Places’. Anne work, aim to fill an identified gap at cycling facilities (e.g. footpaths and
Moroney explains why. the national level. While research in cycleways); facilities for physical activity
The facts of Australia’s obesity multiple disciplines – medical, health (such as sports centres and swimming
epidemic are well known. With more promotion and health prevention, pools); activity centres with a variety of
than 60% of adults and one in four urban studies and planning, and uses; and transport infrastructure and
children overweight or obese this is transport planning – has consistently systems (including public transport),
widely seen as one of our greatest public concluded that there is a relationship linking housing to jobs in commercial
health challenges. The Preventative between the built environment and and business areas.
Health Taskforce, appointed by the health, there has not been the same Planners and other built environ-
Commonwealth Government in April consistency to solutions. ment professions can help improve
2008, has found that addressing the Healthy Spaces and Places is a part- the health of people at every level from
burden of chronic disease caused by nership between the National Heart the strategic planning levels of state
obesity, tobacco and excessive alcohol Foundation, the Australian Local or metropolitan plans, to the detailed
consumption requires a coordinated, Government Association and the design of master planned neighbour-
multi-pronged approach to reshape Planning Institute of Australia, with hoods or centre redevelopment pro-
behaviours over time. funding and support by the Australian posals. And it is not only obesity and
Healthy Spaces and Places fits the Government Department of Health and overweight that are at issue. Research
bill as one of these approaches. Its Ageing. Its overall aim is to show the also shows that regular physical activity
work will show how and why planners connection between the built environ- improves people’s physical and mental
and the other built professions are ment and people’s lifelong health and health and wellbeing. It also engenders
critical contributors, along with the wellbeing; to provide tools (often by a sense of belonging in a community
health professions, decision makers way of example) to those who can and is a fundamental building block of
and communities, if Australia is to make a difference when designing and improving social capital.
respond to the health burden of obesity building new places or redeveloping In order to bring about long-term,
and overweight. existing places; and to show qualitative consistent change, Healthy Spaces and
Currently, the Healthy Spaces and research on the importance of the built Places is aimed at an audience of not
Places project is developing a website environment (those spaces and places) only planners and other built
and complementary National Planning to health and wellbeing. envi-ronment professions but also
Guide showing how well-designed The built environment can promote decision makers including elected
spaces and places can encourage active active living through design elements representatives in governments,
living, so that more people regularly such as suburbs and neighbourhoods communities and the health profession.
walk, cycle, use public transport and that people find interesting and easy Each group has a role and respon-
enjoy physical recreation. to walk around; key facilities such sibility in order for change to be
>>

systemic. Planners and the other affect people’s health; the health other built professions and health
built environment more professions, professions can provide the evidence in professions, Healthy Spaces and Places
governments (including elected repre- support of active living. Communities aims to bridge gaps between the
sentatives) and communities need can push for change with their elected ‘languages’ of these different groups
to better under-stand how the built representatives. that may have impeded understandings
environment can benefit or adversely By bringing together planners and and actions in the past.
Australasian Leisure Management

Magazine, January/February 2009

1 Read the article ‘Planning a Healthier Environment’ and answer the following questions.
a Outline the groups who are collaborating with each other to create a healthier
environment. Discuss why each group would be a part of this project.
b Describe how this project can improve the health of a community.
c Using the five action areas of the Ottawa Charter, outline the strategies this project will
use. Assess the effectiveness of these strategies in building a healthier environment.
d Propose strategies to enhance the ‘healthy spaces and places’ concept.
2 Investigate your school’s rules and guidelines for students. For each rule or guideline, how
does it promote health?
3 Propose new rules that could be added in your school to enhance the health of the school
community.
4 Visit the NSW Road and Traffic website at <www.rta.nsw.gov.au> and investigate the laws
and guidelines relating to road safety. Assess how effective these laws /guidelines are in
reducing road injuries.
Social responsibility for health

While individuals play a key role in being responsible for their health, the
actions and decisions made by both public and private industries impact
directly on an individual’s health. The various sectors of government,
organisations and groups within the community have a responsibility to
ensure policies and practices protect and maintain the health of individuals
and communities. Developing resources to protect the environment,
restricting trade that is harmful to society’s health, safeguarding individuals
and communities from misleading unhealthy advertising, and ensuring equity
across all aspects of the Australian community is the role of all members of
society. Health interventions need to be undertaken in their social context to
ensure sustainable health change is achieved.
The Ottawa Charter is based on a social construct of health, enabling the
partnership of sectors in communities to work together for the greater health
benefits of the individual and their community.

Case study: alcohol abuse in society

Alcohol-related issues are prevalent in society and Creating supportive environments
increasing at an alarming rate. Issues such as binge
• Workplaces providing non-alcoholic drinks for
drinking, underage drinking, alcohol-related violence and
after-work drinks.
drink driving have a significant impact not only on the
• Creating alcohol-free workplaces.
individual consuming the alcohol, but also on society
in general.
• Companies providing counselling services for
employees who are directly or indirectly affected by
In order to address this health issue, various
alcohol-related issues.
government and non-government organisations and
communities have put strategies in place. As this
• Parents supervising teenage parties if there is alcohol.
issue is not in isolation, the use of the Ottawa Charter • Parents modelling responsible drinking in front of
Framework for Health Promotion has been the backbone their children.
in assisting different sectors to work collaboratively • Cooperation between police and festival organisers to
with individuals to bring about positive changes in screen and check people’s bags for alcohol at youth
health behaviour. festivals such as V Festival or Good Vibrations.
To see how the Ottawa Charter can be used to combat • Fundraising for charities linked with alcohol issues,
alcohol abuse in Australia, a variety of strategies that such as domestic violence charities.
have been used across a number of health promotion • Pubs and clubs changing cups made of glass to plastic
programs, are applied here to the five action areas of the cups and enforcing the responsible service of alcohol.
Ottawa Charter. • Bouncers at pubs, clubs and parties making sure
people behave responsibly around alcohol.
Developing personal skills
Strengthening community action
• Compulsory PDHPE lessons that focus on the short-
and long-term effects of alcohol on the body. • Supporting Alcoholics Anonymous groups.
• Healthy Harold vans which visit primary schools • Providing support groups for families who have lost
to educate young children about the effects of loved ones to alcohol-related issues such as domestic
alcohol. violence and road accidents.
• Education through schools’ pastoral care programs • Police offering and supervising Blue Light events,
on how to party safely if alcohol is available or how such as hosting alcohol-free dances for young people.
to enjoy yourself at a party without alcohol. • Pubs and clubs having a ‘2 am lock out’ policy to
• Information in magazines such as Woman’s Day and prevent drunken people from entering the premises.
Men’s Health about the impact alcohol can have on • Pubs and clubs offering free bus services to take
the body. patrons home.
• Information in newsletters and university magazines • Offering support groups for victims of sexual assault,
on safe drinking levels for alcohol. which may be fuelled by alcohol abuse.
• Having students practise role-play scenarios • Church communities offering food and shelter to
similar to those young people might face around victims of alcohol-related crimes.
alcohol, so they can practise their problem solving, • Local community activities to engage young people to
communication and assertiveness skills. be active citizens and prevent boredom issues leading
• Knowing how and where to access reputable to the consumption of alcohol.
information relating to alcohol. For example, internet • Communities providing statistics to support
sites such as the Australian Drug Foundation or local the submission for alcohol reforms to the local
community health centres. government in their area.
• Undertaking a first-aid course to develop skills to Reorienting health services
assist people with alcohol-related injuries.
• Creating posters, postcards, coasters, stickers and
• Increased funding for health promotion initiatives to
target underage and binge drinking.
wallet cards to educate people on the dangers of
excessive alcohol consumption. • Registering parties with police to prevent gate
crashers.

• Wheelchair basketball guest speakers to talk about Building healthy public policy
injury prevention relating to alcohol. • Laws on drink driving such as zero Blood Alcohol
• NRMA Road Trauma Forums for young people to Concentration (BAC) for Learners and P-plate drivers.
prevent drink driving. • Laws defining the minimum age for purchasing
• Increased funding for health promotion programs alcohol e.g.18 years and over.
relating to alcohol, particularly for young • Laws relating to responsible service of alcohol for
people. people working in venues that sell alcohol.
• Rebates for driver education courses through car • Local council laws on alcohol-free zones such as
insurance agencies. Bondi Beach.
• The Police Citizens Youth Clubs (PCYC) offering • Standard alcoholic drink guidelines.
activities at night to remove boredom for young people. • Labelling of alcohol content on all alcohol bottles.
• Seminars run by Rotary on harm minimisation for • Increasing taxes on RTDs (alcopops).
adolescents and parents. • Laws against violence and assault, which are often
• Free water handed out at youth festivals such as the fuelled by alcohol abuse.
V Festival and Good Vibrations. • Penalties for serving alcohol to minors.

1 Choose a lifestyle pattern that affects health, such as obesity,
bullying or smoking. Using the five areas of the Ottawa Charter,
outline the strategies that you know exist to improve this area
of health.
2 Research two health promotion programs targeting the lifestyle
pattern you have investigated, and assess how each of these
programs effectively improves the health of individuals and
communities.
3 Imagine you are the Minister for Health. Propose strategies that
could be implemented for your chosen lifestyle health issue to
improve the health of the Australian community.
Principles of social justice

Access to good health should be available to all individuals. While most
people generally have good health, the gap is widening in many areas of the
Australian population. Health inequalities that exist have significant negative
health impacts. Marginalised groups such as those with low socioeconomic
status, Indigenous Australians, people living in rural and remote areas,
people from non-English speaking backgrounds and older people, generally
face poorer levels of health. Health inequalities are usually the result of an
individual being in a disadvantaged social position; of inability to access
information, services and resources; overexposure to various risk factors
such as fast-food outlets and poor living conditions; lack of control over
their own circumstances and a health care system that may be unaffordable.

Unfortunately more and higher quality health services tend to be closer

to those who are well off and need them less, than to those who are poor
or marginalised.
Social justice principles need to be considered to ensure all individuals
have the opportunity to achieve good health. Equity, diversity and supportive
environments underpin the social justice principles.
Equity
In order for all individuals to achieve good health, access to health care
services and information must be fairly distributed. Ensuring communities
have the necessary infrastructure to provide quality health care for a free
or low cost and have the ability to seek out health services regardless
of age, gender or ethnicity is essential for individuals to achieve good
health. Individuals have the right to good health, and governments need
to ensure that all individuals have access to the same health care services
and treatments. For example, people living in rural communities should
have access to a dietician just as people living in the city do. As certain
communities have higher health inequities than others, additional resources
may be provided to reduce these health inequities. This could be through
an increase of health services such as counsellors or through building more
infrastructure such as nursing homes or hospitals. This would ensure greater
equity of resources to those communities in greatest need. In order to reduce
inequities, individuals should be able participate in the decision-making
process within their community in relation to health needs. Individuals
should be active participants in their own lives, planning for and making
decisions about their own health.
Diversity
Australia continues to grow into a diverse nation. From the physical diversity of
the land to the social diversity of its cultures, Australia needs to consider many
factors when addressing various health issues. Ensuring population groups
within society are not discriminated against in terms of age, gender, sexuality or
location is important in achieving good health for individuals. Providing health
information in various languages, placing health services in places easy to
access by public transport, celebrating various cultures and understanding the
different health issues for the various population groups is essential in ensuring
all individuals have the opportunity to achieve good health.
Supportive environments
Providing environments where people are supported is essential to achieving
good health. Homes, workplaces, schools and communities play a vital role in
ensuring all people, regardless of their background, have the opportunity to
be valued and make positive contributions to society. When the environment
around a person supports positive health habits, it is easier for an individual
to make positive choices. Ensuring environments in which people live
are conducive and supportive for positive health is crucial for improving
the health status of individuals. Celebrating the diversity of a community,
empowering individuals and communities to take action on a health issue
close to their heart and enabling people to improve environments is essential
in achieving good health.


1 Investigate the health services in your local area and those in another area about 100 kilometres
away. Compare the health services for each of the areas. Decide if there is a disparity between
them. Propose how the number of services in each area can affect the health of its community.
2 Discuss the impact bulk billing has on the health of an individual in terms of social justice
principles.
3 Identify various health inequities in the community and propose strategies that can be
implemented to reduce these inequities
4 Imagine you are the NSW Minister for Health. You have two applications for a grant of
$100 000. One application is from the inner-city Newtown Council who would like to
build a health centre to cater for mothers with newborn babies. The second application is
from Broken Hill Council, a rural community, who would like to employ another general
practitioner. To whom would you give the grant? Justify your decision.
5 Investigate various health-promotion programs and identify how the social justice principles
have been applied to promote the health of individuals.
chapter review
Recap
Health promotion focuses on advocating, enabling and empowering individuals to make
improvements to their health.
Homes, schools, workplaces and the media are excellent settings where strategies to
improve health can be implemented.
The promotion of health is everyone’s responsibility. Individuals, communities,
governments and organisations need to work in partnership to enhance the health
of individuals.
Intersectoral approaches enable a more collaborative approach to ensuring the
environment in which an individual lives, works and participates promotes positive
health behaviours.
There are various approaches and strategies undertaken to improve the health
of individuals, which include lifestyle behavioural changes, preventative medical
approaches and public health approaches:
Using a variety of health promotion strategies throughout a health-promotion program
is the key to effective behaviour change.
The blueprint for health promotion is based on the Ottawa Charter Framework for Health
Promotion. It consists of five action areas:
– developing personal skills
– creating supportive environments

– strengthening community action

– reorienting health services
– building public policies for health.
Health promotion has continued to develop since the establishment of the Ottawa
Charter. These developments focus more on the social determinants and the
globalisation of health.
Society has a responsibility towards enhancing the health of individuals through the
development of policies and practices that protect and maintain an individual’s health.
Including the social justice principles of equity, diversity and supportive environments
is essential in ensuring positive health is achievable for all members of society.

Australian Institute of Health www.aihw.gov.au Data on health promotion

and Welfare
World Health Organization www.who.int/en Information and data on health promotion
Australian Health Promoting www.ahpsa.org.au Information on health-promoting schools

Schools Association
Australian Government www.health.gov.au Data and information on health-promotion

Department of Health and programs
Ageing
NSW Health www.health.nsw.gov.au Policies and programs that enhance health
WorkCover NSW www.workcover.nsw.gov.au Information and programs on workplace

safety
1 Explain how various settings can be used to improve the health of individuals. (3 marks)
2 Discuss how the different levels of government take responsibility for and (5 marks)
protect the health of the populace.
3 Using a health-promotion initiative relating to an area of life, for example, (12 marks)
food habits, physical activity, drug use, mental health or road safety, assess
the effectiveness this health-promotion initiative has in improving an
individual’s health.

Preliminary
Core
2
The body
in motion

Musculoskeletal
and cardiorespiratory
systems
How do the musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems of the body
influence and respond to movement?
The human body is made up of many complex systems that enable it to function. While it is
4
possible to study anatomy in isolation, the interrelation of anatomy and physiology
makes it hard to separate the two fields. The interrelationships of the skeletal, muscular,
cardiovascular and respiratory systems are paramount in enabling our bodies to respond and
move effectively. Planned training programs can enhance the capacity of some systems of the
body to influence and respond to movement in an enhanced way.
When studying anatomy and physiology it is useful to understand

directional terms—that is, the way the body is described technically.
To understand the structure and functioning of the body, we must be able to Anatomy the study of the body’s
use the anatomical position to locate body parts in relation to one another. structures and how they interrelate.
The universal body position for identifying the location of body parts is: Physiology the function of the
standing straight, with feet together, palms facing forward and thumbs body’s structures and how they work.
pointing away from the body. Being able to locate body parts in relation to
Anatomical position a reference
each other is important in understanding the structure and functioning point within the body that is used to
of the body. describe and locate body parts.
When studying anatomy, the body is usually cut into sections or planes.
Viewing cross-sections of a plane allows us to gain a greater insight into the
body or organ from different views. The three most common planes used in
the body are:
Sagittal plane—a vertical plane that divides the body into left and right
parts
Frontal plane—a vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front)
and posterior (back) parts
Transverse plane—a horizontal plane that divides the body into superior
(top) and inferior (bottom) parts; this is also known as a cross-section.

Figure 4.1
Planes of the body
Frontal plane
Median
(mid-sagittal)
plane
Transverse plane
a b c
Frontal section Transverse section Median
through torso through torso (mid-sagittal)
(superior view) section
Skeletal system
The skeletal system is the framework of the body and is made up of bones,
Cartilage tough, elastic, cartilage, joints and ligaments. The 206 bones in the body enable us to
fibrous tissue found in the function each day, giving us body shape. The skeletal system makes up
body, for example, between
joints, in the nose and in approximately 20 per cent of our body weight.
the ear. Bones perform five main functions in the body:
1 Support—bones provide the framework of the body; they support it and
give the body shape. For example, the vertebrae support the ribs to enable
us to stand.
2 Protection—bones protect vital organs within the body. For example, the
pelvis surrounds the reproductive organs.
3 Movement—in conjunction with muscles, bones act as levers to allow the
body to move. For example, the flexion of the knee joint allows us to kick
a ball.
4 Storage of minerals—bones store minerals needed for the functioning of
the body. For example, calcium is stored in bones.
5 Formation of blood cells—the formation of blood cells occurs in the
cavities of certain bones.

Musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems CHAPTER 4 93
The unique size and shape of each particular bone enable them to serve
specific functions and needs in the body. Bones can be classified in the
following five ways.
1 Long bones—these are long in length and elongated in shape. They consist
of two ends and a shaft. They are made up of a hard shell casing (compact Compact bone an external
bone) and contain spongy bone on the inside. Examples include the layer of tissue that forms the
hard surface of a bone.
femur, humerus, radius and ulna.
2 Short bones—these are cube-like and are mostly made up of spongy bone. Spongy bone the internal
layer of tissue within a bone
A thin layer of compact bone provides the shape. Examples include the that usually looks like a
carpals, metacarpals, tarsals and metatarsals. sponge.
3 Flat bones—these are flat, thin bones that usually protect organs. Examples Sternum the breastbone
include the skull and sternum. found in the upper-middle
section of the chest.
4 Irregular bones—these are bones that do not fall into one of the above
categories; they are usually complicated in shape. Examples include the
vertebrae and pelvis.
5 Sesamoid bones—these are bones found in the body where tendons pass
over a joint, for example, in the foot, knee and hand. They aim to protect
the tendon and increase movement.
Long bones are the major bones involved in movement. They are
structured as follows.
Bone shaft—the long narrow part of the bone that is made of mostly
marrow and compact bone
Epiphysis—the head of the bone containing spongy tissue
Periosteum—the thin, fibrous membrane covering the entire surface of
the bone
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.2 Classification of bones Structure of a long bone
Long bone, Epiphysial

line
e.g. femur of leg
Proximal
Articular
epiphysis
cartilage
Spongy
bone
Medullary
Flat bones, cavity
e.g. parietal
bone of skull Compact
bone
Diaphysis
Short bones, Irregular bone,

e.g. carpals of wrist e.g. vertebra
Distal
epiphysis

The size and shape of bones can influence movement significantly.

Consider the example of bones acting as levers when performing movements
(with the assistance of the muscular system). Long bones make long levers,
and biomechanical principles dictate that great force can be generated when
using long levers. Throwing, kicking and hitting actions all use the long bones
as long levers and, as such, generate significant force. When a bat or racquet is
held in the hand to strike a ball, the length of the lever is effectively increased
and additional force can be generated.
Bones are made of connective tissue that is extremely strong, yet light.
They are made of specialised cells and protein fibres, and they continually
rebuild themselves. The size and shape of a bone adjusts as the bone grows.
In order for bones to continue to grow and be healthy, a continuous
cycle of cell formation occurs. These cells are created in the bone marrow
Medullary cavity the space (bone marrow is produced in the medullary cavity). New cells that form
inside the bone where bone to strengthen the bones are known as osteoblasts. These cells then wrap
marrow is produced.
themselves around the bone tissue, which is known as osteocytes. Other cells,
known as osteoclasts, break down and remove dead cells or unhealthy bone.
Major bones involved in movement

The skeletal system is comprised of two conjoined skeletons: the axial
Axial skeleton consists of skeleton and the appendicular skeleton that, in concert with joints and
the skull, vertebral column and muscles, allow movement.
rib cage; it forms the long axis
of the body.
Axial skeleton
Appendicular skeleton
consists of the upper and The axial skeleton provides the central structure (or long axis) of the skeletal
lower limbs, shoulder and system as shown in figure 4.4. Many of the bones in the axial skeleton do not
hipbones that attach the limbs
move, or move only minimally. They provide the main structure of the overall
to the axial skeleton.
skeleton, and the core stability of the axial skeleton allows the bones of the
joined appendicular skeleton (especially the long bones) to move efficiently,
with both parts of the skeleton relying on the muscles that are attached to
perform their appropriate function of either supporting stability or driving
the movement.
The axial skeleton includes the cranium, vertebral column and rib cage.
Cranium (skull)
The cranium is the most complex bony structure in the body. It is formed by
two sets of bones— the cranial bones and the facial bones—numbering 22 in
total. The cranium bones protect the brain and organs for hearing. The facial
bones form the structure of the face and cavities for the body’s senses. The
skull is classified as a flat bone.
Vertebral column (spine)

The spine is also called the backbone of the human skeleton. It protects the
spinal cord and connects the skull to the pelvis. Its 26 irregular bones (fused
bones are counted as one) are classified into five sections.
Cervical vertebrae—the seven vertebrae of the neck
Thoracic vertebrae—the next 12 vertebrae
Lumbar vertebrae—the five vertebrae supporting the lower back
Sacrum—the five fused vertebrae that connect to the pelvis
Coccyx—the four fused vertebrae, also known as the tailbone

Frontal bone Parietal bone

Zygomatic bone Temporal bone
Cranium
(skull) Maxilla Occipital bone
Mandible (jawbone) Mandible
Pectoral Clavicle Clavicle

girdle Scapula
Scapula
Sternum (shoulder blade)
(breastbone)
Thoracic
Ribs Humerus
cage
Costal
cartilages
Spinal column
Pelvic girdle Os coxae

Ulna
Pelvis (hipbone)
Radius
Carpus Coccyx (tailbone)
(wrist bones)
Metacarpal
bones
Phalanges
Femur (thighbone)
Patella (kneecap)
Fibula (calf bone)
Tibia (shinbone)
Tarsus
(anklebones) Metatarsal
bones Calcaneus
Phalanges
a b
Anterior view Posterior view
Each vertebra is cushioned by an intervertebral disc, which acts like a Figure 4.4
cushion between the bones. The human skeleton—
the axial skeleton is
Rib cage coloured pink
The sternum and 12 pairs of ribs make up the rib cage. All ribs attach to the
posterior part of the vertebrae. Ribs provide protection around the heart and
lungs. Ribs are classified as flat bones and are structured as follows.
The first seven ribs are joined directly to the sternum by cartilage.

The remaining five ribs are indirectly attached to the sternum; they
actually join onto each other.
Ribs 11 and 12 are known as ‘floating’ ribs, as they are only attached
posteriorly.
The appendicular skeleton

The appendicular skeleton includes all of the key long bones that are directly
involved in effecting movement (see figure 4.4). It includes the shoulder
girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle and lower limbs.
Shoulder girdle
The shoulder girdle consists of two bones: the clavicle (also known as the
collarbone) and scapula (also known as the shoulder blade). The clavicle is
classified as a long bone. The scapula is classified as a flat bone. These bones
and surrounding muscles form the shoulder girdle. The appendicular skeleton
is attached to the axial skeleton when the clavicle attaches itself to the
sternum and the scapula attaches to the vertebrae. The shoulder girdle:
provides attachment points for the upper limbs
provides the upper limbs with flexibility and mobility not possible at any
other place in the body.
Upper limbs
Thirty bones comprise the upper limbs, also known as the arm, forearm and
hand. The humerus, a long bone, makes up the arm segment of the upper
limb. The ulna and radius make up the forearm segment of the upper arm.
The ulna and humerus are responsible for the elbow joint.
The radius and carpals are responsible for the hand joint; therefore, when
the radius moves, the hand moves as well.
Carpals are classified as short bones. Eight carpals connected by ligaments
make up the wrist and five metacarpals (long bones) form the palm of the
hand. The carpals, metacarpals and phalanges (fingers) make up the entire
hand segment of the upper limb.
Pelvic girdle (hip)

The pelvic girdle connects the lower limbs to the axial skeleton. It acts as a
transfer point for weight from the upper body to the lower limbs and, as a
result, plays a key role in movement.
The pelvic girdle is secured to the axial skeleton by some of the strongest
ligaments in the body.
Lower limbs
Three segments make up the lower limb: the thigh, leg and foot. Because they
carry the weight of the body when standing, the lower limb bones are thicker
and stronger than bones of the upper limb. The femur, a long bone, makes up
the thigh, and is the largest and strongest bone in the body.
The tibia and fibula make up the leg segment of the lower limb. The tibia
joins with the femur to form the knee joint, while the fibula stabilises the
ankle joint.
The tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges make up the foot segment of the
lower limb. The foot supports and propels our body forward when we move.
Seven tarsals make up the foot. The metatarsals are made up of five small long
bones. In each foot, the toes are made up of 14 phalanges.


1 Identify the type and location of major bones involved in figure 4.5 below.
Figure 4.5 a
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a Leg press
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2 Suggest why the type of bones involved in the exercises are structurally suited to the
movement.
Structure and function of joints

When two or more bones meet, they form a joint. Joints allow the body to Joint area where two or more
move and ensure that the skeleton stays together as it moves. All movements, bones meet.
from running, to throwing, to dancing and sitting are possible because of
joints. Joints are the weakest part of the skeletal system, and are therefore
susceptible to injury that may result in restricted movement.
The function of a joint is based on the amount of movement allowed.
Based on their functionality, joints can be classified as immovable, slightly
moveable and freely moveable. The structure of joints varies depending on the
tissues that join the bones and whether or not there is a joint cavity. There are
three ways to classify joints based on structure.
Fibrous joints—these joints are characterised by fibres joining the ends or
parts of bones together. Fibrous joints use various fibres to connect bones,
including short fibres (sutures), long fibres (syndesmosis) and ligaments
(gomphosis). No joint cavity is present in these types of joints. These fibres
make movement difficult.
Cartilaginous joints—these joints are characterised by cartilage joining the
ends or parts of bones together. They contain no joint cavity and, therefore,
allow only slight movement.
Synovial joints—these joints are enclosed in a capsule and covered with
cartilage and a synovial membrane to allow free movement.

a b c
Fibrous Suture Cartilaginous Cartilage Synovial
Figure 4.6 Synovial joints

Types of joints
Most joints in the body are classified as synovial joints. Synovial joints have
common structural features that enable them to move freely. These include:
synovial cavity—a space where two bones meet
synovial fluid—a rich viscous fluid that acts as lubrication to the bones in
the synovial cavity. It also plays a role in the cleanup of tissue debris from
daily wear and tear on the joint
articular cartilage—covers the end of the bones, provides cushioning and
reduces friction between the bones in the joint
joint capsule—encloses the cavity and keeps the fluid contained
fibrous capsule—encloses the bones, tissues and fluid
synovial membrane—secretes the fluid into the joint
meniscus—cartilage that grows inwards from the joint capsules to absorb
shock, reduce pressure and enhance stability.
Tendons, ligaments and bursae complement synovial joints to ensure
they are stable. While each of these fibres enhances the stability of the joint,
their function is quite different. Tendons join muscle to bone, which enables
Figure 4.7
Features of a synovial joint
Joint cavity filled with synovial fluid

Articular cartilage
Synovial membrane
Fibrous joint capsule
Ligaments

movement of the bones when muscles contract. Ligaments connect bone

to bone and they provide joint stability that permits movement only in the
direction intended for that joint. A bursa is a sac filled with synovial fluid that
acts as a lubricant to facilitate smooth movement of the joint.
Synovial joints can be classified into six categories, which depend on the
shape of the joint. This is shown in figure 4.8. Figure 4.8
Synovial joints of the body
1 PIVOT JOINT—one bone

has a projection that fits into a
ring-like structure of another.
Movement occurs only as a
rotation around another bone.
Example: the radius rotates
around the ulna
4 BALL-AND-SOCKET JOINT
—one bone has a smooth
head that fits into the cup-like
structure of another.
Example: the humerus fits into
the shoulder socket
2 GLIDING/PLANE JOINT
—usually flat and allows
small gliding movements.
Example: joints between
the vertebrae
5 HINGE JOINT—one
bone has a convex surface
that fits into a concave of
another. Movement usually
occurs in only one plane.
Example: bending and
straightening at the elbow
3 SADDLE JOINT—
shaped like a saddle,
concave in one direction
and convex in the other. 6 CONDYLOID/ELLIPSOIDAL JOINT
Example: the carpals at —an oval convex surface where
the base of the thumb one bone slides over or fits into a
similar-shaped bone.
Example: carpals in the hand

Joint actions
Joints produce actions in various ways. These actions can be grouped to
Figure 4.9
a Cervical flexion
describe opposite or contrasting movements.
b Elbow flexion Flexion—movement at the joint reduces the angle between the bones
a b
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Figure 4.10
a Cervical extension
b Elbow extension Extension—movement at the joint increases the angle between the bones
a b
Hyperextension—movement makes the joint go beyond its normal range

of motion
Figure 4.11
Shoulder hyperextension
Circumduction—the entire limb rotates in a circular motion while the

proximal end stays stationary
Figure 4.12
Hip circumduction

Abduction—the limb is moved away from the midline of the body

Figure 4.13
Shoulder abduction
Adduction—the limb is moved towards the midline of the body
Figure 4.14
Shoulder adduction
Dorsiflexion—this movement is a flexing motion (the foot flexes towards

the shin)
Figure 4.15
Dorsi flexion
Plantar flexion—this movement is a flexing motion (the foot points

towards the ground)
Figure 4.16
Plantar flexion
Supination—the palms face forward and an outward rotation of the

forearms brings the radius and ulna parallel to each other
Figure 4.17
Supination

Pronation—the palms face backwards and an inward rotation of the

forearms rotates the radius over the ulna
Figure 4.18
Pronation
Rotation—the movement of a bone around its own axis

Figure 4.19
Spinal rotation
Inversion—an inverted movement (for example, the sole of your foot is

moved inwards)
Figure 4.20
Inversion
Eversion— an outward movement (for example, the sole of your foot is

moved outwards)
Figure 4.21
Eversion
Elevation—lifting a body part to the superior plane

Figure 4.22
Elevation
Depression—moving a body part to the inferior plane
Figure 4.23
Depression

Movement at a joint varies significantly from one type of joint to another

and from person to person. A person’s range of movement (ROM) affects their
functioning and daily life. The strength of muscles, tendons and ligaments
can affect the stability and range of movement of a joint; for example, tighter
muscles and tendons can restrict ROM.
Reduced range of movement can make a person more prone to injuries as
it places them at greater risk of stretching ligaments, tendons and muscles
beyond their capacity, even when completing simple movements.
Conversely, having a greater ROM can positively influence movement
performance by enabling significant force to be generated. The effect is
increased power and speed. Additionally, some sports, such as gymnastics
and dancing, are particularly reliant on flexibility for aesthetic purposes and
flexibility requires a high level of ROM.

1 Demonstrate how the directional terms are demonstrated in various sports.
2 Investigate issues that can affect joint mobility (e.g. arthritis).
3 In pairs, complete the following skills and identify the joint actions that occur throughout
the movement.
a Sitting on a chair
b Bowling a cricket ball
c Jumping over a hurdle
d Kicking a soccer ball
e Hitting a tennis ball with a racquet
f Writing on a page
g Forming a forward roll
4 Complete the following table.
Bone Location Joint actions(s) Example of how it is used in movement
Humerus
Clavicle
Tibia
Tarsals
Phalanges
Vertebrae
Cranium
Ulna
Femur
Scapula

4 Examine figure 4.24 below. Identify the major joint actions involved at each of the three
stages of the movements.
Figure 4.24 a
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The muscular system

Muscles enable us to move, breathe and communicate; provide stability so we
can stand upright; and serve many internal bodily functions. Muscles come in
various shapes and sizes and make up approximately 40 per cent of our body
weight. There are approximately 640 muscles in the body, so their ability
to convert energy and enable us to function is crucial to our everyday lives.
Myofilament the term for Muscle fibres are elongated cells and require two types of myofilaments to
the chains of (primarily) actin contract: actin and myosin. These two proteins assist with the contraction of
and myosin that pack a muscle
fibre.
muscles to produce movement. The study of muscles is called myology.
There are three types of muscles in the body:
Actin a protein that aids cell
movement, important in the 1 Cardiac—these are only found in the heart. The muscle is striated in
contraction of muscles. texture but works involuntarily, so we have little control over the number
of times our heart beats. At times, our body may need to increase the
Myosin a protein that forms
the thick myofilaments of intensity of the heart’s pumping action—usually when undertaking
muscle and binds with actin for cardiovascular activity. Our heart accommodates these periods of time to
muscle contraction. ensure adequate oxygen is provided to the body.
Myology the study of 2 Smooth—These are found in the walls of organs such as the stomach and
muscles. bladder, and in arteries and veins. They are non-striated, involuntary and
have long, slim muscle fibres. Contractions are slow and sustained.
3 Skeletal—These are the most common types of muscles in the body.
They are named because of their location; they are attached to the bones
of the skeletal system. Skeletal muscles are voluntary and can therefore
be controlled to contract and relax. They are striated in texture, contract
easily and require rest after exercise. These muscles have tremendous
power and strength.
Major muscles involved in movement

Skeletal muscles are made up of a variety of structures that, in partnership
with our bones and joints, provide support and movement for the body.

Individual muscle fibres (or cells) are wrapped

together by layers of connective tissue. These
bundles of muscle fibres are combined to Bone
make the thicker region, or belly, of the
Tendon
muscle. Skeletal muscle fibres are soft and
fragile and are covered with connective tissue
to protect them from being damaged. This
protective covering also provides avenues for Perimysium
Blood vessel
blood vessels and nerves to pass through.
While all muscles play a role in the
Endomysium
everyday activities of our bodies such as (between fibres)
walking, eating gardening and sport, the major
Endomysium
muscles involved are shown in figure 4.26
Fascicle Muscle fibre
below. (wrapped by cell
perimysium)
Figure 4.25 Dissection of a skeletal muscle
Figure 4.26 Major muscles involved in movement
Deltoids Sternocleidomastoid
Raises the arms away Tilts and twists the neck to
from the body to change head direction
front, side and rear
Trapezius Pectoralis major

Rotates, elevates Draws arm in towards
Triceps and retracts body and rotates
Extends the forearm shoulder blades upper arm inward
at the elbow and
straightens arm Biceps brachii
Flexes the
forearm at the
Latissimus dorsi Erector spinae elbow and turns
Pulls the shoulders (sacrospinalis) the palm upward
back; extends and Elevates and
rotates and lowers straightens
arms Rectus abdominis
the spine
Flexes the spine
Internal and and supports
external obliques posture
Flex and rotates
the trunk
Gluteus
medius
Rotates the
thigh when
walking Quadriceps
A group of four
Gluteus maximus muscles that flex
Straightens the hip and extend the
by pulling the thigh knee and hip
back when walking
or running Gastrocnemius
Flexes heel and
Soleus pulls up the heel
Biceps femoris (hamstrings)
Aids forward
Extends thigh at hips; flexes
propulsion when
and rotates leg Tibialis anterior
walking or running
Supports the arch
Achilles tendon
of the foot when
(no movement function)
running

As all movements involve the combination of

Shoulder joint muscles and bones, when a muscle contracts, it
moves one bone relative to another. Where the
Scapula muscle attaches to the relatively stationary end of
the bone, this is called the point of origin. Where the
muscle attaches to the relatively mobile end, this is
called the point of insertion.
Biceps
brachii
Figure 4.27
Origin (O) and insertion (I) of biceps brachii muscle
Ulna
Radius
Visualcoaching® Pro software,

<www.visualcoaching.com>.

1 Research how actin and myosin enable muscles to contract during movement.
2 Participate in the sample gym exercises shown in figure 4.28 on the following page.
For each exercise, use a table like the one below to identify the muscles involved, the
location and points of origin and insertion.
Exercise Muscles Location Point of origin Point of insertion
Bicep curl
Dumbell deep squat
Bench press
Lateral pull down
Lunge walk
Sit-up
Dumbell upright row
Prone alternating
reverse fly
Leg press calf raise

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Bicep curl Dumbell deep squat
Bench press Lat pulldown
Lunge walk Sit-up
Dumbell upright row Prone alternating reverse fly
Leg press calf raise

Figure 4.28 Sample gym exercises <www.visualcoaching.com>.

Muscle fibres
Two types of muscle fibres are responsible for the speed of muscle
contractions: slow twitch (type 1) and fast twitch (type 2). While each fibre
is unique in its ability to contract, every one contains a combination of both
types of fibres. Success in some sports is assisted by the dominant fibre type
that an individual may possess.
Myoglobin a protein that has Slow twitch (type 1) fibres contain large amounts of myoglobin,
oxygen attached; it provides mitochondria and blood capillaries. These fibres are more efficient than fast
reserve levels of oxygen to
muscles during high levels of
twitch at using oxygen to generate the body’s fuel adenosine triphosphate
physical activity. (ATP) for muscle contractions of a continuous period. They work slower and
therefore take longer to fatigue. These muscle fibres are beneficial to people
Mitochondria a cell that is
responsible for breaking down involved in long-distance endurance events such as marathons, triathlons and
nutrients to create energy for ocean swims.
cells. Fast twitch (type 2) fibres do not use oxygen to create fuel and therefore
Adenosine triphosphate are best used for short bursts of speed and strength. They produce the same
(ATP) the chemical compound amount of force as slow twitch fibres, but over a shorter period of time,
found in the body that and fatigue quickly. These muscle fibres are beneficial to people involved
produces energy.
in events requiring short bursts of speed and power such as weightlifting,
Sliding filament theory the sprinting and shot put. Sliding filament theory is the process where the
process where the thin muscle muscles contract the filaments – both type 1 and 2 fibres overlap each other
filaments slide over the thick
muscle filaments to contract. to cause muscles to contract therefore causing movement.
Muscle relationships
Action movement produced Muscles work in groups to produce an action. They allow joints to move
by a muscle. bones to enable our body to run, walk, write and dance. Depending on their
actions, muscles can be classified into one of the following three categories.
Agonist (prime mover)—This is the muscle that produces the most force
Figure 4.29
(contracts or shortens) during an action. For example, in the downward
Muscle relationships in motion of a biceps curl (extending the elbow) the triceps is the (agonist)
elbow extension and flexion prime mover.
Antagonist—This is the muscle
that works opposite the agonist
(extends or lengthens). In the
upward motion of a biceps curl
Ball-and-socket
joint (flexing the elbow), the triceps
Origins becomes the antagonist. It relaxes
Origins
to give the agonist (biceps) control
over the action. The antagonist
Scapula
determines the speed and range of
Biceps brachii the agonist to prevent excessive
brachialis movement and injury.
Triceps brachii
Synergists or fixators—these are
surrounding muscles that assist
the agonist to produce the action.
Synergists act as stabilisers for
Insertion the joint. In flexing the elbow,
Hinge joint (elbow)
Radius the biceps and brachialis act as
Insertion
Ulna synergists to each other.

There are four phases involved in the contraction of a muscle for

movement.
1 Excitation—when a nerve fibre or muscle cell is stimulated, it triggers
muscle fibres to get ready for action.
2 Excitation–contraction—the stimulation of the muscle fibres activates the
myofilaments in the muscles to contract.
3 Contraction—the thin myofilaments slide past the thick myofilaments to
cause the muscle fibre to contract, lengthen and move.
4 Relaxation—when the nerve or muscle stimulation stops, the muscle
relaxes.
Types of muscle contraction

Throughout movement, muscles will contract differently to allow movement
to occur. The type of contraction used will depend on the movement of the
muscle. There are two main types of muscle contractions: isometric and
isotonic.
Isometric contraction
This is the process where the muscle contracts and no movement is produced.
The length of the muscle stays the same.
Examples of isometric contractions include the triceps and pectoral
muscles when holding a starting position for a push-up.
In completing a rock climb, isometric contractions will be used during
periods where the climber is holding on to the rock wall while deciding
where to move next.
Isotonic contraction
This is the process where the muscle contracts, producing enough force to
move an object. The muscle shortens and maintains its tension throughout the
whole movement. There are two types of isotonic contractions.
Concentric contraction—when the muscle shortens as it contracts. For
example, the pectoral muscles when completing the pushing-up phase of a
Figure 4.30
push-up.
Isometric, eccentric and
Eccentric contraction—when the muscle lengthens as it contracts. For concentric contractions
example, the pectoral muscles when completing the lowering phase of a occur in the three phases
push-up. of a push-up



1 Participate in a circuit. For each exercise, identify the agonist and antagonist muscle(s) and
type of contraction.
Station Agonist Antagonist Type of contraction

Heel flicks
Push-ups
Plank
Skipping
Tricep dip
Upper cuts
V sit
Lunges
Tricep push-ups
2 Analyse selected movements from a sport to determine the different types of muscle
contractions that are evident.
3 Explain the significance of isometric contractions for movement performance.
4 A plyometric exercise, such as the vertical leap, involves performing an eccentric contraction
of a muscle group immediately followed by a powerful concentric contraction of the same
muscle group. Explain why this process enhances the capacity to generate power.
Respiratory system
The respiratory system is responsible for the transfer of oxygen from the air
to the blood, and for the disposal of the waste product carbon dioxide. A
vital element for life, the respiratory system works in conjunction with the
cardiovascular system to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide around the
body. While the body can do without food for a few days, the body cannot
survive after a few minutes without oxygen.
The availability of oxygen, its delivery to working muscles and the removal
of waste products are essential for enabling repeated movements.
Structure and functions

The respiratory system is made of various structures that enable the exchange
of gases both within and outside the body. Supplying all body cells with
oxygen and removing carbon dioxide is the overall function of the
respiratory system.
As air is breathed in through the nostrils and mouth, it travels into the
nasal cavity that joins to the pharynx. The larynx is located at the bottom
of the pharynx. The larynx joins the pharynx to the trachea (windpipe).

Table 4.1 Structures and functions of the respiratory system
Structure Function
Nose Provides a warm, moist place for air to enter the body
Nasal cavity Situated in the nose, and contains hairs that filter and clean foreign objects when entering the body. Incoming air is
warmed as it passes through the nasal cavity
Pharynx Also called the throat; connects the nasal cavity and mouth to the larynx. It is a pathway for both food and air
Larynx Responsible for ensuring food and air go into the proper channels. When food is in the pharynx, the epiglottis closes
the inlet to the larynx. Also known as the voice box, the larynx contains the vocal cords that vibrate to produce
sounds as air rushes upwards from the lungs
Trachea Commonly called the windpipe; is very flexible and mobile. Cilia lining the trachea expel dust and other foreign
particles towards the pharynx. The trachea divides into two bronchi; one each, into the left and right lung respectively.
Bronchi Once inside the lung, bronchi divide further into smaller bronchioles; this is often referred to as the respiratory tree.
At the ends of the bronchioles, tiny air sacs called alveoli exist.
Alveoli The chambers where gas exchange occurs. These grape-like structures account for most volume in the lungs and
provide a large surface for gas exchange
Lungs Enclose the structures of the body responsible for gas exchange, i.e. bronchioles and alveoli. The lungs are mainly
air spaces where internal gas exchange occurs
The epiglottis sits above the larynx and, when a person is eating, it prevents Epiglottis an elastic cartilage
food from entering the trachea. As the air travels down the trachea, it splits that opens to allow air into the
trachea and closes when food
into two airways called primary bronchi; one to the right lung and one to goes to the oesophagus.
the left lung. The bronchus divides into smaller branches called bronchioles.
Bronchioles contain small sacks called alveoli. It is here, at the alveoli,
that oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanges into and out of the blood Figure 4.31
through capillaries. An average adult’s lung contains approximately The respiratory system
600 million alveoli.
During this process, deoxygenated
blood has travelled through the
right side of the heart to the lung for
disposal of carbon dioxide. In the
lungs, the blood picks up oxygen, and
the oxygenated blood is returned to Nasal cavity
the heart through the left side. It is
Pharynx
then sent out to the rest of the body Epiglottis
to enable the functioning of muscles,
Larynx
tissues and organs. Esophagus
Carbon dioxide follows the same
path as air when it is breathed out
of the body. A sheet of muscles that Left lung
lies across the chest, the diaphragm,
Left primary bronchus
contracts to draw oxygen into the
lungs and relaxes to pump carbon
Secondary bronchus
dioxide out of the lungs.
Tertiary bronchus

Lung function
The act of breathing is known as pulmonary ventilation. It is a mechanical
process that relies on pressure changes occurring in the thoracic cavity. When
the volume and pressure in the lungs changes, the flow of gases must equalise
this pressure.
There are two phases involved in pulmonary ventilation.
Inspiration (inhaling) is the process of breathing air into the lungs. The
diaphragm is the most important muscle in the process of inspiration.
This thin dome-shaped muscle attaches to the lower ribs and is controlled
Intercostal means between by the body’s nerves. When the diaphragm and intercostal muscles
the ribs. contract, the ribs lift, causing the lungs to expand. This increase in lung
size lowers the air pressure in the alveoli. As a result, air from a high-
pressure region such as outside the body, quickly flows through the
respiratory tract and into the lungs.
Expiration (exhaling) is the process of breathing air out of the lungs. When
the diaphragm relaxes, the rib cage resumes its normal position and the
lungs retract. This compression of the lungs forces carbon dioxide to flow
out of the lungs. During normal expiration, no muscular effort is required
Figure 4.32 as the walls are elastic and return to their normal position after expanding
Inspiration and expiration during inspiration.
During exercise, the process of inspiration calls upon
Inspiration neighbouring muscles to assist in the expansion of the lungs.
These muscles collectively assist the diaphragm in increasing the
volume in which air can be breathed in. The expiration process
becomes more active during exercise. The abdominal muscles
assist with expiration as they push the diaphragm up and the ribs
are pulled down, resulting in an increase of exhaled gases.
Exchange of gases
The amount and type of gases at any one place, both in the
atmosphere and body, varies. Gas in the atmosphere consists
mostly of oxygen and nitrogen, whereas gases in the lungs consist
of carbon dioxide and water vapour.
As a result of the variance in gas types, oxygen exchange occurs
in the lungs because of the high levels of carbon dioxide and low
levels of oxygen.
Expiration
When we take a breath of air, it follows the respiratory
pathways into the lungs. The exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the air and the blood occurs in the lungs. This
process is known as external respiration.
There is also a variance of gases between the capillaries and
tissue cells. Tissue cells use oxygen frequently, and for each
volume of oxygen they use, they produce the same amount of
carbon dioxide. As a result of the lack of oxygen in the tissue and
abundance of oxygen in the capillaries, oxygen moves quickly
from the capillaries into the tissue and carbon dioxide moves
quickly from the tissue into the capillaries and veins. This process
is known as internal respiration. Carbon dioxide in the blood
vessels returns to the lungs for external respiration.

Bronchiole
Pumonary arteriole
Pumonary venule
Alveoli Capillary network

around alveolus
Alveolar sac
When exercising, a person’s breathing pattern changes. These changes can Figure 4.33
occur in terms of the depth of each breath and rate at which they take each Structures inside the lung
breath. While breathing becomes deeper and more frequently during exercise,
the respiratory rate, however, does not significantly change.
Because of increased stress on the muscles to perform, more oxygen is needed
to fuel working muscles. The body attempts to meet these increased demands by
breathing more often (faster) and more deeply than when at rest. Usually when
a person first starts exercising, the body needs to adapt to the increased demand
for oxygen to the working muscles. Once the body has adapted to the oxygen
demand, the body can maintain a regular breathing pattern throughout the Hyperventilation an
exercise to ensure oxygen demands to body tissues are met. abnormal increase in depth
If a person is unable to meet the increased demand for oxygen in the body, and rate of breathing.
they may hyperventilate. Alternatively, a person’s breathing depth and rate Hypoventilation abnormally
may be inhibited and become slow and shallow, and they may hypoventilate. slow and shallow breathing.

1 Explain how gas exchange occurs in the body.
2 Research how asthma affects the gas exchange.
3 Investigate how swimming can develop the respiratory system.
4 Investigate how an illness such as influenza (or even the common cold) can affect the
respiratory system.
5 Undertake a series of physical activities. Start with a low intensity activity such as walking
and slowly progress to a high intensity activity such as continuous skipping with a rope.
Explain how varying the intensity of physical activity impacts on breathing patterns.

Circulatory system
The circulatory system, which includes the cardiovascular system, is made up
of three main parts: the heart, blood vessels and blood. Its role is to transport
materials such as nutrients, blood, hormones and waste products to muscles
Figure 4.34 and organs around the body via the blood stream, and convert lactic acid into
The circulatory system pyruvic acid.
Components of blood
Blood plays a vital role in the body’s
ability to breathe, break down nutrients
for energy, eliminate waste, and maintain
the body’s temperature and water balance.
Blood is the only fluid tissue in the body.
Blood is red in colour, due to the presence
of haemoglobin, but the shade varies
depending on the amount of oxygen
present in blood. The more oxygen that
is present, the brighter the shade of red,
the less oxygen that is present, the darker
the shade of red. Blood carries out three
main functions.
1 Distribution
of gases such as oxygen and carbon
dioxide around the body
transportation of waste products
from cells to excretory sites
transportation of hormones around
the body.
2 Regulation
maintaining core body temperature
maintaining normal acidity or
alkaline (pH) in body tissue
maintaining adequate fluid levels in
the blood.
3 Protection
preventing blood loss through clot
formation
preventing infection through
antibodies and white blood cells.
Haemoglobin red blood Blood is made up of four components that all play a key role in the
cells, responsible for carrying functioning of the body.
oxygen around the body.
• Red blood cells (erythrocytes) are responsible for transporting oxygen and
carbon dioxide around the body. They pick up oxygen from the lungs and
transport it around the body to muscles, tissues and organs, where it is
exchanged for carbon dioxide. They then transport the carbon dioxide back
to the lungs and the exchange occurs again. They contain iron and protein.

White blood cells (leukocytes) are responsible for fighting infections. They
attack and destroy germs and infections as they enter the body. When the
body has an infection, the number of white blood cells increases in order
to fight it.
Platelets are the blood-clotting agencies that help stop bleeding. When we
cut ourselves or break a blood vessel, platelets stick to the damaged blood
vessel to block the blood flow.
Blood plasma is the liquid part of blood that transports materials such
as blood cells, nutrients, hormones and gases around the body. It is
predominately water and contains mainly oxygen.
The soft tissue inside bones (called marrow) makes red blood cells, white
blood cells and platelets.
Participating in aerobic-based activities over time can increase blood
volume and therefore, increase the amount of red blood cells in the body.
This can enhance the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and enables more
efficient participation in aerobic-based activities by being able to exercise
at a higher intensity and for longer. A lack of oxygen in body tissues is Hypoxia lack of oxygen in
called hypoxia. body tissues.
Structure and function of the heart

The heart has four chambers. The two superior chambers—the right and left
atria—receive the blood into the heart. The two inferior chambers—the right
and left ventricles—are responsible for the pumping action that ejects blood
into the arteries. The heart has four valves to control blood flow.
The functioning of the heart is a complex process. Starting from the
lungs, the blood picks up oxygenated blood and transports it to the heart via
the pulmonary vein (the only vein in the body that carries oxygenated blood)
to the left atrium. The blood is held here until the bicuspid valve opens to let
the blood flow into the left ventricle. As the heart beats (contracts), blood is Figure 4.35
pumped from the left ventricle through the aorta around the body. As the The heart
blood flows through arteries
around the body, the small
capillaries allow the oxygen to Superior Aorta
be exchanged for carbon dioxide vena cava
Left
at a working muscle, tissue or Right pulmonary
organ. After the gas exchange has pulmonary artery
artery
occurred, deoxygenated blood Left
travels through veins back to the Right pulmonary
pulmonary veins
heart. The deoxygenated blood veins
returns to the heart via the Left atrium
Right atrium
inferior vena cava and superior Bicuspid
vena cava before it enters the (mitral)
Tricuspid valve valve
heart through the right atrium.
The blood is held in the right
atrium until the tricuspid Left ventricle
valve opens and allows the Inferior vena cava
deoxygenated blood to flow Myocardium
into the right ventricle. From
there the deoxygenated blood
is pumped through the

pulmonary artery (the only artery in the body that carries deoxygenated
blood) to the lungs. Once in the lungs, the blood exchanges the carbon
dioxide for oxygen and the cycle starts again. The coronary artery supplies
blood to the heart muscle.
In addition to these features, the heart also contains the myocardium,
which is the cardiac muscle that is striated, and an involuntary muscle of
the body, the pericardium, which is the double wall sac of the heart, and the
septum—the thick wall that divides the two ventricles.
Regularly participating in aerobic-based activities will cause the left
ventricle to respond by becoming slightly larger and capable of contracting
more strongly. This has the effect of being able to deliver blood more
efficiently to working muscles because the left ventricle is able to become
fuller and disperse blood to the body more powerfully. The effect of this is
increased aerobic efficiency.
Structure and function of arteries, veins

and capillaries
In order for blood to be transported around the body, pathways must exist
to ensure that the flow of blood reaches all body parts effectively. These
pathways are tubes known as blood vessels and, for the most efficient
movement, it is important that they are as open as possible and not blocked
by the build-up of plaque or other agents. Blockages are often caused by
behaviours such as eating a high-fat diet.
The blood vessels in our bodies form a closed circuit that starts and ends
a at the heart. There are three types of blood vessels.
1 Arteries—these are large vessels with thick, muscular walls; they transport
oxygen-rich blood away from the heart.
2 Capillaries—the smallest blood vessels in the body; they have thin walls
that allow the exchange of materials between blood and tissue fluid.
Capillaries connect arteries to veins.
3 Veins—with slightly thinner walls than arteries, veins are responsible for
transporting carbon dioxide (deoxygenated blood) back to the heart via
the lungs.
b
Pulmonary and systemic circulation
The heart can be described as the ‘transport system pump’ that delivers
oxygen around the body. Despite its small size (about the size of a clenched
fist), it is incredibly strong and enduring. The heart weighs between
250–350 grams and is protected by the rib cage, located slightly left of the
midline. On average, the heart pumps blood out at 70–80 beats per minute.
An elite athlete’s beats per minute are lower.
c The cardiovascular system comprises two major circuits.
1 Pulmonary circuit—circulates blood from the heart to the lungs and back
Figure 4.36 to the heart. This occurs on the right side of the heart.
a Arteries b Veins 2 Systemic circuit—circulates blood from the heart to every body part and
c Capillaries then back to the heart. This occurs on the left side of the heart.

Pulmonary circuit
CO2 O2
Pulmonary
capillaries
CO2 O2
Pulmonary Pulmonary
arteries veins
Superior Branches of
vena cava aortic arch
Right Left
atrium atrium
Tricuspid
valve
Left
Right ventricle
ventricle
Descending
Systemic aorta
circuit
Inferior
vena cava
Systemic
capillaries
O2
CO2
Oxygen-poor Oxygen-rich
CO2-rich CO2-poor
blood blood
Figure 4.37
Pulmonary and systemic
circuits

Heart rate
The thick muscular walls of the two lower chambers of the heart (ventricles),
contract to squeeze blood into the arteries. The upper chambers of the heart
(atrium) are the holding spots for blood. A heartbeat has two main phases:
diastole—as the heart relaxes and refills with blood; and systole—the
contraction that forces blood around the body. During exercise, stress or
excitement, the heart rate increases because a higher volume of blood is
needed throughout the body. The heart rate is controlled by the medulla in
the brain. It sends electrical impulses along nerves to set an average resting
heart rate. The hypothalamus or hormones such as adrenaline can speed up a
person’s average heart rate and override the normal heart rhythm.
A person’s resting heart rate (RHR) is usually determined first thing in
the morning. At rest, the adult heart usually beats between 60–80 beats per
minute. The higher the level of a person’s fitness, the lower their resting heart
rate will be. This is because the heart of a fit person is able to effectively
pump out more blood using fewer contractions.
Taking a person’s pulse will give an indication of how hard their heart is
working. The carotid artery (in the neck) and the radial artery (in the wrist)
are two common sites used to take a person’s pulse.
Figure 4.38
Blood pressure graph Systolic pressure
180
(upper reading) Diastolic pressure
160 (lower reading)
Blood pressure (mmHg)
140
120
100
80
60
40
AWAKE ASLEEP
20
0
Noon Midnight Noon

1 In pairs, take each other’s pulse at both the carotid artery and radial artery.
2 Explore how a person’s heart rate changes during exercise.
Blood pressure
When your heart beats, it pumps blood around the body to give it the energy,
oxygen and nutritional requirements it needs. As the blood moves through the
body, it pushes against the sides of the blood vessels. Blood pressure is the
strength of this push against the sides of the arteries.

Blood pressure is measured based on two factors: the systolic and

diastolic pressure of the blood vessels. Systolic blood pressure measures
the force of the contractions in the left ventricle as the heart pushes blood
out into the body. This number is the highest reading recorded (the top
number). The diastolic blood pressure measures the heart as it is relaxing
and filling with blood. This number is the lowest reading recorded (the
bottom number).
The amount of blood forced out during a contraction from the left ventricle
is known as stroke volume. The fitter the person, the greater the volume of
blood forced out in one contraction. A heart becomes more efficient when
it is able to push out the same volume of blood in fewer contractions. The
volume of blood pumped out in one contraction over a minute is known as
cardiac output. The volume of blood pumped around the body increases as
we exercise.
The ideal blood pressure is 120/80. At this level, your heart works
efficiently to meet the demands of the body. However, a person’s blood
pressure can change depending on their lifestyle, gender and age. People who
are inactive, overweight or stressed run the risk of developing high blood
pressure. High blood pressure puts extra strain on the heart and blood vessels
and can cause them to become weak or damaged. Heart attack, stroke and
kidney disease are linked to high blood pressure.
Blood pressure is usually measured using a sphygmomanometer. These Sphygmomanometer a
can be electrical or the process can be manual with the use of a stethoscope. pressure gauge for measuring
blood pressure.
A sphygmomanometer has several parts that are used to gain the blood
pressure reading: an inflatable cuff; a measuring chart labelled with numbers
for a systolic and diastolic reading and a rubber pump that, when squeezed,
inflates the cuff. A stethoscope is used to listen to the blood flow. Blood
pressure is measured in millimetres of mercury (mm.Hg). The following steps
outline how you should take a blood pressure reading.
1 Have the person who is getting their blood pressure taken sit in a chair
with their arm resting on a table.
2 Ask the person to place their palm facing upwards on the table, with
elbow slightly bent.
3 Wrap the inflatable cuff around the person’s upper limb just below the
armpit. (This works best if there is no clothing on the upper limb.)
4 Locate the brachial pulse on the inside of the elbow.
5 Place the ear tips of the stethoscope in your ears.
6 Place the chest piece of stethoscope under the cuff on the inside of the
elbow, on the brachial pulse.
7 Slowly squeeze the rubber pump to inflate the cuff to 170–200 mm.Hg.
Be mindful so that the inflated cuff does not hurt the person.
8 Once the cuff is inflated, slowly turn the valve on the rubber pump
and listen closely for the first pumping sound you hear. Take note of
where the mercury is on the measuring chart. This is the systolic
reading.
9 Continue listening carefully until you hear the last sound. Take note
of where the mercury is on the measuring tape. This is the diastolic
reading.
10 Record the systolic reading over the diastolic reading.
11 Slowly expel all the air from the cuff and remove it from the person.


1 Explain to a partner how blood travels around the body.
2 In pairs, demonstrate how to take a person’s blood pressure.
3 Explain how exercise affects blood pressure.
4 Discuss the impact high and low blood pressure has on the body.
5 Investigate the conditions linked to the circulatory system and how
they affect the body.
chapter review
Recap
Systems of the body work together to allow the body to move. The systems primarily
responsible for movement are the skeletal, muscular, circulatory and respiratory
systems.
The skeletal system has 206 bones. Bones can be classified as long, short, flat or
irregular. Directional terms are used to assist in locating bones.
The skeletal system is grouped into two categories: the axial skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton.
Joints occur where two or more bones meet. Joints are classified three ways: fibrous,
cartilaginous and synovial. Synovial joints are the most common joints in the body and
are classified as gliding/plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid/ellipsoidal, saddle and ball-and-
socket joints.
Joints produce various actions, which can be described as opposite or contrasting
movements.
The muscular system has approximately 640 muscles that can be categorised into three
types: smooth, cardiac and skeletal. When a muscle attaches to a stationary bone in a
joint action, this is called the origin. The muscle that attaches to the bone moving in
the joint action is called the insertion.
Muscles work in groups to produce movement. These are referred to as agonist and
antagonist muscles that are supported by stabilisers or fixators. There are three types of
muscle contractions: isometric, concentric and eccentric.
The respiratory system is responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide
around the body. Lungs allow breathing to occur in two ways: inspiration and expiration.
The exchange of oxygen into tissues is achieved through the capillaries, as is the
exchange of carbon dioxide from tissues into the blood stream.

chapter review
The circulatory system transports oxygen, nutrients and waste products around the body.
It contains three major parts: blood, blood vessels and the heart.
The heart is a cardiac muscle that is divided into four chambers. The left side of the
heart pumps oxygenated blood into the body, whereas the right side of the heart pumps
deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

Inner Body www.innerbody.com/image/skelfov.html Information on the

skeletal system
Loyola University Medical www.meddean.luc.edu/lumen/MedEd/GrossAnatomy/ Information on the

Education Network dissector/mml/mmlregn.htm muscular system
The Franklin Institute www.fi.edu/learn/heart/index.html Information on the

circulatory system
BBC UK www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/pe/appliedanatomy/ Information on the

1_anatomy_respiratorysys_rev1.shtml respiratory system
How stuff works http://health.howstuffworks.com/body-systems-channel.htm Information on all

systems of the body
1 Explain the way bones are classified and describe the different kinds (3 marks)
of bones.
2 Discuss the role blood plays in the body. (5 marks)
3 Examine how exercise affects the circulatory and respiratory systems. (12 marks)

Physical fitness,
5 training and movement
What is the relationship between physical fitness, training and movement

efficiency?
Physical fitness and training lead to improved physiological responses to exercise

and higher skill levels. This, in turn, produces movement efficiency, as participants in
physical activity and sport can sustain and recover from physical effort more quickly,
and execute skills more consistently, with less effort.
Health-related components
of physical fitness
Health-related components of physical fitness are related to a person’s ability
to perform vigorous daily activities, while preventing chronic disease. People
with a high level of fitness will be less fatigued when performing general
tasks such as cleaning, gardening, grocery shopping and walking up stairs.
Research has illustrated that people who participate in activities to improve
their cardiorespiratory endurance, strength, muscle endurance and flexibility
and who have optimal body composition are at a lower risk of developing
heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, cancer, insomnia, depression and
osteoporosis. Regular physical activity can contribute to a healthy lifestyle by
increasing your energy levels and social, physical and psychological wellbeing.
Cardiorespiratory endurance
Cardiorespiratory Cardiorespiratory endurance, also called aerobic fitness, refers to the
endurance is the ability to circulatory and respiratory system’s ability to supply oxygen to the body
perform strenuous exercise
for a sustained time without and to remove carbon dioxide and waste products during sustained exercise.
fatigue. Some say this is the best indicator of a person’s overall health.
There are many benefits of having a high level of cardiorespiratory
endurance. Heart disease is Australia’s biggest killer, and having good
cardiorespiratory endurance will lower your chance of suffering from heart
disease. It also reduces the incidence of diabetes, blood pressure problems,
stroke, depression and anxiety, and assists in the improved health of muscles
and bones resulting in a fitter person.

Physical fitness, training and movement CHAPTER 5 123
A high level of cardiorespiratory endurance is beneficial in sports such as

cross-country running, triathlon, road cycling, race walking and various
team sports.
Testing fitness components (such as cardiorespiratory endurance) is a key
to any training program. Providing a choice of tests is appropriate and if they
are administered correctly, benefits include:
identifying strengths and weaknesses
identifying any imbalances in flexibility or strength
monitoring progression.
A number of different tests are required to determine a person’s fitness
profile—no one test will tell you everything. However, we must also make
sure that we are testing for a reason—and not just testing for the sake of
testing. Fitness testing is time consuming, so care must be taken with
planning and scheduling. You may want to monitor some fitness components
once a month and monitor others once every three months. To make sure that Figure 5.1
any changes in results are from training rather than testing error, attempt to VO2 max testing in the
replicate testing conditions each time. Tips include: laboratory
have the same person conduct the test
give the same instructions each time
conduct the tests in the same order
with the same recovery between tests
conduct tests on the same surface (e.g.
indoors or outdoors for a beep test)
check equipment is working correctly.
Laboratory tests are generally more
reliable and accurate but are very time
consuming and expensive. Field tests
can generally be administered to a large
group of people in a relatively short
period and are less expensive.
Testing cardiorespiratory endurance

Cardiorespiratory endurance can be
assessed using a range of tests. These
include:
Astrand submaximal test
Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test
Coopers 12 minute run
multi-stage beep test.
Factors to consider when selecting the appropriate test include reasons for
the test; the participant to be tested; the cost of testing; and the availability of
equipment, personnel and time. For these reasons, the use of maximal testing
in the laboratory tends to be limited to clinical reasons, for research or for
testing elite athletes.
For athletes involved in weight-independent sports, such as rowing and
cycling, where the individual sits and performs work on a machine, the
results should be expressed in absolute terms of litres of oxygen per minute
(L/min-1). Athletes participating in sports that involve supporting their
body mass, such as running events and sports such as soccer, hockey and

VO2 max the maximum basketball, should have their VO2 max results expressed in relative units
amount of oxygen in millilitres (relative to body mass) mL/kg/min-1.
one can use in one minute, per
kilogram of body weight. Three tests: the Astrand submaximal, Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery and
Coopers 12 minute run are now presented in detail.
Astrand submaximal test

This test protocol estimates a person’s VO2 max based on the linear
relationship between heart rate, workload and VO2. The aim is for the
person to reach a steady state heart rate, which is between 140–170 beats
per minute (bpm) for someone under 30 years, during the test. Instructions
are as follows:
1 Prior to the start of the test, which will be conducted on a stationary bike,
weigh the person, take their resting heart rate (ideally using a heart-rate
monitor) and adjust the seat height (leg extended when in the lowest pedal
position). Record the results of their weight and heart rate.
2 Have the person warm up for 2–3 minutes.
3 Participants remain seated throughout the test. The suggested workload
Kilopond a measure of force for females is 450 kilopond metres (kpm) or 75 watts (W) for females and
defined as the magnitude of 600 kpm (100 watts) for males at 50 revolutions per minute (rpm). Record
the force exerted on 1 kilogram
of mass by a 9.80665 m/s2
heart rate and workload at the completion of each minute throughout
gravitational field (standard the test. (Trained participants may want to start at a workload that is
gravity, a conventional value 25 watts higher.)
approximating the average
4 Aim for >128 bpm at the end of 2 minutes. If the participant comes under
magnitude of gravity on Earth).
this figure, increase the workload by 150 kpm or 25 watts.
5 The test should run for a minimum of 6 minutes. Steady state is achieved
if there are less than 5 beats between minutes 5 and 6—otherwise you need
to continue until steady state HR has been achieved.
6 Cool down for several minutes.
Calculating maximum oxygen uptake

Refer to the appropriate table (table 5.2 for males and table 5.3 for females).
Instructions are as follows:
1 Find the appropriate work/heart rate in the heart rate column.
2 Read across the workload columns.
Table 5.1
Correction factors for 3 The number in the appropriate workload column is the absolute estimated
age and maxHR maximum oxygen uptake (litres/min). Record this number.
4 As maximum heart rate decreases with age, a
Age Factor correction factor for age is needed (see table
5.1). Multiply the maxVO2 with the correction
15+ 1.10
factor for that age. Use this to correct the figure
20+ 1.05 you found in (3) above. For example, if you are
25+ 1.00
17 years old, multiply the number by a factor of
1.10. Record this result.
35+ 0.87 5 Determine relative VO2 max: convert L/min by
40+ 0.83 dividing by body weight to obtain mL/kg/min.
For example, your age-corrected V02 max is
45+ 0.78 2.42 L/min and your body weight is 60 kilogram.
50+ 0.75
= 2.42 x 1000 = 40.3 mL/kg/min
60
Compare your results to the ratings given in table 5.4.

Table 5.2 Prediction of maximal aerobic power from Table 5.3 Prediction of maximal aerobic power from
heart rate and work rate on a cycle ergometer (men) heart rate and work rate on a cycle ergometer (women)
Heart 600 (100 W) 900 (150 W) 1200 (200 W) Heart 600 (100 W) 900 (150 W) 1200 (200 W)
rate kpm/min-1 kpm/min-1 kpm/min-1 rate kpm/min-1 kpm/min-1 kpm/min-1
120 3.5 4.8 120 3.4 4.1 4.8
121 3.4 4.7 121 3.3 4.0 4.8
122 3.4 4.6 122 3.2 3.9 4.7
123 3.4 4.6 123 3.1 3.9 4.6
124 3.3 4.5 6.0 124 3.1 3.8 4.5
125 3.2 4.4 5.9 125 3.0 3.7 4.4
126 3.2 4.4 5.8 126 3.0 3.6 4.3
127 3.1 4.3 5.7 127 2.9 3.5 4.2
128 3.1 4.2 5.6 128 2.8 3.5 4.2
129 3.0 4.2 5.6 129 2.8 3.4 4.1
130 3.0 4.1 5.5 130 2.7 3.4 4.0
131 2.9 4.0 5.4 131 2.7 3.4 4.0
132 2.9 4.0 5.3 132 2.7 3.3 3.9
133 2.8 3.9 5.3 133 2.6 3.2 3.8
134 2.8 3.9 5.2 134 2.6 3.2 3.8
135 2.8 3.8 5.1 135 2.6 3.1 3.7
136 2.7 3.8 5.0 136 2.5 3.1 3.6
137 2.7 3.7 5.0 137 2.5 3.0 3.6
138 2.7 3.7 4.9 138 2.4 3.0 3.5
139 2.6 3.6 4.8 139 2.4 2.9 3.5
140 2.6 3.6 4.8 140 2.4 2.8 3.4
141 2.6 3.5 4.7 141 2.3 2.8 3.4
142 2.5 3.5 4.6 142 2.3 2.8 3.3
143 2.5 3.4 4.6 143 2.2 2.7 3.3
144 2.5 3.4 4.5 144 2.2 2.7 3.2
145 2.4 3.4 4.5 145 2.2 2.7 3.2
146 2.4 3.3 4.4 146 2.2 2.6 3.2
147 2.4 3.3 4.4 147 2.1 2.6 3.1
148 2.3 3.2 4.3 148 2.1 2.6 3.1
149 2.3 3.2 4.3 149 2.1 2.6 3.0
150 2.3 3.2 4.2 150 2.0 2.5 3.0
151 2.3 3.1 4.2 151 2.0 2.5 3.0
152 2.3 3.1 4.1 152 2.0 2.5 2.9
153 2.2 3.0 4.1 153 2.0 2.4 2.9
154 2.2 3.0 4.0 154 2.0 2.4 2.8
155 2.2 3.0 4.0 155 1.9 2.4 2.8
156 2.2 2.9 4.0 156 1.9 2.3 2.8
157 2.1 2.9 3.9 157 1.9 2.3 2.7
158 2.1 2.9 3.9 158 1.8 2.3 2.7
159 2.1 2.8 3.8 159 1.8 2.2 2.7
160 2.1 2.8 3.8 160 1.8 2.2 2.6
161 2.0 2.8 3.7 161 1.8 2.2 2.6
126 2.0 2.8 3.7 126 1.8 2.2 2.6
163 2.0 2.8 3.7 163 1.7 2.2 2.6
164 2.0 2.7 3.6 164 1.7 2.1 2.5
165 2.0 2.7 3.6 165 1.7 2.1 2.5
166 1.9 2.7 3.6 166 1.7 2.1 2.5
167 1.9 2.6 3.5 167 1.6 2.1 2.4
168 1.9 2.6 3.5 168 1.6 2.0 2.4
169 1.9 2.6 3.5 169 1.6 2.0 2.4
170 1.8 2.6 3.4 170 1.6 2.0 2.4

Table 5.4 Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test

Ratings for aerobic
capacity This test was designed specifically for soccer and is
similar to the beep test (multi-stage fitness test) but
Age 16 boys Age 16 girls involves an active recovery of 10 seconds after each
up-and-back shuttle (2 x 20 m). This test is now
Excellent >54.6 >44.4 used by most team sports.
Good 49.8–54.5 40.8–44.3 Instructions are as follows:
1 The equipment needed to conduct the test
Average 44.9–49.7 37.1–40.7
includes a tape measure, markers, a Yo-Yo CD,
Fair 40.1–44.8 33.5–37.0 a CD player and recording sheets. Figure 5.2
Illustrates where you need to place your markers.
Poor <40 <33.5
It is suggested that you divide your group into
pairs so one person can run and the other can
Figure 5.2
monitor how far that person runs before they are
Set up for Yo-Yo eliminated from the test. The partners then
Intermittent Recovery test swap over.
5m 20 m
Start & finish
2 Students run 20 metres forward, pivot at a line (or marker) in time with
the beep from the CD and run 20 metres back to the start before the next
audio beep.
3 During their 10 seconds of active recovery they continue jogging to (and
around) the next marker and back to the start line.
4 On the next beep, they repeat another up-and-back shuttle.
5 The speed of the audio beeps corresponding to the shuttle run gradually
increases throughout the test while the 10-second recovery interval
remains consistent throughout the test.
6 The test continues until the student either has missed two beeps at the
‘finish’ marker or is unable to get to the ‘start’ marker in time for the
next beep.
As this stage, there is no normative data for school students using this test.
However, to give you some indication of performance, table 5.5 reports test
Table 5.5
Examples of elite values that have been recorded for athletes from different sporting groups.
athlete target
results in the Yo-Yo Coopers 12 minute run
Intermittent
Recovery test As the test name suggests, this test requires the
participant to cover as much distance as they can in
Athletic group Level/shuttle 12 minutes. The instructions for the test are
Junior elite basketball players (male) 17–22.5 as follows:
1 Select an oval or area and measure the lap length
Junior elite basketball players (female) 15–18.7 by placing markers at 20-metre intervals to make
Australian women’s basketball squad 17–21 calculating the distance covered easy.
2 Use the buddy system for undertaking the test
NRL players 20–24 and recording completed laps. Using the result

sheet, record each time a student has completed one lap by crossing off the
relevant lap number.
3 When the whistle signals the completion of the test (after 12 minutes),
students walk to the closest marker so the distance achieved in the final
lap can be calculated and recorded.
4 Calculate the distance covered in 12 minutes. Refer to table 5.6 to
determine the estimated max VO2 from the distance covered during the
test and refer to table 5.7 to determine your rating.
Table 5.6
Distance mL/kg/min Distance mL/kg/min Estimated VO2 max
from distance run in
1600 m 28.2 2900 m 51.8
12 minutes
1700 m 30.0 3000 m 53.5
1800 m 31.9 3100 m 55.3
1900 m 33.8 3200 m 57.0
2000 m 35.7 3300 m 58.7
2100 m 37.5 3400 m 60.5
2200 m 39.2 3500 m 62.3
2300 m 41.0 3600 m 64.0
2400 m 42.7 3700 m 65.8
2500 m 44.6 3800 m 67.5
2600 m 46.4 3900 m 69.2
2700 m 48.2 4000 m 71.0
2800 m 50.0
Table 5.7 Cardiorespiratory fitness ratings based on 12-minute test
AGE GROUPS (YR)

Rating Gender 13–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60+
Male <2.09 <1.96 <1.90 <1.83 <1.66 <1.40
Very poor
Female <1.61 <1.54 <1.53 <1.43 <1.35 <1.26
Male 2.09–2.20 1.96–2.11 1.90–2.10 1.83–2.00 1.66–1.87 1.40–1.65
Poor
Female 1.61–1.90 1.54–1.79 1.53–1.70 1.43–1.58 1.35–1.49 1.26–1.39
Male 2.21–2.52 2.12–2.40 2.11–2.34 2.01–2.24 1.88–2.10 1.66–1.94
Fair
Female 1.91–2.08 1.80–1.97 1.71–1.90 1.59–1.79 1.50–1.70 1.40–1.58
Male 2.53–2.77 2.41–2.64 2.35–2.52 2.25–2.47 2.11–2.32 1.95–2.13
Good
Female 2.09–2.30 1.98–2.16 1.91–2.08 1.80–2.00 1.71–1.90 1.59–1.76
Male 2.78–3.00 2.65–2.84 2.53–2.73 2.48–2.66 2.33–2.55 2.14–2.50
Excellent
Female 2.31–2.43 2.17–2.34 2.09–2.24 2.01–2.16 1.91–2.10 1.77–1.90
Superior Male >3.01 >2.85 >2.74 >2.67 >2.56 >2.51
Female >2.44 >2.35 >2.25 >2.17 >2.11 >1.91


1 Explain why the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test, Coopers 12 minute run and Astrand
submaximal test are all referred to as estimated VO2 max tests.
2 Why are the results of aerobic tests expressed as VO2 max in relative terms?
3 Explain why cardiorespiratory endurance is important for everyone.
4 Evaluate the different cardiorespiratory endurance test protocols mentioned in this section in
relation to:
a their strengths and weaknesses
b their suitability for different population groups.
5 How would you rate your aerobic capacity? What does this result actually mean?
Muscular strength
Strength the maximal force Muscular strength is the ability to produce force against a resistance. This is
that can be generated in one often measured by how much you can lift in one repetition. For example, the
repetition of a movement.
load you can lift while performing one repetition on a leg press machine is a
good indication of the strength of your leg muscles.
As we age, muscular strength and lean muscle
mass reduces, although this can be reversed with
increased activity and strength training. Muscular
strength is a major factor in determining the
quality of life an older person will experience, as it
reduces the stress on your joints. Strength training
can improve our metabolism, our posture and
provides better bone strength to help guard against
osteoporosis. Performance in sports such as weight
lifting, gymnastics and rugby require a high degree
of strength for successful performance.
Testing muscular strength

Strength is often assessed using three-repetition
maximum (3RM) tests. This involves performing a
particular exercise with as high a load as possible
for three repetitions, using correct technique.
Figure 5.3 Exercises such as the bench press, squat, leg press, prone row and dumbbell
Muscular strength is shoulder press are often used to assess muscular strength.
needed to lift an extremely Two strength tests that you may be able to complete in class include the
heavy weight successfully,
7-stage abdominal test and the handgrip strength test.
as shown by Australia’s
Damon Kelly
7-stage abdominal test
As the name suggests, this test is undertaken in seven stages. Students lie on
their back with their knees at 90 degrees and their feet flat on the floor while
they attempt one repetition of a variety of sit-ups. To progress to the next
stage of sit-up, the repetition must be completed without students moving
their feet. They may have as many attempts as possible at each stage. The
description for each sit-up is as follows:

Stage 1 arms extended, sit-up until wrists pass knees Table 5.8
Stage 2 arms extended, sit-up until elbows pass knees Ratings for the
7-stage abdominal
Stage 3 arms across the body with hands on opposite elbows, strength test
sit-up until forearms touch thighs
Stage 4 arms crossed over chest with hands touching opposite Stage Variation Rating
shoulders; student sits up until forearms touch thighs
1 Fingertips Poor
(elbows must be touching trunk)
Stage 5 hands behind head touching opposite shoulders, 2 Elbows Fair
sit-up is complete when chest touches thighs 3 Abdomen Fair
Stage 6 as per Stage 5 but holding a 2.5-kilogram weight
4 Chest Average
Stage 7 as per Stage 5 but holding a 5-kilogram weight.
5 Shoulders Good
Once the highest stage has been determined, refer to table 5.6
to see your rating. Elite athletes should be aiming at stage 6 or 7. 6&7 Weights Excellent
Figure 5.4 The 7-stage abdominal test
Stage 1 Stage 2
Stage 3 Stage 4
Stage 5 Stage 6 Stage 7

Handgrip strength test

The handgrip strength test is an example of
an isometric strength test using a handgrip
dynamometer. The student holds the
dynamometer in their hand (palm up) with
their arm raised and parallel to the floor.
Making sure the pointer has been reset to
zero; the student squeezes the grip as hard
as possible for several seconds. Record
the best trial from three attempts for the
dominant and non-dominant hands.
Figure 5.5 Table 5.9 Ratings for handgrip strength

Handgrip dynamometer
MALES FEMALES
Rating Non-dominant Dominant Non-dominant Dominant
Excellent >57 >61 >36 >40
Good 51–56 55–60 31–36 35–40
Average 45–50 49–54 25–30 29–34
Fair 39–44 43–47 19–24 23–27
Poor <39 <43 <19 <23

1 Identify five specific sporting situations where strength levels are important for success.
2 Outline two examples where strength is important in everyday life.
3 Investigate the influence of age and gender on strength levels. What implications does this
have for performance?
4 Evaluate your own strength levels. Relate your results to your normal weekly activities.
5 Assume you are the coach of a sprinter and have access to a gym. Outline the tests you
would use to assess your athlete’s strength. Indicate what these test results actually tell you
and how they can help in designing your athlete’s training program.
Muscular endurance
Muscular endurance the Muscular endurance is the ability to exert force and continue it for some
ability to generate force over a time. Athletes such as marathon runners, triathletes, soccer players, football
period of time.
players, basketball players and swimmers all possess high levels of muscle
endurance. Long-distance runners need a significant amount of muscular
endurance but relatively little muscle strength.
Having high levels of muscular endurance makes it easier to perform
everyday tasks, improves posture and can reduce the instance of back
pain. Muscle endurance training programs involve many repetitions at
a light load.

Testing muscular endurance

A number of different tests can be performed to assess muscular endurance.
Elite sporting teams will often use tests such as testing the maximum number
of repetitions of chin-ups, dips or bench presses at a load equivalent to their
body weight and how long the athlete can hold
a certain position, such as a prone hold. When
selecting tests, it is best to consider the muscle
groups or movement that you want to assess. Two
tests that you can complete in class include the prone
hold and the maximum push-up test.
Prone hold test

This test assesses core strength and stability. The
student adopts the position illustrated in figure 5.7
and holds this position for as long as possible. Keep
the neck in line with the spine. The test is terminated
when the student can no longer keep their body
straight—generally students will drop their hips.
Refer to table 5.10 for the test ratings.
Figure 5.6
Table 5.10 Ratings for prone hold Muscular endurance is
required in gymnastics
Rating Time
Excellent 50 seconds or more
Good 30–40 seconds
Average 20–30 seconds
Fair 11–20 seconds
Figure 5.7
Poor 10 seconds or less
Prone hold position
Push-up test
The push-up test assesses muscle endurance of the chest, shoulder and triceps
muscles. Start in a push-up position with weight on the hands and toes, as
shown in figure 5.8. The subject’s hands should be just wider than shoulder-
width apart and their back and legs will be kept straight at all times. Lower
the body to the floor until the elbows are at 90 degrees. Push back up to the
start position. This is one repetition. Repeat as many repetitions as possible.
Figure 5.8
Correct push-up
Table 5.11 Ratings for the push-up test
Rating Age 16–19 Age 16–19

males females
Excellent >56 >35
Good 35–56 21–35
Average 19–34 11–20
Fair 11–18 6–10
Poor <11 <6


1 Explain the difference between muscular strength and muscular endurance. Give two
examples of each.
2 Compare your results on the two muscular endurance tests. What impact would this have on
your daily tasks and sports performance?
3 Find and describe two other tests that could be used to assess muscular endurance.
Flexibility
Flexibility the ability to move Flexibility is the ability to bend and stretch to execute the full movement at
a muscle through a complete a joint. The body can be flexible in one joint but tight in another joint, or it
range of motion.
can be flexible in one movement of a joint but not in all movements of that
joint. For example, if you can do a front split, you may not be able to do a side
split as this uses the joint in a different way. Ideally, you want to be flexible
enough to perform your daily tasks with ease. If these tasks include specific
sporting activities there will be a need for greater flexibility at different joints.
A greater range of movement also enhances your capacity to develop force.
Figure 5.9 demonstrates the two types of flexibility—static and dynamic.
Figure 5.9 The best way to maintain and increase flexibility is to stretch your
Static flexibility muscles. Unless your routine incorporates stretches at all the major joints,
demonstrated with you may become flexible at some joints and be inflexible at others. Age and
the splits and dynamic
flexibility exhibited by
gender are influencing factors—young females are generally the most flexible.
hurdlers Stretching and the resultant flexibility can improve performance, coordination
and posture, reduce back pain and assist in the prevention of injury.
Testing flexibility
There are two types of flexibility tests—direct tests that involve measuring
the range of movement (ROM) at specific joints using a goniometer with the
score being expressed in degrees, for example, the active knee extension test;

and indirect tests where scores are measured in

centimetres using a tape measure. Outlined below
are two indirect tests to assess upper and lower
body flexibility.
Sit and reach

This test measures the ROM of the hamstrings and
lower back. This test requires a ‘sit and reach box’
or ruler/tape measure placed between your feet.
Instructions are as follows:
1 Traditionally this test has been completed
with both legs extended straight (partner may
gently hold the knees to keep them straight)
and the soles of your feet (no shoes) flat against
the box.
2 Placing both hands together (middle fingers
on top of each other), reach forward as far as
possible and hold for 3 seconds.
3 Your partner will take a reading at the point of Insert 05020, 21
your fingertips. Complete three trials. Reaching
beyond your feet will be a positive reading.
Alternatively, this test can be completed
measuring the left and right leg separately. The
only change to the above description is one leg
is extended with the foot against the box and the
non-tested leg is bent with the sole of the foot
resting against the opposite knee. When reaching
Figure 5.10
forward, make sure the hips are square and not Sit and reach
tilting towards the tested side.
Table 5.12 Ratings for the sit and reach test, measurements in centimetres
Rating 16-year-old females 16-year-old males

Left leg Right leg Both legs Left leg Right leg Both legs
Excellent 24+ 24+ 23+ 23+ 23+ 22+
Good 22–23 22–23 22–23 21–22 21–22 20–21
Figure 5.11
Average 21–22 21–22 20–21 20–21 20–21 19–20 Arm over and under
Fair 20–21 20–21 19 19–20 19–20 18
Poor 19 or less 19 or less 18 or less 18 or less 18 or less 17 or less
Arm over and under

This test can be conducted in pairs. Instructions are as follows:
1 The student stands with their back to the tester.
2 To test the right shoulder ROM, the student:
a puts their left hand behind their back with fingers reaching upwards
b puts their right hand over their right shoulder and reaches down
their spine
c attempts to touch the fingers of their left hand, see figure 5.11.

3 Repeat the procedure with the left shoulder. Scoring can be simply a ‘yes’
or ‘no’, if the fingers touched. For those whose fingers do not meet, you
can measure the distance between fingertips so students can see if they
improve with training. Partners then swap over.
If fingers can touch, this indicates good shoulder flexibility, while a
distance of more than 5 centimetres between fingertips indicates poor
shoulder flexibility.

1 Discuss the potential sources of error when conducting the three
flexibility tests outlined above.
2 List five sports where good flexibility at the following joint/muscle
group would enhance performance:
a shoulder
b hamstrings.
3 Discuss your own flexibility results in relation to the sports you play.
4 Discuss how a lack of flexibility can affect sporting performance.
5 Research the impact of age and gender on flexibility. Explain how
flexibility changes depending on age or gender.
6 Describe a flexibility test to assess:
a the calf
Figure 5.12
b the adductors.
An example of low body
fat composition common
in triathletes
Body composition
Body composition is the percentage of bone, muscle (and
organs) and fat in one’s body. Two people of the same
height and weight can look quite different if they have
different amounts of body fat and muscle mass. The
person with the greater muscle mass and lower body fat
will have a higher resting metabolic rate. Body fat is the
main component of body composition that is monitored,
and it can have a detrimental effect on our wellbeing
and performance. Having a high body fat percentage—
particularly around the abdomen—can increase the
likelihood of heart disease, stroke and type 2 diabetes.
Conversely, when body fat levels become too low, the
immune system can be compromised. From a performance
aspect, a high level of body fat is generally detrimental as
it is considered ‘dead’ weight and will lower an athlete’s
power-to-weight ratio. Very low body fat percentages are
generally found in body builders, triathletes and cyclists.
High body fat percentages are not usually found in athletes
except for the likes of sumo wrestlers.

Testing body composition

A number of different indirect procedures estimate body composition. Body
mass index (BMI) and waist-to-hip ratio are two assessments that can help
identify health risks, while the sum of skinfolds is the assessment procedure
predominantly administered to athletes. These assessments are outlined
below.
Body mass index

Body mass index is an indirect measure of body composition. As it does not
distinguish between excessive weight produced by muscle or body fat, this
test is not suitable for athletes (as muscle weighs more than fat, it could skew
the results). When scores fall above or below the standard range, further
assessment is recommended.
BMI is calculated using the following formula: Table 5.13
BMI categories
mass (kg) for adults
BMI =
height (m2)
BMI categories Score
For example, if your height is 170 centimetres, and your
body mass is 60 kg Underweight <18.5
60 (kg) Normal weight 18.5–24.9

BMI =
1.7 x 1.7 (m2) Overweight 25–30
60 (kg) Obesity >30
BMI =
2.89 (m2)
BMI = 20.8
Waist-to-hip ratio
Calculating a person’s waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) indicates how much
body fat they are carrying around their abdomen compared to their hips.
Increased body fat around the abdomen increases the risk of heart disease,
stroke and type 2 diabetes. Instructions are as follows.
1 Take a waist measurement at the level of the narrowest point between the
lowest rib and the hips (iliac crest).
2 If there is no obvious narrowing then the measurement is taken at the
mid-way between the two points. Table 5.14
3 Take the measurement at the end of a normal expiration, with the arms Ratings for WHR in
relaxed at the sides. adults
4 Then take the hip measurement at the
Ratings Males Females
level of the greatest protrusion of the
buttocks. The person stands with Low risk <0.85 <0.72
feet together and gluteal muscles relaxed.
Increased risk of cardiovascular disease >0.9 >0.8
WHR is calculated using the formula
waist girth (centimetres) divided by hip
girth (centimetres).
Sum of seven skinfolds

Athletes regularly have their ‘sum of seven skinfolds’ assessed to monitor
their body composition. Instructions for the assessment are as follows.
1 All measurements are taken on the right side of the body.
2 All sites are measured using a tape measure and anatomical landmarks.

3 The thumb and forefinger are used to lift the skin and body fat away from
the muscle.
4 Measurements should be taken by the same tester on each occasion, at the
following areas:
• triceps—this is a vertical fold at the posterior midline of the upper arm
• subscapular—this is a diagonal fold 2 centimetres below the shoulder
blade
• biceps—with the arm in anatomical position, where the arms hang by
your side and your palms face forwards, a vertical fold is taken at the
midpoint of the front of the upper arm (between the bony tip of the
shoulder and the elbow joint)
• suprailiac—this measurement is taken as a diagonal fold at the front of
the hip bone
• abdominal—this is a vertical fold taken 5 centimetres to the right of the
centre of the belly button
• front thigh—this vertical measurement is taken halfway between the
knee cap and the top of the thigh (the inguinal crease)
• medial calf—the vertical fold is taken on the medial side (the inside)
of the calf at the maximum circumference.
Body fat
Body fat can be estimated from skinfold measurements or from analysing
bioelectric impedance. The bioelectrical impedance analysis relies on
the resistance of an electrical flow through the body to estimate body fat
percentage, fat free mass and total body water percentages.
The ideal body fat percentage varies between males and females and by
age. As a guide to maintain good health, women should not be leaner then
12 per cent body fat and men 5 per cent body fat. The healthy average is more
like 22 per cent to 25 per cent for women and 16 per cent to 20 per cent for
men. For men over 25 per cent and women over 32 per cent body fat, there is
a higher occurrence of illness and disease.
Calculation of optimum weight

If 23 per cent fat for women and 16 per cent fat for men are used as the
desired body fat standards, then the following equations can be used to
calculate your optimum body mass.
Desired weight, women:
weight – (weight x (per cent fat/100))
0.77
Desired weight, men:
weight – (weight x (per cent fat/100))
0.84
For example, a 19-year-old male who has 23 per cent fat and weighs 95
kilograms would have to reduce his body mass to 87.1 kilograms to attain his
goal of 16 per cent fat. The steps to work this out are as follows:
1 Divide your body fat percentage by 100. For the example provided, this
would give 0.23.
2 Multiply your weight by this number. So in the example, multiply 95 by
0.23, which equals 21.85.

3 Subtract this number from your original weight, for example, 95 minus
21.85 equals 73.15.
4 Divide this resulting number by either 0.77 for women or 0.84 for men.
In our case, dividing 73.15 by 0.84 equals 87.1 kilograms.
Expressed as a formula, calculations for the above example are:
95 – (95 x 0.23)/0.845 = 73.15/0.84 = 87.1
Optimum weight = 87.1 kg

1 Define body composition.
2 Discuss the importance of body composition to sports performance.
3 Evaluate the different body composition measurements outlined in this section in relation to:
a their strengths and weaknesses
b their suitability for different population groups.
4 Explain how you could reduce the measurement error in any of the body composition tests.
5 Explain why it is important not to carry excess body fat.
6 Evaluate your own body composition scores.
a Were your results consistent for all tests?
b Outline what you can do to improve or maintain your results.
Talent hunt for next generation of Olympians goes online

The search is on to find Australia’s resources to invest in sport like the UK new sport. The athletes’ information
next gold medal hopes, with an eye or China, so we need to continuously is processed and if identified as
on the London 2012 Olympics and develop innovative tools that enable us ‘above average’ by eTID they are then
beyond. to keep up with the rest of the world,’ encouraged to visit a Talent Assessment
With competition from other na- Nance said. Centre (TAC) to have their results
tions increasing, Australia is embarking ‘eTID can be the start of an ath- verified.
on a world first initiative that will lete’s journey towards elite sport. That The TAC system is a collaboration
uncover talented hopefuls from every journey could potentially include between the ASC and over 20 uni-
corner of the nation. support and funding to fully nurture versities throughout Australia. Such
In the lead up to the Beijing Games, and develop the athlete into Australia’s a collaboration to seek out talent has
the Australian Sports Commission’s next top sporting talent.’ never occurred before and through
(ASC) has launched an online electronic The system was the brainchild of this method the capability to hunt
talent identification program (better the ASC’s successful National Talent for talented athletes has been greatly
known as eTID). Identification and Development pro- expanded.
Greg Nance, ASC Director for gram which seeks to identify and Once a TAC identifies that the
Sport Performance and Development, develop Australia’s future sporting athlete has real talent they can then
understands that for Australia to com- talent. eTID is a simple to use, free, enter the elite sporting system, where
pete successfully on the world stage, we online program that allows anyone they could be supported with coaching,
need to think differently. (aged 12–29) to assess their sporting equipment and travel.
‘eTID is Australia’s solution to potential. We encourage all aspiring athletes
finding talent in a way that is smarter It provides opportunities for as- to log onto eTID today and find out if
and more efficient. Being a relatively piring or current athletes and even they have the potential to be Australia’s
small country we don’t have the former elite athletes looking to start a next sporting champion.
www.ausport.gov.au, 29 April 2009


Visit <www.ausport.gov.au/participating/got_talent/test>. Complete the seven test protocols:
standing height; body mass; arm span; 30-second push-ups; vertical jump; 40-metres sprint;
20-metres shuttle run or 1.6-kilometres run; then register and enter your results online.
After you have submitted your results, you will receive feedback based on your age and
gender. If you have been identified as a potentially talented athlete, it is suggested that you
attend a Talent Assessment Centre for further testing and verification of results.
1 Identify what fitness component was being measured in each of the seven tests.
2 Evaluate the selection of tests included in this talent identification process. Would you make
any modifications? If so, what would you delete or add?
3 Before submitting your results, identify the fitness components where you believe you
performed well. What have you based your answer on?
4 After receiving your feedback, explain it in your own words.
Skill-related components
of physical fitness
Having a range of skill components is critical to being able to execute a skill
successfully. If an athlete exhibits the qualities needed for their chosen sport,
they have a significantly better chance of success than if they did not possess
these qualities.
Power
Power the ability to generate Power can be described as the ability to apply force as quickly as possible
force as quickly as possible. resulting in a dynamic burst of movement. It is the measure of how much
work is achieved per unit of time. To be described as a powerful athlete, you
Figure 5.13
Power—a combination of must exhibit the qualities of both strength and speed. Power is important in
strength and speed activities involving sprinting, throwing and jumping.
Testing power
Power can be assessed using tests such as jumps for height,
jumps for distance and throws for distance. Anaerobic power
can also be assessed by performing a maximal 10-second bike
test that measures peak power and total work. The following
are two examples of power tests that can be conducted in class.
Vertical jump
The vertical jump test measures leg power and is used by a
number of different sports. Equipment may include a jump
mat, tape measure and a marked wall or a vertec (a piece of
equipment used to measure jump height). Instructions are
as follows.
1 Assuming that you will use a marked wall, the students will
stand side on to the wall and using their dominant arm they
will reach up as high as possible to have their reach height
recorded. (Their feet must be kept flat on the ground.)

2 Each student now attempts to jump as high as possible by bending

their knees, swinging their arms up and touching the wall at the top
of the jump.
3 The distance of the jump is calculated as the difference between the
jump height and reach height.
4 The best of three trials is recorded.
As a variation to this test, a number of sports also record trials
where the athlete is allowed one step into the jump.
Table 5.15 Ratings for vertical jump, measurements in centimetres
Rating Males Females

Excellent >70 >60
Good 56–70 46–60
Average 41–55 31–45
Fair 31–40 21–30
Poor <30 <20
Standing backward overhead throw

Start with your back facing the direction you will throw. Holding a
4-kilogram medicine ball above your head, swing your arms down so
the ball goes between your legs and then swing up and throw the ball
backwards over your head as far as possible. Your arms must remain straight
Figure 5.14
throughout the throw. Measure from the start line to where the ball hits the Vertical jump
ground. Your score will be the best of three trials.
Table 5.16
Ratings for backward overhead throw
Rating Males Females

Fair <11.4 m <6.6 m
Average 11.4–12.6 m 6.6–9.0 m
Good 12.7–16.2 m 9.1–2.0 m
Excellent >16.2 m >12.0 m
Understand and apply Figure 5.15

Backward overhead throw
1 Choose two sports that demonstrate a need for:

a leg power b upper body power.
2 Outline why power is important for success in those sports.
3 Evaluate your own results in the two power tests.

Speed
Figure 5.16 Speed is the pace at which an athlete performs a task using any part of their
Speed is the central body. This can be a sprinter moving their legs or a cricket bowler using
component of sprinting their arms.
Testing speed
Ideally, speed tests are conducted using electronic
timing lights to increase accuracy and reliability.
However, if this equipment is unavailable, you
can use a stopwatch. For straight-line speed in
team sports, measurements over 10–40 metres are
commonly used with splits taken at each 10-metre
interval. To remove the additional component of
reaction time, it is best to have the student start
when they are ready rather than responding to a
signal. Flying 30-metre times can be calculated by
subtracting the time to complete the first 10 metres
from the 40-metre time. Students should have at
least a 5-minute recovery between trials and take the
quickest times from the two trials.
Table 5.17 Ratings for 10 metres and 40 metres sprint, measurements in seconds
10-METRE SPRINT 40-METRE SPRINT

Rating Males, age 15–17 Females, age 15–17 Males, age 15–17 Females, age 15–17
Excellent <1.77 <1.90 <5.49 <5.89
Good 1.78–1.88 1.91–1.98 5.49–5.79 5.90–6.19
Average 1.89–1.99 1.99–2.08 5.80–6.10 6.70–6.50
Fair 2.00–2.10 2.08–2.18 6.11–6.41 6.51–6.81
Poor >2.11 >2.19 >6.41 >6.81
Agility
Agility is the ability to Agility can be described as the ability to change pace and direction quickly
change direction rapidly with and efficiently. This involves balance, coordination and speed. A soccer
minimal loss of speed or
balance. player who is dribbling the ball downfield must sidestep to manoeuvre around
opposing players. Their success at such a task can be attributed to their agility.
Other examples of sports that require agility include skiing, wrestling, squash
and most team sports.
Testing agility
When selecting an agility test to include in any fitness assessment, it is
important to consider specificity. Tests vary from 10 metres with one change
of direction to tests involving numerous changes of direction over a distance
of 60 metres (or more). Aspects of interest within the test may include change
of direction involving swerving; turning at 90 degrees; turning at 180 degrees;
turning left or right; running with a ball, racquet or stick; and getting up and

down off the ground. The more of these aspects that are Figure 5.17
included in the one test the more difficult it is to isolate Soccer displays why agility
is critical to success
specific strengths and areas for improvement. For this
reason, the 5-0-5 agility test is often the test of choice.
5-0-5 Agility test

Ideally, this test would be conducted with the use of
electric timing lights—if this is not possible, use a
stopwatch. Instructions are as follows (see figure 5.18):
1 The course is set up as illustrated in the diagram
below, preferably using a line on the ground at (2). If
using timing lights, they are set up at marker (3).
2 The student starts at marker (1) and when ready,
sprints forward to turn at (2) by placing their left or
right foot on the line and accelerating back to the start.
3 The time is recorded from when they first pass the
marker identified as (3) and timing is stopped when
they again pass this marker (i.e. the total distance of
the test is 10 m). Three trials are recorded for each foot.
Table 5.18
Ratings for 5-0-5 agility, measurements in seconds
10 m 5m
Rating Males, age 15–17 Females, age 15–17
Excellent <2.33 <2.66
Good 2.34–2.50 2.67–2.87
Average 2.51–2.67 2.88–3.08
Fair 2.68–3.84 3.09–3.29
(1) (3) (2)
Poor >3.85 >3.30
Figure 5.18
5-0-5 agility test
1 Discuss the difference between speed and agility.
2 Choose two sports that demonstrate a need for agility. Outline why agility is important for
success in those sports.
3 Select a sport and develop a sport-specific agility test for it.
4 Suggest activities that could be included in training to improve your speed and agility.
5 Identify three aspects of daily life where speed and agility would be beneficial.
Coordination
Coordination is the athlete’s ability to use their physical fitness to combine
all aspects of a skill to execute the skill successfully. A tennis player must
coordinate different skills to complete a powerful and successful first serve,
as does a basketball player going in for a lay up with defenders in the key.

Figure 5.19
A USA basketball player shows Australia they have the coordination
to make the basket count, even with tough defence
Athletes who have good coordination tend to learn new

skills quickly and are less likely to sustain an injury
when exercising.
Testing coordination
Coordination tests are generally not included in fitness
test batteries for athletes. However, a coordination test,
such as the one described below, is sometimes included
when assessing overall fitness and skill development.
Alternate hand wall toss test

To perform this test you need a wall, tennis ball, some
tape or chalk, a tape measure and a stopwatch. Draw a
line 2 metres from the wall. The student stands behind
the line, throws the tennis ball at the wall with their
Table 5.19 right hand and must catch it in their left hand. They then
Rating for alternate
hand wall toss test throw the ball back against the wall with their left hand
and catch it in their right hand. This sequence continues
Rating Catches as many times as possible in 30 seconds. The best score
is the highest number of successful catches in three
Excellent >35
30-second trials.
Good 30–35
Average 20–29
Fair 15–19
Poor <15 1 Identify three activities that demonstrate a
high level of coordination.
2 Discuss the choice of the alternate hand wall
Figure 5.20
toss test as a measure of coordination.
Balance and focus are
absolutely essential 3 Identify the limitations with testing this fitness
to dancers component.
4 Outline how having a good level of
coordination can be beneficial during daily life.
Balance
Balance is the state of equilibrium that results in an equal
distribution of weight, which keeps an athlete’s desired
posture and composure. Balance is needed by gymnasts
to perform a beam or floor routine, and by divers a
10-metre platform dive.

Testing balance
The stork balance stand test requires the students to balance for as
long as possible on the ball of one foot while the other foot is placed
against the inside of their knee (see figure 5. 21). The hands must
remain on hips at all times. The stopwatch starts when the heel lifts
off the ground and it is stopped when any of the following events
occur: the support foot moves (e.g. hops); the foot loses contact
with the knee of the support leg; the heel touches the ground; or the
hands are lifted off the hips. Record the best of three trials.
Table 5.20
Ratings for stork balance stand test, measurement in seconds
Rating Time
Excellent >50 or more
Good 40–50
Average 25–39
Fair 10–24
Poor <10 or less
Figure 5.21
The stork balance
Reaction time stand test
Reaction time is the delay between a stimulus and a muscle movement—the
response to the stimulus. This could be the time between a starter’s gun and
the athlete leaving the blocks. A faster reaction time will deliver a faster time.
Reaction time can also refer to an athlete’s ability to adapt their play. If their
team is in attack and suddenly the ball is stolen by the opposition, the quicker
they reacts to the change of events and moves defensively, the better the
chance of eliminating points scored by the opposing team.
Response times can vary greatly if a decision has to be made after the
stimulus. Reaction time can be improved by reducing anxiety and increasing
focus on the stimulus.

1 Describe two situations in (a) daily life and (b) sport where balance is important.
2 Describe two situations in (a) daily life and (b) sport where reaction time is important.
3 Select one sport and discuss how power, speed, agility, coordination, balance and reaction
time are linked to performance.
Testing reaction time

Testing reaction time is possible with just a stopwatch and some marker cones.
Nelson choice reaction time test

This test measures a person’s ability to react to stimulus. Instructions are
as follows.

Table 5.21 1 Three marker cones are set up 6.4 metres apart in a straight line. The
Ratings for Nelson student stands at the middle marker facing the tester.
choice reaction time,
measurements in 2 The tester holds a stopwatch in the air and suddenly points left or right as
seconds they simultaneously start the stopwatch.
3 The student responds by running to that marker as
Ratings Males Females quickly as possible. The watch is stopped as the
Excellent 1.3 or less 1.6 or less student passes the marker.
4 The student has 10 trials in random order, with
Good 1.35–1.6 1.65–1.9 5 trials in each direction. The rest interval between
Average 1.65–2.4 1.95–2.55 trials is 20–30 seconds, while the interval between
‘ready’ and the ‘signal’ should be 0.5–2 seconds.
Fair 2.45–2.7 2.6–2.85
Average all trials and compare them to the ratings
Poor 2.75 or more 2.9 or more in table 5.21.

Complete the Fitness Profile worksheet, which appears on the Student CD-ROM. Review
your ratings for each test completed.
1 Analyse your results for the five health-related fitness components.
2 If your results were to stay the same over the next five years, discuss the impact/influence
this would have on your lifestyle.
3 Examine your results for the skill-related fitness components. Describe situations where
each component is important.
4 Discuss the aspects of your fitness profile that you’d like to change over the next 12 months.
Suggest how this might be achieved.
Elite-level fitness testing

AFL draft NBA draft
The following tests are conducted at the AFL draft camp The following tests are included in the pre-NBA draft:
(with best results in brackets): • height
• height (201.7 cm) • weight
• body mass (99.35 kg) • arm span
• sum of skinfolds • standing reach
• arm length (86.5 cm) • bench press: number of reps at 185 lbs (approximately
• hand span (25.6 cm) 85 kg)
• multi-stage fitness test (15.08) • vertical jump—stationary and with step
• 3 km time trial (9.37 min) • three-quarters court sprint
• vertical jump—standing (83 cm) • lane agility drill.
• vertical jump—with step (102 cm)
• 20 m sprint with 5 m and 10 m splits (2.79 s)
• repeat speed—6 x 30 m on the 20 s cycle
• specific AFL agility test—approx 40 m in total distance
(7.79 s)
• sit and reach.


1 Evaluate the fitness components that are important in the following sport’s drafts:
a AFL
b NBA.
2 Identify the fitness components that are included in each sport’s testing regime
3 Are there any fitness components you listed in your answer to question 1 that are not
included in the listed tests for that sport? If so, what tests would you include?
4 Choose another sport and indicate what tests you would include in its fitness assessment.
Justify your selection.
Aerobic and anaerobic training

Aerobic training specifically aims to enable you to use your aerobic energy
system more effectively. This type of training draws on the aerobic energy
system, which uses oxygen. This will result in you being able to exercise for
longer without fatiguing, and to recover more quickly during rest periods.
Anaerobic fitness, on the other hand, refers to your ability to perform short
high-intensity efforts using the anaerobic energy system. This system involves
the supply of energy to working muscles though the conversion of glycogen
(stored glucose).
FITT principle
Following the FITT principle (Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type) will assist
you in planning a training session or writing a fitness program. Manipulating
the various components within the FITT principle allows a gradual progression
and overload, so you are more likely to achieve your goals.
Frequency
Frequency refers to how often something is done. For aerobic training, aim for
three to six sessions per week, whereas resistance training may be prescribed
for two to three times per week.
Intensity
Intensity generally refers to how hard you are working. This can be measured
by a percentage of your maximum heart rate, for example, 75 per cent maxHR.
It can also be measured by a percentage of your maximum effort. In the gym,
this might be 60 per cent 1RM for a bench press (60 per cent of the load you
could lift for one repetition) or on the track, it may be 85 per cent of your
400-metres run pace. For example, if your personal best for 400 metres is
60 seconds, then you may run intervals at 69 seconds in training. MaxHR can
be estimated by subtracting the person’s age from 220. Table 5.22 outlines
the different training zones that can be used. T1–5 predominantly works the
aerobic energy system, while the T6 zone works the anaerobic energy system.

Table 5.22 Training zone table
Training maxHR Perceived Blood lactate Predominant Lactate transition

zone % exertion (Mm) energy system zones
T6 NA Maximum exertion NA anaerobic
T5 >92% Very hard >6.0 aerobic >VO2 max
T4 90–92% Hard 4.0–6.0 aerobic LT2**
T3 85–90% Somewhat hard 3.0–4.0 aerobic
T2 75–85% Light 2.0–3.0 aerobic
T1 60–75% Very light <2.0 aerobic LT1*
*LT1 refers to the lactate threshold where lactate levels are just above resting levels. Sometimes referred to as
aerobic threshold.
**LT2 is where lactate accumulation is greater than lactate clearance. Also referred to as the anaerobic threshold.
Time
Time or volume relates to how long or how much and can be measured by
time (45-minute run), distance (20-kilometre bike ride) or number of sets or
Continuous training
exercising non-stop for a repetitions (26 sets in the gym).
minimum of 20 minutes up to
several hours. Type
Interval training completion Type refers to the mode of exercise and may be classified as continuous
of a number of prescribed
training or interval training. If you are aiming for aerobic improvements,
bouts of exercise, each
followed by a recovery period. then the exercise choice should involve large muscle groups such as running,
swimming, rowing, walking and cycling.
Table 5.23 Example training sessions using the FITT principle
FITT principles Aerobic training Anaerobic training Resistance training
Frequency 4 aerobic sessions per week 2 speed sessions per week with 3 all-body sessions per week with
48 hr recovery between sessions 48 hr recovery between sessions
Intensity 75–85% maxHR 100% effort with maximal recovery Set 1 = 75% 1RM; set 2 = 80% 1RM;
set 3 = 85% 1RM
Time 30-km bike ride 5 x 20 m 3 sets x 6 repetitions of each exercise

5 x 40 m with 2–3 min recovery between sets
3 x 60 m
Type Cycling—continuous Sprinting—intervals 8 strength exercises

1 Compare the relative importance of aerobic and anaerobic training to success in the
following sports:
a diving c gymnastics
b water polo d soccer.

2 Select a sport of your choice and design (a) an aerobic training session and (b) an anaerobic
training session using the FITT principle.
3 Exercising at intensities up to 75 per cent maxHR predominantly uses fat as an energy
source. Exercising between 75–90 per cent maxHR is often used for aerobic training and
uses a combination of fats and carbohydrates for energy. It is suggested that 90 per cent
maxHR corresponds to a person’s anaerobic threshold (lactate accumulation is greater than
lactate clearance). This is the minimum intensity for anaerobic training. Calculate your:
a maximum heart rate
b 75 per cent maxHR
c 90 per cent maxHR.
4 Examine a training session for health-related fitness compared to a fitness training session
for sports performance.
5 Compare the heart rate graphs for a 20-year-old athlete during two different training
sessions (see figures 5.22 and 5.23).
a Calculate their maximum heart rate, 75 per cent maxHR and 90 per cent maxHR.
b Estimate the amount of training time they would have spent below 75 per cent maxHR,
between 75–90 per cent maxHR and above 90 per cent maxHR for each training session.
c What does monitoring the athlete’s heart rate during the two sessions tell the coach
about the intensity of these two training sessions?
Figure 5.22 Heart rate graph for training session 1
220 220
200 200
180 180
160 160
140 140
120 120
HR (bpm)
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
211 bpm 204 bpm 205 bpm 151 bpm 190 bpm
0 0
0:00:00 0:05:00 0:10:00 0:15:00 0:20:00 0:25:00 0:30:00 0:35:00 0:40:00
Time: 0:00:00 Time
HR:212 bpm

200 200
180 180
160 160
140 140
120 120
HR (bpm)
HR (bpm)
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
176 bpm 179 bpm 162 bpm 147 bpm

0 0
0:00:00 0:00:00 0:20:00 0:30:00 0:40:00
Time: 0:21:35 Time
HR:184 bpm
Figure 5.23
Heart rate graph for
training session 2
Immediate physiological
responses to training
Heart rate
Resting heart rate (HR) varies among individuals depending on their fitness
level—an elite endurance athlete may have a resting heart rate as low as
28 bpm, while an unfit sedentary person’s can be as high as 100 bpm. On
average, an adult’s resting heart rate will be 70–75 bpm. Just before we begin
to train, our heart rate will rise in anticipation so our true ‘resting’ heart rate
should be taken first thing in the morning. During maximal exercise, there
is a linear increase in heart rate corresponding to the increase in exercise
Maximum heart rate can
be estimated at 220 minus the demands, until you reach your maximum heart rate. This pattern occurs for
person’s age. both trained and untrained participants. However, at any given submaximal
workload, the untrained person will have the higher heart rate. The trained
Steady state when your
heart rate plateaus as exercise participant will have a sharp increase in heart rate at the beginning of
demands are met. exercise, which will then plateau when they reach steady state during
submaximal exercise. During prolonged exercise at a constant workload, the
Cardiovascular drift
when cardiac output is kept heart rate will shift from the steady state upwards due to cardiovascular drift.
constant in the latter parts When undertaking resistance training, there is an increase in heart rate the
of prolonged exercise and is more repetitions that are performed. The cardiorespiratory fitness level of a
achieved by a slight increase
person will determine how quickly the heart rate returns to resting levels after
in heart rate as stroke volume
slightly decreases even though exercise—the fitter you are, the quicker you recover. Initially there is a large
workload stays the same. drop for both trained and untrained individuals.

Ventilation rate
Ventilation rate refers to the movement of air into (inspiration) and out of
(expiration) the lungs and is more commonly known as breathing. At rest, the
average person will perform 12 breaths of approximately 500 millilitres each
minute resulting in a ventilation rate of 6 litres/minute. Similar to heart rate,
there is an anticipatory rise in ventilation rate as we begin exercising. Once
exercise actually commences, there is a second rise in ventilation rate as the
rate and depth of breathing increases. This increased ventilation corresponds
with increased oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production. It has
been suggested that, during maximal exercise, the main influence on minute
ventilation is the need to remove carbon dioxide rather than the need for
oxygen. For this reason, ventilation rate does not limit a person’s aerobic
capacity. Maximal minute ventilation rates can reach 130 and 170 litres/
minute for untrained and trained participants. Figure 5.24 illustrates the
ventilatory response to light, moderate and heavy exercise. As can be seen in
the graph, once exercise ceases there is an initial rapid decline followed by a
gradual return to resting ventilation rates.
Figure 5.24
Start
Ventilatory response to
Stop
120 light, moderate and heavy
Pulmonary ventilation (L/min)
exercise
100 Heavy
80
Moderate
60
Light
40
20
Exercise
0
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time (min)
Stroke volume
Stroke volume (SV) refers to the amount of blood pumped from the heart
(left ventricle) per beat. Resting stroke volume values are approximately
50–60 millilitres for untrained participants and 80–110 millilitres for trained
participants. These values then increase during exercise to approximately
100–120 millilitres for untrained, and up to 200 millilitres for trained
participants. It is thought that maximal stroke volume occurs at a work
intensity corresponding to 40–60 per cent maximal and then plateaus as
exercise intensity increases. The large difference in maximal stroke volume
amounts between trained and untrained individuals is a major contributing
factor to aerobic endurance. Increased stroke volume is due to the left
ventricle holding more blood and a stronger contraction, then emptying
more blood per beat. There is virtually no change from resting levels when
performing resistance training. Women will tend to have a slightly lower
stroke volume than men.

Cardiac output
Cardiac output (Q) refers to the amount of blood pumped from the left
ventricle each minute. It can be calculated as:
Q (L/min) = SV (mL) x HR (bpm)
Cardiac output under resting conditions is similar for trained and
untrained individuals, and is approximately 5–6 litres. There is a sharp
increase in cardiac output as exercise commences, and this continues to
increase as workload increases in order to meet the exercising muscles’
demands for more oxygen. Interestingly, cardiac output is similar for trained
and untrained individuals at submaximal workloads. This is because
the trained person will have a higher stroke volume and lower heart rate
compared to the untrained individual, who will have the higher heart rate
and lower stroke volume. For example:
An untrained participant at 50 per cent maximal effort has a heart rate
of 140 and a stroke volume of 100 millilitres. Their cardiac output is
140 x 100 = 14 L/min.
A trained participant at 50 per cent maximal effort has a heart rate of
100 and a stroke volume of 140 millilitres. Their cardiac output is
100 x 140 = 14 L/min.
The main difference between trained and untrained individuals is
their maximal cardiac output. Trained athletes have recorded maximal
Figure 5.25
Distribution of cardiac
cardiac outputs of 40 litres compared to untrained individuals who average
output at rest and during 20 litres. Women will tend to have a slightly lower cardiac output than
maximal exercise men have.
a Rest (Q=5.8 L.min –1) b Maximal Exercise (Q=25 L.min –1)
Splanchnic
Other (300 mL) 1%
(600 mL) 10%
Renal
Skin Splanchnic (250 mL) 1%
(1400 mL) 24% Other
(500 mL) 9% (~100 mL) 1%
Cerebral
(900 mL) 3%
Skin
(600 mL) 2%
Coronary muscle
(1000 mL) 4%
Skeletal muscle Renal

(1200 mL) 21% (1100 mL) 19%
Coronary muscle
(250 mL) 4%
Cerebral
Skeletal muscle
(750 mL) 13% (22,000 mL) 88%

Figure 5.25 illustrates the distribution of cardiac output at rest and during
maximal exercise. We see in this example that cardiac output rose from
5.8 litres at rest to 25 litres during maximal exercise. The main change has
been the redistribution of blood from the various body organs to the skeletal
muscles, which now receive 88 per cent of cardiac output (compared to 21
per cent at rest) in an attempt to meet the muscles’ demand for oxygen. As a
thermoregulatory measure (in other words, to keep the body cool), there is an
increase in blood flow to the skin during maximal exercise.
Lactate levels
Lactate is produced by the breakdown of carbohydrates and is cleared from
the body by the muscles. Under resting conditions, its clearance rate is in
balance, resulting in constant levels of 1–2 mmol/L. During exercise, lactate
levels will increase as the body produces lactic acid to create energy for the
muscles. The amount will vary depending on the intensity of the exercise.
High-intensity exercise will create higher lactate levels.
As depicted in figure 5.26, during low intensity exercise the lactate
levels remain fairly stable. However, as intensity increases and the body has
a greater demand for energy, the production of lactate exceeds the rate at
which it can be removed. Consequently, we get an exponential rise in blood
lactate accumulation. It is thought that this is due to a reliance on anaerobic
glycolysis, less oxygen being available in the tissues, the recruitment of fast
twitch-fibres and the reduced removal of lactate.
Three elements of the lactate curve provide important information for the
coach. These are the intensity or speed of exercise that corresponds to lactate
threshold, the maximum amount of lactate that can be produced and the
slope of the curve. Lactate threshold is the speed or intensity of exercise that
results in a sustained increase in lactate concentration above resting levels.
Therefore, below this workload is where someone can exercise at a steady
state. For untrained people this generally corresponds to 50–60 per cent
VO2max, whereas in trained endurance athletes this can be at 75–85 per cent
VO2max. The maximum amount of lactate that can be produced is a reflection
of a person’s anaerobic conditioning, with 400-metre runners recording
maximum lactate levels of >20 mmol/L. The slope of the curve for trained Figure 5.26 Lactate
athletes is shifted to the right. response to exercise
Once maximal exercise ceases, lactate levels will
begin to return to resting levels. Passive recovery
results in 50 per cent of the lactate removed within
14
15–20 minutes, and resting levels restored after 30–60 Trained
12
Blood lactate (mmol . L–1)
minutes. However, optimal levels of lactate removal Untrained

occur with an active recovery at an intensity below a 10
person’s lactate threshold. Cool-downs at 30–45 per 8
cent intensity (max VO2) for untrained exercisers and 6
between 50–65 per cent intensity for trained athletes LT
4
can return lactate concentrations to resting levels
2 LT
within 20 minutes.
0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% VO2 max

Table 5.24
Summary of AT REST MAXIMAL EXERCISE
physiological Male, age 30 untrained trained untrained trained
responses at rest
and during maximal Heart rate (bpm) 72 40 190 190
exercise
Stroke volume (mL/beat) 50–70 80–110 100–120 Up to 200
Cardiac output (L/min) 5–6 5–6 20 40
Ventilation rate (L/min) 6 6 130 170
Lactate levels (mmol/L) 1–2 1–2 10 20

1 In pairs, using heart-rate monitors or manual methods, take your partner’s heart rate every
2 minutes while they complete the following exercises. Then change roles and repeat.
a 10-minute continuous run
b Five x 30-second shuttles, aiming at as many shuttles as possible in each 30 seconds,
with 90-second recovery between each work interval.
c Mini soccer (5 vs. 5) for 10 minutes.
In addition, take a heart rate reading 2 minutes after each activity finishes.
2 Describe your breathing before, during and after the various activities.
3 Graph the HR results.
4 Discuss the heart-rate response to the three different types of activity.
5 Suggest what the lactate graph would look like for the three different activities.
chapter review
Recap
Cardiorespiratory endurance refers to the circulatory and respiratory systems’ ability
to supply oxygen to the body and remove carbon dioxide and waste products during
sustained exercise. Having a good cardiorespiratory endurance will lower your chance of
suffering from heart disease, blood pressure problems and other health problems. A high
level of cardiorespiratory endurance is also beneficial in sports such as cross-country
running, triathlon, road cycling, race walking and various team sports.
Muscular strength is the ability to produce force against resistance. This is often
measured by how much you can lift in one repetition. Strength training can improve our
metabolism and our posture and it provides better bone strength to assist in guarding
against osteoporosis. Sports such as weightlifting, gymnastics and rugby require a high
degree of strength for successful performance.

chapter review
Muscular endurance is the ability to exert force and continue it for some time. Athletes
such as marathon runners, triathletes, soccer players, football players, basketball players
and swimmers all possess high levels of muscle endurance. Having high levels of
muscular endurance makes it easier to perform everyday tasks, improves posture and can
reduce the instance of back pain.
Flexibility is the ability to bend and stretch to execute the full movement of a joint. Ideally,
you want to be flexible enough to perform your daily tasks with ease. If these tasks
include specific sporting activities, there will be a need for greater flexibility at different
joints. A greater range of movement enhances the capacity to develop force.
Body composition is the percentage of bone, muscle, organs and fat in one’s body. Body fat
is the main component of body composition that is monitored and it can have a detrimental
effect on our wellbeing and performance. Having a high body fat percentage—particularly
around the abdomen—can increase the likelihood of heart disease, stroke and type 2
diabetes. When body fat levels become too low, the immune system can be compromised.
A range of skill-related fitness components (power, speed, agility, coordination, balance
and reaction time) is critical to be able to execute a skill successfully. If an athlete exhibits
the qualities needed for their chosen sport, they have a significantly better chance of
success than if they did not possess these qualities.
Testing fitness components is a key to any training program. Providing a choice of tests is
appropriate and if they are administered correctly, benefits include identifying strengths
and weaknesses; identifying any imbalances in flexibility or strength; and monitoring
progression.
Aerobic training specifically aims at enabling you to use your aerobic energy system more
effectively. This will result in you being able to exercise for longer without fatiguing, as
well as being able to recover more quickly during rest periods. Anaerobic fitness, on the
other hand, refers to your ability to perform short high-intensity efforts using the anaerobic
energy system.
Following the FITT principle (Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type) will assist you in
planning a training session or writing a fitness program. Manipulating the various
components within the FITT principle allows a gradual progression and overload, so you
are more likely to achieve your goals.

Better health channel www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv BMI calculator for adolescents

2/bhcsite.nsf/pages/bmi4child
Sports coach www.brianmac.co.uk Fitness library with information on sport science

and coaching
Rob’s home of fitness testing www.topendsports.com Fitness testing protocols
ExRx.net (exercise www.exrx.net/Testing.html Fitness testing and calculators to determine

prescription on the net) ratings for various tests based on age and gender
dartfish www.dartfish.tv Video clips of training drills and fitness tests

1 The following graph shows the lactate response during a 1500-metre race.
16
Series 1
14
mmoI/L lactose levels
12
10
6
4
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Distance 100 metres
a Identify the stage of the race that corresponds with the runner’s anaerobic threshold.
b Explain why there was an increase in lactate levels towards the end of the race.
c Discuss the type of recovery strategy you would recommend to assist the removal
of lactic acid.
d Describe the heart-rate response during the race. (5 marks)
2 The following components have been identified as being important for tennis
performance. Outline one test for each component that you would recommend be
chapter review
included in a tennis player’s fitness-testing schedule.

a aerobic fitness
b agility
c flexibility
d power
e coordination (5 marks)
3 Using the FITT principle, design a one-week training program for a person
in their late twenties, who has not done any exercise since school. (10 marks)

Biomechanical
principles
and movement
How do biomechanical principles influence movement?
Biomechanics combines the study of biology and mechanics to explain how the body functions
as a machine. An understanding of biomechanics allows us to answer many questions about
6
how people move. For example, what technique will enable a hockey player to shoot a ball at
maximum velocity and how do we learn to produce that technique? Or how might catching a
cricket ball cause injury to the hands and how do we prevent this? This chapter will introduce
you to a few of the more important concepts in biomechanics and how they can be applied to
human movement.
Motion
Being able to describe exactly what movements occur is essential before we
can begin to understand what movements athletes should be performing.
We can describe movement by specifying where an object is located, how fast
it is moving in a particular direction, and how quickly the speed is changing.
For example, we might analyse a tennis stroke by describing the part of the
court from which the tennis ball was hit, which direction it travelled, how
fast it moved, how the speed of movement changed during flight, and where
the ball landed in the opponent’s court. Once we know exactly how the stroke
was performed, then we can start to think about how this might be improved.
The ball might be struck faster to beat an opponent or more slowly to land
closer to the net; it might be hit with spin to change the ball’s flight through
the air; or it might be sent in a particular direction away from the opponent.
The application of linear motion, velocity,

speed, acceleration and momentum in movement
and performance contexts
Displacement and distance
Knowing the position of a body and how that position changes is the first
Displacement the location of an
step in describing movement. The displacement of an object is its location, object, measured with respect to
described with respect to some known position. For example, figure 6.1 some known point.

illustrates the position of a netball player, playing centre, as she moves about
the court during a game. At any given point in time, her displacement can be
described by measuring how far she is from the centre circle in metres. The
Distance the path travelled distance this player ran can be measured by following the path created by her
by an object as it moves from displacement during the game. As you can see, centres run a great distance
one displacement to another.
around the court, often travelling more than 8 kilometres during a match.
Figure 6.1
Displacement of a
netball player
Direction of play Movement

Challenging/Defending
Netball
Displacement can be measured in one, two or three-dimensions, depending

on the movement being analysed. To describe the movement of a runner
during a 100-metre sprint, just a single dimension is required. The body
moves forward during the race and we can describe the position by stating
how far the body is from the start line at any point in time. For example,
Usain Bolt won the final of the men’s 100-metre sprint at the Beijing Olympics
in a world-record time of 9.69 seconds. Figure 6.3a shows us a graph of Bolt’s
Figure 6.2
Usain Bolt celebrates his
win in the 2008 Olympic
100-metre sprint final

Biomechanical principles and movement CHAPTER 6 157
Figure 6.3
a Displacement Displacement, velocity and
acceleration of Usain Bolt
120 during the 2008 Olympic
Displacement (m)
100 100-metres sprint final
80
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
b Velocity
14
12
Velocity (m/s)
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
c Acceleration
15
10
Acceleration (m/s/s)
0
2 4 6 8 10
–5
–10
Time (s)
displacement during this race, together with his velocity and acceleration Axes plural of axis. An axis
that we will discuss in later sections. Only a single dimension is necessary to is a mathematical line used
to describe displacement as
understand this movement as he does not move from side to side, and vertical distance from some arbitrary
movements do not affect his time to cover the distance. From figure 6.3a, we zero position. If two or
can see that at time zero (when the gun went off), Bolt had a displacement of three axes are used, these
are located perpendicular
zero metres because he was still at the start line. Two seconds after the start, to one another so that
he had a displacement of 11 metres in front of the start line; at four seconds displacement can be measured
his displacement was 33 metres; and so on, until he reached the finish line independently along each axis.
(100 metres) at 9.69 seconds.
The netball displacement illustrated in figure 6.1 is an example of a
two-dimensional measurement. The figure enables us to visualise how much
the player moves forward and back, as well as left and right on the court.
At any particular point in time, we can describe her position by stating how
many metres she is located in front or behind the centre circle, and how far
to the left or right. Figure 6.4 is also a two-dimensional diagram that shows
the side view of a gymnast performing a handstand. Using the vertical and

horizontal axes on the diagram, we can locate any part of the body
by describing how far that body part is located from the vertical and
horizontal axes. For example, the ankle is located 1.5 metres above
0.3 m the horizontal axis and 0.3 metres in front of the vertical axes. The
hands, however, are 0 metres from the horizontal axis, but 0.25
metres in front of the vertical axes. Using diagrams like this enables
us to quantify exactly what position the body is adopting at any
instant in time. Specialist computer software allows sport scientists to
analyse video images to determine exactly where each body segment
is located in each frame of the video, and to track the movements of
those body segments over time.
1.5 m
Some movements need three dimensions to be described
accurately. For example, if you wished to describe the movement of a
Vertical axis
hiker crossing the Blue Mountains, then you would need to consider
changes in height, as well as movements north/south and east/west,
if you were to understand the path they took. Similarly, to fully
understand the movement of the tennis ball described earlier, we
would need to consider how high the ball travelled, as well as what
position it was forwards/backwards and left/right.

1 Obtain a photograph of an athlete in an interesting pose.
Measure from the left and bottom of the photograph to
Horizontal axis describe the two-dimensional displacement of the major
joints of the body.
2 Use figure 6.4 to measure the horizontal displacement of
Figure 6.4 the ankle, hip, shoulder, ear and wrist. Explain how these
Sagittal view of a gymnast points should be positioned for an optimal handstand
performing a handstand
posture.
3 Position people with stopwatches every 40 metres around
a 400-metre running track. Have an athlete run 400 metres
and measure the time he/she passes each 40-metre point.
Sketch a displacement—time graph for the entire distance.
4 List three examples each of movements that can be best
described in one dimension, two dimensions or three
dimensions.
Velocity and speed

Speed measured by Speed can be calculated using the equation:
considering the total distance
travelled, divided by the time speed = distance
taken. time
That is, if we measure the time taken to cover a known distance, we can
calculate the speed of movement. For example, Eamon Sullivan set a freestyle
world record at the Beijing Olympics with a time of 47.05 seconds for
100 metres. His average speed for this race was therefore:

speed = distance
time
= 100 m
47.05 s
= 2.13 m/s
When an object is moving at high speed, it does not take as much time
to cover a specified distance as would a slower moving object. A tennis ball
struck at high speed will not give your opponent much time to prepare to hit
the ball back. Similarly, a rugby league player running at high speed leaves
less time for opponents to intercept before he reaches the try line. Rearranging
the speed equation demonstrates this point by showing us that:
time = distance
speed
The term velocity is often considered to have the same meaning as speed, Velocity (or speed) may be
but in mechanical terms, it is calculated using the formula: formally defined as the ‘rate
of change in displacement’.
velocity = change in displacement That is, velocity tells us how
time quickly an object changes
its displacement from one
While the calculation for velocity is almost the same as for speed, the location to another.
difference is the same as that between displacement and distance. Speed is
calculated from the distance covered, no matter what path that distance takes.
Velocity, however, uses the displacement of an object and, therefore, considers
only the absolute difference between the starting and finishing positions,
not the actual distance covered. We will usually use the terms ‘speed’ and
‘velocity’ interchangeably. We are usually more interested in speed, but the
mathematics of what we measure might give velocity instead. From now on,
we will simply use the term ‘velocity’, knowing that occasionally we really
mean speed instead.
The winner of a running race should always be the person with the
smallest time to complete the race. That is, the person with the highest
Average velocity measured
velocity over the race distance will win. We need to be careful about this by considering the change in
statement, however, because our formula for calculating velocity gives only displacement divided by the
the average velocity throughout the entire period analysed. Usain Bolt’s time taken.
record time for 100 metres was 9.69 seconds, giving an average velocity of
10.32 m/s. From figure 6.3b, however, we can see that his velocity peaked at
more than 12 m/s. There obviously had to be some time at the beginning of
the race when his velocity built up from zero, reducing his average to 10.32.
The winner of a race is not necessarily the person with the highest maximum
velocity, but is the person with the highest average velocity over the entire
race. This average velocity contains a reaction time at the beginning of
each race when the speed is zero, before the athlete starts to move. Reducing
this reaction time can have a large effect on race time without requiring any
increase in running speed.
If we want to understand how velocity is changing during a race, then we
need to consider the instantaneous velocity of an athlete. Figure 6.3b is a graph Instantaneous velocity
the velocity of an object at
of instantaneous velocity, showing us how the velocity continuously changed
a specific instance in time.
during the race. From this graph, we can see that Bolt’s speed was initially Instantaneous velocity can
zero at the beginning of the race, and then gradually rose up to a peak of about change within the period used
12.5 m/s. Interestingly, this graph also shows his speed was decreasing rapidly to calculate average speed.
towards the end of the race as he started to celebrate his win. At the time, this

led commentators to speculate that a time of 9.5 seconds was within reach had
he been pushed for the entire race. These comments were supported by his
subsequent world record of 9.58 seconds at the 2009 World Championships.

1 Obtain the times measured for running 400 metres in the previous section on displacement
and distance. Use the total time of the run to calculate the average velocity of running.
2 Using the times measured every 40 metres around the track, calculate the velocity within
each 40-metre interval. Plot a graph of velocity versus time.
3 Describe how velocity varied within the 400-metre run. Did it remain constant, or was one
portion of the race faster than other portions? Explain why runners may or may not wish to
run at a constant velocity.
4 Mark out a distance of 20 metres and measure how long it takes to run this distance from a
standing start.
a Calculate the average velocity for this run.
b How do you think the maximum running speed would compare to this average value?
c Suggest how you might be able to measure maximum running speed.
5 Explain why the runner who can run the fastest may not always win a race. Hint: consider
why 100-metre sprinters do not also win marathon races.
Acceleration
Acceleration the rate of When velocity is changing, we define acceleration as being the rate at which
change in velocity. This is a velocity (or speed) is increasing or decreasing. Acceleration may be calculated
similar concept to velocity
itself. While velocity tells us
from either speed or velocity and, again, the difference between displacement
how quickly an object changes and distance must be considered, but we will continue to refer just to velocity.
its position, acceleration tells The formula for calculating acceleration is:
us how quickly it changes
velocity. acceleration = change in velocity
time
Like velocity and speed, our calculation of acceleration is an average value
over the time being analysed, and it is possible for instantaneous acceleration
to vary within this period. Figure 6.3b shows us the instantaneous velocity of
Usain Bolt during his run at the Beijing Olympics. Bolt’s velocity increased
from 0 to 12.5 m/s over the first four seconds of the race. From this, we can
Average acceleration like calculate his average acceleration during these four seconds as:
velocity, acceleration can only
be directly calculated as an acceleration = change in velocity
average between two points in time
time. The formula for average
acceleration is therefore the = 12.5 m/s – 0
change in velocity divided by 4s
time.
= 3.125 m/s2
A large acceleration tells us that velocity is changing quickly. When a
golf ball is struck, its velocity can change from zero to about 50 m/s in a time
of just 0.4 seconds. This is an average acceleration of 125 m/s2; considerably
higher than the 3.125 m/s2 we calculated for Usain Bolt. When acceleration
is zero, this means that velocity is not changing. It is possible to be travelling

very quickly and still have zero acceleration. Zero acceleration just means that
velocity is not changing; it does not tell you what that velocity is.
Figure 6.3c shows a peak acceleration much higher than the 3.125 m/s2 we
calculated earlier for average acceleration. This is because, as with velocity,
there was a period before Bolt started to move when his acceleration was
zero. His peak acceleration occurred just after he commenced moving, while
his feet were still in contact with the starting blocks giving a large force to
accelerate him forward. After leaving the blocks, he continued to accelerate
until reaching top speed, but the faster he went the more difficult it was to
keep accelerating. His acceleration therefore declined after the initial peak.
The average acceleration, 3.125 m/s2, is the average of all acceleration values
in the period from zero to four seconds.
At around 4.4 seconds, Bolt’s velocity reached a maximum point when it
was no longer increasing. At this time, we see the instantaneous acceleration
was zero; that is, velocity was not changing at this point. After this time,
the acceleration was often negative. When a person is moving forward
with positive velocity, negative acceleration implies that their velocity
is decreasing, so they were slowing down. The small burst of positive
acceleration between 7.1 and 8.3 seconds meant that Bolt’s velocity increased
again for a time, but there was quite a rapid slowing after this, indicated by
the large magnitude of negative acceleration.

1 Have a look at the acceleration graph in figure 6.3c. Explain what is happening at the times
when acceleration is greatest, when acceleration is negative, and during the period from
5–6 seconds when acceleration is approximately zero.
2 Explain why rapid acceleration is much more important for a 100-metre sprinter than it is for
an 800-metre runner.
3 A tennis ball being struck by a racquet experiences much higher acceleration than does a
space rocket during lift off. Explain how the rocket can achieve such high velocity when it
has less acceleration.
Momentum
Once an object starts to move, it has a tendency to keep on moving. This
property of objects is known as momentum. Momentum may be calculated Momentum sometimes
using the formula: defined as the ‘quantity
of motion’. Momentum is
momentum = mass x velocity calculated from the mass of
an object multiplied by its
For example, a discus with a mass of 2 kilograms and a velocity of 20 m/s will velocity.
have a momentum of 40 kg m/s. The faster an object moves, or the more mass
possessed by that object, the greater the momentum. Mass measured in kilograms,
mass refers to the amount
Objects possessing a large amount of momentum can be very difficult to of matter in your body. It
stop moving. Some rugby players who have a large mass, and who can run can affect the motion of an
very fast, become very difficult to stop as they charge towards the try line. object. We must always be
very careful to define mass
Smaller players have less mass, and hence they must run more quickly to differently from weight.
generate the same momentum. If a player does not have as much momentum,
they become easier to stop in a tackle. Smaller players must rely more

on speed, both to avoid being caught in a tackle and to generate enough

momentum to keep moving if they are caught.
The principle of momentum becomes important any time you wish to
stop a moving object. For example, catching a ball requires you to halt the
momentum of that ball. A cricket ball travelling at the same speed as a tennis
ball can be more difficult to catch. This is because the greater mass of the
cricket ball produces more momentum, which must be brought under control
during the catch. Similarly, a ball hit with more speed will be more difficult to
control because of its momentum. Later in this chapter, in the Applying force
to an object section, we will see how forces must be applied to increase or
decrease the momentum of an object.

1 A golf ball can travel at speeds up to about 50 m/s, while a cricket ball rarely travels faster
than 40 m/s. Find out the mass of these two ball types and estimate the momentum of each
ball travelling at these speeds.
2 Measure the mass and maximum running speed of your class members. Calculate the peak
momentum for each person and discuss the implications for rugby tackling.
3 Experiment with throwing and catching balls with different masses and speeds (for example,
a ping-pong ball, tennis ball, basketball and a medicine ball). Discuss the effect of
momentum on the difficulty of catching each ball.
Balance and stability

Placing the body in a position where it is balanced and unlikely to fall over
is an essential component of many activities. Sometimes, balance itself is the
overall goal of a task. For example, successful performance of a handstand
requires gymnasts to adopt a certain posture and to remain stationary in this
position for two seconds (dependent on specific rules being applied). Other
tasks, such as throwing, kicking or striking a ball may not have balance as
a direct goal, but require a stable body position from which to execute the
desired movement. This section will introduce you to some of the major
principles involved in maximising the body’s stability.
Centre of gravity
Gravity exerts a force on our body that pulls us down towards the Earth. This
will be discussed in much more detail later on in the Force section. Gravity
acts on all parts of our body, in proportion to the weight of each body part.
Therefore, gravity exerts a larger force on our head than it does on our fingers,
because of the larger weight of the head.
Centre of gravity the point Our centre of gravity is a spot within the body where gravity is balanced
at which the weight of a body above, below and on either side. For objects with symmetrical distribution
is balanced above, below and
on either side. of weight, such as a ball or wooden ruler, the centre of gravity is right in the
middle of the object. Most objects, however, have one end that is heavier
than the other, so the centre of gravity will be located closer towards the
heavy end. For all objects, regardless of weight distribution, the centre of

gravity is the balance point of that object. For example, you can balance a
30-centimetre ruler on your finger at the 15-centimetre mark, the middle of
the ruler. If you place an eraser on one end of the ruler, however, this moves
the centre of gravity towards that end, and you need to slide the ruler along
your finger to find the balance point. Humans have more weight in their head
and chest than they do in their feet. Therefore, the centre of gravity is slightly
higher than half the height, usually about 55–60 per cent of standing height.
This will vary somewhat between individuals, depending on factors such as
leg length, upper body development, and the distribution of muscle and fat Figure 6.5
within the body. Because we are fairly symmetrical left to right, the centre of The centre of gravity for
gravity is in the midline of our body when viewed from the front. different objects
The location of the centre of gravity can be moved by changing your

posture. Squatting down will obviously bring the centre of gravity closer to
the floor. Lifting your arms will raise the centre of gravity by about four or five
centimetres. Lifting just one arm to the side will move the centre of gravity Figure 6.6
away from your midline by a couple of centimetres. Most of the time we can Centre of gravity moves
imagine the centre of gravity being located about in the middle of our pelvis. with body position


1 Obtain a number of different sporting implements, such as hockey sticks, tennis racquets and
so on, and balance them to locate their centre of gravity.
2 Obtain some photographs of sportspeople. Try to find photos where the person is adopting
an interesting posture, such as a swim start, a high jumper crossing the bar or a dancer
performing an arabesque. For each photo, estimate the location of the centre of gravity.
3 Balance a Barbie doll or a similar toy figure on your hand and locate its centre of gravity.
Explain why the location of Barbie’s centre of gravity may not be in exactly the same place
as yours. Consider such factors as body composition, leg length compared to body, and the
relative size of different body parts.
Line of gravity an imaginary

line drawn vertically
Line of gravity
downwards from the centre The line of gravity can be imagined as a line drawn vertically downwards
of gravity.
from your centre of gravity. When we come to consider factors affecting
the stability of the body, an important consideration will be where this line
of gravity touches the ground. As illustrated in figure 6.7, you can usually
imagine this as a line down from the pelvis, unless the body is in quite an
extreme posture.
Base of support
While we are standing on two feet, our base of support is determined by an
Figure 6.7
area enclosed by the outline of the feet. Figure 6.7 shows that, as you move
Line of gravity and base your feet further apart, the size of the base of support increases from left to
of support right. The use of crutches further increases our base of support, as this base
is determined by the area enclosed by whatever is
in contact with the ground, shown in figure 6.8.
Depending on where the crutches are positioned,
the base of support can be increased in size either
forwards and backwards (figure 6.8b), side-to-side
(figure 6.8a), or both (figure 6.8c).
For a person to maintain a stable position, the
line of gravity must pass through the base of support.
If the line of gravity falls outside the base of support,
it is impossible to be balanced and we must either
adopt a new posture or else fall over. If we are in a
position where the line of gravity is very close to
the edge of the base of support, then we feel at risk
of falling over because there is very little room to
move without the line of gravity passing outside
the base of support. A position close to the edge is
problematic because we are never exactly stationary.
We are always moving slightly forward and back,
left to right, and this normal level of movement risks
passing the line of gravity outside the base if we
stray too close to the edge.

Figure 6.8
Line of gravity and base
of support
a b c
Figure 6.9
A stable posture requires
the line of gravity to be
located within the base
of support
a b c
balance retained balance precarious balance lost
Several approaches may be used to increase the stability of the body. First
of all, a larger base of support will increase stability. This is because more
movement is allowed before the line of gravity gets close to the edge of the
base of support. Lowering your body will also increase stability. With a lower
centre of gravity, the body can tilt more from side to side without the line
of gravity passing outside the base of support. Finally, increased mass will
increase stability. A larger mass tends to remain steadier and requires more
force to be accelerated. This point is explained later in the section Applying
force to an object.

Adopting a stable posture often requires us to

maintain this stability in the face of some external force
that might knock us over. This could be a deliberate
attempt to make us unstable, such as a rugby tackle
or could result from some other source of force, such
as catching a ball. Whenever a force is applied to our
body, we tend to get pushed in the direction of that
force. If this moves our line of gravity outside the base
of support, then we will fall over. However, there are
strategies to minimise this effect. If we move our line of
gravity closer to the edge of the base of support, in the
direction that we expect the force will be applied we
will become more stable. Moving your line of gravity
towards the force before it makes contact will allow
more movement to occur after the force is applied
without us being pushed outside the base of support.
The benefits of this can be even greater if you make your
base of support larger and set your base of support in
Available
the direction from which the force is expected. Doing
range of motion for this allows even more room for the line of gravity to
line of gravity
move after impact.
Total base of support Figure 6.10 illustrates an example of an athlete
maximising his stability in anticipation of an external
Figure 6.10 force. The athlete has increased the size of his base
Athlete widening the base
of support in the direction of the applied force, and
of support and moving the
line of gravity towards the moved his line of gravity towards the edge of the base
direction of an anticipated of support where he expects the force to occur.
force

1 Discuss why your feelings of stability change when you stand on one leg instead of two,
when you close your eyes or when you lift your heel off the ground.
2 Sketch a view from above of an elderly person using a walking frame and identify the base
of support for the person. Explain why the walking frame provides more stability than the
use of a walking stick or no aid at all.
3 Obtain three wooden blocks with
approximately 10 centimetres square base,
but different heights (10 centimetres, 20
centimetres and 30 centimetres). Place all
three blocks onto a desk and gradually lift
one edge of the desk until the blocks fall
over. In which order do the blocks fall over
and why? Explain with respect to line of
gravity and base of support.
4 Consider the diagram opposite and discuss
whether you think this man could remain
balanced in this position. Figure 6.11 Gymnast in a balance position

Buoyancy an upward force on

Fluid mechanics the body experienced when the
body is immersed in water. The
effect of buoyancy is to reduce
Flotation the apparent weight of the body
by opposing gravity.
When a body is immersed in water, the water exerts an upwards force on
the body that we call flotation or buoyancy. The principles of flotation Archimedes’ Principle the
size of the buoyant force is
were described more than 2000 years ago by a Greek mathematician named equal to the weight of water
Archimedes. Archimedes’ Principle states that when a body is immersed in displaced by the body. This
water, the body experiences an upwards force equal to the weight of water means that to maximise the
buoyant force, as much of the
displaced by the body. You can see this effect when you get into a bath.
body as possible should be kept
The water level in the bath rises because your body takes up space that was below water.
previously occupied by the water. The water level in the bath rises, but
gravity tries to pull this water back down again. Your body then experiences
an upwards force as the water tries to squeeze you out of the way to get back
Figure 6.12
to where it was. Weight and buoyancy
Whether or not you float depends
on the relative size of the buoyant force
compared to your body weight. If the a
buoyant force is greater than or equal
to your weight, then you will float. The
size of the buoyant force is equal to the
weight of the water displaced. This means
that, whatever volume of your body is b
underwater (figure 6.12b), there will be an
upwards force proportional to this volume.
This point is very important when people
are learning to float on their backs. There
Buoyant force
is a strong temptation to try to lift your
face clear of the water, but this reduces
the volume of your body underwater.
c Weight of swimmer
Therefore, the volume of water displaced
is reduced and, consequently, the buoyant
force becomes less. Keeping as much of
your body under water as possible will
maximise the amount of water displaced, Buoyant force
thus increasing the buoyant force and
making it easier to float.
Taking a large breath of air makes
it easier to float. This is because inflating your lungs causes the body’s
volume to increase, increasing the amount of water displaced and, therefore,
Density calculated from the
increasing the buoyant force. Exhaling all the air from your lungs reduces the mass of an object divided
body’s volume, thus reducing buoyancy and making it more likely that you by its volume. Water has a
will sink. density of 1 kg/L because
1 litre of water has a mass
The ease with which your body floats depends on the density of your of 1 kg. If an object is less
body. Having a higher density means there is more mass, and therefore, dense than water then it will
weight, packed into a given volume. This can make the weight force larger float, as the weight of water
displaced will be greater than
than the buoyant force and cause the body to sink. Certain body tissues have body weight; meaning the
relatively high or low densities when compared to water. Fat has a density buoyant force will be larger
less than water and therefore, people with a higher proportion of fat tend to than body weight. An object
denser than water will sink
float more easily. Bone, on the other hand, has a higher density and therefore,
because the buoyant force will
is more likely to sink. The legs have large, strong bones and therefore, are be less than body weight.

relatively dense and tend to sink. Muscle tissue has a very similar density to
water. Consequently, heavily muscled people do not necessarily sink more
easily than the rest of us; the percentage of fat in the body has a much larger
effect on whether you float or sink.

1 Explain why keeping more of your body underwater will increase the size of the buoyant
force acting on the body.
2 Imagine a man who has exhaled all his air and is standing on a set of scales underwater.
Would the reading on the scales be more, less or the same as when he is on land? Why?
3 In the previous question, the man had exhaled all his air. What effect would having a lung
full of air have on the scale reading?
4 Imagine two people with equal body weight, but one person has a larger percentage of fat
in their body than the other. If these people were standing on the scales underwater, which
person would record the largest reading and why? (Note: this technique is sometimes used
in laboratories by exercise scientists and nutritionists to estimate a person’s body fat.)
5 Explain why children are less likely to perform a successful back float if trying to lift their face
clear of the water.
Centre of buoyancy
Centre of gravity is the balance point of the body, where weight is equally
distributed on either side. We use this point to illustrate the force of gravity
Centre of buoyancy the (i.e. weight) on diagrams of the body. A concept related to this is the centre
point in the body where the of buoyancy. This is the point where all the volume of the body underwater
amount of volume under the
water is equally distributed
is distributed evenly on each side. Because the buoyant force is caused by the
on either side. The centre of volume of water displaced, the centre of buoyancy becomes the point where
buoyancy tends to be higher in the buoyant force is located as shown in figure 6.12.
your body than the centre of
The centre of gravity is usually located slightly lower in the body (i.e.
gravity, because of the effects
of dense legs at one end and closer to the feet) than is the centre of buoyancy, as you can see in figure
low-density lungs towards the 6.12c. This is because the lungs are in the top half of the body, displacing a
other end. relatively large volume compared to weight (i.e. low density), while the legs
are relatively dense because of their strong bone structure. This means that
there is more volume per unit weight in the upper part of the body, and less
volume for a given weight in the lower part.
When a body is suspended in water, it will rotate until the centre of
buoyancy and the centre of gravity are aligned, one above the other. You can
imagine this effect by looking at figure 6.12c and imagining a cutout figure of
the body. Pull downwards on the centre of gravity, and upwards on the centre
of buoyancy, and the body will rotate. Once the two points are aligned as in
figure 6.13, the two forces will hold the body in that position.
Because the centre of buoyancy is higher in the body than the centre of
gravity, the legs usually sink when people try to float on their back. There
are several strategies that swimming teachers use to help people float more
horizontally. One approach is to have the swimmer bend their knees, as
shown in figure 6.13a. This moves the centre of gravity up towards the

head and therefore can bring the centre of

gravity into line with the centre of buoyancy. a Buoyant force
Similarly, extending the arms will also move

the centre of gravity up towards the centre of
buoyancy. A third technique can be to lift the
fingers and possibly the hands out of the water Weight
(figure 6.13b). Because the centre of buoyancy force
is where the volume of water being displaced b
is balanced, lifting the fingers out of the water Buoyant force
means that they are no longer contributing to
buoyancy. This moves the centre of buoyancy
in the body down towards the centre of gravity.
Caution must be used in this approach because,
Weight
by reducing the volume of the body under water, force
the total force of buoyancy is also reduced.
Usually, encouraging swimmers to keep their c
Buoyant force
lungs full of air, and to hold their head down
with their ears under water, will provide enough
buoyancy to balance the loss of floatation from
the hands and keep them afloat.
Weight
force
Figure 6.13
Centre of buoyancy and centre of gravity
are aligned during a stationary float

1 Take a photocopy of figure 6.12c, cut out the figure and attach some cotton to the points where
gravity and buoyancy act on the body (try to attach the cotton right at the tip of each arrow).
Pull on the cotton in the direction of the two forces and explain what happens to the figure.
2 Repeat the above experiment using figure 6.13a, where the buoyant force and weight
forces are aligned above one another. Now what happens when you pull on the two pieces
of cotton?
3 Use figure 6.13b to explain why lifting the hands clear of the water will shift the centre of
buoyancy towards the feet.
4 We have explained that most people have their centre of buoyancy higher in the body than
their centre of gravity, so that it is difficult to float horizontally. In relation to buoyancy,
explain the benefit kicking the legs gives while swimming freestyle or backstroke.
Drag this term is used

interchangeably with
Fluid resistance ‘resistance’ in biomechanics.
Drag increases with the
In the field of biomechanics, air is also considered to be a fluid, like water. density of the fluid and in
Water is much more dense than air and, therefore, has a greater effect on our proportion to the square of
movements, but the same principles can be applied to examine the effect of velocity. Other effects on total
drag are best considered by
these fluids on movement. When we move through a fluid (air or water), we
referring to the individual
have to push that fluid aside as we move through it. This creates resistance on components; surface drag,
the body that tends to slow our movements. This is often called a drag force. form drag and wave drag.

Fluid resistance a force that The amount of fluid resistance is proportional to the density of fluid, so there
opposes movement through is obviously much more resistance moving through water (density = 1 kg/L)
a fluid.
compared to air (0.0012 kg/L).
Surface drag caused by Fluid resistance increases in proportion to the speed of movement squared
friction between the surface
(F v2). This means that if speed doubles from 1 metre to 2 metres per
of an object and the fluid
surrounding it. A larger surface second, the amount of resistance will be quadrupled. If speed increases four
area or a rougher surface will times, the drag force will be increased by a factor of sixteen. This means that
increase the amount of surface resistance is much more important for fast movements than it is for slow
drag present.
ones. For example, track cyclists go to great lengths to reduce resistance
Form drag determined by the on their bikes and helmets, but marathon runners pay little attention to the
size and shape of an object. aerodynamic nature of their clothing.
Objects with lower form drag
have a narrower profile and a Fluid resistance is caused by three different effects: surface drag, form
tapered shape at the back. drag and wave drag. The first type, surface drag, is caused by friction between
an object and the air or water around it. The amount of surface drag is caused
Wave drag produced
when an object moves near by the density of fluid, the speed of movement, the smoothness of the object
the boundary between two and the amount of surface area in contact with the fluid. A rougher surface
different types of fluid (e.g. increases the friction between the body and fluid, raising the amount of drag
water and air).
force to be overcome, while a smoother surface decreases the friction. Rowing
Friction a force present boats, for example, are highly polished, creating a smooth surface that water
between two objects that can flow past easily. Synthetic materials were adopted for swimsuits quite
are sliding past, or tending
to slide past each other. early on to reduce the surface drag associated with older woollen swimwear.
Friction acts in a direction Form drag is the second type of resistance acting on objects moving
opposite to the movement of through a fluid. This resistance is determined by the shape (or form) of an
the objects, tending to oppose
the movement.
object, the size of the object and how the fluid moves around this shape.
When an object moves through fluid, there is usually some air pocket at the
Cavitation resistance caused back that is sucked along behind the object (figure 6.14b). This pocket forms
by an air pocket behind the
object being sucked along in because the object pushes air (or water) out of the way as it moves through,
its wake. This same effect but the fluid cannot change direction quickly enough to get in behind the
also occurs in water, where object and fill up the cavity. For this reason, the effect is often referred to
fluid is dragged along behind
an object.
as cavitation. Providing a tapered shape at the back of the object leads the
fluid flows around either side of the object to join at the back, thus reducing
Figure 6.14
The effect of shape on a
cavitation and form drag

the size of the cavity and reducing the form drag (figure 6.14a). This tapered Figure 6.15
shape is typical of all objects required to travel at high speed with low fluid Objects designed for low
resistance as shown in figure 6.15. form drag possess a similar
tapered shape at the back
The amount of form drag can change depending on how the fluid flows
to reduce cavitation
past the object. Sometimes a slightly rougher surface on an object can reduce
form drag by helping the fluid to stay close to the object as it flows around,
and thus diminishes the amount of cavitation. Figure 6.16 illustrates the Laminar flow fluid moving
effects of dimples pressed into the surface of a golf ball. When air flows past with laminar flow travels in
a smooth ball, it tends to keep moving in a straight line (laminar flow) and straight lines, like flat sheets.
Laminar flow of a fluid will
thus creates a large air pocket at the back. The effect of dimples is to trip result in that fluid tending to
the air as it moves past so that it starts to move in different directions in a remain travelling in a straight
chaotic fashion (turbulent flow). Because the air is already changing direction line as it passes an object,
potentially increasing the size
through its turbulent flow, it does not tend to remain travelling in a straight
of the air pocket behind the
line and can change direction to fill up the cavity at the rear of the ball. This object.
reduces the amount of form drag.
Turbulent flow fluid having a
The effect of smoothness on fluid resistance can be confusing to us because turbulent flow moves chaotically
roughening an object will always increase the amount of surface drag, but in many directions. Because
can sometimes reduce the amount of form drag, if it substantially reduces the fluid is already changing
directions frequently, it tends to
the amount of cavitation. Dimples reduce the amount of air resistance on a
fill in behind an object moving
golf ball only because the resulting reduction in form drag is greater than the past and therefore, reduces the
increase in surface drag. size of the air pocket.
Turbulent
Separation boundary layer Separation
Smooth Thick wake = Thin wake =

Golf ball
sphere large form drag small form drag
Laminar
boundary layer
Figure 6.16 Dimples reduce a golf ball’s form drag by reducing the amount of cavitation behind the ball

Frontal area the area of the Form drag is also determined by the frontal area of an object in the
object viewed head on in direction of movement. Frontal area can be imagined as the area of a
the direction of movement.
photograph taken from directly in front of the object. Narrower objects will
have a smaller cavity behind them and therefore, will have reduced form drag.
This requirement is what makes rowing boats so narrow and therefore, easy to
tip over. If a boat was widened for increased stability, this would increase the
amount of form drag and, therefore, the effort required for rowing. Similarly,
flexing the legs during the recovery phase of breaststroke swimming greatly
increases the frontal area, causing increased form drag and causing the body
to slow down at this time (figure 6.17a). Breaststrokers are trained to maintain
a streamlined position for as long as possible to minimise the drag on the
body (figure 6.17b).
Figure 6.17
The third type of fluid resistance is called wave drag. This occurs at the
Increased frontal area
during the recovery phase interface between different fluid types, usually water and air. Swimming
of breaststroke swimming along on the surface of the water causes waves to arise as the body interacts
increases form drag with the water. These waves greatly increase the amount of drag present.
The amount of wave drag present at
any time is a complex relationship
a
between the shape, length and speed
of an object. In the 1950s, breaststroke
swimmers discovered they could
minimise the wave drag by swimming
under the water instead of on top of it.
This increased their speed through the
water, but greatly reduced the appeal
of races for spectators. After the 1956
Olympic games, breaststroke rules
b
were changed so that only one stroke
at the beginning of each lap can be
performed underwater.

1 The world record for a marathon (42.195 kilometres) was set by Haile Gebrselassie at the
Berlin marathon in a time just under 2 hours and 4 minutes. The record for the 4000-metre
individual pursuit in cycling was set in Beijing by Steven Burke in a time of 4 minutes and 21
seconds. Calculate the average velocity of the two athletes. Use this velocity to estimate the
relative difference in air resistance expected if the only difference between the events was
the velocity (fluid resistance is proportional to the square of velocity). Explain why cyclists
spend so much more effort on reducing air resistance than do runners.
2 Discuss why marathon runners don’t wear skin-tight clothing to gain even slight benefits in
reducing their air resistance. Hint: this answer has nothing to do with mechanics, but deals
with the physiology of running.

3 Make two sketches of a cyclist; with and without an aerodynamic

helmet (figure 6.15b). Draw lines of air flow over your pictures and
explain how the helmet reduces form drag.
4 Racing cyclists bend forward over the handlebars, rather than
sitting upright in a more comfortable posture. Explain why they
would do this and how this might reduce resistance.
5 Consider the photographs of two cars below. Discuss how the
shape of the two cars at the rear affects the amount of fluid Figure 6.18
resistance experienced. Two cars with different
rear-end shapes
Force Newton the standard measure

of force, abbreviated using a
A force pushes or pulls an object, tending to make it change its position. capital N. Named after Sir Isaac
Forces are often applied through direct contact, when one object pushes Newton, a seventeenth-century
against another. If you squeeze a cricket ball, for example, a force is applied mathematician and physicist,
one Newton (1 N) is the amount
to the ball because your fingers cannot pass through the ball. The contact
of force required to accelerate a
force exists between the hand and the ball to keep the ball and fingers from mass of 1 kg at a rate of 1 m/s2.
merging. Direct contact between objects is not required for all forces, however.
Weight a force equal to your
Gravity is a force of attraction between any two objects, and the gravity we
body mass multiplied by the
experience on Earth is the pull of our body towards the Earth. No contact is acceleration due to gravity. In
required, because gravity still exists when we jump into the air. mechanics, weight is a force
Forces are measured using units called Newtons (N). While these units are measured in Newtons, never a
mass measured in kilograms.
not in common usage in the community, we can imagine how big they are by
considering that a force of 10 Newtons is about the amount of force required Acceleration due to
gravity the rate of acceleration
to lift a mass of 1 kilogram. In this section we will investigate how the body
experienced by an object falling
generates forces to move objects, including itself, and what effect forces can under the influence of gravity.
have when applied to the body. On Earth, the acceleration due
to gravity is approximately
9.8 m/s2. It varies slightly with
How the body applies force latitude and height above sea
level but the change is very
There are several ways in which you can apply force to another object. The small, with gravity on top of
simplest is just to use your body weight. In mechanics, weight is a force, Mount Everest being only 0.3
exerted by gravity, which pulls you downwards towards the Earth. The weight per cent less than that at sea
level. The value 9.8 will be
of an object is equal to the mass of that object multiplied by acceleration correct to a single decimal
due to gravity. On Earth, acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2, which we place anywhere on Earth.

can round up to 10 m/s2. Therefore, weight in Newtons can be estimated by

multiplying your mass in kilograms by 10 (use 9.8 if you want to be more
precise). For example, if you have a mass of 60 kilograms then your weight
is 584 N, or approximately 600 N. To avoid confusion later on, you should
always be careful to think of weight as a force, measured in Newtons, while
your mass is measured in kilograms.
If you want to generate extra force with your body, rather than just flopping
down under the influence of weight, then you need to contract your muscles.
Muscles are specialised tissues within the body that are able to change their
length by actively shortening. Because the muscles connect to bones that act
as levers, when a muscle shortens it applies a force to the bones it connects
with. This force can then be transmitted through the body to external objects.
Training the body to generate higher forces, therefore, involves training the
muscles to produce more force.
The final way we can apply forces is by building up momentum within
the body. Once the body has momentum, a force is required to stop the
body from moving. For example, if you rest a hammer on top of a nail and
press down, you can generate some force through the weight of the hammer
and exert some additional force by contracting your muscles. If you swing
the hammer towards the nail, however, extra force is produced from the
momentum of the hammer, allowing you to drive a nail through solid timber.
Similarly, if you wish to apply large forces while kicking a ball, increasing the
momentum of the leg during the swing will increase force of impact because
of the greater momentum of the leg. Another example of this is hitting a
hockey ball. During the swing, the stick acquires momentum that increases
force on the ball during impact. Performing a push, however, does not
generate as much force because you are relying only on muscle forces during
the push, without the additional force from the momentum of the stick being
built up during a swing.
Whenever two surfaces rub past one another, they produce friction. The
amount of friction between objects is determined by two factors. The first
factor is the amount of force holding the two objects together. If you sit in a
chair and gently slide your foot across the ground, the force holding the foot
against the ground is very small. Consequently, the friction force between
your foot and the ground is very small. Once you stand up and put weight
on your feet, this weight exerts a large force pushing your foot down onto the
ground. Now that the force holding your foot onto the ground is much larger,
the amount of friction will be correspondingly greater. Depending on the
floor surface and what sort of shoes you are wearing, you might not be strong
enough to slide your foot backwards along the ground if all your weight is on
the foot. Simply reduce the contact force, however, by taking more of your
weight on the other leg, and you will find it easier to slide the foot once again.
The second factor affecting the amount of friction is determined by the
nature of the two surfaces in contact. Some surfaces are naturally more
resistant to sliding past each other. For example, basketball shoes have a
particular rubber compound that seems to stick to wooden floors. These
generate a large amount of friction between the shoe and floor, enabling
players to control their movements and change direction more easily. If you
take the same basketball shoes outside onto the grass, you will find they
are not so ‘grippy’. It is not the shoe by itself that determines how much
friction is present; it is the combination of the shoe and floor together.

Basketball shoes produce high friction on a wooden floor, but not so much
on grass. In contrast, football boots produce relatively high friction on grass,
but can be very slippery when walking on concrete. Hiking boots may not be
perfect on any surface, but are designed to provide reasonable friction across a
range of different ground surfaces.
Producing large friction forces, therefore, requires you to have two surfaces
in contact that produce high friction properties, and for you to hold the two
surfaces together with a large amount of force. For example, if you want
to hold onto a tennis racquet without it slipping from your hand, then you
need to squeeze hard with your fingers to apply a force holding the hand
in contact with the racquet. You also need to make sure the handle of the
racquet is not slippery against your hand. This can be done by taping the
grip with appropriate material that doesn’t slip, making sure your hand isn’t
wet from sweat which makes the grip more slippery, or by applying some
other material, such as rosin powder between the grip and your hand. There
are products available that can be sprayed onto the grip surface to maximise
friction and, therefore, control.

1 Calculate your weight in Newtons.
2 Use the concept of momentum to explain how a large force is applied to a football when
it is kicked.
3 Do you think you could apply more force to a volleyball by throwing it, or by performing
a serve? Hint: which action feels like there is more force applied to your hand?
4 Many sporting implements like cricket bats and hockey sticks can be chosen with different
masses. Use the concept of momentum to explain why a larger mass might be able to
impart more force onto a ball.
5 Still thinking about momentum, and remembering that momentum is mass times velocity,
discuss why a stick with more mass will not always apply a larger force.
6 Obtain a collection of different shoe types such as a tennis shoe, dress shoe, football boot
and so on; a mass of at least 2 kilograms that can be placed in the shoes; and a spring
balance that can be attached to the shoes by hooking through the laces. Try dragging the
shoes across a range of different surfaces (e.g. wood, grass, concrete) and measure how
much force is required to drag each shoe/surface combination. Discuss why more force is
required in different circumstances.
7 Repeat the previous experiment with more or less weight in the shoes. Explain why the
amount of friction varies. Note: I have deliberately used the word ‘weight’ in this question—
why?
How the body absorbs force

While your body applies forces to objects, you also allow objects to apply
forces to you. When a force is applied, your body deforms in response to that
force. How your body absorbs the force determines how much deformation
occurs and this can influence your risk of injury. Further, if the forces
involved are very large, then they become more difficult to control, increasing
the difficulty of performing a task successfully.

When a moving object, such as a ball, hits your body, it applies a force to
your body. The amount of force applied depends on the momentum of the
moving object and on the amount of time over which the force is applied. The
Impulse calculated as product of force and time is called impulse. When a moving object hits your
force multiplied by time. body and comes to a halt, the impulse (Newton seconds, or N s) required to
For example, a force of 100
Newtons applied for a time of
halt the object is equal to the momentum (kg m/s) of that object. For example,
2 seconds produces an impulse a ball of mass 0.5 kilograms travelling at 20 m/s will have a momentum of 10
of 200 N s. kg m/s, so an impulse of 10 N s must be applied to halt the ball. This impulse
of 10 N s could be produced by a force of 10 Newtons applied for 1 second, or
equally by a force of 100 Newtons applied for only 0.1 seconds. In both cases,
the impulse is the same, and so the ball will be brought to a halt completely,
but the amount of force involved is very different. A force of 100 Newtons is
obviously more difficult to control and more likely to cause an injury.
Successful control of collisions with the body, therefore, requires the
body to increase the duration of time over which the force is applied. When
catching a cricket ball, for example, players keep their fingers, wrists and
arms relatively loose before impact so that the hands move backwards at
impact, increasing the duration of impact. This can greatly reduce the force
of impact compared to a stiff-armed catch, reducing the force against the
hand and reducing the likelihood of the ball bouncing straight back out of
the hands. Baseball catchers achieve the same effect using a large padded
glove. When the ball contacts the glove the padding compresses, bringing
the ball to a halt more gradually and, therefore, reducing the average amount
of force required to generate the required impulse. This same principle can
be applied whenever padding is used to reduce impact injuries. High-jump
landing mats, running shoes and bicycle helmets are all designed to compress
on impact, increasing the deceleration time and thus reducing the amount
of force required. The foam in bicycle helmets allows this compression, and
is therefore the most important component of a helmet. The hard plastic
shell over a helmet provides some protection for the foam and gives a more
attractive appearance, but does not directly affect the safety performance
because it does not compress.

1 With a partner, throw and catch a basketball and a medicine ball at different speeds. Take
note of the amount your hands move while you are catching the two balls at different
speeds. Discuss why the amount of hand movement differs.
2 Try to find places where you can drop from a height of about 1 metre and land onto
concrete, grass and a jumping matt. Take note of the feeling as you land in each case.
Discuss how much force your body must absorb in each case and why. Note: if your body
drops the same height onto each surface, then your momentum at the time of impact should
be the same in each case.
3 What movements did you perform with your legs as you dropped onto concrete in the
previous question? Why was this movement useful?

Applying force to an object

When a force is applied to an object, movement will result—unless there
is some other force also present to prevent movement. The response of
objects to applied forces was described in detail by Isaac Newton. In the
seventeenth century, Newton developed three laws that governed the motion
of objects in response to applied forces. His first law of motion, the law Newton’s first law of
of inertia, explains that a stationary object will remain stationary until a motion (also known as the
law of inertia) states that a
force causes it to accelerate. Similarly, once it is moving, it will tend to body will maintain a state of
keep moving in a straight line unless a force causes it to slow down or rest or constant velocity in a
change direction. straight line unless acted on by
an unbalanced external force.
The amount of acceleration experienced in response to an applied force
is determined by the amount of force applied, and by the mass of the object. Newton’s second law
This is Newton’s second law of motion. If twice as much force is applied, of motion states that
when a force is applied
then twice as much acceleration will result. Mass has an inverse relationship to an object, the object
with acceleration; if the amount of mass is doubled, the acceleration will experiences an acceleration
be halved. Mass, therefore, is a measure of the object’s inertia. Objects with in the direction of that force
that is directly proportional
a large mass have a large amount of inertia, meaning they are difficult to
to the force applied and
accelerate; while objects with a small mass need only a small force to be inversely proportional to the
accelerated. Newton’s second law is often written as a formula: mass of the object. Known
as the law of acceleration,
a = F this law is usually expressed
m mathematically as acceleration
equals force divided by mass.
This formula allows us to easily quantify the amount of acceleration
resulting from an applied force. If a force of 120 Newtons is applied to a Inertia the resistance of an
object to acceleration. If an
person of mass 60 kilograms, the resulting acceleration will be 2 m/s2. If object has a large inertia, then
a ball of mass 0.2 kilograms has the same 120 Newtons force applied, its it is difficult to accelerate. That
acceleration will be 600 m/s2. Clearly, a smaller object will have much higher is, a stationary object with
large inertia will be difficult to
acceleration for a given amount of force.
start moving, while a moving
When more than one force acts on an object simultaneously, we can add object with large inertia will be
the forces together to get a total force. Figure 6.19 illustrates a person jumping difficult to stop. The inertia of
into the air by applying a force to the ground of 1000 Newtons. The person an object is determined by its
mass, measured in kilograms.
has a mass of 60 kilograms, and consequently a weight of 588 Newtons. When
we consider the total force acting on the body, the 1000 Newtons upwards is
partially balanced by 588 Newtons of weight pulling down, leaving a total
force of just 412 Newtons upwards. It is this force that would determine the
amount of acceleration:
a = F
m
= 1000 – 588 N
60 kg
= 412 N
60 kg
= 6.9 m/s2
The following illustration shows us two ways in which body mass

influences our acceleration while jumping. Firstly, a larger mass means
increased inertia, resulting in a smaller acceleration for any given force. The
second point compounds this, because a larger mass means that more weight
is pulling the body downwards. This means that not only would there be less
acceleration for a given amount of force, but there would also be less total

force because more weight is pulling the body down. This is

a very great problem for jumping athletes. On one hand, they
need to develop strong muscles to apply large forces to the
ground while jumping. On the other hand, if they strengthen
their muscles through excessive hypertrophy (i.e. enlarging
muscle tissue), then the weight of those muscles may actually
retard performance. Jumpers must therefore aim to strengthen
their muscles in such a way that the benefits of increased force
outweigh the disadvantages of increased mass.
The example in figure 6.19 applies to forces that are both
aligned vertically. If the two forces were not parallel, they
Weight = 588 N could still be added or subtracted, but this addition would
require considering the direction of those forces, rather than
just a adding the numbers. Consideration of this is beyond our
scope, but will not be a problem for our current discussion
provided we only consider forces in one direction at a
time. If you want to consider the effect of forces on vertical
acceleration, use only vertical forces in your consideration.
Similarly, only horizontal forces determine horizontal
acceleration. Having more than two forces does not have any
Force = 1000 N
different effect. You can add as many forces as you like to get
a total.
Figure 6.19 Newton’s third law of motion states that when one object exerts a force on
Forces during a vertical a second object, the second object must also exert an equal-sized force back
jump onto the first object, in the opposite direction. This sounds complicated, but
need not be when we consider some examples. Figure 6.19 shows a vertical
force acting upwards under the foot. In practice, we jump by pushing down
onto the Earth with our feet. The force in figure 6.19 is the oppositional force
Newton’s third law of resulting from Newton’s third law as the ground pushes back at us. When
motion the law of reaction. we catch a ball by applying a force to slow it down, the ball will exert an
When one object exerts a
force on a second, another
equal and opposite force back onto our hands—this is a force equal in size,
force is applied back onto the but opposite in direction. The force on the ball causes it to slow down (figure
first object, which is equal in 6.20b); while the force on our hands may cause pain and will certainly cause
magnitude and opposite in
our hands to accelerate in the direction of the ball (figure 6.20c). To avoid
direction to the original force.
This law is often stated as confusion, we should use diagrams that show only the forces acting directly
‘every action has an equal and onto the object, and not include the paired force from Newton’s third law that
opposite reaction’. would act on another object. For example, figure 6.19 shows only the force
of the ground pushing up onto the feet. If I also tried to illustrate the force
pushing down onto the ground, then this might cause confusion about which
direction the body would accelerate, or whether I should have added or
subtracted the ground force in my acceleration equation.
Figure 6.20
The force applied to a ball a b c
during a catch is equal and
opposite to that applied to
the hand

Only forces coming from outside a body are able to cause acceleration
of that body. For example, you can squeeze your fist as tight as you like,
but it will not propel you anywhere. Only when your hand pushes against
some external object, and that object pushes back against your hand through
Newton’s third law, can we produce acceleration. The diagrams we draw to
analyse movement therefore only ever show forces coming from outside the
body. Our muscles initiate much of the force that causes us to move, but only
when the muscles push our limbs against some external object can they be
effective in causing acceleration.
Once an external force is applied to an object, then acceleration occurs in
the direction of that applied force. If a sprinter needs to accelerate forward
at the beginning of a race, then he must push backwards against the ground,
so that the ground will push him forward. Sprinters lean forward so they can
better direct the forces backward against the ground. Similarly, if a shot putter
needs to direct his put higher into the air to increase the flight distance, then
he needs to get his shoulder below the shot so that extending his arm will
direct it upward as well as forwards. The use of diagrams can be invaluable in
imagining what direction forces need to be applied for effective performance
in any sport. By illustrating all the forces acting on an object, you can then
visualise the acceleration that would result from those forces.
Newton’s laws tell us about acceleration. His second law tells us how
much acceleration will occur as a result of a force being applied. The total
velocity change in response to an applied force, however, is determined by
how long the acceleration continues, as well as by how much acceleration
there is. The longer a force is applied, the longer the body will spend
accelerating and, therefore, the more the total velocity will change. We have
already considered the effect of force and time multiplied together, and called
this impulse. Impulse is not only important for stopping moving objects, but Figure 6.21
also for increasing speed, if that is desired. The greater the combination of Path of movement during
force and time, the more momentum, and hence velocity, will increase. shot put release
When children first learn to
perform a shot put, they stand
in one position and forcefully
extend the knees and elbows to
put the shot forward and upward.
This technique produces large
acceleration of the put, but there
is a limit to the amount of time
the force can be applied because
the arm very quickly reaches
full extension and the put leaves
the hand. The next stage of the
technique involves performers
starting at the very back of the
circle and gliding forward to the
front before release (figure 6.21).
This technique allows force to be
applied to the put for a longer time,
increasing the impulse applied
to the shot, and consequently

resulting in a higher release velocity. Many modern shot putters now use
a rotational technique, like a discus wind up, where the body spins prior
to release, allowing even more time for force to be applied and, therefore,
producing an even greater impulse.
During a shot put, the athlete commences at the very back of the circle and
glides towards the front as he accelerates the shot. The dotted line illustrates
the path taken by the shot before release. By increasing the time over which
force is applied, a greater impulse can be applied to the shot, resulting in a
higher release velocity.

1 High jumpers must generate a large acceleration during takeoff
and require large forces to achieve this acceleration. Identify the
training methods that might enable a jumper to produce larger
forces and discuss why increasing strength to improve jumping
force may not necessarily result in greater acceleration during
the takeoff.
2 Imagine a force of 30 Newtons is applied to a golf ball and a
table-tennis ball. Which ball will experience more acceleration
during impact and why?
3 The above acceleration would be present only while the balls were
in contact with the bat or club. If you said that the table-tennis
ball had higher acceleration, why then would it not necessarily fly
through the air further than a golf ball? Hint: consider forces acting
on the ball during flight.
4 You can throw a cricket ball much faster than you could propel it
by striking it like a volleyball serve. Use the concept of impulse
to explain why the larger force from striking does not necessarily
result in larger velocity.
5 Use Newton’s second law of motion to explain why all objects would
fall with the same acceleration due to gravity, regardless of their
weight, if we ignore the effects of air resistance.
6 Use Newton’s second law once again to explain why air resistance
seems to have more effect on objects such as feathers and table
tennis balls.
7 a Use Newton’s third law of motion to explain why catching a
fast-moving ball can cause pain.
b Use the concept of momentum to explain why a ball that has
a larger mass, or one that is moving faster, will cause more pain
to your hand.
c Use the concept of impulse to explain why a harder ball will
cause more pain to your hand. Hint: compare the time taken
for a softer ball to come to a halt.

chapter review
Recap
Displacement, velocity and acceleration can be used to describe the position of an object,
how fast its position is changing and how quickly the speed is changing.
Momentum is the product of mass times velocity. An object with more momentum will
be more difficult to stop moving.
Adopting a stable posture requires the centre of gravity to be located above the base of
support. Increasing stability involves strategies to ensure that the line of gravity does not
move outside this base.
Bodies immersed in water experience an upwards force called buoyancy that is
proportional to the weight of water displaced by the body’s volume underwater.
Adopting a horizontal floating position requires the centre of gravity and centre of
buoyancy to be aligned at the same location in the body.
Objects moving through air or water experience a fluid resistance force that increases
with the square of velocity. Faster moving objects therefore have much more fluid
resistance than do slower objects.
Different causes of fluid resistance are surface drag, caused by the amount of surface
area and the smoothness of the object; form drag, caused by the shape of the object
and its frontal area; and wave drag, caused by movements of the object at the interface
between two different fluids (for example, water and air).
Weight and mass are quite different concepts. Weight is the force of gravity measured
in Newtons. Mass is a measure of a body’s inertia, determined by the amount of matter
packed into the body and expressed in kilograms.
The body can apply force to other objects through weight, by contracting the muscles,
or by using momentum.
When moving objects collide with the body (or vice versa), enough force needs to
be applied over the time of contact in order to remove the momentum of the object.
Applying force over a longer time allows momentum to be removed without requiring
as much force to be applied.
Newton’s laws of motion describe how an object will respond when a force is applied by
telling us whether velocity changes, what the size of the acceleration will be, and how
forces will be returned from one object to another.


Coaches’ Information Service www.coachesinfo.com Articles about sport science and improving
performance. Although not exclusively a
biomechanics site, there are many articles
describing the biomechanics of sports
BioLab www.biolab.org.uk The downloads page from the BioLab web site
provides many practical activities that can be used
for teaching biomechanics. Although designed
primarily for university students, there are many
activities that will be suitable for high school
students
Teachers’ Information Service www.usfca.edu/ess/tis Again, a site designed more for university
students, there are once again practical
activities that can be used to teach principles
of biomechanics
1 View the velocity–time graph in figure 6.3 and answer the following questions:
a What was the maximum velocity reached during the race? (1 mark)
b At what time was the maximum velocity reached? (1 mark)

chapter review
c What was the average acceleration from time zero up until maximum (2 marks)
velocity?
d Describe how velocity was changing over the last second of the race. (2 marks)
2 Describe the strategies that people use to hold a stable, balanced position.
For example, how they hold a balance position during a gymnastics routine. (4 marks)
3 Explain why people do not always float in a horizontal position, and what
strategies can be used to make the body more horizontal. (4 marks)
4 Explain the difference between mass and weight. (2 marks)
5 What is Newton’s second law of motion? Use this law to explain why it
would be difficult to play table tennis with a normal tennis ball while still
using a table tennis bat. (4 marks)

Preliminary
Options

First aid
The term ‘first aid’ refers to the giving of aid or assistance to someone in need, when you
are the first person on the scene of an accident or urgent medical situation. While the
majority of people go about their daily routine without disruption, health emergencies can
7
occur without warning. Having fundamental first aid knowledge and skills can go a long way
towards assisting in an emergency and could mean the difference between life and death
for the people involved. This chapter will provide an overview of vital first aid information
and will consider some ethical questions that should be taken into account concerning the
administration of first aid.
What are the main priorities

for assessment and management
of first aid patients?
First aid situations and medical emergencies can take on many forms and
are often combined with high levels of stress and anxiety. In order to ensure
that emotion does not cloud the decision-making process and that the needs
of all patients are met, there is a clear set of procedures for the assessment,
prioritisation and treatment of injured or ill patients. These procedures can
assist the first aider to make informed decisions about the main priorities for Priorities the most important or
the assessment and management of first aid patients in an emergency. urgent tasks. In a first aid situation,
setting priorities refers to deciding
which condition is most in need of
Setting priorities for managing a first aid treatment.
situation and assessing the casualty

Situational analysis
In order to be effective in an emergency, it is critical that the first aider Emergency an unforeseen or sudden
conducts a thorough analysis of the situation before starting any first aid occurrence. Many emergencies involve
measures. The purpose of a situational analysis is to provide an overview danger to the health and wellbeing of
the people involved and demand urgent
of the emergency so the first aider can make the best decisions to assist the attention.

Bystander someone who is casualty and ensure that no further harm occurs to the victim, any bystanders
present at a particular event or themself. A situational analysis should take no more than a few minutes
or situation but is not directly
involved—an onlooker. and can be conducted through observation and questioning. Things to
consider when conducting a situational analysis include:
Emergency services the
police, ambulance and fire What has occurred and is a risk of further danger?
brigade. What can be done to make the situation safer?
Is anyone’s life in immediate danger?
Are the casualties contained in one place or spread out over a larger area?
How many people appear injured and/or ill and what is the severity of
their injuries or illnesses?
Are there other people who may be able to assist?
How can emergency services be contacted, who will contact them and
how far away are they?
What first aid equipment (if any) is available?
During the situational analysis, the first aider should arrange for medical
and/or emergency assistance. Emergency services personnel are specially
trained for these situations and therefore, it is essential that they attend the
scene as quickly as possible. The first aider should phone 000 or, if 000 does
not work from a mobile phone, try 112 or direct someone else to do this.
It is important that the caller provide clear and detailed information about
Figure 7.1 the situation.
Stay focused, stay relevant,
stay on the line
Priority assessment procedures
In an emergency, it is essential that patients be treated in order of priority,
depending on the severity and/or life-threatening nature of their injuries or
conditions. An emergency action plan that includes the situational analysis
can assist the first aider to remain calm and in control and assess which
casualties’ needs are greatest. Priority should always be given to unconscious
patients. Bleeding patients should also be given priority treatment as to loss
of blood can lead to shock and, in turn, to loss of consciousness. The most
simple emergency action plan to follow is the DRABCD Action Plan.
DRABCD
The DRABCD acronym stands for: D Danger
R Response
A Airway
B Breathing
C Circulation
D Defibrillation
The DRABCD Action Plan assists the first aider to be confident in their
Assessment an evaluation assessment of the situation. By following the steps highlighted by each letter
of the situation. of the plan, the first aider can make informed decisions about resuscitation,
serious injury treatment and treatment of other injuries and/or conditions.
Danger
In many emergencies, there is a degree of danger. This danger can be to
the patient, the bystanders and/or to the person administering the first aid.
Before any first aid treatment is given, it is vitally important that the first

First aid CHAPTER 7 187
aider check for any danger associated with the emergency and ensure that the
environment is safe before proceeding. Danger can take the form of traffic,
body fluids, poisons, gas leaks, live electrical wires, fire, overhanging debris,
unstable surfaces, aggressive bystanders, animals and/or flammable materials. Body fluids include blood,
The first aider should be on the look out for ways to remove any current saliva, mucus, vomit, urine,
tears, sweat, semen, vaginal
danger and to prevent new dangers from occurring. As far as possible, the fluid.
casualty should not be removed from their position unless there is immediate
danger. A first aider should not make decisions that put themself or others
at risk and, if they believe that the situation cannot be altered to reduce any
potential danger, it is best to wait for emergency personnel to arrive.
Danger may also come from the casualty. They may be aggressive,
uncooperative, scared or under the influence of drugs. The first aider should
not attempt to administer first aid until they are confident it is safe to approach
the patient. Talking calmly to the injured or ill person to provide reassurance
and establish a rapport can help make them easier to approach and assist.
Response
When it is established that there is no danger, assessment of the patient can
begin. The first step is to determine whether the person is conscious. This can Conscious refers to a person
be done by checking for a response to questions such as: Can you hear me? being alert and awake.
What is your name? In conjunction with these questions, it is wise to gently

touch the person on the hands and ask them to squeeze your hands if they can
hear you (touch and talk), as with some conditions or injuries a person may be
conscious but unable to speak.
If the person responds, this means they are conscious. It is then important
to treat and manage any injuries that may need attention, to seek medical
assistance, and to reassure the person and monitor them for shock or lapses
into unconsciousness. A conscious patient should be turned onto their side
in the recovery position. This will provide a clear airway and stop them from
swallowing vomit or other foreign material.
No response means that the person is unconscious, which is a potentially
life-threatening situation. The first aider should ensure that medical assistance
has been called and continue following the steps of the DRABCD Action Plan.
Figure 7.2
To put someone in the
recovery position, kneel
beside the person and
position their arms and legs
as shown

Figure 7.3
Roll the person gently
away from you; always
supporting their head
and neck
Figure 7.4
Carefully tilt the person’s
head back using your hands
on their forehead and chin
Airway
Unconsciousness may mean that a person’s supply of oxygen
has been impaired in some way. To allow an unconscious
person to breathe and improve their chance of survival, it is
vital that a clear airway is maintained. Blockages to the airway
can be caused by foreign materials such as vomit, mouth
guards, false teeth, food or seaweed, or by physical reponses
such as swelling or the tongue falling back over the airway.
The first aider should check for foreign materials in the
airway and, if they are present, remove them by turning the
patient into the recovery position (supporting the head and
neck) and clearing the foreign material with their fingers. If
no foreign material can be seen, the airway can be opened by
gently tilting the casualty’s head back, while supporting the
forehead and jaw. This simple action can bring the tongue
Airway the airways are the away from the back of the throat and may be all that is
means by which the body gets required to ensure the airway is clear.
air into the lungs. They consist
of the mouth, nose, throat and
Breathing
the bronchial tubes that lead to
the lungs. When the airway is clear, it is necessary to check for breathing. To do this the
first aider should look, listen and feel for no more than 10 seconds.
Listen and feel for sounds of air from the patient’s mouth and/or nose.
Look and feel for movement of the chest.
If the casualty is breathing, they should be placed in the recovery position
and monitored for any changes until medical assistance arrives.
Rescue breaths breathing If the casualty is not breathing, the first aider should give two rescue
for a non-breathing person by breaths to get air into the lungs. After these two breaths, the first aider
blowing air into their mouth
or nose. must check for signs of life. If there are signs of life but the person is still
unconscious, they should be placed in the recovery position and continually
Signs of life consciousness, monitored until medical assistance arrives. If there are no signs of life, the
breathing and movement.
first aider should move to the next step in the action plan.

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation Sternum breastbone found

in the upper-middle section of
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) involves simulating the actions of the
the chest.
heartbeat and breathing when the casualty is unable to do this for themself.
The technique combines pushing down on the lower half of the casualty’s Figure 7.5
sternum to compress their chest and inflating their lungs by breathing into An automated external
their mouth. Further details of CPR are given in the Crisis defibrillator
management section of this chapter. By performing CPR, the
first aider can either restart the normal action of the heart or
maintain sufficient circulation to keep oxygen moving to the
brain until medical help is available. Research purports that,
if CPR is begun within four minutes of the heart stopping,
oxygenation of the vital organs is maintained.
Defibrillation
Medical studies have shown that the chances of survival for
a casualty whose heart has stopped are greatly increased if
defibrillation occurs within 8 to 12 minutes of cardiac arrest.
A disturbance of the electrical activity in the heart’s ventricular
muscle can cause fibrillation. This means the heart quivers
rather than beats which stops blood from being pumped
WARNING
around the body. This can cause cardiac arrest. A defibrillator
delivers an electric shock to the heart muscle, which may Do not use a defibrillator:
restore the normal heart rhythm. Ambulances and hospitals • on a person under 12 years old
have defibrillators; however, easy-to-use defibrillators with • in a moving vehicle.
voice prompts, called an automated external defibrillator Before defibrillation—move:
(AED), have been developed for use in the home or workplace
• casualty if touching metal fixture
and on the sports field. This means a first aider may have
or lying in water
quick access to defibrillation, especially if emergency services
• oxygen away from casualty
have a delayed response time.
• mobile phones/two-way radios
2 metres away.
Understand and apply Figure 7.6

It is important to read the
warnings before using
1 an AED
Outline the reasons for a situational analysis and include what the
first aider may need to take into account in an emergency.
2 Design a small wallet information card that provides a point-form
summary of the key details to be provided to emergency services
when calling 000 to report an emergency. You may like to visit
<www.triplezero.gov.au> for assistance with this task.
3 Working with a partner, demonstrate placing a casualty into the
recovery position.
4 With a partner or manikin, apply the DRABCD Action Plan
demonstrating the critical aspects of each step.
5 Devise a basic life support flowchart that could be used in a school,
workplace or home, which clearly summarises the steps to be taken
in an emergency.

STOP
The DRABCD Action Plan outlines the essential steps to be followed to assess
a critically ill or injured casualty. Once you have established that a person is
conscious and not suffering from a life-threatening condition, it is important
to prevent further harm from occurring and to treat any less severe injuries
or problems. The STOP plan is another series of steps that can be followed to
assess, treat and manage non-life-threatening injuries or illnesses.
S Stop the patient from moving and ensure they are comfortable.
This may include stopping any activity and having them sit or
lie down.
T Talk to the patient in order to reassure them and to help them
to feel less distressed. Talking also allows the first aider to gain
valuable information about what has happened. The situation can
be assessed by asking questions about what happened, how it
happened, whether it has happened before, where it hurts, what
was heard and how they feel. The first aider can also ask the
patient if they have any allergies, if they are taking any medication,
if they have any past or present illnesses and when they last ate.
Talking to bystanders can also provide useful information.
Demeanour the way a O Observe the patient as making careful observations of the person
person behaves or looks.
can supplement any information already obtained. Observe their
MedicAlert bracelet a general demeanour and appearance. Are they distressed, pale,
bracelet worn by people with holding a certain part of their body or giving off other signs of
a medical condition, allergy pain? Do they have a MedicAlert bracelet, a Ventolin inhaler or
or taking certain medications
an EpiPen on them? Look at their body to observe any swelling,
to inform others of these
conditions/illnesses. deformation or tenderness.
P Prevent further injury by treating any injuries or conditions
EpiPen an auto-injector
that may have been discovered by talking to and observing the
of adrenalin, which is used
to treat anaphylactic shock. casualty, monitoring them for more serious injuries that may not
A person diagnosed with be immediately apparent, and reassuring them.
anaphylaxis will carry an
EpiPen.
Crisis management
A crisis is a major event that has the potential for harm to those involved.
A crisis usually occurs unexpectedly and is often characterised by important
decisions having to be made in a short time period. Crisis management is
the attempt to eliminate or reduce danger and preserve life in a crisis. A
number of first aid skills and techniques are important to have in order to
deal proficiently with a crisis.
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is required in a crisis if it has been
determined that there are no signs of life in the casualty. CPR involves the
following steps:
1 Kneel beside the patient and give 30 compressions to the chest. This is
done by locating the person’s sternum and placing one of your hands on
the lower section with the heel of your other hand on top. The first aider

should position themself above the patient, use straight

arms and push down so that approximately one third
of the chest is depressed. The pressure should then
be released and repeated. The first aider should avoid
rocking movements.
2 After the 30 chest compressions, the first aider needs
to tilt the casualty’s head and lift their chin to ensure a
clear airway.
3 Give 2 breaths to the casualty.
This is done by placing one hand on the casualty’s
forehead to maintain head tilt and sealing the nose by
pinching its soft part. With the other hand, the first
aider should open the casualty’s mouth (maintaining
head tilt), place their mouth over the casualty’s mouth
(ensuring that there is no break in the mouth seal) and
blow steadily for about one second. After each breath,
the first aider should turn their head towards the
casualty’s chest and watch for the chest to rise and fall
and listen and feel for signs of air being released. It is
also possible to do mouth to nose breathing or mouth to
mask breathing if this is easier or more suitable. Figure 7.7
4 Give another 30 compressions. Correct arm positioning
5 Continue compressions and breaths in a ratio of for CPR on an adult
30:2 until medical assistance arrives. This ratio of
compressions to breaths is the same for all people
regardless of age. However, the following table
indicates some differences for babies and children
with regard to the type of breaths and the depth of
compressions.
Table 7.1 CPR for different age groups
Age group Head tilt Type of breath Hand positioning for

compression
Baby No head tilt A small puff 2 fingers only to a

depth of 2 cm
Child Half head tilt Half a breath 2 hands (1 used only

(1–8 years) from the lungs for support) to a depth
of 3 cm Figure 7.8
Turn the head between
Adult Full head tilt Full breath 2 hands to a depth of each breath to look, listen
from the lungs one third of the chest and feel for the chest rising
and air being expelled
If there are two first aiders available to perform CPR, frequent rotation of
the person administering CPR can lessen fatigue. The first aiders should try
to swap every two minutes aiming for a smooth changeover that results in
minimum disruption to the CPR procedure. Once CPR has commenced, the
first aider should only stop under the following circumstances:
the casualty shows signs of life
qualified help arrives
the first aider is physically unable to continue.

Bleeding
Blood has a number of essential roles in the body such as transporting oxygen,
hormones and nutrients; maintaining body temperature; removing toxins and
waste products and transporting antibodies to protect against disease. Blood
is, therefore, crucial for correct body functioning. Bleeding results in a loss of
blood from the blood vessels (capillaries, veins or arteries) and, if untreated,
can lead to lead to shock, collapse and possibly death. In a crisis management
situation, all bleeding should be viewed as life threatening and treated
accordingly.
The DRABCD Action Plan should be applied to assess the casualty. If there
are no signs of life, CPR takes priority over any bleeding injuries. The first
aider should always wear gloves when treating a bleeding patient. The most
effective first aid for external bleeding is pressure and elevation (to restrict
and slow blood flow and encourage clotting). The recommended treatment is
outlined in the following steps:
1 Apply direct, firm and sustained pressure to the wound with a pad. If
this becomes blood soaked, another pad should be applied over the first.
If there is an object embedded in the wound, indirect pressure should be
applied to the area around the object. DO NOT remove the object.
Elevate raising the limb/s to 2 Lie the casualty down to restrict movement and elevate the bleeding part.
reduce blood flow to the area. 3 Maintain pressure on the pad.
4 Reassure the patient and monitor for shock until medical assistance arrives.
If the patient becomes unconscious, follow the DRABCD Action Plan.
If bleeding does not stop, the first aider can also apply pressure with their
hand to a pressure point, for example, in the groin or inside the elbow. A
tourniquet should never be applied.
Bleeding may also occur internally. This type of bleeding is often difficult
to recognise but can be very dangerous for the casualty. Internal bleeding
requires urgent hospitalisation. Some signs of internal bleeding may be shock,
tenderness, swelling, abdominal pain, and coughing up or vomiting blood.
Shock
Shock is the body’s response to trauma, which may be caused by severe
bleeding, burns, infection, vomiting or diarrhoea, multiple fractures, heart
attack or allergic reactions. Essentially, it is a failure of the circulatory system
to do its job, resulting in a lack of oxygen to the body’s tissues. Shock can be
life threatening and the first aider should be watch constantly for any signs
that the patient is going into shock.
Table 7.2 Signs and symptoms of shock
Signs of shock Symptoms of shock
• Faintness or dizziness • Cold, clammy, pale skin

• Reduced level of consciousness • Confusion or anxiety
• Shortness of breath • Rapid and weak pulse
• Vomiting or nausea • Gasping or rapid breathing
• Feeling cold • Restlessness
• Extremities become blue

The DRABCD Action Plan should be used to assess the casualty and any
severe bleeding needs to be controlled. A handy acronym to use to manage
shock is the four Rs:
R Ring 000.
R Rest the patient, preferably with their head down and their feet up
(except when there are fractures or spinal injuries).
R Reassure the patient.
R Rug them up, to maintain their body heat. For example, cover them
with a blanket and ensure they are comfortable.
The first aider should continue to observe the patient and maintain a clear
airway. The onset of shock can be a delayed reaction, so the casualty needs to
be monitored carefully even after their injuries or condition have been treated.

1 On a manikin, practise CPR, concentrating on accurate hand placement for the compressions,
and a good mouth and nose seal for the breaths.
2 In pairs, work on a manikin to rehearse an efficient swap from one CPR operator to another.
3 Identify the priorities for treatment at the scene of an emergency, and explain why certain
injuries and illnesses take precedence over others.
4 Demonstrate the correct treatment for a person with a bleeding wound caused by a sharp
object embedded in their upper leg.
Neck and spinal injury

Spinal injury should be suspected in all crisis situations, particularly those
involving falls, motor vehicle or sporting accidents, diving, being ‘dumped’
in the surf and any accident where the casualty is unconscious. Any accident
or injury such as these could mean damage to the spinal cord, which can
result in paraplegia or quadriplegia. The possibility of spinal injury should Paraplegia/quadriplegia
always be taken into account when assessing, managing and treating trauma damage to a person’s spinal
cord that results in the
victims. inability to move the limbs
The number one principle to be considered with suspected spinal below the damage. Paraplegia
injury is to not move the casualty unless they are in immediate danger. refers to two limbs (legs) and
quadriplegia refers to four
Immobilisation needs to occur as quickly as possible to reduce the risk of limbs (legs and arms).
further spinal damage. The DRABCD Action Plan should be followed and
priority given to airway management. If the casualty is conscious, some signs Immobilisation reducing a
patient’s movement as much
and symptoms of spinal injury might include pain at or below the injured as possible to reduce the risk
area, tingling or numbness in the limbs and/or loss of sensation or movement of further injury.
below the injured area. Treatment differs for conscious and unconscious
patients.

Table 7.3 Treatment of conscious and unconscious patients
Conscious patient with suspected spinal injury Unconscious patient with suspected spinal injury
• Call 000 • Call 000

• DRABCD • DRABCD
• Do not move the casualty • Support the casualty’s head and neck at all times
• Support the casualty’s head and neck at all times using • Place in the recovery position endeavouring to maintain
both hands or a cervical collar spinal alignment at all times
• Reassure the casualty • Monitor signs of life
• Monitor for shock
Moving the casualty

As far as possible, a casualty should not be moved by anyone other than
qualified emergency personnel unless the casualty is in immediate danger.
Movement can worsen an injury, causing unnecessary pain, further bleeding
and possibly shock. If it is necessary to move a casualty, the first aider should
choose a method that poses the least risk to both the casualty and themself.
A single first aider may need to drag the casualty to safety, particularly
if unconscious or seriously injured. This can be done using the casualty’s
ankles, arms or clothes. Small children can be moved by cradling them in the
arms and carrying them. Conscious casualties can be assisted to move using
a human crutch, a firefighter’s carry or a piggyback. When there are others
available to assist with movement of a casualty, seats can be improvised by
using hands and patients can also be moved sitting on a chair. Stretchers can
be devised for unconscious or seriously injured casualties using blankets
or clothes. If a number of people are involved in moving a casualty, one
person needs to take charge and issue clear and concise instructions. Care
should always be taken to support the head and neck and keep the spine in
alignment.
Regardless of the method of movement used, it is important that the
conscious casualty feels safe and secure if they are to be moved. This can be
achieved by telling the casualty what is going to be done before it occurs and
seeking the casualty’s help and cooperation. The first aider should be fully
prepared and should not take any unnecessary risks.
Medical referral
While first aid in an emergency is vital, a first aider’s skills can only assist
up to a point, and part of crisis management involves referring the patient to
trained professionals for further medical assistance. The first step in medical
referral is when the first aider calls 000. The first aider should remain with
the casualty until medical help arrives and monitor the patient for signs of life
and possible shock. Medical personnel may ask the first aider for information
about what has occurred and the first aid treatment that has taken place.
They may also require the first aider to remain at the scene and further assist
in managing the crisis.
Medical referral is also wise with less serious injuries or medical
conditions. While a person may seem to have recovered after basic first aid
treatment, they could have other problems and/or injuries that are not easy
to see and diagnose. Any open wound is at risk of infection and referral to a

medical practitioner can lessen the likelihood of this occurring. A person who
has been unconscious for any amount of time, no matter how short, should
always be referred to a health-care professional.
Brain injury victims can seem OK, symptoms delayed

At first, Natasha Richardson said Because of that lucid interval, doc- tions, causing coma or death. Fre-
she felt fine after she took a spill tors always tell patients who seem OK quently, surgeons cut off a portion of
on a Canadian ski slope. But that’s after a brain injury to have someone the skull to give the brain room to
not unusual for people who suffer keep a close eye on them, in case symp- swell. Or they drain the blood and re-
traumatic head injuries like the one toms emerge. move clots that formed.
that killed the actress. Symptoms—headache; loss of con- ‘This is a very treatable condition
Doctors say sometimes patients sciousness; vomiting; problems see- if you’re aware of what the problem is
with brain injuries have what’s called ing, speaking or moving; confusion; and the patient is quickly transferred
a ‘lucid interval’ where they act fine drainage of a clear fluid from the to a hospital,’ said Dr. Keith Siller of
for an hour or more as the brain nose or mouth—appear after enough New York University Langone Medical
slowly, silently swells or bleeds. Later, pressure builds in the skull. By then it’s Center. ‘But there is very little time to
back at her hotel, Richardson fell an emergency. correct this.’
ill, complained of a headache, and ‘Once you have more swelling, it Details of Richardson’s treatment
was taken to a hospital. She died causes more trauma which causes more have not been disclosed.
Wednesday in New York. swelling,’ said Dr. Edward Aulisi, A CT scan can detect bleeding,
An autopsy Thursday showed that neurosurgery chief at Washington Hos- bruising or the beginning of swelling
the 45-year-old actress hit her head, pital Center in the nation’s capital. ‘It’s after an injury. The challenge is for
which caused bleeding between the a vicious cycle because everything’s in- patients to know whether to seek one.
skull and the brain’s covering, resulting side a closed space.’ ‘If there’s any question in your
in what’s called an epidural hematoma. Pressure can force the brain down- mind whatsoever, you get a head CT,’
It’s a type of injury often caused by a ward to press on the brain stem that Aulisi advised. ‘It’s the best 20 seconds
skull fracture. controls breathing and other vital func- you ever spent in your life.’
Associated Press, 20 March 2009
Care of the unconscious casualty

Unconsciousness in a casualty is extremely serious and is an indication of
some level of brain damage. Unconsciousness can come about because of
direct injury or illness to the brain, lack of oxygen to the brain or poisons/
toxins in the bloodstream. Treatment of an unconscious casualty can be
very difficult, as there may be little indication of what has caused the
unconsciousness. Regardless of the cause, an unconscious casualty should
be treated using the following principles:
always assume the unconscious casualty may have a spinal injury
DRABCD
if there are signs of life, the unconscious patient should be placed in the
recovery position, supporting the head and neck at all times
treat any other injuries
monitor the casualty and record any differences in levels of consciousness
give nothing by mouth
ensure medical assistance has been notified
under no circumstances should the first aider leave an unconscious patient
unattended before medical help arrives.


1 In a group, demonstrate how you would support the head, neck and body of a person you
suspected had spinal injuries.
2 Imagine you are the only person capable of administering first aid at the scene of a car
crash. You are with your best friend. The casualties are a family of four. In what order would
you treat the following casualties and how could your friend help? You must be able to
justify your answers.
a Casualty 1—the 16-year-old son, conscious but complaining of abdominal pain and
dizziness
b Casualty 2—the mother, conscious but not speaking and has a deformed and painful arm
c Casualty 3—the 10-year-old daughter, screaming loudly and has a few scratches on
her face
d Casualty 4—the father, who is unconscious
3 In a group, examine a variety of different methods for moving casualties from dangerous
situations. Practise these methods, alternating the person whose role it is to be in charge
of the move.
4 Evaluate the best method/s for moving:
a a small child
b a person who is much larger and heavier than the first aider
c a person with an injured leg
d an unconscious person.
How should the major types

of injuries and medical
conditions be managed in
first aid situations?
The first aider may find themself in situations where they will be required
to treat a diverse range of injuries and/or medical conditions. A sound
knowledge of basic treatment principles for different injuries and medical
conditions will stand the first aider in good stead, enabling them to attend
to these situations, lessening the risk of further injury or complications, and
making the patient more comfortable. It is important that the first aider is
able to recognise the signs and symptoms of the major types of injuries and
medical conditions so they can make informed decisions about the best way
to manage these first aid situations.
Management of injuries
Cuts and lacerations
Cuts and lacerations are classified as open wounds and generally involve
bleeding. A cut is caused by something sharp, such as a knife or piece of glass

coming into contact with the skin. A laceration is a tear injury of the skin
and is caused by something jagged like barbed wire or machinery. Cuts and
lacerations can cause injury to the skin and underlying tissues.
Table 7.4 Signs, symptoms and primary management of cuts and lacerations
Signs and symptoms Primary management
• Bleeding • DRABCD
• Pain • Control bleeding
• Swelling • Clean the wound
• Exposure of tissue and muscles • Cover with a sterile non-adhesive dressing
• Loss of sensation around the area due to • Reassure the patient and monitor for shock
possible nerve damage
• Shock
Fractures
A break to any part of a bone is known as a fracture. Fractures can be caused
by either direct or indirect force. For example, a snowboarder falls over and
extends their arm to break the fall and, as a result, breaks their collarbone
(indirect) or a batter in softball misses the ball, which then hits their arm,
breaking the radius (direct). Figure 7.9
Fractures can be classified in the following ways: Types of fractures
complete—the bone is broken
completely into two or more
parts
incomplete—the bone bends
and splinters on one side but
does not break right through
(also known as a greenstick
fracture and very common
in children)
comminuted—the bone is
broken into many pieces
closed—the broken bone does Complete Comminuted Incomplete / Greenstick
not pierce the skin
open—the broken bone
protrudes though the skin
complicated—when the
broken bone damages a major
nerve, organ or blood vessel,
for example, a broken rib
punctures a lung.
Closed Open Complicated

Table 7.5 Signs, symptoms and primary management of fractures
• Pain at and around the site • DRABCD

• Patient holding the injured limb • Control any bleeding
• Deformity • Encourage the patient not to move
• Swelling • Gently immobilise the fracture
• Limited movement and/or loss of function • Ensure bandages do not cut off circulation
• A breaking noise • Monitor for shock
• Bleeding (open and complicated fractures)
• Protrusion of bone through the skin
Figure 7.10
Slings can be helpful for
immobilising an arm or
collarbone break
Dislocations
A dislocation can occur when extreme force is placed on the ligaments
around a joint, causing the ends of the two connected bones of the joint to
separate. Dislocations are extremely painful and can result in damage to the
surrounding ligaments, tissues, nerves and blood vessels.
Table 7.6 Signs, symptoms and primary management of dislocations
• Pain at or around the injured area • DRABCD

• Swelling • Do not attempt to put the dislocation joint back into place (‘reduce’
• Difficulty using or moving the joint normally the dislocation)
• Deformation of the dislocated area • Rest and support the injured part
• Loss of power • Apply ice packs
• Warmth, bruising or redness in the area • Monitor for signs of loss of circulation in the limb below the joint
• Seek medical attention
• If in doubt, a dislocation should be managed as a fracture
Head injuries and concussion

Head injury refers to trauma to the head, which can be the result of a number
of factors including car accidents, falls, sporting collisions or assaults. Many
superficial head injuries may bleed profusely due to the scalp being rich

with blood vessels, but tend not to be dangerous. Internal head injuries,
however, may lead to death or permanent brain damage and, therefore, require
urgent medical attention. Concussion is a temporary loss or altered state of
consciousness, which can occur following a blow to the head. Concussion
should also be treated seriously, as there may be the possibility of internal
damage. Although someone who has experienced concussion may seem to
recover quickly, they should be monitored carefully for some time after
the concussion.
Table 7.7 Signs, symptoms and primary management of head injuries and concussion
• Unconsciousness • DRABCD
• Varying levels of consciousness • Support head and neck
• Drowsiness, confusion or vagueness • If they are unconscious, place the patient in the recovery position
• Slurred speech • If they are conscious, place them in a comfortable position with
• Agitation or irritability the head and shoulders slightly raised
• Wounds to the head, face and neck • Control bleeding (do not apply pressure if a skull fracture is
suspected), and treat any other injuries
• Vomiting and/or nausea
• If there is blood or fluid coming from the ears, a sterile pad should
• Bleeding or fluid discharge from ears, nose or mouth
be placed over the ear and, if possible, lie the patient on their
• Difference in size or shape of pupils injured side so the fluid can drain out
• Blurred vision • Reassure the patient
• Loss of memory • Monitor for signs of life and shock
• Abnormal responses to commands or touch • Ensure medical assistance is on its way
• Unable to coordinate movement of limbs
• Seizures
Eye injuries
The eye is a very delicate part of the body and, because of its nature, it is
very easily damaged. Eye injuries can range from minor irritations such as
dirt, eyelashes or small foreign objects in the eye to more major issues such
as penetrating eye injuries and burns. Eye injuries can cause damage to the
cornea of the eye, which may affect sight, and corneal injuries are very prone
to infection. The risk of infection when treating eye injuries can be reduced by
wearing gloves and using sterile dressings.
Table 7.8 Signs, symptoms and primary management of eye injuries
• Irritation of the eye • DRABCD

• Dry, gritty or scratchy feeling in the eye • Calm and reassure the patient
• Pain and/or redness in eye • Support the patient’s head
• Patient cannot open or close the eye • Encourage the patient to not rub or move the eyes
• Watering of the eye • Flush the eye with clean, cool flowing water for up to 20 minutes
• Twitching or spasms of the muscles around the eye • Cover the eye with a sterile pad
• Discharge or blood from the eye • Do not attempt to remove any large or embedded objects—pad
• Injuries to the eyelids or surrounding facial tissue around the eye
• Sensitivity to light • Seek medial attention

Nasal injuries
Nasal injuries are quite common, as the nose has very little structural support
and occupies a very prominent place on the face. The most typical nasal
injury is a blockage, which is usually caused by young children putting
foreign objects into their nose and which can then become lodged there
causing discomfort, pain and breathing difficulty. Removal of these objects
requires expert medical attention. Other common nasal injuries are bleeding
and broken noses. As the nose is close to other important structures, initially
any nose injury should be treated as a head injury and a search made for any
other facial damage.
Table 7.9 Signs, symptoms and primary management of nasal injuries
• Pain in and around the nose • Tell the patient to breathe through their mouth and to try not to sniff or blow their nose
• Swelling • Sit them up with head tilted slightly forward
• Bruising • Pinch the soft part of the patient’s nose together between the fingers and hold for
• Instability of the nose bones 10 minutes (do not do this for a broken nose)
• Deformity • Apply ice packs to the neck and forehead
• Facial lacerations • Seek medical assistance for a broken nose, or if bleeding from the nose does not stop
Burn injuries
Burns are common injuries and can be caused by an array of substances
and external sources such as chemicals, friction, electricity, radiation,
water, steam, and extreme hot and cold temperatures. The severity of a burn
depends upon its extent, which parts of the body are burnt, the burn’s depth
and the age of the patient. If a burn is larger than a 20-cent piece, it will
generally require medical attention. Severe burns can result in a number of
complications such as shock, infection, breathing difficulties and swelling
that may cut off circulation.
Figure 7.11
What to do if your clothes
catch on fire

Burns are classified according to the depth of the burn and the tissues
affected.
Superficial burns—damage to the top layer of skin, for example, sunburn.
The burn site will be red and painful.
Partial thickness burns—damage to the first and second skin layers plus
the underlying tissues. The burn site is very painful and will be red,
blistered, peeling and swollen. There may be clear or yellow fluid leaking
from the site.
Full thickness burns—damage to the first and second layers of skin plus
underlying tissues, muscle, bone and organs. The burn site is white or
charred and there may be exposed fatty tissue, muscle or bone. As the
nerve endings are generally destroyed, there tends to be little or no pain at
the site; however, the surrounding areas may be very painful.
The main aims of burn injury management are to stop the burning process,
to cool the burn to provide relief and to cover the burn to reduce the risk of
infection.
Table 7.10 Managing burns
Primary management
• DRABCD DO NOT:
• Instruct the person to stop, cover, drop and roll if there are flames present • Apply any sort of lotion or cream
• Remove the person from the source of the burn • Put butter on the burn
• Immediately cool the burn under running water for at least 20 minutes • Use ice to cool the burn
• If possible, remove jewellery or other constrictive items from the burn area • Break any blisters
• Cover the burnt area with a non-stick dressing or plastic wrap • Remove any stuck clothing
• Reassure the patient and monitor for shock • Give alcohol
Teeth injuries
Injuries to teeth are relatively common, particularly in children, teenagers and
athletes. Any injuries to the teeth should be referred to a dentist as quickly
as possible to increase the chance of any damaged teeth being saved. Teeth
injuries from sport can be easily prevented by the use of a well-fitted mouth
guard. The first aider should also be alert to possible head injuries that may
result from a blow to the mouth.
Table 7.11 Signs, symptoms and primary management of teeth injuries
• Lacerated mouth • Ensure a clear airway is maintained, as teeth may be knocked down the patient’s throat
• Broken teeth • Treat any bleeding
• Empty tooth socket/s • If a tooth has been knocked out, find it and save it
• Swelling and/or bruising • Gently clean any dirt from the tooth using the patient’s own saliva, milk or a sterile
around the mouth and jaw saline solution
• If possible, replace the tooth in the socket and ask the patient to hold it in place
• If it is not possible to replace the tooth, wrap it in clean plastic and store in milk or a
sterile saline solution
• Take the tooth and the patient immediately to a dentist

Electrocution
Electrocution is considered life threatening, as an electric shock can cause
the heart to stop and may cause severe burns. Safety of the first aider is
Table 7.12 paramount in electrocution situations and the first aider should avoid any
Signs, symptoms and
primary management risk of shock to themself. If this cannot be guaranteed, it is better to wait for
of electrocution emergency services to arrive.
• No signs of life • Check for danger and ensure that any power source is disconnected before
• Burns on the skin, commonly the approaching the casualty
hands or feet • Remove the casualty from the electrical supply without directly touching them
• Power lines, electrical cables or • DRABCD
electrical equipment near the victim • Cool any burnt areas under cool running water
• Cover burns with non-adhesive sterile dressings
• Monitor for signs of life and shock
• Call for urgent medical attention
Chest injuries
The chest contains the essential organs of the heart, lungs and major blood
vessels and, while they are somewhat protected by surrounding bone structures,
these organs are very vulnerable. Chest injuries can be caused by blows, falls,
crushing, stabbing or shooting and include a range of injuries from simple
bruising to damage that affects breathing and circulation. Types of chest injuries
Table 7.13 include fractured ribs, flail chest (floating ribs), penetrating chest wounds and
Signs, symptoms and
primary management lung collapse. Treatment for all chest injuries should focus on seeking medical
of chest injuries assistance and on keeping the patient as comfortable as possible.
• Pain (if the patient has fractured ribs, pain may be • DRABCD including calling 000
worse when they breathe or cough) If conscious:
• Tenderness at the injured site • make the patient comfortable by placing them in a half-sitting
• Difficult and painful breathing position leaning to the injured side
• Rapid, weak pulse • Reassure and calm the patient
• Shallow, rapid breathing If unconscious:
• May be holding the injured area (fractured ribs) • Lie the patient in the recovery position with the injured side down
• Restricted movement of chest wall (collapsed lung) • Monitor signs of life
• Possible unconsciousness ADDITIONAL TREATMENT FOR:
• Blood-stained and frothy spit (fractured ribs) Fractured ribs
• Sound of sucking air when the patient inhales • Apply padding gently to the injured site
(penetrating wound) • Bandage the patient’s arm to their side
• Bloodstained bubbles around the wound • If comfortable, immobilise the patient’s arm in a sling
(penetrating wound)
Penetrating chest wound:
• Part of the chest does not move with normal
• Cover the wound to stop air going into the chest with plastic or
breathing (flail chest)
similar and seal with tape on the sides and top but NOT the bottom
• Blue around lips, nails and earlobes (i.e. seal on three sides)
• Difficulty speaking Flail chest:
• Possible unconsciousness • Place padding over the injured site with a firm bandage

Abdominal injuries
The abdomen houses a number of important body organs. As there is
no protective bone structure around the abdomen, these organs can be
easily injured. Complications that may arise with abdominal injuries are
extensive internal bleeding and infection, therefore, it is essential with any
abdominal injury that urgent medical attention is sought.
Table 7.14 Signs, symptoms and primary management of abdominal injuries
• Pain • DRABCD
• Bruising, swelling or tenderness around the wound • Ensure the casualty is comfortable
• Unnatural paleness • Lay the casualty on their back with the knees slightly raised and
• Cold, clammy skin supported
• Nausea or vomiting • Loosen any restrictive clothing
• External bleeding • Cover any protruding organs with a sterile dressing or similar and
secure with a bandage (if available)
• Blood in the urine and/or bleeding from the anus
and/or genitals • Ensure medical assistance is on its way
• Protrusion of abdominal organs through the wound DO NOT:
• Shock • give anything to eat or drink
• Possible unconsciousness • apply direct pressure to the wound
• try to push organs back into the abdomen

Describe your diagnosis and demonstrate the management of the injuries in the following
scenarios:
1 One of your friends is playing hockey and has forgotten to wear her mouthguard. She is hit
in the mouth with a stick and when you run up to her you discover her top lip is bleeding
and a tooth has been knocked out.
2 You are a member of the local bushfire brigade involved in a controlled burn of a fire trail.
One of your workmates gets too close to the burn-off and their clothes catch on fire. They are
starting to panic and run around.
3 Your little brother is having a birthday party and the guests are playing ‘stuck in the mud’ in
the back yard. One of the boys falls and hits his head on the concrete path. He is lying on the
floor in a semi-conscious state.
4 A snowboarder puts out her left arm to break a fall. Once she is on the ground, she
complains of severe pain to the shoulder and is holding her arm still and close to her body.
5 A middle-aged man has fallen down a set of stairs in a shopping centre. He is holding one
side of his chest and complaining of pain that worsens when he coughs and breathes. He is
anxious and very pale.
6 The First XV rugby team are playing in their opening match of the season and one of
the players emerges from a tackle complaining of pain in the shoulder area. On closer
observation, the shoulder is deformed and swollen and there is a loss of power in the
shoulder and arm.

Management of medical conditions

Heart attack
A heart attack occurs when there is a lack of oxygen to the heart, usually
caused by a blockage in one of the arteries. This lack of oxygen causes damage
Table 7.15
to the heart muscle and, if not rectified, may cause the heart to stop beating.
Signs, symptoms and
primary management This is obviously a life-threatening situation and immediate action should
of heart attack be taken.
• Complaining of ‘indigestion’ that does not go away • Have the casualty stop what they are doing and rest
• Discomfort or pain in the chest—may be described as • DRABCD
tightness, heaviness or squeezing • Call 000 for an ambulance—do not drive the casualty to
• Pain may spread to the neck, shoulders, back and arms hospital yourself in case they go into cardiac arrest on the way
• Shortness of breath • If the patient is conscious, place them in a sitting position
• Nausea or vomiting with the head and shoulders upright and help them to take any
angina medication. They can also be given one aspirin tablet in
• Sweating
water to thin the blood
• Dizziness or light-headedness
• If the patient is unconscious, place them in the recovery position
• Anxiety and/or confusion and monitor signs of life
• Cardiac arrest with no warning signs • Loosen any tight clothing
• Collapse and unconsciousness • Reassure the patient and rug them up
Stroke
A stroke occurs when there is a lack of oxygen to the
brain, usually due to a blockage or rupture of one of
the blood vessels. When blood flow to a part of the
brain is cut off, that part can no longer get the oxygen
it needs and the brain cells in that area die, causing
permanent brain damage. While many people
recover fully from a stroke, it is still a life-threatening
emergency. The National Stroke Foundation
encourages people to be aware of the ‘FAST test’ to
check whether a person is suffering from a stroke.
Figure 7.12
The National Stroke
Foundation’s campaign F Facial
to encourage people to Check their face. Has their mouth drooped?
recognise the signs of
stroke and act fast
A Arm
Can they lift both arms?
S Speech
Is their speech slurred? Do they understand you?
T Time
Time is critical. If you see any of these signs, call 000 now!

Table 7.16 Signs, symptoms and primary management of stroke
• Weakness, numbness or paralysis in the face, legs or arms • DRABCD

• Difficulty speaking or understanding • FAST test
• Dizziness or loss of balance • Call 000
• An unexpected fall • Reassure and rug up the patient
• Blurred or decreased vision or loss of vision • If the casualty is conscious, support their head and
• Difficulty swallowing shoulders on pillows, loosen any tight clothing and ensure
their airway is clear
• Severe and abrupt headache
• If unconscious, place in the recovery position and monitor
• Drowsiness
signs of life.
Diabetes Figure 7.13

All forms of diabetes
For our body to work properly, it needs to be able to
require a healthy eating
convert the sugar from food (glucose) into energy. A and physical acivity
hormone called insulin, which is produced in the pancreas, regime as part of their
plays an essential role in this conversion. In people with management
diabetes, insulin is no longer produced by the body or is
not produced in adequate amounts to do its job. If glucose
is not converted to energy, sugar builds up in the blood and
the cells do not receive the energy they need. There are
three types of diabetes, described as follows:
Type 1—the body does not produce insulin at all, so
regular insulin injections are required.
Type 2—the pancreas does not make enough insulin or
the insulin that is produced does not do its job properly.
This is the most common type of diabetes.
Gestational diabetes—developed during pregnancy,
as pregnant women need more insulin than normal.
This type of diabetes usually disappears after the baby
is born.
If treated and managed correctly, most people
experience no adverse affects from their diabetes. All
forms of diabetes require a healthy eating and physical
activity regime as part of their management. A medical
emergency may arise if a diabetic’s blood glucose
levels become too low (hypoglycaemia) or too high
(hyperglycaemia). The most common form of diabetic
emergency is hypoglycaemia, which can be caused by
missing meals, eating too many carbohydrate-rich foods,
overly strenuous exercise and/or drinking alcohol. If
untreated, hypoglycaemia may lead to a diabetic coma.
Hyperglycaemia is less common and can be caused by
sickness, infections, too many carbohydrate-rich foods
and/or not enough insulin. Diabetic coma where a
diabetic is unconscious due to
blood sugar levels being too
low or too high.

Table 7.17 Signs, symptoms and primary management of diabetes
Hypoglycaemia Hypoglycaemia
• Weakness, dizziness, • Tingling or numbness If conscious: If unconscious:
light-headedness around the lips and fingers • Give a quick-acting/easily consumable • DRABCD
• Headache • Hunger carbohydrate, e.g. a sweet drink (not • Call 000
• Shaking • Confusion or aggression ‘diet’ drink), honey or jelly beans
• Give nothing
• Sweating • Unconsciousness • Follow this with a more long-acting by mouth
carbohydrate, e.g. fruit
• Lack of concentration
• Monitor the person and, if they still feel
• Rapid pulse and racing
unwell, repeat the first step and seek
heart beat
medical advice
Hyperglycaemia Hyperglycaemia
• Excessive thirst • Rapid pulse If conscious: If unconscious:
• Frequent urination • A smell of acetone on the • Allow the patient to self-administer • DRABCD
• Tiredness breath (extreme cases) their insulin or diabetic medication • Call 000
• Blurred vision • Unconsciousness • Seek medical attention if required • Give nothing
• Hot, dry skin • Encourage patient to drink sugar-free by mouth
drinks
Epilepsy
Epilepsy is a disorder of normal brain functioning that takes the form of
Seizure a fit or convulsion. seizures. A seizure occurs when the brain’s nerve cells misfire and generate
a sudden, uncontrolled burst of electrical activity in the brain. Epilepsy
can result from brain injury, infections, tumours, degenerative conditions
and family history. An epileptic seizure can be very frightening but most
seizures will stop of their own accord and, once the person becomes
reoriented, there will be no adverse affects. Many people with epilepsy
control their seizures with medication.
Table 7.18 Signs, symptoms and primary management of epilepsy
• A sudden cry During the seizure: After the seizure: Seek medical aid if:
• The person may fall to • Note the time the seizure • DRABCD • The seizure lasts for
the ground and lie rigid began • Place in the recovery position more than 5 minutes
for a few seconds • Do not restrain the person • The person is injured
• Reassurance
• Jerky, spasmodic or try to put anything in • The person is pregnant
• Manage any injuries
muscular movements their mouth
sustained during the seizure • You know it is the
• Frothing at the mouth • Protect them from injury person’s first seizure
• Allow the patient to sleep
• Loss of control of or danger, for example,
while monitoring signs of life
bladder or bowel move tables and chairs
away
• Protect their head

Asthma
Asthma is a chronic inflammation and narrowing of the airways. The
bronchioles (small air passages) contract and, therefore, restrict the amount
of oxygen exchanged within the lungs. The narrowing of the airways leaves
people with a tight chest, breathlessness and wheezing. Many factors can
trigger an asthma attack including allergies, respiratory infections, exercise,
emotions, smoke and/or a change of seasons.
Table 7.19 Signs, symptoms and primary management of asthma
• Difficulty in breathing, particularly taking • DRABCD

breaths in • If the person has an asthma management
• Coughing and wheezing plan—follow it
• Hands clasped to the throat • Follow the asthma first aid procedure
• Able to speak only a few gasping words below
• Pale and sweaty • If the patient becomes unconscious follow
the DRABCD Action Plan
• Anxious and panicky
• Lips, face, earlobes and fingertips turning blue
• Unconscious
Figure 7.14
The asthma first aid
procedure
Reproduced with the permission of Asthma Foundation NSW
Anaphylaxis
Anaphylaxis is a severe and sudden allergic reaction. It can occur when a
susceptible person is exposed to an allergen such as a food, certain drugs or
an insect sting. Reactions usually begin within minutes of exposure and can Adrenalin a hormone that
progress rapidly. Anaphylaxis is potentially life threatening as it can result in increases the body’s heart
blockage of the airway and always requires an emergency response. Prompt rate and blood pressure. It
is manufactured by the body
treatment with injected adrenalin is required to halt progression of the allergic but can also be produced
reaction and can be life saving. synthetically.

Figure 7.15 Table 7.20 Signs, symptoms and primary management of anaphylaxis
How to administer an
Epipen in the case of an Signs and symptoms Primary management
anaphylactic reaction
• Flushing and/or swelling of the face • DRABCD
• Itching and/or swelling of the lips, tongue • Call 000
or mouth • If the patient has an emergency action plan
• A sense of tightness in the throat for anaphylaxis—follow it
• Difficulty breathing and/or swallowing • Administer EpiPen or EpiPen Jnr
• Hives or an itchy rash on the body at once
• Swelling of the extremities • If the patient is conscious, help them into a
• Nausea, cramps or vomiting position that makes breathing easiest
• Faint, rapid pulse • If the patient is unconscious, place them in
recovery position and monitor signs of life
• Low blood pressure
• Light-headedness, feeling faint, collapse
• Anxiety or distress
• Unconsciousness
Poisoning
A poison is any substance that harms body tissues when it is used in the
wrong way, by the wrong person and/or in the wrong amount. Some poisons
are harmful in small amounts, while others require larger amounts to be
poisonous. Most environments house a number of poisonous substances,
which are often not stored correctly, allowing easy access. Simple measures
such as storing poisons in a locked cupboard, disposing of medications
appropriately, buying products with child-resistant lids, reading instructions
on medications, and wearing protective clothing when working with
chemicals can go a long way to preventing poisoning.
Table 7.21
Signs, symptoms and primary management of poisoning
These will differ depending on the type of poison but may include: • DRABCD
• Abdominal pain • Call 000
• Burns • Try to establish what the poison was
• Headache • Call 13 11 26
• Nausea or vomiting • Do not induce vomiting (ingested poison)
• Drowsiness • Do not give anything by mouth (ingested poison)
• Difficulty breathing • Wipe obvious contamination away from the mouth and nose
• Blurred vision (ingested poison)
• Bite or injection marks • Ask the patient to remove any contaminated clothing
• Smell of fumes (absorbed poison)
• Odours on the breath • Flood the skin with cool, running water (absorbed poison)
• Burning pain in mouth, throat and stomach • Move the person to fresh air, or open any windows (inhaled
poisons)
• Seizures
• Loosen tight clothing (inhaled poisons)
• Sudden collapses
• Reassure the person
• Unconsciousness
• Open chemical or medication containers near the patient

Poisoning can occur through a number of means such as

ingestion, absorption, injection or inhalation. Poisons can move
rapidly through the bloodstream once in the body and, if not
treated, can lead to death. The Poisons Information Centre can
provide information about poisons and help in an emergency. It
has a national 24/7 call centre that can be reached on 13 11 26.
Bites and stings

Australia has a wide range of animals that can bite and sting.
Most are non-lethal, simply causing pain and discomfort,
however, some bites and stings have the potential to be deadly.
An allergic reaction to a bite or sting can further complicate
matters. Treatment for bites and stings varies depending upon
the type of animal or insect involved but, in general, for all Figure 7.16
bites and stings the first aider should try to keep the patient A Pressure Immobilisation
completely still, manage their pain and endeavour to stop any further release Bandage can help to slow
the flow of venom around
of venom.
the body
Table 7.22 Signs, symptoms and primary management of bites and stings
Signs and symptoms

Will vary according to the animal or insect but can include:
• Intense pain at the site • Blurred vision
• Burning feeling where bitten • Headache
• Local swelling • Muscle weakness
• Swollen eyelids, lips, neck and face • Drowsiness
• Vomiting or nausea • Pain or tightness in chest
• Sting or creature still left in the body, e.g. a bee sting or a tick • Difficulty breathing
• Bite, scratch or fang marks • Unconsciousness
• Sweating
Primary management
Bites or stings that cause red, hot, Bites or stings from spiky, spiny or Bites or stings from things that can
itchy symptoms fishy creatures kill you
bee nettle sea urchin flat head snake funnel web spider
mosquito jelly fish sting ray leatherjacket blue ring octopus cone shell
wasp centipede stone fish crown-of-thorns starfish allergic reactions
ant scorpion bullrout box jellyfish—douse liberally with vinegar
tick redback and other spiders
Treatment: Treatment: Treatment:

• DRABCD • DRABCD DRABCD
• Ask the patient not to move • Lie or sit the patient down • Lie or sit the patient down
• Remove sting, creature or tentacles • Extract barb if possible • Pressure Immobilisation Bandage
• Apply cold or ice packs to the site • Apply a hot pack to the site or (PIB)
• Reassure patient immerse the bite area in hot water • Ensure the casualty does not move
• Monitor them for shock and/or • Reassure the patient • Reassure the patient
allergic reactions • Monitor for shock and/or allergic • Monitor for shock and/or allergic
• Call 000 for redback spider bites reactions reactions
• Call 000 especially for stone fish and • Call 000
sting rays

Exposure to heat and cold

The body is designed to function effectively at a constant temperature of
approximately 37 degrees Celsius. If the environment that a person is in
or the activity they are doing causes their body temperature to rise or fall
significantly, the body can no longer function properly.
Hyperthermia overheating Heat-induced illness is called hyperthermia and can be caused by
of the body causing the core excessive physical exertion, hot climatic conditions coupled with high
body temperature to rise.
humidity, inadequate fluid intake and infections. Young children and the
elderly are especially prone to hyperthermia. There are various levels of
heat-induced illness ranging from heat swelling and heat cramps to heat
exhaustion and heatstroke. All body organs are affected by heatstroke, which
is a potentially lethal condition.
Table 7.23 Signs, symptoms and primary management of exposure to heat
Heat exhaustion Heat exhaustion

• Fatigue • Lie the patient down in the shade
• Thirst • Loosen and remove excessive clothing
• Headache • Moisten the skin with cold cloths and/or
• Nausea and vomiting water
• Dizziness and fainting • Cool by fanning
• Rapid breathing and shortness of breath • If conscious, give fluids to drink
• Pale, clammy skin • Seek medical attention if they do not recover
fairly rapidly
• Rapid, weak pulse
Heatstroke
Heatstroke
• DRABCD
• Lack of sweating—flushed, dry skin
• Move casualty to a cool environment
• Temperature above 40 °C
• Moisten the skin
• Rapid, pounding pulse which may weaken
• Fan repeatedly
• Headache
• Apply wrapped ice packs to neck, groin and
• Nausea and vomiting
armpits
• Dizziness and possible hallucinations
• If conscious, give fluids to drink
• Irritability and confusion
• Call 000 for urgent medical attention
• Altered mental state
• Seizures
• Unconsciousness
Hypothermia sub-normal Hypothermia occurs when the body experiences overexposure to cold
body temperature that temperatures causing the core body temperature to drop. The extremities are
causes a drop in core body
temperature.
often the first thing affected from overexposure to cold, as blood vessels in
the skin will shut down (vasoconstriction) to prevent core heat from escaping.
Hypothermia can be categorised as mild, moderate or severe. The further the
body temperature falls, the more life threatening the condition.

Table 7.24 Signs, symptoms and primary management of exposure to cold
Mild hypothermia (35 °–34 °C) • DRABCD

• Maximum shivering • Gently move patient to a warm, dry area protected from wind,
• Pale, cool skin rain, snow and cold
• Poor coordination • Lie the person down and remove any wet clothing
• Slurred speech • Wrap the patient in blankets, a space blanket or a sleeping
bag
• Usually responsive but may be apathetic and slow to react
• Ensure the head is covered to maintain body heat
Moderate hypothermia (33 °–30 °C)
• If conscious, give warm fluids
• Most shivering stops
• If the patient is shivering, rewarming may be tried using
• Muscles become rigid body-to-body contact or applying hot water bottles etc. to the
• Consciousness impaired patient’s neck, armpits and groin
• Pulse and respiration slow • Call 000 and stay with the person till help arrives
Severe hypothermia (<30 °C) DO NOT
• Progressive loss of consciousness • Give alcohol
• Pupils fixed and dilated • Massage or rub the affected area/s
• Heart rhythm likely to change • Expose to excessive direct heat

1 It is a common myth that treatment for an epileptic seizure is to force something into
the person’s mouth to stop them from swallowing their tongue. Explain why this is not a
sensible course of action and then describe the best management for this medical condition.
2 Describe the steps involved in treatment for an asthma attack.
3 Critically analyse the use of a Pressure Immobilisation Bandage in the treatment of bites or
stings from snakes, cone shell, blue-ringed octopus and funnel web spiders.
4 Prepare a mind map that clearly shows the different management for various bites and stings.
5 Explain why a first aider should not put a hypothermia patient in a hot bath or close to an
open fire to restore their body temperature.
What does the individual need to

consider in administering first aid?
While having the knowledge and skills to deliver first aid in various situations
is important, this is only one aspect of first aid. The first aider should always
be looking for ways to:
1 promote a safe environment
2 preserve life
3 prevent the condition or injury from worsening
4 promote recovery and provide comfort.

In light of these first aid principles, there are number of things the
individual should consider before, during and after the administration of
first aid.
Physical environment
As already mentioned in this chapter, the safety of the first aider, the victim
and any bystanders is of paramount importance in a first aid situation. The
physical environment can pose a number of threats to safety, and the first
aider should analyse the various safety issues associated with common
physical environments to enable the formulation of protective strategies.
Traffic accidents
Traffic accidents are a dynamic environment; danger, in the form of oncoming
cars, fire, chemicals, unstable trees or powerlines and damaged vehicles, is
always present. The first aider needs to look for ways that the traffic accident
site can be made safe for all involved and ensure that no further accidents
occur. Things that can be done to reduce danger include:
Ensuring any assisting cars are parked safely off the road with hazard
lights on.
Setting up warnings for oncoming cars a fair distance from the accident, in
both directions, by, for example, asking a bystander to warn cars to slow
down or placing warning markers on the road.
Using headlights to illuminate the accident area.
Turning off the ignition of any cars involved in the accident, applying the
handbrake and, if on a slope, chocking the wheels of the vehicles.
Stopping people from smoking at the scene.
Not moving victims from the scene unless they are in immediate danger.
Checking around the accident site for victims who may have been thrown
from the vehicle/s.
Avoiding any wires or power lines.
Treating any injuries, giving priority to unconscious and bleeding
casualties
Calling emergency services.
Water environment
Water environments have a number of inherent risks and every year there
are several cases of a rescuer drowning while trying to save someone else.
The personal safety of the first aider is paramount, and assessing a water
environment should always involve considering ways to get a person to safety
without the rescuer actually entering the water. If the casualty is conscious,
the first aider can first talk to the person and encourage them to move to
safety. Reaching out to the casualty with a broom, branch or other rigid item
may be a way of pulling them to safety. It may also be possible to throw the
casualty some sort of floatation device such as a ball, body board or Esky, or
a rope to tow them in. If the casualty is too far away for these methods to be
useful, it may be necessary to wade, swim or row out to them. Care should
always be taken when approaching a casualty in the water, as they will be
panicking and may pull the rescuer under if they get too close. The first aider
should try to reassure the person and, in the first instance, use a towel or rope
to tow them back to shore rather than making physical contact with them.

If the casualty is unconscious, the first aider should use the DRABCD
Action Plan and get the person to shore as quickly as possible. Deep-water
resuscitation is an advanced skill that should not be attempted by an
untrained person.
Electricity
Any first aid situation where electricity is involved is considered extremely
dangerous and could be fatal. The first step in making the environment safe
would be to turn the electricity off at the mains, if possible. The first aider
should try to remove the casualty from the electrical supply without directly
touching them, for example, by using dry clothes to drag them, or a wooden
stick to push them away from the source of the electricity. If the casualty is
in contact with high-voltage power lines, under no circumstances should the
first aider approach the victim. The job of the first aider in this circumstance
would be to keep bystanders at least 6 metres away from any live materials.
Infection control and protection

In an emergency, there may be body fluids and/or secretions present. These
can serve as a path of transmission for a variety of infections, and the first
aider needs to be extremely vigilant in minimising their contact with body
fluids. Concerns about disease transmission can cause some people to be
reluctant to perform first aid; however, there are no recorded cases of viruses
such as hepatitis or Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) being passed
on through CPR or other first aid treatments. If a first aider follows simple
hygiene measures when administering first aid, they can greatly reduce the
risk of contamination through body fluids. These measures include:
covering any cuts or sores with waterproof dressings
washing hands thoroughly with warm water and soap before and after
administering first aid
wearing disposable latex gloves
wearing eye protection, such as sunglasses, if possible
wearing a protective cover over clothing where possible, for example,
wearing a plastic apron or garbage bag
carrying and using a mouth shield when performing CPR
encouraging the casualty to perform their own first aid if possible, for
example, by applying pressure to a bleeding wound.
If any blood or fluids are spilt on the surrounding area, they should be
cleaned up with paper towel and warm, soapy water. When the first aider
has finished treating the casualty and cleaning the area, they should put any
gloves, aprons, cloths and/or bandages into a plastic bag sealed inside another
plastic bag, place this in the garbage bin and wash their hands. If the first
aider comes into direct contact with blood or fluids, they should wash their
skin with soapy water or their eyes, nose or mouth with running water and
seek medical advice.
HIV/AIDS
The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is found in blood and body fluids
and weakens the immune system of the infected person, causing them to
become more susceptible to different infections and illnesses. Transmission of

HIV can occur through numerous means, including infected blood being
passed to another person via a cut on the skin. There is no evidence that HIV
can be spread through saliva. HIV can cause Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (AIDS), which is the development of life-threatening diseases
due to the breakdown of the body’s immune system. There is no cure for
HIV/AIDS, although there are treatments available to slow down the HIV
and damage to the immune system.
Blood-borne viruses (hepatitis B and C)

Blood-borne viruses are those that are carried in the blood and cause disease.
The viruses can be spread from person to person regardless of whether they
are showing symptoms of a particular disease or not, so safety precautions
should be used in all instances.
Hepatitis B is one of the most common infectious diseases in the world.
The hepatitis B virus causes inflammation of the liver and is found in blood
and body fluids. It is generally contracted by infected blood passing into an
open cut or wound. Hepatitis B can be prevented with a vaccination, and
there are a number of treatments for those with the disease.
Hepatitis C is a virus that also causes liver inflammation and disease.
It too is spread through contact with infected blood. There is no vaccine for
hepatitis C; however, treatments are available.

1 Under the headings of reach, throw, tow, wade and row, identify ways that a first aider could
assist a conscious but injured person in a water environment.
2 Explain the procedures that should be taken to prevent contamination through body fluids
when administering first aid.
3 ‘The safety of the first aider is paramount and outweighs treatment of the casualty’. Justify
this statement.
Legal and moral dilemmas

A first aider needs to consider a number of legal and moral questions before
they administer first aid. A person should have thought these through when
undertaking any first aid training, and should give them due consideration
again during the situational analysis of a first aid situation.
Legal implications
In our increasingly litigious society, people can be reluctant to provide
assistance in an emergency. However, gaining an understanding of the
various pieces of legislation that are in place in relation to administering
first aid can allay some fears. Citizens have no legal obligation to assist
someone in an emergency and cannot be held accountable if they choose
not to help. However, many states and territories in Australia have in place
regulations that provide some measure of protection for the public from

liability during a rescue attempt or the administration of first aid in an

emergency. The Civil Liability Act 2002 (NSW) has a Good Samaritan clause,
which affords protection. The Act states that a person who administers
first aid cannot be held liable if, in an emergency, they are acting in good
faith when coming to the assistance of a person who is injured or at risk
of being injured and they do not expect payment or reward. If a person
decides to assist in an emergency, they should then do so to a standard that
is appropriate to their level of training. The Good Samaritan clause takes into
account that everyone can make mistakes and it will protect helpful citizens
if any mistakes made are reasonable under the circumstances. When acting
in good faith, it is important that the first aider seek the consent of the person
they are going to administer first aid to. Consent can be implied if the person
is unconscious or unable to give consent. It is also wise to keep records if you
administer first aid in an emergency. These can include notes on the date,
time and place of the emergency, details of the casualty, their injury, what first
aid was administered, what happened next and signatures of the first aider
and the casualty if possible.
With regard to the workplace, all states and territories have occupational
health and safety regulations that ensure employers maintain a safe working
environment and minimise risks within the workplace. In NSW these fall
within the Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001 that states an
employer has legal obligations to provide first aid facilities and personnel,
safe work spaces, safe systems for equipment and chemical handling, and
protective equipment. This regulation also encourages preventative strategies
in the workplace and accurate record keeping of all workplace injuries.
Is this a case of litigiousness gone too far?

Injured shopper sues claiming first aid treatment was assault.
A woman from rural NSW who was injured It is understood that she has undergone
when visiting Sydney on a shopping trip numerous operations since the incident.
is suing, saying that the emergency first The injured woman states that the first
aid treatment provided to her by a fellow aider was negligent in her treatment and
shopper was in fact unlawful assault. believes that the treatment provided went
Mrs Alison Wheeler, 45, tripped down well beyond any first aid training amounting
the escalators at a popular Sydney shopping to unlawful assault and battery.
centre while visiting last month. She claims This atypical case is causing much debate
that another shopper who came to her in both legal and community circles. Many
assistance permanently damaged her elbow people are concerned what impact the success
whilst administering first aid and has begun of such a case may have on the willingness of
legal proceedings to seek compensation for the general public to administer first aid in
the alleged further injury. emergency situations. A number of solicitors
Mrs Wheeler says she merely sprained making comment on the case have stressed
her elbow in the fall and asserts that the the importance of first aiders using their
person who tried to help her actually made common sense and not over-stepping their
the injury worse; causing shock, permanent capabilities when administering emergency
damage, a loss of range of movement in care, especially in circumstances where their
the elbow, discomfort and ongoing pain. treatment may cause further problems.


1 In this article, a number of solicitors are referred to as stressing the ‘importance of
first aiders using their common sense and not over-stepping their capabilities when
administering emergency care, especially in circumstances where their treatment may
cause further problems.’ Discuss this statement.
2 If a case like the one in the article was successful, predict the implications it may have on the
general public’s willingness to administer first aid in an emergency.
Moral obligations
Legally there is no obligation for an everyday citizen to stop and render
assistance in the event of an emergency; however, many people would see
it as their moral obligation to help someone in difficulty. ‘Duty of care’
refers to the duty by one person to another to act in a certain way. Due to
the knowledge and skill a first aider may have in relation to first aid, they
have a duty of care towards any casualties in an emergency. The first aider
also has a duty of care to exercise reasonable care and skill when providing
treatment. There is an additional duty of care, which is to continue
administering first aid once started until someone more qualified takes
over or the first aider is no longer physically able to continue. A first aider
also has a duty of care to themself to ensure that they are not at risk when
providing first aid treatment.
Society values responsible citizenship and there are many ways that a
person can exhibit these qualities in relation to first aid. A responsible citizen
undertakes first aid training in order to obtain the skills and knowledge
necessary to administer first aid if required and, in doing so, shows care and
concern for their fellow citizens. A responsible citizen may also carry first
aid equipment and supplies with them when travelling and may volunteer
to be the point of contact for first aid in their workplace or sporting club. A
responsible citizen will also seek professional help for a casualty as soon as
possible in any emergency.
Commonsense versus heroics

Sometimes in an emergency people can be caught up in the moment and
take unnecessary risks in order to ‘save the day’. While heroic acts may
seem appropriate at the time, they are rarely well thought-out and can often
result in further injury to the casualty, the first aider and/or the bystanders.
It is important that the first aider approach any emergency in a calm and
considered manner, and apply the DRABCD Action Plan to guide their
actions and treatments. A commonsense approach will ascertain that a safe
environment is maintained and no further injuries occur. Part of acting with
commonsense is ensuring that any treatment given is commensurate with the
first aider’s training and knowledge and not beyond their capabilities.
Support following first aid situations

It is quite normal for a first aider to experience strong emotional and physical
reactions following their involvement in an emergency or traumatic event.

The types of responses that may occur include fatigue, disturbed sleep,
restlessness, mood changes, anxiousness, withdrawal, poor concentration
and recurrent thoughts about the event. The person may also feel emotions
such as guilt, sadness, fear or anger. These reactions may last a few days or
weeks and are part of the healing process. The first aider
can address these feelings and reactions with the help
of family and friends, and by employing a number of
coping strategies such as:
acknowledging that the event was distressing
confronting what happened by talking about it and
expressing their feelings
endeavouring to return to a normal daily routine
getting plenty of rest
participating in regular exercise
using relaxation methods such as meditation or yoga
avoiding the excessive use of drugs or alcohol.
Debriefing
Sometimes it may be necessary for the first aider to be involved in a debriefing Figure 7.17
session after an emergency or traumatic event. This can be informal in nature Talking can help first
and may involve talking with people who were present at the scene or with aiders cope with emotional
and physical reactions
empathetic others. Debriefing can also be more formal and may be organised
which may follow
by the person’s workplace using an external facilitator. Debriefing sessions their involvement in an
generally involve talking about the event, asking questions, expressing emergency or trauma
concerns and discussing the individual’s needs. Involvement in a debriefing
session allows the first aider to put the event into perspective and experience
closure, making it easier to move on and resume their normal life.
Counselling
Most first aiders who have experienced a traumatic or emergency event will
recover on their own in a few weeks with the support and encouragement of
others. However, some people may find they cannot move past the experience
and that their life is being adversely affected. Normal physical and emotional
reactions to stress can give way to more serious effects such as severe sleep
problems, depression, feeling on edge, constantly reliving the experience
and losing touch with reality. People should consider seeking professional
assistance if they:
do not start to feel better after three weeks
are feeling anxious or distressed all the time
are thinking of hurting themself or others
are unable to respond emotionally to others
find their reactions are interfering with their day-to-day life
are using drugs, alcohol or gambling as a coping mechanism.
There are many people and resources in the community that can be
accessed to gain help. These include speaking to a local general practitioner,
the local community health centre or contacting mental health professionals
such as counsellors, psychiatrists, psychologists and social workers. The
Australian Psychological Society has a free referral service which can be
contacted on 1800 333 497.


1 Conduct a class debate around the legal and moral dilemmas associated with providing
first aid.
2 Speak to a friend or parent about the provisions for first aid in their workplace. Make an
assessment of these based on the Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001 and its
requirements for employers with regard to first aid.
3 Research the local area and identify sources of support that are available for first aiders after
they have been involved in an emergency.
4 Recommend some strategies that can be employed to assist a person in making informed
decisions relying on commonsense, rather than heroics, in emergencies.
chapter review
Recap
A situational analysis can assist the first aider to assess an emergency and make
informed decisions about treatment priorities.
The DRABCD Action Plan is a useful assessment tool to be used when dealing with any
serious injuries, medical conditions and emergencies.
The STOP plan is a series of steps that can be followed to assess, treat and manage
injuries or illnesses that are not life threatening.
In a crisis, a first aider should be aware of the importance of being able to quickly
administer CPR, if necessary, and of the critical nature of bleeding, shock and spinal
injuries.
A casualty should only be moved if they are in danger of further injury.
A first aider needs to be able to recognise the signs and symptoms of the major types
of injuries and medical conditions so they can decide upon the best way to manage
the casualty.
An unconscious person should always be placed in the recovery position and monitored
for signs of life, which include breathing, movement and responsiveness.
Shock can occur after any emergency and, if left untreated, can be life threatening.
When administering first aid, it is important to analyse the safety issues that may
be associated with various physical environments such as traffic accidents, water
environments and electricity. The first aider’s number one priority should be to do no
harm to themself, the casualty or any bystanders.
A number of legal and moral dilemmas may arise when a person is considering whether
to administer first aid. Common sense should always prevail when making decisions.

chapter review
The Australian www.resus.org.au Contains the most up-to-date information on

Resuscitation Council resuscitation techniques and guidelines; provides basic
information on first aid management and treatment for
a number of injuries and illnesses
St John Ambulance www.stjohn.org.au Information on first aid management and treatment

Australia for a number of injuries and illnesses; information on
first aid courses and other services provided by this
organisation
Australian Red Cross www.redcross.org.au First aid safety tips, first aid courses and equipment
(search under NSW)
Australian Stroke www.strokefoundation.com.au Information on the nature of stroke, and advice for
Foundation detection and treatment
Asthma Foundation www.asthmansw.org.au Comprehensive information about asthma—its nature,

NSW triggers, treatment and a link to the Asthma Friendly
Schools website.
Diabetes Australia www.diabetesaustralia.com.au Information about the different types of diabetes;

causes, treatment and management of the condition
Royal Life Saving www.royallifesaving.com.au Fact sheets relating to safety advice and first aid in
Society—Australia water environments, and drowning statistics.
Hepatitis Australia www.hepatitisaustralia.com Information about hepatitis A, B, C, D and E including

transmission, symptoms, treatment and available
vaccines.
Anaphylaxis Australia www.allergyfacts.org.au Information about all aspects of anaphylaxis, including

treatment and management.
1 Describe the signs, symptoms and management of a head injury. (3 marks)
2 Distinguish between hypoglycaemia and hyperglycaemia, and clarify the (5 marks)

key management points for each condition.
3 Explain the assessment and management procedures a first aider should (12 marks)
follow when responding to an emergency.

Composition
8 and performance
The elements of composition—space, dynamics, time and rhythm, and relationships—

are the basic building blocks of all movement. An understanding of the elements of
composition and how they apply to different movement mediums can allow performers
to be creative in their thinking and can assist them when learning different skills,
composing movement sequences, devising tactics and strategies, and appraising
composition and preformance.
How do the elements of

composition apply to different
movement mediums?
Movement medium the Whatever the movement medium, the elements of composition combine to
context in which movement form a framework for movement in that context. How the various elements
occurs, such as dance,
gymnastics, aerobics or games.
are applied to different movement mediums has an impact upon the way
movement is performed, the success of the movement’s execution, how it is
Execution the delivery viewed by others and how it is appraised. Each element of composition is
of movement, the way it is
performed.
made up of certain components that can be manipulated according to the type
of movement required and the purpose of that movement.
Manipulate to change or
alter in some way.
Space
Space refers to where the body moves in a particular area. It is a crucial
element to be considered when composing movement sequences, routines
Game strategies set and game strategies. The size or shape of a space and the amount of people
patterns of movement inhabiting it can affect the way movement occurs within it. For example,
sometimes referred to as
tactics or plays that players
the movement of an athlete performing a routine on a trampoline will be
in a team will use to help quite different to the movement of a number of players on a hockey field, and
them achieve the best game different again to that of a large dance troupe performing their finale on stage.
outcome.
There are different types of space:
Performance space—the area in which a performance or movement activity
occurs, for example, a stage, a gymnastics mat or a playing court/field.

Composition and performance CHAPTER 8 221
Figure 8.1
The elements of
composition are the
TIME AND RHYTHM SPACE building blocks of all
(when) (where)
• musical • direction
movement
applications • level
• duration • dimension
• momentum • patterns and
• pace formations
RELATIONSHIPS
(with whom or what) THE
• people DYNAMICS
ELEMENTS
• apparatus and (how)
equipment
OF • force
• formations COMPOSITION • flow
(team/partner)
and positions
Personal space—the area immediately around a performer or athlete’s

body. It is highly variable and will expand or contract in relation to others
and the action occurring around the individual.
General space—the open space that is in a movement area. This is the
space that a performer or athlete shares with other people and with
equipment, props, sets and/or permanent fixtures such as goal posts.
A number of spatial components can be used to add meaning, value or
Figure 8.2
interest to the movement occurring in a particular space, or can allow the
The size, shape and
space to be used more effectively. A skilful performer, player or choreographer amount of people in
can look at the space available to them and assess how these spatial elements a space will affect
can be applied to best advantage. movement within it
Direction
We use direction as a component of the space around us every day, whether
by walking down the school corridor or mowing the lawn. This is the path
you take to move from one area of space to another. Direction can be as simple
as forwards and backwards, however, it also includes sideways, diagonal, up
and down, zigzag and circular movements. Direction is generally determined

by the way the body is facing when it moves or the body part that leads the
Figure 8.3
movement. For example, forward movement occurs when the body is facing
An arabesque will have
more impact for the forwards and the front of the body leads the movement. In most movement
audience if viewed from mediums, a variety of different directions are combined in order to best use
side on the performance and general space.
Direction, when applied to composition,
usually serves a specific purpose. A
choreographer composing a dance or
cheerleading routine will make use of different
directions to add to the aesthetic value of a
performance. Combining different directions
within a performance can also add to its
complexity. A dance routine that uses only
forwards and backwards directions is less
difficult to perform than one that incorporates
circular and zigzag movements. Direction
changes during a performance will also add
to its intricacy and appeal. Certain skills
within a performance may have more impact
for the audience when viewed from different
directions. For example, an arabesque is more
effective when viewed from the side rather than
the front; therefore, a performer may change
their direction in relation to the audience
before executing this skill.
A performer can apply can directional change to use a performance space
Intricacy the difficulty, to their benefit. For example, a rhythmic gymnast will cover the whole area of
complexity or sophistication the designated mat space by using directional changes. This gives them more
of a movement.
room to perform the skills required in their routine, makes the routine more
visually interesting to the audience and may allow more complex skills to
be incorporated.
Direction can be used to communicate a message to the audience via the
visual medium. An example is that moving backwards generally indicates
retreat, while forward movement can suggest a chase; spinning can suggest
confusion and jumping up can convey excitement.
Within the game’s movement medium, direction has a more functional
purpose. In team sports, the direction of movement is often determined by
the aim of the game, which may be to move in the direction of the goal area
in order to score. A player chooses the direction they move with a particular
purpose in mind, such as to outmanoeuvre the opposition. To do this, a
hockey player may dodge in a zigzag direction, while a touch player may
perform a dummy pass by moving sideways to confuse the opposition.
Level
The term ‘level’ refers to the height at which movement occurs. A number
of different levels can be used within space: they can be applied to the
individual and the height of their movement within their personal space,
and to groups and the height of their movements within the general and
performance space. ‘Level’ can also refer to the use of floor space and air
space by equipment or people. In all movement mediums, three levels are
used to varying degrees. These are:

Low—close to the ground. There is a variety of lows such as lying, rolling,

sitting, crawling, kneeling, squatting and crouching.
Medium—a level somewhere between the hips and the shoulders. A
person is moving at a medium level when they are standing or running.
High—above the shoulders, often involving elevation such as jumps
and leaps.
The use of levels can make a space more interesting, can demonstrate
the strength and agility of the performer or athlete, and can be applied to
strategy and tactics within games. Dancers and gymnasts are encouraged to
use a variety of levels when composing their movement in order to make the
routine more visually exciting. A change in level may be as simple as a dancer
standing at a medium level and extending their arms above their head to a
high level, or as complex as a gymnast leaping from a medium level into the
air to perform a somersault (high) and then dropping to the floor and rolling
forwards (low). Cheerleading and aerobics routines demonstrate the prowess
of the performer and are breathtaking for the audience as exciting changes
in level occur such as throws, jumps, leaps and balances. Equipment or sets
can also be used to provide level changes. For example, a choreographer may
arrange the dancers on stage at different levels using the floor, raised boxes,
steps and chairs, or a dancer may be lowered onto the stage from above.
Figure 8.4
In games and sports, athletes use different levels throughout the activity The use of levels can
to bring them closer to the desired outcome of the game. Changes in levels add visual appeal to a
in a group fitness class such as body combat or step aerobics ensure that all performance
muscles of the body are used during the workout. A
basketball game requires players to move through
all levels when running, defending and shooting;
an AFL player uses high levels to their advantage
to take a mark; and a rugby player moves through
the low level in order to tackle their opponent.
Skilled athletes in various sports will use levels
to their advantage when passing. A netball player
may choose to use a lob pass (high), a bounce pass
(low) or a chest pass (medium) depending upon the
position of their opponents and their assessment
of which level of pass will most effectively move
the ball towards their goal circle. A hockey player
may use a flick pass, which moves the ball through
the air into the goal or a fast pass along the ground
to their teammate. Cricket, softball and baseball
players will practise a variety of shots at different
levels so that, in a game, they can use the best hit
to ensure the most amount of runs. Field athletes
who are involved in throwing and jumping events
are well aware of the optimum level at which to
throw or jump in order to gain the most distance
for their event. A diver or gymnast knows that
they must gain height in order to perform complex
twisting and turning skills. Coaches have a good
understanding of the use of levels in sport and will
apply this when they are analysing a particular
game and devising game tactics and strategies.

Dimensions
Dimension is a measure of spatial extent. It refers to the amount of
performance space that is available to be used, and can refer to an individual
and the extent of their movement within the general space. The dimensions
of a space include its:
height
width
depth
Dimension is an important aspect of composition, as the size of a space
will determine the type of activity that can occur within it, and the skills and
movement patterns that may be included in a performance or game.
Someone who is composing a dance or gymnastics routine must be very
familiar with the dimensions of the performance space they have to work
in. This will determine the number and type of skills used, the directions in
which the performers can move, and how many performers can fit within
the space to have the most effect. In gymnastics, points will be deducted if a
gymnast moves outside the allocated performance space, so it is critical that
the gymnast has an intimate knowledge of the area’s dimensions. Part of the
impact of a mass dance performance, such as the Rock Eisteddfod Challenge,
is large numbers of dancers on stage moving together. A choreographer needs
to know how many dancers will fill out the performance space without it
looking too crowded or too empty.
Sometimes a performance will need to be altered if the performance space
changes. For example, a jazz dance group may have developed a routine that
they perform in their dance studio. The routine is designed to fit within the
dimensions of the studio space. However, if they are then asked to perform at
a shopping centre to promote the group, they may need to alter their routine
to fit the area provided for the performance. If the space is smaller, it may
mean a change in the range of movements included in the dance or in where
dancers can move to within the space. Alternatively, if the space is larger,
the dancers may need to incorporate stronger moves and to produce more
movement around the performance space.
The dimensions of a court or field can affect the rules of the game played
within that space. Consider the differences in rules from field to indoor
hockey or soccer, and how the skills of those games need to be modified to
best fit the change in space from a larger outdoor field to a smaller indoor
area. The rules of half-court basketball change from that of a full-court
basketball game to account for the smaller space in which the players move.
Many sports have modified versions for younger players, for example Kanga
cricket and Tee-Ball. A common denominator in all these modified games is
that the dimensions of the playing area and goals are reduced to accommodate
the size of the players and their less developed skill levels.
Coaches and tacticians can use court or field dimensions to gain advantage
in play. They may choose to use only a particular part of the playing area
during the game in order to put pressure on the opposition, for example, using
a half-court press in basketball or they may position their players in certain
areas of the court to maximise their strengths, for example, using 6-2 offensive
formation in volleyball.
An individual performer or athlete needs to consider dimension in relation
to their personal space and their movement in the space around them.

Indoor Hockey court

Minimum 36 m to maximum 44 m
Centre line
9m
radius Minimum 18 m
3m
to maximum 22 m
Outdoor Hockey court

91.4 m
2.19 m
14.63 m
3.66 m 55 m
22.9 m
Diagrams not to scale.
A dancer or gymnast can add interest and appeal to their performance by Figure 8.5
exploring the space above, behind, in front of, or beside them by stretching, The dimensions of the
space performers have
bending, expanding, shrinking, reaching or sinking to the ground. A goalie
to work in will determine
in handball or soccer may extend their arms and legs into the space around the types of skills and
them to lessen the goal space making it more difficult for the other team, or a movements used in the
basketball player may draw their arms and legs close into them and stand still activity
in an attempt to draw a foul from an approaching player.
An individual athlete or performer requires a certain amount of body
awareness in relation to their dimensions in space, if they are to be successful Proprioception an
in their movement medium. This body awareness, known as proprioception, awareness of where the body
is in space, and the capacity of
can assist them to create appropriate muscle tensions in movement activities, the body to determine where
to know where the body ends and external space begins and to feel the all of its parts are positioned
correctness of a movement or body position. at any given time.


1 Explain the movement changes that would need to occur in a game of netball if it was
played on a court with dimensions similar to a badminton court.
2 Explore the element of space through the following activity.
• Spread the class out on a basketball court or space of a similar size.
• Have everyone move around the area, avoiding other people.
• Gradually reduce the space, for example, to three quarters of the court, half the court,
a quarter of the court and even smaller. With each reduction in space, you are to move
around the area trying to avoid others.
In groups of three, discuss the types of things you did to avoid people as the space became
smaller. Apply the points made from this discussion to a movement medium of your choice.
3 Using the bush dance the Heel and Toe Polka, investigate how different levels can be used
when performing the dance to make it more visually appealing.
Patterns and formations

When a performer or athlete moves from one place to another within the
performance space, the imaginary lines or pathways that their body makes on
the ground and in the air are referred to as patterns. These patterns will vary
depending upon the path a person takes and the obstacles they encounter
along the way. They can be straight, curved, angular, twisted, circular, spiral
or zigzag.
Patterns can also be made by equipment for example, the pattern a ball
makes as it is thrown between and caught by different players on the court. A
pattern can occur spontaneously, for example, when a touch player is running
down the wing but then needs to quickly change direction to avoid a member
of the opposing team. The pattern their movement makes could be represented
by a straight line; a circle, to show them turning away from the opposition;
then a diagonal path. Patterns can also be designed. An example of this is a
set play in a sport, where the pathway of the players and ball are planned
before the game and then incorporated into play. Another example could be a
routine in aerobics, where the movement sequences are developed and involve
different directional changes representing patterns on the floor, such as a box
step or L shape. Different floor patterns can be used to create different effects
in dance and gymnastics, such as a circular pattern being used to convey unity.
The analysis of player patterns in sport can assist coaches to develop strategies
and game plays to ensure efficient use of player energy, to reduce weak spots,
and to strengthen attack and defence effectiveness.
Formations involve groups of performers or players being in a particular
configuration or position that has an explicit purpose. Many dances have fixed
formations, such as circles in folk dance, square formations in square dance
and a longways set in bush dance. These formations are part of the dance
itself and may change during the performance. Formations can also be used
to great effect in large group displays, for example, the opening ceremony of
the 2008 Beijing Olympics relied on the use of many line formations to create
a tremendous visual impact. Formations can also refer to the set offensive and
defensive plays that are used in different games and sports. A zone defence in

basketball is a formation, as are the short corner in hockey and the free kick Figure 8.6
in soccer. Coaches will often change the formations of players during a game Different floor patterns and
formations can be used
in order to disrupt the pace of the other team or to counteract strategies the
for effect or for a specific
opposition is using. purpose
FLOOR PATTERNS
Straight Spiral
Curved
Combinations
of pathways
Zigzag
FORMATIONS
Single line Double lines Spokes of

a wheel
Geometric
shapes
Circle
Figure 8.7
The formation of a short
corner in hockey
Attacking team
Ball
Defending team


1 Explore patterns and formations through the following activity.
• Take a dance that is usually performed in a circle formation, such as the barn dance.
• Perform the dance using different formations, for example, in lines or geometric shapes.
• With a partner, examine the impact this had on the dance and outline any changes that
needed to be made according to the formation used.
2 In a small group, select a message you wish to convey through dance, for example,
community. Propose different floor and air patterns that could be used by the performers to
relay this message to the audience.
Dynamics
Dynamics refer to how the body moves. They relate to the quality of
Figure 8.8
Different skills and movement and the muscular tension used to create a movement. The
activities require differing dynamics of movement are concerned with energy and how a performer
amounts of force or athlete expresses the meaning or purpose of their movement. This is the
element that gives movement its expressiveness. When people
describe a movement or movement sequence as strong, flowing,
explosive, smooth or weak they are commenting on the dynamics
of that movement and how the components of force and flow are
being used to give the movement interest and appeal. Performers
and athletes can alter the dynamics of the skill or movement
sequence they are undertaking to achieve specific purposes.
Force
Force has to do with the intensity of energy that is exerted,
expended or released in a movement. The amount of force will
affect the quality and substance of any given movement. Force
exists on a continuum that ranges from strong to gentle, and can
be generated by the performer or athlete themself or as a reaction
to something external such as a beat board in gymnastics. Some
skills require a greater amount of force than others, in order to be
successful. For example, a gymnast will not be able to complete
a handspring unless they exert a large amount of force in their
takeoff, and a batter in baseball will not achieve a home run
unless they hit the ball with strong force. Conversely, much less
force is required to successfully putt a golf ball or complete a drop
shot in badminton. Skills that require large amounts of force will
often be referred to as strong, powerful, explosive or forceful;
whereas skills that require less amounts of force may be referred
to as delicate, light, soft, gentle or precise.
An athlete or performer needs to be able to control the amount
of force they apply in different situations. This can be a challenge
when learning new skills. As a person becomes more skilled, they
will have more control over the force they use and can turn this
to their benefit. For example, a skilled baseball player is able to
choose whether they bunt or hit the ball, depending upon the state

of play, and a skilled gymnast or dancer can incorporate a variety of skills

requiring different amounts of force into a routine to add a higher degree
of difficulty. As well as controlling the amount of force applied, an athlete
or performer also needs to be able to absorb force well. Landing after a leap
in dance or after performing an airborne skill in aerobics or cheerleading
requires the performer to bend their knees to absorb the force. Similarly, a
hockey player will allow their stick to ‘give’ when receiving a pass in order to
absorb the force of the ball and gain control before passing or dribbling.
The use of varying amounts of force in movement can also communicate
messages to an audience. A dancer may use strong, high-energy movements
during their performance to convey the idea of anger, power or excitement;
whereas movements using less force can communicate passiveness, gentleness
or that the dancer is floating. Typically, a choreographer will include a range
of movements requiring different amounts of energy expenditure throughout
the dance to tell a story.
Force energy can be released continuously and evenly, resulting in
movements that are smooth and sustained such as swimming laps or it can be
released in a sudden, explosive action such as a dance leap, a crouch start or
a golf drive. Energy can also be released in short, sharp bursts and this kind of
movement is referred to as jerky.
Figure 8.9
The use of strong,
forceful movements in
a performance of the
Haka puts across a clear
message
Flow
Flow relates to the movement of the body or an object through space and time.
Effective movement skills and patterns are based on a person’s ability to use
their whole body skilfully and on the way their force is controlled or released.
The two most commonly used words to describe flow are ‘bound’ and ‘free’.
Bound flow relates to the performer controlling the energy of the movement.
A movement is said to be bound if it can be stopped or restrained at any time
without difficulty; for example, changing direction in a dance or pausing in
a shape during a gymnastics routine. Bound flow does not necessarily mean
that the movement stops altogether but it often involves a change of pace and
energy. Often when an athlete or performer is learning a new skill, they will
need to stop and start the movement until they gain mastery. Bound flow is an

integral part of game play, where an athlete needs to be able to stop and start
regularly when avoiding their opponent, looking for a pass, setting up a play
or shooting a goal.
In free flow, the movement tends to be uninterrupted. The person may
not be totally in control of the energy of the movement and it is not easy to
stop. This use of energy requires the performer or athlete to take some risks.
Free flow tends to be the realm of the more skilled performer, as they are at
the autonomous stage of skill acquisition and can perform in a more flowing
manner instead of having to think about engaging their skills. Free flow is
often seen in activities where improvisation is called for, such as dance.
Flow can be used to describe continuity of movement, where the actions
of the performer or athlete seem smooth and effortless and, as a result, are
Aesthetically pleasing aesthetically pleasing. An example of this is linking together a series of
when something is pleasing skills into a movement sequence such as in aerobics or gymnastics, and then
to look at; it has a sense of
flow and balance. performing this sequence as a continuous motion. Flow is also necessary
between various body parts in order for an athlete or performer to execute a
skill such as throwing, kicking or hitting with ease and efficiency.
Time and rhythm

Time and rhythm are critical elements of composition as they both affect
the quality, flow and precision of movement in all mediums. Time refers to
when the body moves, and rhythm is the underlying organisational pattern
that gives order to that movement. Time and rhythm relate directly to the
execution of skills and, without them, the resulting movement can be
ineffective and appear rushed, uncoordinated and meaningless.
Musical applications
Many movement mediums such as dance, synchronised swimming,
gymnastics (artistic and rhythmic), ice dancing, aerobics and cheerleading are
directly tied to music. The musical accompaniment determines many aspects
of the movement including timing, duration and speed. There are a number of
musical applications in relation to time and rhythm to be familiar with.
Beat—a beat occurs at regular intervals, such as marked by the clapping
of hands or the beat of a drum, and is the steady pulse that can be heard
in a lot of music. A beat can be regular or irregular, which indicates
unpredictability. Beats in music are generally organised into patterns or
phrases known as bars.
Bar or measure—this is a specific number of beats or counts arranged in
a group. There can be two, three or four beats in a bar that make up the
rhythm of the music. The first beat is usually the strongest.
Metre—is the arrangement of the rhythms of a particular musical piece
in a repetitive pattern of strong and weak beats. It is a very useful way
to organise music as it sets up an underlying pattern in the pulse of the
music, for example, strong–weak–weak–strong–weak–weak. It establishes
regularity in timing.
Accent—is an aspect of rhythm and refers to the emphasis placed on a
particular beat in a bar. Placing an accent on a beat means that one note
lasts for a different amount of time to the other notes surrounding it. The
accent is usually placed at the beginning of the bar but may occur on
any beat.

Rhythmic patterns or phrases—when a series of beats is repeated,

a rhythmic pattern is established. These patterns are generally part of
larger rhythmic phrases. Often it is obvious where one musical phrase
ends and another begins. This is useful in dance, as the end of one
rhythmic phrase may indicate a change to another dance step, for example,
in a bush, folk or square dance.
Tempo—is the speed of the beat. It will determine the pace of the movement
and can be slow, fast or otherwise. It influences how the music sounds or
feels and can change abruptly during a piece of music. The tempo of a piece
of music is usually indicated at its start in a musical score. Certain dances
have a particular tempo at which the music should be played so the dancers Table 8.1
Various music
can express the style of the dance, for example with the tango or waltz. patterns
Dance or music style Time Pattern Accent Tempo
2
Heel and Toe Polka First beat of bar Fast
4 1 & 2 1 & 2
> >
3
Waltz First beat of bar Moderate
4 1 2 3 1 2 3
> >
4 Dependent on the dance

Modern dance, country music First beat of bar
4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 and the music
> >
Duration
Duration can mean the length of time required to complete a particular
movement, and the length of time in which an activity is performed.
In movement mediums where a performance is accompanied by music,
the duration of the routine is determined by the length of the track. In
trampolining, all routines are restricted to 10 bounces but the duration of
the routine will vary depending upon the complexity of the skills included.
Skills that involve many twists and turns will take longer to execute than
simpler skills and, therefore, extend the performance time. In many games,
the duration of activity is predetermined, such as four 15-minute quarters
in netball or two 40-minute halves in rugby. However, other sports are not
restricted by a time limit and the duration of play may be fairly short, or
extended, depending upon the skill of the players and how many points are
scored; for example, in volleyball, tennis or table tennis. Coaches and players
can attempt to manipulate the use of time in some game situations by calling
time outs to slow down a game when losing or by speeding up the game play
with distance throws when winning.
Some skills have a finite range of duration. For example, a gymnast can only
be airborne when performing a leap or somersault for so long. Conversely, other
sports can continue until the person decides to stop, for example, swimming
laps. The rules of a game can determine the duration of a movement or the
positioning of the players. For example, in handball and netball, a player must
play the ball within three seconds; and in basketball, there is a 3-second limit
in the key for offensive players. The duration of a performance or movement
can give it meaning or make it more or less effective. A golfer who is trying to
putt their ball may not be successful if they have to rush the shot, for example.

Choreographers may increase the duration of a particular movement

pattern or repeat it in order to create suspense, and then shorten the duration
of other movements to build excitement or to signify the climax or end of
a performance.
Duration is linked to rhythm in that some movements appear to have
an even rhythm as each part of the movement is of equal duration, such as
running or walking; while other movements may be of varying duration,
which creates an uneven rhythm.
Momentum
Momentum refers to the velocity at which a movement is performed and
the mass that drives the movement. It is closely linked with acceleration
(speed gain) and deceleration (speed loss) of movement. The performance
speed of a particular movement will be determined by the movement. If it
is not performed at the necessary velocity, it may affect outcome, success or
safety of the movement. For example, a sprinter needs to accelerate quickly
to complete their race in the minimum amount of time, an ice skater doing a
number of turns will need to gradually slow down to move onto the next skill
in their routine and an athlete who is trying a new skill may find it beneficial
to start slowly and gradually increase the speed of the movement over time.
It is quite common for the speed in movement to alter during a
performance or game. This indicates that the performer or athlete has control
over their performance. In dance, changes in speed and momentum can
complement a story or create a feeling. Increasing or decreasing the speed
of play in a game can be a useful strategy to confuse the opponent and
potentially lead them to make mistakes. In field athletics, a hammer thrower
needs to increase the speed of their turn so they can throw with the most
momentum, and a gymnast will constantly increase and decrease their speed
in a routine depending upon the skills they are performing.
Self-paced versus externally paced

Timing and control are important factors to consider when executing a skill
or performing a movement sequence. The environment in which the skill
is performed can have an impact on how it is performed and can determine
the amount of control the athlete or performer has over the movement. If
the performer initiates the movement and has control over the rate at which
the skill is executed, this is referred to as self-paced. Self-paced movements
or skills typically occur in stable and predictable environments in which
the performer has plenty of time to make decisions, and begin and end the
movement when they choose. Examples of this include a discus throw,
putting a shot or a volleyball serve.
Movement in which the timing and form are determined by factors
outside the control of the performer, such as the environment, music and/or
opponents is referred to as externally paced and include hitting a ball that has
been bowled, served or pitched or keeping in time with dance music.
Some sports are purely self-paced, such as golf; while some are entirely
externally paced, such as an aerobics routine to music. However, many
sports use combinations of both self-paced and externally paced movement.
A basketball player may stand and compose themself before they take a
shot from the free throw line. They have no interference from others and
are in control as to when the shot occurs. The same player then goes back

into normal game play and their skills become externally paced, as they are
affected by the speed and direction of the ball and by the positioning of other
players. Many external factors will impinge on the execution of the skills
of the game and there is often pressure to perform quickly. Most sports that
Figure 8.10
require a high level of externally paced movement, such as basketball, soccer
Jogging is a self-paced
or hockey, will still have some room for self-paced skills to be used; and movement, whereas
within these games, athletes can have some control over the timing of their sprinting is externally
movements, such as making decisions about when to pass or when to move. paced

1 Distinguish between self-paced and externally paced movement, and comment on the
effects of these for composition of movement.
2 Explore the concepts of time, duration, Fast
SMALL
dynamics and space through the following
BIG
activity.
• Draw a dance map similar to the one Slow
shown here. The oval shapes are where WIDE
you do one or more moves; the arrows
indicate the direction and speed of travel. Fast Fast
and
• Move through your dance map slow
experimenting with different movements,
BIG Fast
ways of travel and uses of force. SMALL

• Change your dance map by altering some
of the circles and arrows, and repeat the Medium BIG
activity.
3 Explain how coaches use the elements of
composition, such as space, dynamics and Slow
and fast
time, to develop offensive and defensive
team strategies.
THIN

Timing
Time is an ordering force in all movement mediums, and correct timing is
critical for the performance of most skills and movements. If the timing of
movement is wrong, it can detract from the performance and can mean that a
play is missed or an opponent allowed to score. When movement sequences
are designed to be accompanied by music, it is glaringly obvious when the
performer is out of time with the music and this negatively affects the visual
impact of the performance. Choreographers will often choose the speed of the
music to suit the ability of their performers so it is easier for them to stay in
time. Some activities, such as aerobics and synchronised swimming, diving or
trampolining, require the performer to be in time with other performers and
this takes a lot of time and practice to perfect. Timing can be used in different
combinations to create intricate visual effects such as including a hesitation
during a performance followed by a quick movement, which can surprise
the audience.
Timing is critical in many sports. An athlete needs to be able to assess the
best moment to pass the ball to their teammate or to shoot for a goal. It is also
essential for the correct performance of some skills, such as timing the swing
of the bat in softball to connect with the pitched ball, or the combination of
timing and rhythm in a hurdles race. Timing can be manipulated in some
games by modifying the equipment used, for example, the use of low-bounce
balls in tennis means the balls are slower in flight and, therefore, the game can
be slowed down.
Relationships
When applied to physical activity, the term ‘relationships’ refers to who or
what the body moves with. Relationship is the connection between people
and things, such as the performer with other people, with the performance
space, with sound and visual images or with the equipment and apparatus.
An awareness of the importance of relationships in all movement mediums
is encouraged; and the more understanding of relationships a performer
has, the more efficient and effective they will become in their movement.
Relationships, in a movement context, can change depending upon what is
intended by the particular movement being performed.
Other people
The relationships a performer or athlete develops with other people can
greatly enhance a performance or outcome. Alternatively, they can have a
negative impact upon the performance. In all relationships with other people,
communication is a key component. It can be verbal, such as a player calling
for the ball or letting other members of the team know that a defender is
approaching, or non-verbal including gestures, hand movements or facial
expressions. A non-verbal example would be the signals passed between the
bowler and wicket keeper in cricket. There are a variety of people that an
athlete or performer can form a relationship with.
Team members—successful teams have a shared understanding of their
purpose along with an appreciation of their role in that team, and the
roles of other team members. Effective teamwork involves trust and
communication. As relationships develop between team members, each
one knows how they contribute to plays and manoeuvres. They are well

aware of the positioning of their teammates and they know they can rely
on them to be in the right place at the right time to receive a pass, block
an opponent or make a space on the field or court to gain advantage. Often
a team will practise set plays or movement sequences to be implemented
during the game. If something changes during play to alter a strategy, a
team with good relationships will be able to adapt easily and quickly
communicate with each other to put another tactic into place.
Opponents—a player needs to be able to read their opponents well.
An understanding of body movements will help a person to anticipate
what their opponent is going to do next. Studying the plays and
skills of the opponent away from the game can help a player to learn
common patterns and strategies of the other team, assisting them to put
countermeasures in place.
Performers—relationships between performers in dance, aerobics and Figure 8.11
gymnastics are clearly defined. The moves and routines are choreographed Trust and communication
is important for performers
and there tend to be no surprises. However, there is still the expectation
when developing
that the other members of the group will be in the position they are relationships with each
meant to be in, at the time they are meant to be there. In ballroom and other and the audience
Latin dancing, the relationships are very clear: with one
person leading the dance and the other following. Often
the relationships between performers in group routines are
developed using different techniques, such as everyone moving
in unison (at the same time), groups working in contrast
(performing movements that have opposite qualities like fast
and slow), or groups moving in canon (performing the same
movement at different times).
Partners—often in dance, ice-skating and aerobics, a performer
will have to work closely with a partner. The relationship
between partners is an intimate one, as each partner relies
on the other to perform the movements or skills to the best
of their ability. A large amount of trust is required, as in
many sequences one partner is required to lift, catch or hold
the other. This trust can be developed through practice and
communication. The relationship that forms between partners
can also assist in conveying a desired message through the
movement medium. For example, a dance couple who have
formed a strong relationship will easily communicate the
passion and story of the bullfight while dancing the Paso Doble.
The audience—in order to convey the story or message
of a performance, it is vital that the performers form a
connection with the audience. The choreographer may begin
this relationship with the way they link various movement
sequences and the type of music they use. Performers can then
continue to form links with their audience by their proximity,
eye contact, through subtle or obvious gestures and even by the
clothing or costumes they wear. In other movement mediums, a
relationship with the audience may be formed simply because
the athlete is from the same country as some members of the
audience, such as at the Olympic or Commonwealth Games,
or because the audience supports the team they are watching,
such as AFL teams who represent a town or region.

Apparatus and equipment

Many movement mediums use apparatus and equipment. The relationship
that a performer or athlete has with their equipment/apparatus can add
much to their performance or their success in a game situation. An athlete
who is new to a game, such as tennis, squash or hockey, may find the use of
their racquet or stick cumbersome and will focus much of their attention on
correctly using their equipment, sometimes to the detriment of their game
skills. As a player becomes more skilled, the racquet or stick becomes more
like an extension of their body, and their relationship with it seems effortless.
In rhythmic gymnastics, the gymnast needs to form a close relationship
with their equipment in order to portray ‘oneness’ to the audience. Points
are awarded based on the performer’s ability to demonstrate continuous and
flowing movement of the equipment both in the air and around their body.
Again, this takes great skill to perfect.
In other gymnastics disciplines, the performer must be very familiar with
the piece of apparatus they are using, such as rings, vault, beam and bars.
A gymnast performing a routine on the beam needs to know the exact length,
width and height of the beam. A vaulter must know exactly where to place
their hands on the vault in order to perform the skill well and on the bars;
a successful gymnast will appear to move smoothly around each bar and
from one level to another during their routine. The step in a step aerobics
class is considered equipment, and requires an individual to demonstrate
coordination and timing while moving on, over and around the step. Dancers
often use props such as chairs, hats, scarves, pieces of material and canes.
A dancer’s relationship with their props can complement their performance,
making it more interesting and helping to express meaning to the audience.
Team formations, positional play and partner work

Individuals should be encouraged to explore various configurations when
working with a partner or in groups. Different team formations and positional
play allow teams to use the space on the field or court to its maximum
potential, to execute various strategies and plays in offence and defence,
and to capitalise on the strengths of individual players. Positional play in
games and sports can speed up or slow down a game or can create scoring
opportunities. Most team games have set positions for players, and while each
position will have a certain role to play and sometimes a certain area of the
court or field they can move in, the relationship between all members of the
team in combination is what makes a team effective.
In dance, synchronised swimming and competitive aerobics teams, the use
of various formations throughout the performance adds much to its appeal
and interest. Watching a routine where the performers stay in a single line
for the whole time would be very boring. Choreographers will incorporate
a number of different formations into a routine, and these formations may
highlight various relationships among the performers. In dances, such as
folk or bush dance, a transition from one formation or sequence to another
allows different dance moves to be included or allows for there to be a change
in partners or leaders.
When performers are working in pairs, a seamless relationship between
partners is fundamental to the performance. Partners must be able to work
well together towards their shared objective. The various moves of each

partner make up the whole, and each is essential to the other and the overall
routine. Ice skaters will work together and use various combinations of space
and time, such as unison, mirroring, shadowing, echoing and supporting, to
form relationships with each other in the performance of their dance. The
skaters may not be touching in some parts of the dance but, by simply skating
in unison next to each other, they make their relationship very clear and this
adds meaning to their performance.
Figure 8.12
Player positions for netball Team formations and
positions assist teams to
develop relationships
Goal third Centre third Goal third
WA GD
WD GA
GS C GK
GK C GS
GA WD
GD WA

1 Go to the following URL <www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,25135330-50034
60,00.html> and read the story about the use of an iPod in soccer. Discuss how the use of
technology, such as this, to study the plays and skills of another team can assist a performer
in developing a relationship with their opponent.
2 Analyse the purpose of various group formations within different movement mediums.
How are the elements used

to compose movement?
As already discussed, the elements of composition are the building bocks
of all movement. Once a person has a thorough understanding of these
building blocks, they can use them as tools for making and creating routines,
strategies and performances. The exploration, organisation and combining of
movement into patterns and sequences is referred to as composition. The term
‘choreography’ is also used in relation to movement composition, particularly
in the mediums of dance and gymnastics. All movement compositions require
careful planning and are generally created to fulfil a specific purpose such
as communicating an idea, message or story, or scoring a goal. Movement
composition can also be seen as a problem-solving exercise, where the

composer explores how a variety of movement skills can be combined with

the manipulation of space, dynamics, timing and relationships to achieve the
best possible outcomes.
Regardless of the movement medium, a number of processes should be
considered when using the elements of composition to compose movement
such as the purpose of the movement, different ways of combining and
arranging movement skills, and the use of improvisation to explore movement
variations and alternatives. Movement composition is a skill that combines a
knowledge of how, when and where to use the elements of composition, along
with a creative touch that defines the composition and makes it distinctive.
The process of creating movement

Defining the purpose or motivating factors
The first step in the process of creating movement is to have a starting point. It
is difficult to compose a dance, game play or gymnastics routine without first
knowing the intentions behind the movement. If the purpose of the movement
is clearly defined, it is easier to know what to include in planning and the
composition is more likely to be successful. Therefore, the question at the
beginning of every movement composition should be: ‘Why are we doing this?’
The purpose for creating movement may be different depending upon the
movement medium. It is important that both the composer and the performers
have the same understanding of the purpose of a movement composition. An
obscure purpose tends to cause failure in communication, which can result
in a different outcome being achieved. Different purposes for composing
movement include the following:
to entertain
to pass on aspects of tradition or culture
to win
as a challenge
to score
to improve fitness and/or coordination
to demonstrate skill, ability, strength and/or flexibility
to communicate an idea or story
to create something aesthetically appealing
to make an impact, for example, the opening ceremony of the Olympic
games
to inspire others
to show teamwork
to achieve one’s personal best.
Motivation is different to purpose in that motivation is what provides the
stimulus or inspiration for the movement composition. While there tends to
be a commonality to the purpose of many movement mediums, the motivation
behind movement composition may be quite original and generally provides
the energy for creativity in the composition. A coach can design a strategy that
moves the players and ball down the field with the purpose of scoring a goal,
however, they may be able to be more creative in their design, and therefore
more successful in achieving their purpose, if they consider motivating factors
such as a desire to create a gap in the opposing team’s defence. In dance, ice-
skating, synchronised swimming and rhythmic gymnastics, the stimulus or
motivation for the composition of a performance could be:

auditory—music, sounds, instruments, voices or words

visual—photographs, drawings, pictures, patterns, shapes or sculptures
tactile—material, objects or surfaces
kinaesthetic—the movement itself such as a shrinking, stretching or turning
ideational—dreamtime stories, folktales, legends or individual words.
Figure 8.13
The stimulus for creating
Visual movement can come from
anywhere
Kinaesthetic Auditory
STIMULUS
Ideational Tactile
Generating movement relevant to the purpose

The next step in the process of creating movement is for the composer to
select skills to include in the composition, which are relevant to its purpose.
The selection of these skills will be dependent upon the skill level of the
performers and the source of inspiration for the movement. The chosen skills
should be closely matched to the purpose of the activity and the idea it is
trying to convey and, at the same time, should provide variety and interest
within the performance.
There are three types of skills that are inherent in all movement mediums:
1 Locomotor skills—require the performer or athlete to move from place
to place. These skills vary in their degree of difficulty and include
movements such as walking, running, hopping, jumping, leaping,
skipping, climbing, galloping, rolling, dodging and sliding.
2 Non-locomotor skills—require the performer or athlete to perform the
skill in one place. The only movement involved is around the same base
of support rather than movement from one place to another. These skills
include bending, balancing, curling, holding, lifting, pulling, pushing,
stretching, swinging, twisting, pivoting and turning.
3 Manipulative skills—involve the control of objects such as balls, bats,
racquets or ribbons. These skills are performed in conjunction with
locomotor or non-locomotor skills and are usually involved in games.
They include throwing, kicking, volleying, striking, rolling, bouncing,
tapping, catching, trapping, heading and batting.

A key to successful movement composition is to know which skills are

basic to the particular movement medium, how each of them can be best
used and the number of different skills to include. The degree of difficulty
of each skill is also a consideration and this relates back to the purpose of
the movement and the skill level of the performer. When putting together a
trampolining routine, for example, the purpose of the activity may be to score
the most points and, therefore, the composer may choose some trampoline
skills that have a higher degree of difficulty than others. However, if the
athlete does not have the requisite skill to perform these high-level skills
with ease, this may defeat the purpose of including them in the routine.
An aerobics instructor who is choreographing a routine for their class to
perform will choose a combination of locomotor and non-locomotor skills
dependent upon whether the class is designed to improve fitness, core
strength, flexibility or coordination, and upon whether the class is for
beginners or advanced participants.
Another step in the process of generating movement is the manipulation
of the elements of composition with a view to creating movement that is most
Wakakirri Festival a relevant to its purpose. A composer should experiment with the application
national performing and
visual arts festival for primary
of space, dynamics, time and relationships to various skills in order to create
schools that challenges the most effective performance. For example, a person choreographing a
students to create a story, routine for the Wakakirri Festival may explore the use of different levels,
make an impact and share
it with Australia. Wakakirri groupings, directions, movement dynamics and props to produce a routine
means to describe the process that puts across a strong message, while being interesting and unique. These
of storytelling through dance. elements are all relevant to the purpose of a Wakakirri performance. A coach
can devise a number of different team strategies that use the dimensions of the
playing area, assorted team formations and various timings, and then use one
of these depending on the state of play.
Figure 8.14
Wakakirri Performing and
Visual Arts Festival
Exploring variations
It is said that variety is the spice of life and this is true in movement
composition. When creating movement sequences and routines, a skilled
choreographer will continually look out for how they can vary their

composition to make it more creative or interesting. A clever composer will

also consider simple things they can add to a routine or performance in
order to make it more difficult or, indeed, things they can subtract to give it
simplicity. For example, the addition of more twists and turns in a gymnastics
routine will increase its difficulty and provide challenges for the performer.
Variation to a basic aerobics routine can simply mean the addition of arm
movements making the routine more interesting and increasing the difficulty
level. A coach may vary a game strategy by increasing or decreasing the speed
at which it is performed. They will know that a variety of different offensive
and defensive plays will keep the opponents thinking and give their own
team an advantage.
The elements of composition are ideal tools with which to add variety to a
movement composition. Experimenting with momentum, tempo, directions,
levels, equipment, intensity, dimensions, different formations, accents,
dynamics, and group and/or partner work provides diversity in composition
and may lead to new ideas. For example, does the accent in a dance always
need to be on the first beat? What happens if it occurs on the third beat
instead? What happens to a performance if the group members perform
the arm movements at different times instead of in unison? Is it possible to
perform a roll in gymnastics more quickly or slowly than usual? How does
this affect the routine?
While variety can be achieved in movement composition by the composer
altering the movements, another way of introducing variations is to allow the
performer to further develop a set routine by adding ideas and movements of
their own.
Improvising
To improvise means to perform or compose something without preparation
or a set of rules to follow. Improvised movement tends to be spontaneous and
can lead to the invention of new practices and the creation of unique and
innovative movement designs. When they are new to movement composition,
an individual can be very set in their approach and tend to follow recognised
ways of doing things. As they become more comfortable with the process of
creating movement, they are less inhibited and will more readily experiment
with different concepts of space, shape, time and energy. Similarly, a
performer may be less inclined to branch away from established routines,
steps and skill combinations when they are first involved in a particular
movement medium. However, as they become more skilled they may feel
comfortable using a range of options that best suit the situation. Although
improvisation allows a performer to move away from the normal conventions
of their movement medium, it is still important for their movements to flow
and connect to one another if they are going to have the desired impact.
The term ‘improvisation’ is most commonly associated with modern
dance; however, it simply means changing movement to meet the need of the
moment. This can happen on the sports field as easily as on the dancefloor.
An athlete may need to improvise in order to make a play work. For example,
the team may have practised a set play developed by their coach but on the
field the opposition may do something to stop the play from going according
to plan and players are then required to improvise a variation to make their
movement successful.


1 Explore stimulus through the following activity:
• Mark out a large area of the floor and divide it into four 1 2
sections as shown opposite:
• Each area has its own imaginary characteristics: 3 4
Area 1—so hot that you are melting as you are moving.
Area 2—the whole floor is covered in chewing gum.
Area 3—there are biting, crawling and flying insects throughout the area.
Area 4—you have to push through cotton wool to move at all levels.
• Select an area in which to begin. In your own time, move through that area and into
another area (in any order) changing your movement in response to the stimulus.
• Consider questions such as: How did the stimulus influence your movements in each
area? Was the stimulus clear enough to direct your movements? Why were your
movements different to your classmates even though the stimulus was the same?
• Repeat the activity using a different type of stimulus, such as different images or a
different Dreamtime legend in each area.
2 Select a movement medium and list all the locomotor, non-locomotor and manipulative
skills that are specific and particular to it.
3 Design and practise an offensive play in the goal third of a netball court. Examine how
changing just one part of that play, for example, the direction the ball is passed or the
positioning of one of the players varies the play.
4 Describe the factors that may need to be present for a performer to feel comfortable in using
improvisation in their movement medium.
The process of combining and arranging

movement
The rules and conventions of the medium
Rules a set of governing Each movement medium has its own rules and conventions, and these
principles or regulations. determine how the elements of composition are applied to the process of
Conventions the customary combining and arranging movement. Gymnastics, dance, aerobics and games
way that things are done. all have their individual styles that refer to features or characteristics such as
technique, rules, movements and objectives. While these movement mediums
are quite different in many ways and require variations in the application of
the elements of composition, they all involve the body moving in some way
to achieve a desired outcome.
Gymnastics
‘Gymnastics’ is an all-encompassing term for a number of different forms of
the sport. These include:
Artistic—using the floor and a variety of apparatus.
Rhythmic—combining gymnastic skills with equipment such as ribbons,
balls and clubs.
Trampoline sports—using the double mini and large trampoline.

Educational—creative movement exploration through gymnastics and

movement skills.
Acrobatic—dynamic paired and group routines that include jumping and
sophisticated balances.
Cheerleading—organised routines that incorporate aspects of gymnastics,
dance and acrobatics.
Gymnasts need a combination of skills, including flexibility, strength,
coordination and agility, to perform competently in the gymnastics form of
their choice. Gymnastics can be highly competitive involving set routines,
compulsory movement sequences and sometimes interaction with equipment
and apparatus. There tends to be strict rules that the performer must adhere
to in gymnastics, along with set performance standards. Some forms of this
movement medium also allow the athlete to incorporate a degree of creativity
into their performance. The elements of composition need to be manipulated
accordingly.
Dance
Dance has many different styles and forms which can be grouped in the
following ways:
Traditional, cultural or ceremonial—these dances reflect the culture and
stories from where they originated, for example, folk dance, square dance,
bush dance and traditional Indigenous dance.
Social—dances that have the purpose of socialisation and are usually
performed with partners or in groups, for example, ballroom dancing,
Latin dance and hip-hop.
Performance—dances that require a high-skill level and are often performed
for an audience, for example, jazz and classical ballet and modern dance. Figure 8.15
The rules and conventions
These groups are certainly not definitive, and many additional styles
for these styles of dancing
of dancing have emerged over recent years such as Bollywood dance and are quite different and have
krumping. The rules and conventions of dance are very particular to the style an impact on the movement
of dance. Performance dance and some forms of social dance are generally that is performed

focused on technical skill, choreography and the correct performance

of movement sequences, whereas other dance forms rely heavily on
improvisation with performers freely interpreting existing moves. Dance
is usually accompanied by music and this adds another dimension to the
process of arranging dance movements.
Aerobics
Aerobics is the performance of a series of movement sequences to music. It
includes general aerobics classes for fitness and fun along with competitive
aerobics. The purpose and structure of the movement skills and elements
in these styles differ accordingly. A competitive aerobics routine contains
compulsory moves, set timings and strict attention to technical detail, yet a
performer can still use the elements of composition in different ways to create
a distinctive and individual routine.
There are many styles of non-competitive aerobics classes including step,
combat, pump, jam and attack. These styles cater for different ages, fitness
levels, abilities and needs. As a result, movement skills will be incorporated
and elements of composition applied according to the particular need for
which the class is meeting. Music is an important component of both forms
of aerobics and is used to develop movements and sequences.
Games
Games are somewhat different to other movement mediums as they have
specific rules that determine what is performed, how it is performed, and
where and how it occurs. These rules affect how the elements of composition
are applied to the game. It is sometimes difficult for an athlete to move from
one sport to another because, while the skills they have may be transferable,
the rules and conventions of movement that apply to one sport may not
apply to another. For example, a basketball player may have trouble if they
start to play netball and will need to reconsider aspects of movement such as
dimension (they are now restricted in their movement around the court) and
force (they cannot throw ‘over a third’).
Sequencing
All movement mediums are comprised of a number of individual skills or
movements. While each of these is important in its own right, the crux of
movement composition is the organisation of these single skills into a logical
order that has a purpose. Sequencing is the foundation of dance, aerobics,
Movement phrases a gymnastic and games, and it is essentially the building of a performance. It
number of related skills or takes single movements and joins them together to make movement phrases.
actions.
These phrases are then joined together to make a movement sequence, and the
sequences combined to make the full performance. A movement sequence is
like a story and needs to have a beginning, middle and end. A sequence can
be performed on its own, which is usually the case in games and sports. For
example, in athletics the triple jump is a movement sequence in its own right
(comprising of the following skills—run, hop, step, jump and land), as is a
lay up in basketball and the tennis serve. The success of a sequence depends
on how well its component parts are performed and, in training, a performer
may practise the sequence in parts—gradually combining the skills until they
are able to practise it as a whole. Sequences will increase in complexity as
variables are added, such as the inclusion of skills that are more difficult or
the number of movements in the sequence.

In dance and gymnastics, a number of sequences are joined together to

make up the whole dance or routine. The ordering of the sequences will be
determined by what order is the most expressive and what communicates the
purpose of the performance. Sometimes the best order will suggest itself, and
sometimes it might need some experimentation and rearranging to get it right.
The types of movement phrases included in a sequence and the manner
in which sequences are arranged into a full composition can be influenced
by the choreographer, the accompanying music, the court, the rules and the
performers. The nature of the movement medium can also influence how
sequencing occurs. For example, sequencing in a rhythmic gymnastics routine
will be quite different to the sequencing of an artistic gymnastics floor routine. Figure 8.16
Likewise, the sequencing of a ballroom dance performance will be different to Examples of movement
more freeform styles of dance such as salsa or hip-hop. sequences
Aerobics movement sequences
SEQUENCE 1 SEQUENCE 2
Walk forwards for 4 counts Jog on the spot for 16 counts
Walk backwards for 4 counts Walk forwards for 4 counts
Repeat Walk backwards for 4 counts
Step and curl to right and left—repeat Repeat
Squats x 6 Right and left lunges x 10
Grapevine to the left Jumping jacks x 16
Grapevine to the right March on the spot for 16 counts
Repeat Repeat
These two separate movement sequences can be repeated individually or joined together
to form a full routine
Transitions
Earlier in this chapter, the importance of flow, rhythm and continuity within
a performance was discussed. Transitions are the joining of movement
skills, phrases and sequences to make a whole and give performances
connectedness. A transition in a movement composition is often determined
by physical necessity, that is, by the need to turn around to complete the next
move. However, a performance would look unusual if the performer stopped

every time they needed to change direction, use a different skill or move from
one level to another. This would detract from the performance and would not
seem smooth or logical.
Transitions are an integral component of the composition, yet are very often
neglected or put in as an afterthought. The use of transitions contributes to the
flow of movement and, to be most effective, a transition needs to be seamless and
appear to be part of the movement itself. The size and complexity of a transition
is generally determined by the context in which it occurs, and it should only last
as long as it takes to fulfil its function. It can be a jump, a turn or a leap, a change
in music or music tempo, or a change in possession of the ball.
Repetition
Repetition means doing the same thing over again. In relation to the process
of arranging movement, it involves combining a number of skills into a
movement phrase and then repeating that phrase within a dance or routine.
Repetition in different movement mediums serves a number of purposes.
It can assist an individual to learn a new skill or sequence.
It can help to develop fitness levels. For example, a soccer coach may
put together a short movement sequence that involves running, passing,
dribbling and shooting, and then have the players repeat this a number of
times in a training session.
It can add focus to a performance. For example, a folk dance may have a
chorus that includes a small movement sequence that is repeated a number
of times throughout the dance.
It can add meaning to a performance, when a particular skill or movement
is emphasised through repetition to get a point across.
Most movement mediums involve some sort of repetition; however, it is
important not to include too much repetition. In dance, skating, aerobics and
gymnastics, the overuse of repetition can make a performance tedious and the
audience can lose interest. Repetition in games’ strategies and tactics may make
plays predictable and eliminate the element of surprise for the other team.
Variation
Variation is the way various movements are combined and arranged. It adds
interest and keeps the motivation levels of the performers and audience high.
Performances with little variation can become boring to watch, yet too much
variety can be confusing and distracting. Music is a good way to incorporate
variety into the composition of a routine. By selecting music that has a number
of different tempos within it, the composer can then combine different skills
within the routine to link with the music.
In some movement mediums, such as gymnastics and trampolining, there
may be little opportunity for variation in the arrangement of movement skills,
as they include routines or exercises that are compulsory. These are generally
balanced with the opportunity for performers to develop an optional routine
that allows them to show their individual style and flair.
Coaches can include variation in their training sessions by arranging
skills practices in different ways and by designing numerous arrangements of
players and movements when teaching strategies. By varying skills and play
combinations, they are providing more options for when the players are in
game situations.


1 Compare the rules and conventions of a dance style such as krumping to those of ballroom
dance. Discuss the implications of changing the rules and conventions of one dance style to
reflect those of the other.
2 For each of the movement mediums, describe different ways that you might vary the known
movements and combinations, for example, in an aerobics routine changing a series of
grapevine steps performed in a straight line to an L shape.
3 Explore sequencing in a think, pair, share activity.
• Think about the following stimulus points and make up a short movement that
demonstrates each one—climb, jump, wiggle, turn, high, low and wide.
• Combine each of these movements into a short sequence using some of the movements
as transitions.
• Pair up with another student. Teach them your sequence and have them perform it, and
then learn and perform theirs.
• Join the two sequences together. Practise these and then share with the rest of the class.
What is the role of appraisal

in the process of
composing and performing?
As can be seen from the information in this chapter, the process of movement
composition is quite complex and there are many things which need to be
taken into consideration. A performance is often the culmination of the
composition process and is a way of sharing the results of the journey. No
matter how simple or complex a performance is, some value will be placed
upon it by others either formally or informally. The term ‘appraisal’ refers to
the evaluation of a performance, and involves people reacting to it and making
a judgment about its effectiveness. Appraisal is a form of feedback and has
a vital role to play in the process of composing and performing. It can give
both objective and subjective information to those involved, which can then
be used to determine the success of the performance, and can assist both
the performer and composer to make any corrections or improvements for
future performances.
Ways of appraising
Performance can be appraised in a number of different ways, each with its
own benefits and drawbacks.
1 Observing
Observing is a common form of appraisal and often occurs informally—
for example, a coach may observe a set play being performed during a game
and at half-time will talk to the players about how the play affected the

game, giving suggestions for how the play can be improved next time.
Observation can be objective or subjective. When using objective observation,
a non-biased assessment will be made of the performance against set criteria.
The inclusion of criteria means that the observation is based on facts rather
than on thoughts or opinions, and is taken from an artistic perspective that
involves a degree of critical analysis and evaluation.
There are levels of objectivity in appraisal. Measures like how fast, how
high, how many and how long allow little room for debate, whereas checklists
and rating scales that indicate what an observer should be looking for are less
objective. The use of criteria provides a means to decide why a performance
Figure 8.17
An example of marking
criteria

was good or otherwise by analysing various aspects of the performance and

giving them a rating. While the observer is guided by a number of specifically
designed criteria, there is the possibility of the observer’s personal feelings
about the performance creeping into their judgment.
Subjective observation is based purely on the impressions or feelings
of the person who is observing—their ‘gut’ feeling about whether they found
the performance pleasing. It is judged from an aesthetic perspective. While
everyone is entitled to their own opinions, this form of appraisal may not
be the most reliable as what one person sees as desirable in a performance
may be quite different to what another person enjoys and bases their
judgment upon.
The use of technology, such as video footage, provides another means
of appraisal through observation. A performer, coach or choreographer
may find it advantageous to watch their performance on video to help
identify any errors being made and to analyse the use of the compositional
elements.
2 Analysing
Analysing involves examining the technical aspects of the performance,
scoring them and comparing the scores to others. A common form of analysis
is the use of statistics to appraise individuals or teams in a game situation.
Statistics relating to different aspects of the game, such as the number of
lineouts won in rugby union, the number of successful blocks in volleyball
or the shooting average of individual players in basketball, are collated and
then used to appraise the performance. Statistical feedback can be used to
develop different tactics and strategies or to focus on a skill a player may need
to work on.
Other forms of appraisal through analysis include norm ratings, where
an individual’s score on a test is compared to the standard of large groups
of others who have taken the same test, for example, maxVO2 testing or the
Harvard Step Test. Percentile rankings are also used in sport and games. An
actual performance score is taken and compared with that of others taking
the same test. If the person scores in the 70th percentile, this means that they
have scored or performed better than 70 per cent of people who participated
in the test. Norm reference testing in sport may be used for team selection or
talent identification.
3 Experiencing
Experiencing is a very valuable method of appraisal for both performers
and external observers. The more time an individual can spend looking at
different performances, applying the judging criteria and discussing their
ideas with others, the better they will become at critical analysis. Group
discussion of the application of criteria can lead to high levels of consistency
in judgment and greater objectivity in appraisal. Judges who are new to
appraisal in a particular movement medium can gain experience in judging
by watching a variety of performances from beginners to advanced. As a
performer becomes more experienced in their ability to perform a particular
skill or movement sequence, they will find they can use this experience to
make their own judgments in relation to their performance.

Aspects for appraisal

Performance appraisal has a number of purposes and involves the
interpretation, measurement or judgment of a performance to determine its
merit. It can be used to review a performance and identify strengths and
weaknesses, to motivate performers, to provide feedback and as a tool to
develop individual abilities.
While appraisal methods may differ between the various movement
mediums, a number of key aspects should be considered:
the elements of the composition
the level of creativity and innovation
the arrangement of movement
whether the performance achieves its purpose.
Elements of composition
The elements of composition are an integral component of movement
development and should enhance the quality of a performance. Therefore,
they have an important role to play in the appraisal process. Each element
should be looked at in relation to the movement medium, and questions
raised about how well the element was applied to the performance.
For example:
Space—was all the available space used to the best advantage? Did the use
of patterns and formations add to the appeal of the performance? How well
did the players draw out their opponents to create space?
Dynamics—was the player able to control their shots? Did the performance
flow smoothly? Was the takeoff from the floor explosive?
Timing and rhythm—was the performance of the correct duration?
Were the performers in time with the music? Was variety added to the
performance, with changes in tempo and accent?
Relationships—did the positioning of players allow the set play to be
carried out? Did the performers establish a positive relationship with the
audience? Did the performers’ use of equipment or props blend in with the
movement being performed?
Creativity and innovation

Many of the movement mediums have great scope for creativity and
innovation in their composition and performance. Part of appraisal is to
determine how well these aspects have been incorporated and whether
their use has enhanced the aesthetics and interest of the performance for the
audience. In competitive aerobics and some forms of dance and gymnastics,
creativity is actually a component of the judging criteria. In the Rock
Eisteddfod Challenge, innovation and originality contribute to eight of a
possible twenty marks school groups can receive in the area of ‘Concept and
Interpretation’. In sports such as gymnastics, dance, diving and trampolining,
The Phillips an original
balance beam mount, named being innovative in the performance of skills can add to the degree of
after American gymnast Kristie difficulty of a routine and, therefore, make the performer more competitive.
Phillips and described as a If an athlete is innovative enough to create a skill that has never been
press to side handstand, front
walkover to side stand on performed before, it will often be named after them. For example, the beam
both legs. skill the Phillips is named after American gymnast Kristie Phillips.

Rock Eisteddfod judging requirements and components

A) Concept and interpretation 20 points
Originality, soundtrack, concept, innovation, interpretation and integrity (4 points each)
The theme should be composed of an original idea extended into a concept and supported by the soundtrack to
translate into a composite structure with continuity and integrity. This means that the theme must be well developed
and that suitable music must be used.
B) Performance elements 20 points

Presentation and teamwork, choreography, drama, skill and visual (4 points each)
The impact of the students on stage, their visual impact and their technique are assessed. The performance is
composed of the presentation—that is, the enthusiasm and enjoyment of the students’ the teamwork—that is,
precision and technique; the choreography—that is, space, flow, levels and drama (acting and character portrayal);
the skill level—that is, complexity and execution, blended to give a visual impact and emotion.
C) Production elements 20 points

Set design and staging, lighting, costumes, hair and make-up, and enhancement (4 points each)
All non-human elements used to enhance the production are judged. The production elements include set design and
form—that is, the physical structure of the sets and how they fit on stage; the staging— that is, movement of sets;
the lighting— that is, enhancement of mood by lights; costumes—that is, design relevance to theme, integration with
choreography; make-up and hair—that is, design and relevance to theme; other enhancements—that is, technology
and innovative props such as aerotechnics.
Rock Eisteddfod Challenge—Prime Judging Sheet

School: _____________ Performance No: ____ Event location: _____________ Date: _______
Judge: ________________ Date: __________ Signed: ________________________
Independent scorer:________________ Date: __________ Signed: ________________________
Concept and interpretation

Originality 1 2 3 4 Music 1 2 3 4
Concept 1 2 3 4 Innovation 1 2 3 4
Interpretation and integrity 1 2 3 4 Total out of 20 – ____________
Performance elements
Presentation and teamwork 1 2 3 4 Choreography 1 2 3 4
Drama 1 2 3 4 Skill 1 2 3 4
Visual 1 2 3 4 Total out of 20 – ____________
Production elements
Set design and staging 1 2 3 4 Lighting 1 2 3 4
Costumes 1 2 3 4 Hair and make-up 1 2 3 4
Enhancement 1 2 3 4 Total out of 20 – ____________
• Each score box MUST have only ONE whole number circled AND scores MUST reflect comments given.
• Positive and constructive comments should be written in all areas wherever possible.
• The judges MUST add their own scores, which will then be checked by the independent scorer.
• Score reassessment MUST have a written reason AND be initialled by the independent scorer.
Concept and interpretation Sub-total ____________
Performance elements Sub-total ____________
Production elements Sub-total ____________
Final score out of 60 Total __________

Arrangement of movement
The way movement is arranged is an essential aspect of appraisal. The
importance of sequencing and the placement of transitions were highlighted
earlier in this chapter as critical elements in ensuring the overall smoothness,
continuity and flow of a performance.
Looking at movement patterns in games can assist in appraisal and
analysis by identifying weak spots and deciding which arrangement of
movements resulted in the best and most successful strategies.
Achievement of purpose
When we discussed the process of creating movement, we identified that all
movement compositions need a purpose. When making an appraisal, we also
make a judgment about whether or not the performance achieved its purpose.
In some movement mediums, the purpose of the performance is very clear-cut
and, therefore, easy to appraise. For example, the purpose of the game of AFL
is to score the most goals, and the team with the greatest amount of points at
the end of the game is deemed successful.
In dance, rhythmic gymnastics and ice-skating, the purpose of the
performance may be less obvious and, therefore, it is up to the performers to
clearly communicate their message and/or story through their movements,
music and use of props. A performance that leaves the audience wondering
what its point was may not be appraised as highly as one that captures
audience understanding throughout.
Establishing and applying criteria

Criteria standards or
principles by which something In order to be consistent in appraisal of performance in any movement
can be judged or decided. medium, judges or appraisers need to have a set of criteria to follow. This
ensures that appraisals are fair across a competition. Criteria are usually
decided upon before a performance and describe exactly what the judges must
look for. Having criteria specific to various movement mediums, styles and
forms means a person is better able to evaluate and appreciate the quality of
the performance and provide relevant and useful feedback to the performer/s.
If there are a number of judges using one set of criteria to judge a performance,
it is important that they all have a clear understanding of what each criterion
looks like in order to be fair and consistent. Sometimes it is necessary to
assign a weighting to the different criterion. For example, in a competitive
aerobics routine more marks may be awarded for keeping in time with the
music and performing the required number of set skills than for moving
around the space adequately.
When setting criteria for appraising performance in the various movement
mediums, it is appropriate to consider the unique nature of the medium.
Although judges follow a standard set of procedures when evaluating a
performance, all competitions differ in the way they are judged.

Table 8.2 Comparison of appraisal criteria
Movement medium Summary of appraisal criteria
Gymnastics Features that judges may look for when appraising gymnastics routines and passes include:
• Form—does the skill look as it is meant to look (e.g. back straight not arched); skill control?
• Amplitude—includes height, length, flexibility
• Body stretch and extension
• Landings—must be solid; deductions are made for not maintaining balance and also for moving outside
the area of competition
• Separation—there is a minimum degree of separation of the legs in skills like leaps and straddles
• Precision of timing and rhythm
• Falling and dropping—marks are deducted for falling off a piece of apparatus or for dropping equipment
• Inclusion of all compulsory elements or skills
• Composition of the routine
• Degree of difficulty of skills
• Skill execution—includes style, technique and creativity.
Dance There are various criteria for dance, dependent upon the style; however, in general, judges need to
look for:
• Use of the elements of composition
• Technical competence—showing technical skill in performing the moves, coordination
• Communication—with the audience, with a partner and showing stage presence
• Choice of music—appropriateness, timing
• Achievement of purpose
• Inclusion of compulsory elements
• Production elements—set design, staging, lighting, costumes.
Aerobics There are rules that must be adhered to in competitive aerobics:

• Routine completed in the set time frame
• Inclusion of the specific performance requirements—performance of skills from the compulsory exercise
categories of jumping jacks, high leg kicks and push-ups; and the completion of one movement from
each of the obligatory movement groups: push-ups, static strength, aerial and split groups
• Satisfies dress requirements
• Entries and exits
• Safety—no contraindicated exercises.
The scoring criteria are divided into three sections:
• Technical—degree of difficulty, ease of execution, correct technique, all muscle groups targeted,
flexibility, strength
• Artistic—innovation, creative sequencing of movement patterns and transitions, timing and style,
competitor’s appearance, communication, synchronisation, showmanship
• Aerobic—display of a high level of cardiovascular endurance throughout the performance through
choreography, flow and style.
Games The judging of games is regularly done through objective means, for example, collection and analysis of
statistics. However, criteria for subjectively appraising games includes:
• Skill execution—how well does the athlete perform general skills such as running, dodging,
weaving, passing?
• Communication
• Teamwork
• Game technique—how well does the athlete perform skills specific to the game?
• Physical fitness.

DEDUCTIONS 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
PIKE POSITION
Angle upper
body/thighs
Elements/phases
without twist
Multiple somersaults
with twist in at least
two phases
Position of the hands
Vertical jumps
Straddle jump
Figure 8.18
Examples of trampoline
deductions Understand and apply
1 Explain which movement medium would be the most difficult to
judge. Justify your answer.
2 From one of the movement mediums, choose a particular style of
that medium and research the technical information that relates
to its appraisal. Summarise this information into a
fact sheet that could be given to a new judge in this area.
3 Watch a dance performance, for example, a routine from So You
Think You Can Dance or Dancing with the Stars and identify which
aspects of the performance you think could be judged.
a Propose a set of marking criteria for the dance performance
taking into account the various aspects for appraisal.
b Watch the performance again and use your criteria to appraise
the performance and give it a mark.
c Compare your marks and judgment with a partner.
d Investigate ways that your marking criteria can be altered to
make marking more objective.

chapter review
Recap
There are four elements of composition, which are the building blocks of all movement.
These are space, dynamics, time and rhythm, and relationships.
Space refers to where we move. It incorporates personal space, general space and
performance space and has a number of components that are particular to it, including
direction, level, dimensions, patterns and formations.
Dynamics refer to how we move and this is the element that gives movement its
expressiveness. Dynamics include force, which is the intensity of the release of
energy in movement and its control; and flow, which is concerned with continuity
of movement.
Time and rhythm refer to when we move and impact upon the quality, flow and precision
of movement. Time and rhythm include the components of beat, tempo and accent as
they apply to music along with duration, momentum, self-paced versus externally paced
movement and timing.
An awareness of relationships in all movement mediums is important, as relationships
can help a performance convey a message or assist a group to achieve their movement
goals more successfully. There can be relationships between people, with apparatus or
equipment, and those connected with team formations and positional play.
When using the elements of composition to compose movement, an individual must
define the purpose of the movement and establish the motivating factors behind the
movement. Obscurity of purpose can result in a failure to achieve the desired outcome
of a performance.
The ability to improvise within a movement medium can greatly enhance performance.
When combining and arranging movement, a composer should consider how the
different parts can be best put together to make a whole. This involves looking at
different movement phrases and how these can be connected into sequences. Repetition
and variety should be used in balance when developing movement sequences and
performances.
Appraisal is an integral component of movement composition and is an effective
evaluation and feedback tool. Appraisal can be subjective (an aesthetic perspective)
or objective (an artistic perspective).
In order to be consistent and fair in appraisal, a set of criteria should be developed
specific to the movement medium and the styles of movement within that medium.


Gymnastics Australia www.gymnastics.org.au A great variety of information about

all forms of gymnastics, including
trampoline sports and cheerleading;
has technical and judging information
about all gymnastic-related
disciplines
The Association of National www.sportaerobics-nac.com/affiliates.htm Information about competitive

Aerobics Championships aerobics: search under ‘rules and
regulations’ for technical information
Wakakirri National www.wakakirri.com Information about the Wakakirri

Performing Arts Festival Festival, which challenges students
for primary schools to compose a performance that tells
a story; performance criteria and
marking scheme are available
1 Outline the differences between subjective and objective forms of appraisal. (2 marks)
2 Explain the process of creating movement. (6 marks)
3 Using a movement medium of your choice (dance, aerobics, gymnastics

or games) critically analyse how each of the elements of composition
can be applied to this activity when composing and performing. (12 marks)

Fitness choices
Exercise has different meanings to different people, and individuals have varying fitness
needs, so it is important that a wide range of fitness choices is available. People need to be
able to access the types of activities that will help them best meet their own needs.
9
Personal goals and commitments, financial capacity, geographic location and general
health and wellbeing are just some of the factors that can influence the fitness choices people
make. This chapter will feature a series of Fitness Profiles that provide a snapshot of real
people’s lives and highlight their varying fitness needs.
What does exercise mean

to different people? Exercise involves participating
regularly in a structured activity or
At its core, exercise involves participating regularly in a structured activity or series of activities, which can improve
fitness.
series of activities for a sustained period of time, which can improve fitness.
The wide range of different reasons that motivate people to want to exercise
ensures that exercise will have different meanings for different people. For
some, the meaning will be related to the physical health benefits that can
come from exercise; for others, it may relate to physical appearance, social
outcomes, the mental challenge or simply to habitual behaviour that they
have never analysed.
We know that attitudes to exercise and fitness can change over time, both
for individuals and at a broader cultural level. As such, it is important for
leaders and decision makers to work to ensure that the benefits that can be
gained from exercise and fitness remain clear and pervasive.
Meanings of exercise
Exercise as a form of physical activity
For some people, the thought of exercise stirs up an array of negative
emotions. They recall feelings of pain and fatigue brought on by a sense
of obligation to ‘get fit’. They hear the overzealous parent, coach or trainer
pushing them physically beyond their comfort zone, and they sense the

discomfort of their body temperature rising. While they labour under the
weight of sweat-soaked clothes, they anticipate the stiff and sore muscles they
will experience for days after the torture is over.
For many others, their memories of physically demanding exercise bring
a sense of satisfaction; a recollection of establishing challenging goals and
successfully achieving them; a reminder of the camaraderie developed with
friends as they encourage each other to keep going through the pain; and that
satisfying feeling of being at one’s physical peak.
There are other people who view exercise as simply a means to an end: an
activity that can be undertaken regularly and moderately to maximise their
health and wellbeing. Clearly, exercise means different things to different
people. So what exactly is ‘exercise’?
As mentioned, exercise involves participating regularly in a structured
activity or series of activities to improve fitness. It implies the presence of a
basic plan involving a series of physical activities that have been organised to
help achieve a set purpose, which is usually fitness related.
An example can be seen in applying the FITT principle, where the
purpose or goal is to reduce body fat levels and the plan is to achieve this by
exercising using the following plan.
F Frequency Three times per week

I Intensity 60–70 per cent of maximum heart rate
T Time Minimum 30 minutes
T Type Aerobic physical activities using large muscle groups,
e.g. running, swimming, walking
Physical activity the Physical activity is currently used as the overarching term that includes all
overarching term that movement-related activities that have a physical dimension. Physical activity
includes all movement-related
activities that have a physical
can include everything from an adult walking their dog or children playing a
dimension, including exercise. game of hide and seek, through to an elite athlete training and competing in
their chosen sport.
Exercise is a form of physical activity and, therefore, fits along the physical
activity spectrum. A defining feature of where different activities might fit
best along the physical activity spectrum is in the purpose of the activity.
As an example, one person may go for a walk because it is a nice day and
they have some free time available. This would be considered recreational
activity. Another person may be taking part in a structured program to lose
body fat, which involves regular sessions of walking for specified distance in
a set time. This would be considered exercise.
Both people are walking, but the different purpose and the level of
structure distinguishes recreational activity from exercise.
Exercise and its relationship to fitness

Exercise has a strong and clear link to fitness. One of the most common
reasons that people plan a structured exercise program is to enhance or
maintain their level of fitness.

Fitness choices CHAPTER 9 259
Figure 9.1
SPORT The physical activity
spectrum
Competition Recovery
programs
EXERCISE
ACTIVE
RECREATION
PLAY
Frisbee Fishing
Hide and seek
Strength-training Cardiovascular
programs Play wrestling fitness
Chasings programs
Walking the dog
Fat-loss programs
Sport-specific training
The nature and extent of the exercise undertaken will significantly

influence precisely what types of fitness gains are made. For example,
weight-training programs consisting of heavy loads and low repetitions are
likely to result in strength gains over time. However, corresponding gains in
cardiovascular fitness are unlikely to eventuate unless the participant also
undertakes specific aerobic exercise.
Aerobic exercise, which can occur in a variety of forms, is an extremely
popular form of exercise because there is a clear correlation between aerobic
exercise, cardiovascular fitness and health benefits. Regular participation in
aerobic exercise is a protective factor against common life-threatening and
debilitating chronic conditions such as heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes
and some cancers.

1 Identify the significance of exercise to people’s lifestyles. Justify your answer.
2 Explain what it means to be ‘fit’.
3 Reflect on the nature of your own physical activity participation. Where do you sit on the
physical activity spectrum?
4 Propose reasons why aerobic activities are a popular form of exercise.

The value that people place on exercise

and fitness
Changing attitudes to fitness
What do people want to be fit for …? Fit for life? Fit for health? Fit for
pregnancy? Fit for competitive sport? Fit for a sculpted physical appearance?
Fit for the sake of it? Each of these is a valid reason for aspiring to be fit
and, throughout a person’s life cycle, more than one of these reasons may
motivate them.
Attitudes to fitness are heavily influenced by advances in research,
enhanced technology and cultural trends. Perhaps the most dominant attitude
to fitness in recent years has been the notion that fitness can look and be quite
different for different people. Stereotypical body images for males and females
that sought to define ‘being fit’ have become increasingly outdated and
irrelevant. No longer is the gym-sculpted muscular look the only image
to satisfy the criteria of being fit.
In fact, an almost unwavering value associated with fitness is its role in
promoting good health. There has been ongoing community concern about
the obesity epidemic. The SPANS found that approximately 25 per cent of
15- and 16-year-old students were overweight or obese and the Australian
Bureau of Statistics found that 54 per cent of Australian adults, in 2004,
were overweight or obese. In addition, only half the population meet the
recommended level of 30 minutes of physical activity on most days of the
week. Additional concerns have been raised about the costs to individuals
and the community resulting from chronic health conditions, which have
physical inactivity and obesity as underlying risk factors. Chronic conditions
such as heart disease, stroke and cancer cost in excess of $10 billion
nationally each year, and obesity costs are approximately $5 billion. Add
to these concerns the fact that Australia has an ageing population, and it
becomes clear why governments, commercial organisations, communities and
Table 9.1
Snapshot—changing individuals have increasingly framed their attitudes of exercise and fitness
attitudes to fitness around the ‘fit for health’ perspective.
Era Prevailing attitude Features Enduring image
1970s Fit and strong The rise of jogging as a form of exercise Arnold Schwarzenegger
The rise of weight training as a form of exercise in the movie, Pumping Iron
1980s Celebrity role models The rise of aerobics as a form of exercise Jane Fonda aerobics videos
The Hawaii Iron Man triathlon becomes an iconic event
‘Life. Be in it’ campaign
1990s Too busy; no time The rise of professionalism in sport Personal training
A reduction in memberships of sporting clubs due to time-poor
people wanting flexible and individualised fitness options
2000s Fitness for health The obesity epidemic Structured fitness programs
Holiday and after-school sports clinics and camps for kids for children
Active living

Figure 9.2
Enduring images often
symbolise the attitudes to
fitness which characterise
different eras
The NSW Government is seeking to promote health and wellbeing and Incidental physical
alleviate costs associated with obesity and physical inactivity through the activity unplanned movement
that occurs normally within
Premier’s Council for Active Living (PCAL). PCAL aims to encourage more an everyday lifestyle, such as
people in NSW to be more active every day. They intend to achieve this walking to the bus stop instead
by building and strengthening physical activity environments that support of driving, or using the stairs
instead of an elevator.
people to be active in ways ranging from incidental physical activity through
to structured fitness and sport programs. Table 9.2 outlines some of the
strategies that PCAL is considering.
Table 9.2 PCAL strategies designed to increase active living
PCAL short-term strategies PCAL longer-term strategies
• Ensure footpaths on streets are in good repair and conducive • Ensure state and local planning policies promote active
to walking and jogging living, such as the provision of open space for sport and
• Provide seats and access to water periodically along walking recreation
routes • Encourage developers to design and build suburbs that
• Increase the number and quality of trails for walking and support active living
cycling near beaches, coastlines, parks and bushland • Provide adequate transport options that reduce reliance on
• Ensure lighting is adequate and working in public places the car
• Provide bicycle-storage facilities near public transport points • Promote a culture that encourages active choices in favour
of convenience
• Encourage workplaces to provide showers and change-room
facilities for staff
• Encourage workplaces to promote staff participation in
physical activities and lunchtime recreational games

Fitness profile—Susan
Susan is 43 years old, married and the mother of three
children under five years old. She works part time at a
public hospital.
‘I migrated from the north of England about 15 years ago
and the biggest impact on my approach to fitness has been
the weather. In England, I found myself needing to exercise
indoors if I wanted to do it with any sort of regularity
throughout the year. As a result, I mostly went to the gym.
I really had to force myself to go to the gym because I have
never particularly enjoyed it.
Since I’ve moved to Australia, my personal exercise has
mainly been unstructured outdoor activities like walking.
The weather is so nice and there are so many beautiful
places to walk; it is just an enjoyable way to get and
stay fit.
Also, since the children have been born I’ve really
needed to be flexible with my commitment to exercise and
so walking is a great option for me.
I have been really fortunate to connect with some of
the local mums and we often go walking together for about
an hour or so twice a week. We tried getting a personal
trainer for a small group of us but in the end, we decided
walking was ideal for us. It is flexible, a really good
workout and we can talk the whole time we are walking.’ Figure 9.3 Walking is a fitness priority for Susan.

1 Analyse reasons why people’s attitudes to fitness change over time.
2 Analyse reasons why cultural attitudes to fitness change over time.
3 Assess the extent to which the financial costs associated with the health consequences of
physical inactivity motivate governments to invest in promoting fitness and physical activity.
4 Predict the likely outcomes that will result from the work being done by PCAL.
Fitness as a commodity
In 2009, Business Review Weekly identified the fitness industry as earning
$12–15 billion per year in Australia, with that figure expected to be $60
billion per year in 2012.
The fitness industry employs large numbers of people. Fitness Australia,
the peak body for the fitness industry, has over 20 000 registered exercise
professionals. Money in the fitness industry is generated through a wide
range of commercial transactions related to aspects such as employment,
gymnasium memberships, fitness equipment, training services, fitness
clothing and nutritional supplements.

People choose to use, and pay for, fitness

facilities and services for a range of reasons. time poor
Some reasons include:
to lose motivational
having access to a wide range of resources weight support
having access to specific knowledge and skills
of personnel REASONS
using the membership or service as a source
of motivation.
Gymnasiums and fitness trainers enable help with achieving to access
a specific training knowledge and
people to access a range of equipment and
goal expertise
facilities that they probably could not afford
on an individual basis. As professionals, gym
staff and trainers also make the commitment
to individuals that the equipment, facilities and activities provided are safe. Figure 9.4
Exercising carries a degree of risk of physical injury because it involves Reasons cited for choosing
to engage a personal
physical exertion, and so tapping into the expertise and quality assurance
trainer
of commercial gymnasiums and their staff is an appealing feature.
Some people choose to purchase their own fitness equipment and
establish home gyms. This can be a cost-effective approach providing that the
equipment is of good quality and is well maintained, and that the individual
has the knowledge and skills to use the equipment safely and effectively.
Fitness trainers and gymnasium personnel offer individuals the capacity
to maximise the benefits they hope to derive from their training. They promise
to help individuals achieve their goals. The knowledge and skills that
trainers and gymnasium personnel bring is one of the main reasons that
the fitness industry thrives. In a culture where many people are time-poor,
having a trainer can provide motivation and help ensure commitment to an
exercise program.

1 Predict future trends in the fitness industry.
2 Evaluate the potential to profit financially from investing in the fitness industry.
3 Assess the potential of career opportunities in the fitness industry.
4 Discuss why people are prepared to pay to access fitness products, services and facilities.
What are the ways people

choose to exercise for fitness?
For some, exercise is preferred as a solo pursuit in which ever-increasing
goals are set and a program of exercise undertaken to achieve them. For
others, the social dimension and commitment to a team that exercise can
have carries a high priority and, therefore, group fitness activities and team-
based games hold appeal. Having access to a broad range of fitness options is
important to help people to realise their fitness goals.

Individual fitness activities

Power walking/running
Power walking involves walking at a brisk pace while accentuating movement
of the arms to elevate the heart rate further and generate more energy.
Although it is not an aesthetically pleasing movement, power walking has the
benefit of enabling the individual to work in the target heart-rate zone that is
effective for burning body fat and maintaining good cardiorespiratory health.
Power walking is also a low-impact activity with a low risk of injury.
Running requires a higher level of intensity than power walking and thus
burns more energy and can help derive significant cardiorespiratory fitness
gains. Running has a higher impact and carries with it greater risk of related
injuries to the lower limbs and, potentially, cardiac arrest in older athletes or
those who have not developed a sufficient training base.
Swimming
Swimming is a low-impact activity in which individuals benefit from the
buoyancy of the water. Swimming requires a fairly high degree of skill and the
level of skill can be a factor influencing the amount of energy burned during
exercise. An inefficient swimmer is likely to burn up more energy and swim
less distance than a more skilled swimmer.
Some evidence suggests that swimming is a less effective form of exercise
for reducing fat than running or cycling possibly because of buoyancy-related
factors, the performance benefits of slightly higher levels of body fat for
endurance swimming performance, and/or the cooling effect of being in
the water.
Cycling
Cycling is a low-impact form of exercise that promotes excellent gains in
cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular endurance. Cycling on the road adds
a potentially dangerous dimension, with the increased risk of road-related
injuries from collisions or falls. Using a stationary bike allows for controlled
measures of time, distance and speed; while avoiding collisions or falls as
well as potentially performance-compromising factors such as wind, rain
and sun.
Weight-training programs
Weight-training programs are commonly structured to promote the
development of fitness components such as muscular strength, muscular
endurance, power and speed. Strength-based programs typically involve
moving heavy loads with lower repetitions. Muscular endurance-based
Repetition the number programs use light to moderate loads moved with more repetitions. Power
of times the load is lifted and speed-based programs use moderate to heavy loads moved quickly a
consecutively before a rest.
moderate number of times.
RM stands for Repetition As people often use heavy loads in weight training, there is potential for
Maximum, which refers to soft-tissue injuries such as strains, sprains and tears. It is important to develop
the heaviest load that can be
lifted once. a sound technique using lighter weights before graduating to moving heavier
loads, and to be very careful when testing your RM.

Table 9.3
Component of fitness Load Repetitions Rate of movement Basic principles
of weight-training
Muscular strength Heavy (80–100% RM) 2–6 Slow to moderate programs
Power Moderate to heavy (60–80% RM) 2–10 Fast
Muscular endurance Light to moderate (40–60% RM) 15–25 Moderate
Fitness profile—Michael
Michael is 42 years old and is married with one child.
He has a demanding corporate job based in the city.
‘I played a lot of team sports as a kid, soccer and cricket
mostly, but when I left school I found myself drawn to the
attraction that individual fitness activities offer. I found that
I enjoyed swimming laps for exercise but it was cycling that
really enthused me.
I began doing long rides on weekends and found that, apart
from the physical health benefits, it was really therapeutic
from a mental health perspective. It really relaxed me to be
able to take my mind off everything else and just focus on the
ride; and there are some absolutely beautiful places to cycle.
I soon started riding to university each day and also set up a
stationary bike in my house that I could use for my cycling ‘hit’
on days of inclement weather when I didn’t want to ride outside.
I’ve done a few corporate rides and charity events but the
prospect of racing competitively has never held any appeal.
Mostly I ride to work and back each day. I get the physical and
mental health benefits and it is also quicker in peak hour than
public transport or driving. Figure 9.5 Michael finds cycling has both physical and
I aim to do at least four rides each week.’ mental health benefits
Tai Chi
Tai Chi comes from Chinese culture and is often observed being practiced in
local parks by devotees. Tai Chi has its origins as a form of developing combat
and self-defence skills, although equally it has been used for centuries as a
way of promoting general health, fitness and wellbeing.
Tai Chi is characterised by controlled, gentle and tranquil movements
designed to foster harmony in mind and body as well as improve movement,
flexibility and mental alertness. There is an ancient Chinese saying: ‘Whoever
practices Tai Chi regularly will, in time, gain the suppleness of a child, the
strength of a lion, and the peace of mind of a sage.’
Pilates/yoga
Pilates involves completing a sequence of movements in a highly controlled
fashion. Through Pilates, a greater understanding of the body’s ideal position
during movement is developed, together with improved core body strength.
Pilates movements can isolate muscle groups for the purpose of strengthening
weak muscles and/or lengthening tight, bulky muscles. The aim is to create
balance within the body.

Figure 9.6 Common principles focused upon in Pilates are concentration,

The lotus pose is a breathing, centring, control, movement, flow, precision and
common yoga position
routine.
Yoga takes a holistic approach to wellbeing. It has a strong
physical dimension through its poses and movements; focuses on
breathing, meditation, contemplation and, sometimes, a spiritual
dimension.
There are a number of different styles of yoga, each with their
own unique interpretations. For example, Bikram Yoga can be
quite intense, burn more energy, and be more likely to make you
sweat. Hatha Yoga is more passive and involves holding poses
for longer periods and placing greater focus on meditation and
controlled breathing.
Ashtanga Yoga is the most popular style. It is a fast-paced
series of sequential poses and it is structured in six levels of
increasing degrees of difficulty, which allows students to work at
their own pace and ability level.
Holistic approach in
addition to placing our
focus on the physical
dimensions of health, we also
emphasise mental, emotional
1 Discuss why a holistic approach to fitness might appeal to some
and sometimes spiritual
dimensions with a view to people.
supporting and aligning the 2 Explain how controlled, gentle and tranquil movements, such as
dimensions of the whole
person. those practised in Tai Chi, can have a fitness benefit.
3 Describe ways that a person could distinguish between the different
styles of yoga to find a style that is most suitable for them.
4 Outline benefits associated with improving core body strength.
Emerging individual fitness activities

Any fitness activity that becomes popular involves people spreading the
message of its benefits. In an era of pay TV, the internet and globalisation, it
is increasingly likely that new fitness activities will emerge and spread more
easily. Similarly, it is possible that there will be a broader range of ‘niche’
activities that appeal to a small but committed number of devotees, rather
than the historical attachment of masses of people to traditional activities,
which occurred when there were far less fitness options available.
An example of an individual fitness activity that has emerged, or at least
has had a surge in popularity, is stand up paddle surfing (SUP). SUP has
been around for more than sixty years, and it is believed to have originated
in Hawaii when photographers ventured into the ocean to take photos of
tourists. The photographers stood and paddled on their boards in order to
keep their camera equipment dry.
SUP developed into a form of surfing for a short period but is now
gaining rapid popularity, as improved technologies have allowed boards
to be made much lighter and far more manoeuvrable on waves. In some
instances, SUP enables surfers to catch waves that may not be possible with
a traditional surfboard.

SUP can be done catching waves in the surf or

exploring the environment on flat water. SUP offers
greater visibility than lying on a surfboard or sitting
on a surf ski and is therefore well suited to exploring
lakes and rivers. Fitness benefits from SUP include
improvements in muscular endurance, core strength,
balance and cardiorespiratory fitness.
Group fitness activities

Aerobics/aquarobics
The concept of aerobics was first developed by
Kenneth H Cooper, an air force doctor based at the
San Antonio Hospital in Texas. Aerobics, at that time,
comprised a series of running, cycling, swimming
and walking activities. They were developed initially
to help prevent coronary heart disease and, soon
after, to train and monitor astronauts preparing for
missions. Dr Cooper is renowned in the area of endurance fitness testing and Figure 9.7
is the man who developed the Cooper 12 minute run and the 1.5-mile run as Stand-up paddle surfing
is an emerging individual
standardised fitness tests.
activity that has clear
Dr Cooper’s book Aerobics was published in 1968. In the early 1980s, fitness benefits
aerobics gained an international following largely through celebrity workout
videos, such as Jane Fonda’s demonstrating how aerobics could be done in
your home. Subsequently, a wide range of aerobics variations has evolved
including step aerobics, dance aerobics, competition aerobics and aquarobics.
Aquarobics is usually done in a group in a pool with a fitness leader taking
the group through a range of callisthenic movements to the sound of music.
A major advantage of aquarobics is the cardiovascular benefits that can be
derived with very limited impact on muscles and joints, due to the buoyancy
effect of the water supporting the body. Research by the Australian Sports
Commission estimated that there are over 30 000 adults who participate in
aquarobics in Australia with the average age being 45 years.
Pump/step/spin classes
A key strategy of any commercial gymnasium is to continually update the
program of classes they offer. This demonstrates their currency with the latest
research and trends in fitness, helps to keep members motivated and enthused
by offering new classes, and enables the gymnasium to meet the varying needs
of their members.
Major fitness-class categories that have been added to gymnasium
timetables in recent years include:
Pump—this is weight training, using barbells and dumbbells, performed to
music. The class promotes improvement in the areas of muscular strength,
muscular endurance, muscle tone and cardiorespiratory fitness.
Step—this class involves choreographed movements, which involve
stepping in various directions (up down, back, forward and across) to the
beat of music.
Spin—this involves group fitness, where participants exercise on a
stationary bike to the sounds of inspiring music. The class leader may

dictate intensity through calling for different terrain,

speeds or pedal resistance. Alternatively, some spin
classes encourage each individual to control the
intensity of their workout.
Body Jam—this class uses dance-inspired cardio
workouts to dance music using low-impact,
moderate-intensity movements
Boxercise—this group fitness session requires
participants to use boxing pads and gloves to safely
punch, duck, weave, bob and move for extended
periods at varying degrees of intensity. The result
is a cardiorespiratory workout with other gains in
muscular endurance and agility.
Circuit training
Circuit training involves completing a number of
different exercises one after the other, with little
or no break in between. The intent is to provide a
cardiorespiratory workout with some gains in muscle
tone and muscular strength and endurance.
Figure 9.8 Circuit training can involve the use of different weight-training equipment,
Spin classes are a popular medicine balls, fit balls, boxing gloves and other equipment; however,
group fitness activity
bodyweight exercises are extremely common in most circuit classes.
Examples of common exercises used in circuit classes include push-ups,
dips, sit-ups, lunges, boxing, skipping, squats, star jumps, step-ups and
agility runs.

1 Identify fitness classes that would best meet your needs and interests. Justify your selections.
2 Compare costs for participating in individual fitness activities with costs for participating in
group-fitness activities.
3 Propose reasons, other than cost, which might influence people to choose either individual
or group fitness activities in preference to other fitness activities.
4 Investigate sources you could access to provide you with valid and reliable information
about a selected activity.
Team games
Team games appeal to many people because they are based on the principle
of working collectively to achieve a common goal. Many team games are
inculcated in people from a very young age, and games culture becomes
ingrained in the social and cultural background in which people exist.
Team games also offer an added social dimension, because of the sheer
number of people involved and because people to want to debrief with one
another after a hard training session or competitive match. Team games are
resource-efficient because they provide exercise opportunities for a reasonable

number of people using a relatively small amount of resources and facilities.

For example, a game of soccer provides exercise for 22 people at once on a
single field using one ball and a couple of goal posts.
Exercise for specific groups

Exercise is highly recommended for all people because of the fitness
and general health benefits that stem from it. However, it is important to
acknowledge that there is a range of physical factors for different individuals
that can affect the nature and extent of exercise and what is suitable for them
to attempt. Pregnant women, children and the aged all have physical factors
that need to be carefully considered when planning suitable exercise.
Pregnant women
Exercise is beneficial for pregnant women; it can improve posture, lower
body-fat gains, provide stress relief and better sleep, and enhance preparation
for the physical demands of motherhood.
Pregnant women should consult with their doctor, physiotherapist
and/or health-care professional prior to commencing an exercise program,
and it is advisable if they already currently exercise regularly that the
nature and extent of their existing program should be discussed. For women
with hypertension, heart disease, multiple foetuses or those who have an
increased risk of premature labour, it may be best to avoid exercise during
pregnancy.
Common elements to consider for pregnant women exercising include:
remain well hydrated and avoid overheating
select low- to moderate-intensity exercise, especially during the later stages
of the pregnancy
restrict high-impact activities and contact sports
have at least two rest days per week and do not exercise on a particular
day if not feeling well or not feeling like it.
Children
Children are not little adults and the structure of an exercise plan should
reflect this. Children tend to come from a low knowledge and skill base and
they are experiencing consistent growth with periodic rapid bursts of growth.
These factors dictate that the exercise focus for children needs to be on skill
development, variety, enjoyment, participation and good health.
It is generally considered inappropriate for high-intensity exercise and
excessive specialised activities to be imposed on children because they are
not ready to cope physically or emotionally with these demands.
Children can be particularly susceptible to overuse injuries, such as Overuse injuries occur
stress fractures, which can be caused by repetitive actions placing stress and when repetitive actions place
undue stress on muscles,
subsequent wear and tear on bones, muscles and joint components such bones and joints.
as cartilage, ligaments and tendons. Thermoregulation is another major
consideration for children when they are exercising, because children do not Thermoregulation the body
processes through which heat
have a fully developed cooling system and, therefore, they are less efficient at is gained and lost to maintain
losing heat through sweating. the ideal body temperature
Shorter-duration activities, lower intensities, appropriate clothing and of approximately 37 degrees
Celsius.
regular breaks for water are important strategies to incorporate when
children exercise.

The aged
In some respects, the aged have similar exercise needs to children but for
different reasons. Whereas exercise modifications for children stem largely
from under-development of their physical capabilities, the aged need to
manage exercise because their bodies may now be less able to cope with some
challenging activities.
The natural loss of strength and flexibility that occurs after middle age can
mean that older people need to perform movements at a slower rate and at a
reduced intensity. Exercise that requires fast or intense movement can place
the aged at heightened risk of tears, sprains and strains, as well as injuries
from falls. Many older people have reduced bone density and so consistent
participation in high-impact exercises can place them at greater risk of bone
injuries such as fractures.
In addition, the duration and intensity of endurance activities need to be
carefully monitored because of the stress that these activities can place on the
circulatory system when they are performed too long or too hard.
Emerging group fitness activities

Group fitness activities that have either emerged, or have grown significantly
Figure 9.9
in popularity, in recent years include dragon boat racing and outdoor group
Dragon boat racing is a
very team-oriented activity fitness activities such as Boot Camp.
and its popularity continues Dragon boat racing came to prominence when Hong Kong held an
to grow international race festival in 1976. Dragon boat racing started out with slow
growth in Australia, but participation
numbers have grown noticeably.
Dragon boat racing is now the fastest
growing water sport in Australia.
Dragon boat crews are made up of
22 people and dragon boat racing is an
attractive team-building activity for many
organisations. A key factor in successful
dragon boat racing is paddle cohesiveness
among the entire crew. Communication,
cooperation and commitment among
the entire team are critical to successful
performance.
Dragon boat racing can be physically
demanding at a competitive level and
helps develop muscular endurance, core
strength and cardiorespiratory fitness.
Boot Camp has been a highly successful initiative introduced by the
commercial gymnasium chain Fitness First. Boot Camp is a four-week training
program based loosely on military-style training principles. It is conducted
completely outdoors, encourages a strong team focus and establishes goals to
be achieved and periodic assessments of progress.
The principles of Boot Camp are replicated in a number of other fitness
service providers. For example, Step into Life is an organisation that sells
franchises to trainers. The Step into Life training model also involves group
fitness activities being held outdoors in community spaces, such as parks
and beaches. Participants all wear the Step into Life training apparel that
symbolises the sense of team within the group that is training.

Figure 9.10
Boot Camp and other
similar group fitness
activities seek to motivate
people to commit to their
training and achieve their
fitness goals

1 Copy and complete Table 9.4 as you participate in selected individual and group fitness
activities throughout this topic.
Table 9.4 Comparative summary of various forms of fitness activities
Activity Benefits Where Cost Time Further Personal

available? commitment information reflections
Power walking/running
Swimming
Cycling
Weight training
Tai chi
Pilates/yoga
Emerging individual fitness
activities
Aerobics/ aquarobics
Pump/step/spin classes
Circuit training
Team games
Exercise for specific groups
e.g. pregnant women, children,
the aged
Emerging group fitness activities

2 Do you prefer individual or group fitness activities? Explain the reasons for your preference.
3 Propose suitable fitness activities for the following people:
• a 35-year-old woman who is six months pregnant
• a 75-year-old man who has regularly trained and competed in masters athletics
competitions
• an average seven-year-old child.
4 Predict individual and group fitness activities that could become significant in the next
10 years.
What influences people’s

choice of fitness activities?
A wide range of factors influence people’s choice of fitness activities,
including access to facilities and resources, cost, skills, past experiences and
other life responsibilities. Each of these factors can influence choice and
participation in positive or negative ways.
Settings for exercise

Exercise at home
Exercise at home can be the most cost effective way to exercise. It can be
done with little or no equipment and for little or no cost. However, a potential
disadvantage is that the opportunity to tap into the expertise of others and the
social dimensions may be lost.
Fitness Profile—Daniel
Daniel is a 47-year-old sales manager. He has been the
sole parent to his two children aged 11 and 13 years,
since his wife died three years ago.
‘I was never particularly into sport or fitness growing
up. Even as a young adult, it was not a priority for me.
It wasn’t until my wife died that I became really quite
serious about getting fit and staying fit.
The motivation for me was the fear that being
unhealthy might cause something to happen to me, which
would leave me unable to look after my two children. As a
sole parent, that became a major issue for me. I decided
to do all that I could to ensure my own good health.
I eat well, do not drink or smoke and I follow the
recommended physical activity guidelines. I exercise
3–4 times per week doing mainly aerobic-type activities
for about 30 minutes. I exercise at home in the evenings
because it doesn’t cost anything and I need to be at home
in the evenings when the kids are doing their homework Figure 9.11
and going to bed.’ Daniel finds exercising at home to be most convenient for him

To sustain exercise at home in the long term, it is critical to have a high

level of motivation and commitment. Effective strategies to sustain motivation
and commitment include setting measurable performance goals, regularly
assessing progress and then re-setting new goals that are more challenging.
For those people who want to exercise at home and are willing to spend
some money to make it as effective as possible, a number of options are
available. Home gyms range from simple ones at a few hundred dollars to
comprehensive ones costing tens of thousands. Designs are available that can
fit into a small room or take up the space of a large garage.
The most popular home gym equipment is cardio based and includes
stationary bikes, treadmills and rowing machines. Dumbbells, barbells and
multi-function weight machines are popular for strength-based training
at home.
A growing market exists for niche exercise aids, such as the ab-cruncher,
which are advertised in the media through infomercials and on shopping
channels. Often promising great results, many of these niche exercise aids
develop only a limited range of fitness. To achieve broad and sustained
results, a more comprehensive approach to exercise is often needed.
Community facilities
Community facilities play a significant role in
providing equitable access to exercise facilities. In
many cases, community facilities are provided and
maintained by local councils. Community groups,
charities and sporting associations also sometimes
provide and/or maintain exercise facilities. Examples
of ways that community facilities are used for
exercise include:
Halls belonging to churches, schools and local
councils being hired out for a low fee to groups
wanting to conduct activities such as karate
classes, Pilates and yoga.
Tennis courts being provided and maintained by
the local council on land they own. Hiring fees
are usually quite reasonable.
Public golf courses being leased to a club, which is managed by a Figure 9.12
committee. The golf club can have members and allocate specific times Long Reef Golf Club is a
community facility that
for member-only competitions, but is also obliged to have significant times
provides people with the
set aside during the week for the course to be used by the public. Some opportunity to play golf and
public golf courses also build in tracks surrounding the course for walking use the surrounding tracks
and running. for walking and jogging
Local councils providing exercise equipment along routes commonly used
for walking and jogging
Local and state governments developing bushwalking paths through forests
and other natural environments.
The majority of costs associated with developing and maintaining
community facilities are borne by the body that owns them, often the local
council. In the case of local councils, they mostly use income from the
council rates paid by all local residents as well as government grants to meet
the bulk of the costs. The fees charged for using some of the facilities or for
parking nearby usually subsidise only a small amount of the costs.

Fitness centres and personal trainers

Fitness centres can offer state-of-the-art facilities with highly credentialed
trainers on site at your disposal. It can be expensive for fitness centres to
provide this level of service and, therefore, the price of membership can also
be expensive. Ultimately, the decision about whether or not to join a fitness
centre is based around questions such as:
Is this a preferred form of exercise for me?
Can I afford it?
Will I go regularly enough to get value for money?
Are there any current or likely health issues that might restrict my capacity
to go to the gym?
Which fitness centre best meets my needs?
Fitness centres clearly prefer to have people join as members, rather than
pay to attend on a casual basis. As a result, annual membership fees (which
are typically charged monthly or weekly) are cheaper than the cost of regular
casual visits. It is quite common for a casual visit to a fitness centre to cost in
excess of $25, while an annual membership fee can be less than $1000.
When signing up for an annual membership, it is important to carefully
review the contract and seek advice. Fitness centre contracts can be quite
complex and often include financial penalties for ending them within the
minimum period.
Fitness First: your stories

ARJUN RAMACHANDRAN AND ERIK JENSEN
smh.com.au has been inundated with membership after she became termi- However, Fitness First did not
emails from readers complaining nally ill and was no longer able to refund any of the fees deducted after
about their experiences with Fitness exercise. Mrs Lewis passed away, Ms Lewis
First. Despite being told it would be done, said.
About 70 per cent were from Fitness the fortnightly payments of $33.95 Christopher Zinn, from consumer
First customers who had difficulties continued to be deducted from their group Choice, said gym memberships
cancelling their memberships, or those bank account, he said. had a reputation for being unfair but
of a loved one. His wife, Maxine, passed away in that it was a difficult case for consumers
The readers often cited injuries, March, but the payments continued to argue after they had signed the
health concerns, or death as the reason despite a number of phone calls, he contract.
for cancelling, but often found their said. ‘Unfortunately in these cases, if you
accounts continued to be debited by ‘When she was ill it was bad sign on the bottom line, it tends to have
Fitness First. enough ... but Fitness First knew she a stronger legal pull,’ he said.
About 20 per cent complained was dead, the personal trainer even ‘The point of a contract is to lock
about the pushiness of staff when they came to the funeral,’ said Mr Lewis’s you in, which is fair enough, but they
inquired about joining the gym and daughter, Fiona. have to be fair.
the harsh terms and conditions of the Mr Lewis said: ‘They do a direct ‘With gym memberships in partic-
contracts. debit out of the account and with ular we have been seeing many ex-
The remaining customers com- the banks you’re not allowed to cancel amples of unfair contracts. It’s not
plained about a range of other issues, the account, it’s got to be cancelled necessarily unfair that they have a
including the cost of memberships and by the provider, so they’ve got you termination fee, but it might be unfair
the facilities. really.’ that they don’t allow somebody with
Terry Lewis, from Artarmon, said The payments finally ceased about genuine medical reasons for exiting it
he contacted the Fitness First in Chats- six weeks after his wife died, Mr Lewis to do so.’
wood in January to cancel his wife’s said. >>

Mr Zinn said Choice has been no automatic arrangement where you do that—they would rather do it
campaigning for unfair contracts to be can just write to cancel an agreement. anonymously.’
banned by national laws. For example, you can’t just cancel your Professor Clarke said he was un-
Carolyn Bond, co-CEO of the mortgage.’ aware of research into gym contracts,
Consumer Action Law Centre, said the However she believes the contracts but there was always chatter about
lawyers at the consumer group received ought to be made ‘fairer’, by allow- the difficulty of leaving contracts and
many complaints about gyms. ing for them to be broken in ‘valid he was not surprised Fitness First was
‘The gym industry is pretty no- reasons’. pursuing the paltry sum of $200 in the
torious for these sort of contracts that
Professor Philip Clarke, an expert in case of Suh Yoke Chong.
lock people in,’ she said.
contract law from Deakin University, ‘From the organisation’s point of
‘We think in many cases that’s
said the practices described were un- view they would have been concerned
unfair when people want to break the
contract for health reasons or other usual but not illegal. about the precedent created by the
serious reasons.’ As long as the gym did not attempt tribunal, not because they were worried
It was not legally possible for to mislead clients while they were about the $200,’ he said.
consumers to simply opt to break gym signing contracts, the terms stood. ‘It’s not uncommon at all for
membership, without any penalties, ‘I imagine it is designed to make companies to fight small claims like this
she said. you less inclined [to leave] because because they don’t want the negative
‘They are definitely worded in a there is a personal conversation,’ he precedent established that may put at
way that tries to tie people in. There’s said. ‘People are not inclined to risk their other contracts.’
The Sydney Morning Herald,

7 August 2008

1 Estimate how often you would need to attend a fitness centre to feel as though you were
receiving value for money.
2 Discuss reasons for and against joining a fitness centre.
3 Identify reasons why fitness centres might want to ‘lock you in’ for a fixed term of
membership.
4 Outline strategies that can help you enter into a fitness centre contract fully informed.
Exercise clubs
Exercise clubs are usually built around like-minded people joining to form
a club based on a shared interest in a particular form of exercise. Running
clubs, walking clubs, cycling clubs and triathlon clubs are quite common.
While exercise clubs usually have one specific activity at their core, related
dimensions may include priorities that are socially based, training based and/
or competition based.
Generally speaking, many exercise clubs have suffered a drop in
membership numbers in recent years. There seems to be an overall trend for
people to want more flexibility and to feel less able to commit to the regular
participation that clubs often require. In addition, people do not always want
to follow the rigid rules and traditions that are sometimes part of clubs.
Other explanations include the possibility that, in recent years, the
work–life balance has shifted for many Australians to the point where

work consumes a greater proportion of their time. The changing nature of

the workplace also means that many people do not necessarily work in the
traditional Monday to Friday, 9 am to 5 pm structure.
One exercise club that is bucking the trend of falling membership numbers
is the Bondi Icebergs Winter Swimming Club. The club began in 1929 as a
way for local lifesavers to maintain their fitness and swimming capabilities
during the winter months.
Membership has climbed in recent years, as the clubhouse has been
extensively renovated and membership has become fashionable. Growth
spiked in 1994 when women were allowed to join the previously men-
only club, and it continues to climb in spite of the club’s rigid initiation
expectations.
Different levels of membership are available, but to obtain full membership
of Bondi Icebergs Winter Swimming Club applicants must swim in club races
three out of four Sundays every month from May to September for five years.
Figure 9.13
Bondi Icebergs Winter
Swimming Club is an iconic
club in an iconic location
Cultural groups
Acknowledging that sport and exercise have strong social and cultural factors
underpinning them helps us to understand the reasons why cultural groups
can demonstrate stronger affiliations to particular forms of exercise and have
proportionally greater participation rates.
Australia has a generally warm climate and according to the Australian
Bureau of Statistics, 83 per cent of Australians, in 2008, lived within 50
kilometres of the coast. It is no surprise then that large numbers of Australians
use swimming as a form of exercise. Other water-based forms of exercise, such
as canoeing and surfing, also have higher participation rates in Australia than
in most other countries.
There is evidence to suggest that cultural approaches to exercise and sports
participation continue when people migrate to Australia. For example, Pacific
Islander peoples have proportionally high rates of participation in the rugby
codes, while gymnastics participation rates are proportionally higher among
Australians with an eastern European family background.
In many cases, participating in forms of exercise and sport in Australia that
are similar to those in the home country provides a feeling of connection, both
to the home country and with other migrants from that country.


1 Would you ever consider joining an exercise club? Explain why or
why not.
2 Propose ways that exercise clubs can turn around the trend of
losing members.
3 Explain ways that your social and cultural background has
influenced your involvement in exercise.
Advertising and promotion

How do you know who to believe?
Navigating effectively through the volume of advertising and promotion for
fitness products, services and facilities requires a relatively high degree of
skill. While much advertising is ethical and informative, some techniques that
are used and claims that are made can be misleading or even false. Fitness
products can also be faulty or potentially dangerous.
Knowledge is an advantage. However, for those people who do not have
extensive knowledge and experience in the fitness area, it is important that
they access sound advice from qualified and reliable sources. Some useful
strategies to help navigate through the maze of fitness advertising and
promotion include:
Critical literacy—developing critical literacy skills is valuable, and these
skills can be applied effectively to a broad range of contexts, including
fitness. Critical literacy skills involve analysing images and text with
a mindset that questions the key messages being communicated and
examines exactly what the person or company putting out the message
might be trying to achieve. Critical literacy helps people to avoid simply
accepting what they are being told without question.
Questioning—placing your fitness, health and wellbeing in the hands
of a fitness leader, product or service involves a high level of trust. The
potential for negative outcomes, such as injury, are real. Therefore, it
is appropriate to ask many questions and expect them to be answered
satisfactorily.
Checking credentials—this may include asking a personal trainer to
provide evidence of their formal qualifications, checking that a gymnasium
and its staff are accredited with a reputable professional body such as
Fitness Australia, reading research supporting or questioning the safety
and validity of a particular product or activity, and investigating by using
tools such as the internet and mass media.
Seeking references from reliable sources—if you are interested in a
particular fitness product, service or facility it can be useful to ask people
who have used it, especially family or friends, about their experiences. It is
important to be aware, however, that although family and friends are likely
to be genuine in their appraisal they may or may not have the knowledge,
skills and experience to provide you with an informed view.

Promotional techniques
The fitness industry has been known to prey on the insecurities of its potential
clients. Promises of amazing results achieved in ridiculously short time frames
appeal to many people. Despite most people understanding at a cognitive level
that fitness gains are experienced gradually over a sustained period of regular
physical effort, there is a small part of many people that wants to believe that a
product or service exists that can provide instant results.
The fitness industry uses strategies that have proven successful in other
commercial industries. Some examples of these strategies include:
The free fitness assessment—this promotion provides an opportunity for
people to receive personalised health information that will enable them
to make informed decisions about what they might need to do to enhance
their fitness levels. The provider of this promotion clearly hopes that the
person will choose to access support from them in helping to meet these
fitness needs.
The free trial—this promotion invites people to use the gym for a limited
period or receive a personal training session at no cost. It is based on the
principle of try-before-you-buy. One purpose behind this strategy is for the
provider to be able to demonstrate the quality of the facilities and service
they can provide.
Of equal or perhaps greater importance is the opportunity to engage in
a one-to-one sales opportunity with a potential client whom they might
not normally have been aware of and to have access to their personal
details for future marketing purposes. The free trial nearly always requires
the individual to complete an information form and to meet with a sales
consultant.
Using clients to sell your product or service—promotions that invite you
to sign up a friend or family member in return for a discount on your own
gym membership are effectively using gym members as part of their sales
team. Gym membership sales increase and members who bring family
and friends on board receive a ‘commission’ in the form of a reduced
Figure 9.14
Many gyms offer free membership rate.
fitness assessment to new The celebrity endorsement—celebrities who may hold some appeal for the
or potential customers target audience can be effectively used to endorse a product. People show
an increased willingness to commit to a product or
service when a celebrity who they admire, respect,
believe or want to be like endorses that product or
service. Infomercials use celebrities to sell fitness
equipment, and celebrity fitness DVDs are big
business.
Perhaps one of the most effective strategies used to
increase gym memberships has been the inclusion of
childcare services in the gym. Providing this service
made it possible, in a practical sense, for a completely
new market to tap into the services provided by gyms.
Many mothers of young children are at home some
or all days of the week and they place a high priority
on their fitness, health and wellbeing. Without
childcare support, it would be next to impossible for
them to access the gym. With childcare being available

onsite during the time that they work out, usually between 9 am and 12 pm,
this niche market has provided a significant revenue stream for gyms at a time
of the day when previously they were often unused.

1 Evaluate your current level of critical literacy.
2 Outline ways that you could improve your capacity to make informed decisions about fitness
products and services.
3 Rank the five fitness-advertising strategies and promotions that you believe would be most
effective. Justify your rankings.
4 Explain why providing a childcare service has been important both for fitness centres and
for parents.
Accuracy of information
There is a basic expectation that information provided to consumers will be
accurate. This expectation is enshrined in legislation and supported in NSW
by the Office of Fair Trading, which safeguards the rights of consumers and
advises businesses on fair and ethical trading.
All consumers are protected from false and misleading advertising under
the Commonwealth Trade Practices Act 1974 and NSW Fair Trading Act
1987. Under these Acts, consumers have the legal right to receive accurate
information about products and services they want to purchase without being
lied to or misled.
A number of relevant industry-related mechanisms are also in place that
promote the provision of accurate information, such as self-regulation through
the Advertising Standards Bureau and the Fitness Australia Code of Ethics.
The Fitness Australia Code of Ethics provides explicit guidance around
advertising under its Professional Integrity section, as shown below.
‘Fitness professionals may advertise in connection with their professional
practice if the advertising is not false, not misleading or deceptive or likely to
mislead or deceive, is not vulgar or sensational, and does not claim or imply
superiority of the fitness professional over any or all other fitness professionals.
The advertisement for the fitness professional may contain a statement of the
areas of expertise in practice.’
While legislation, self-regulation and codes of ethics are useful strategies
for protecting people from false or misleading advertising, individuals also
need to recognise the role that they must play in adequately researching and
critically analysing advertising.
Ethics of advertising
Ethics are important in any industry. However, it would be naive to assume
that all or even most commercial organisations always advertise ethically.
In the fitness industry, some gymnasiums have been in the media and in
the courts over difficulties that some people have experienced with their
membership and unethical promotion tactics.
Problems have included significant penalty costs incurred when ending
long-term gym membership contracts, particularly when the penalty was not

explicitly advertised prior to signing the contract; hiding information about

penalties in the fine print of a lengthy contract and urging the client to sign
quickly to benefit from the current sale promotion on offer or to avoid an
imminent fee increase.
Self-regulation the
process by which industries,
Another unethical advertising practice is to make exaggerated or unproven
organisations or individuals claims. Some advertisers sell programs that promise weight loss and fitness
commit to meeting a set of while ‘eating all the food you like and not getting hot and sweaty with
agreed standards or codes. It
exercise’.
is not a legislative requirement
but rather an acknowledgment All providers of fitness-related services and products must meet general
that behaviours identified business regulations regarding advertising standards. Ethical advertising
in the standards or code is encouraged and self-regulation is in place through industry-related and
represent good practice and
behaviours that fall outside advertising codes of ethics. However, providers are really only obliged to
these should be avoided. advertise as ethically as the law requires them to.
The Advertising Standards Bureau

The Advertising Standards Bureau (ASB) administers a Description of the advertisement
national system of advertising self-regulation through This television advertisement features two balls bouncing
the Advertising Standards Board and the Advertising to a musical backing, with the superimposed caption,
Claims Board. Using a system of self-regulation is based ‘These are the only balls you’ll see at Fernwood’, ahead
on the premise that advertisers share a common interest of a caption for the Fernwood Female Fitness Centre.
in promoting consumer confidence in and respect for
general standards of advertising. The complaint
The Advertising Standards Board provides a free Comments made by the complainants in relation to this
public service of complaint resolution in which it makes advertisement include the following:
determinations on complaints about advertising in ‘I find the advertisement highly objectionable
relation to issues such as the use of language, portrayals because it refers to man’s genitals in a demeaning and
of discrimination, portrayals of violence, sex/sexuality/ deprecatory manner in a public forum and also flaunts a
nudity, health and safety, concern for children and discrimination for membership of this organisation on the
marketing of food and beverages to children. basis of gender.’
The Advertising Claims Board provides a complaint ‘The arbitrary and flippant reference to male genitalia
resolution service and determines complaints involving is personally offensive to me and is potentially degrading
issues of truth, accuracy and legality of advertising. towards men in general.’
A Code of Ethics prescribed by the Australian The determination
Association of National Advertisers (AANA) is used as
The Advertising Standards Board … considered whether
the basis for making determinations about complaints.
this advertisement breaches Section 2 of the AANA
The complaint below and the determination made Advertiser Code of Ethics …
were in relation to advertising by Fernwood Female
The Board determined that the
Fitness Centres.
material within the advertisement
did not contravene prevailing
Case report community standards in relation
Advertiser Fernwood Female Fitness Centres Pty Ltd to its portrayal of sex/sexuality/
Product Leisure & Sport nudity and that it did not constitute
Type of advertisement TV discrimination or vilification.
Nature of complaint Discrimination or vilification Finding that the advertisement
Other—section 2.1 did not breach the Code on these
Portrayal of sex/sexuality/nudity or any other grounds, the Board
—section 2.3 dismissed the complaint.
Date of determination Tuesday, 8 May 2001 www.advertisingstandardsbureau.com.au
DETERMINATION Dismissed


1 Discuss the benefits and limitations of a self-regulation approach
to managing advertising standards and claims.
2 Assess the likely effect of Fitness Australia Code of Ethics
<www.fitness.org.au/lib/pdf/FA_Code_of_Ethics.pdf>
3 Evaluate the determination made on the Fernwood Female Fitness
Centre advertisement.
Motivators and barriers to participation

Access to facilities
Factors that restrict access to fitness facilities can be a significant impediment
to exercise participation. Geographic challenge can be a significant factor in
limiting access.
Smaller country towns can have limited access to major exercise facilities,
such as fitness centres or public pools, because the community may not be
large enough to support them and make them commercially viable. Local
councils and other government bodies can have a major role in supporting
these facilities.
Another strategy is to encourage private and public sector cooperation, as
well as using fund-raising measures to subsidise some of the costs. The town
of Tingha in northwestern NSW has had a Community Swimming Pool project
running for some time and is raising funds to build a local swimming pool.
Nathan Blacklock, the former Rugby League player, is a prominent part of this
community project for the town in which he grew up.
In cases where adequate access to fitness facilities is a barrier, committing
to exercise can require additional motivation on behalf of individuals and
small groups. Options are limited to those forms of exercise that are free, low
cost or accessible. Country towns also face challenges when competing in
large team sports because numbers can be limited. Travel times and distances
for competitions can also be prohibitive.
Convenience of use
Convenience can be a double-edged sword. On the one hand, having fitness
facilities and services conveniently located takes away a significant barrier.
On the other hand, when things are very convenient there is potential to take
them for granted and not access them adequately.
How many people have signed up for fitness centre memberships
and rarely used them? Many of these people continue to maintain their
membership under the misguided belief that eventually they will find the
time or the motivation to use the centre sufficiently.
Similarly, how many people have purchased fitness equipment for their
home only to have it remain in the garage or under the bed? Council clean-ups
often include rarely-used fitness equipment left on the side of the road to be
picked up, recycled or disposed of.

Having convenient access to fitness opportunities is important. To

maximise benefits, it is useful for people to clearly identify their reasons
for exercising, set measurable goals and do their research before making
expensive commitments.
Cost
Local councils and higher levels of government subsidising costs of
developing and maintaining exercise facilities is one strategy that can work.
For example, building skateboarding facilities in community parks is a
relatively cheap way of providing an exercise option that will be freely used
by large numbers of young people.
Some exercise options, such as skiing, are inherently costly and some are
run as a commercial enterprise. As such, these options will cost money to
be involved in. It is important, however, that communities have a range of
options at their disposal, at least some of which cost little or nothing to do.
Feelings about fitness and exercise

Our feelings about fitness and exercise are developed over time and they are
influenced by a range of sources. A critical influence is our early experience
with fitness and exercise. Having positive experiences increases the likelihood
of ongoing participation. Negative experiences reduce that likelihood.
For some people, their first exposure to the concept of ‘fitness’ may have
been completing a battery of fitness tests in PDHPE. While this could be a
positive experience for those who performed well in the tests or found the
tests to be a source of motivation, others may have felt humiliated or been
demoralised by ‘failing’ in front of their peers. These early feelings can be
perpetuated and, in the case of negative feelings, be very difficult to change.
Figure 9.15
The concept of exercise has become associated with undertaking physical
Fitness testing can have
a positive or negative exertion and experiencing related pain and fatigue in pursuit of ‘fitness’.
influence on people’s Some people are inspired by this concept, whereas others find it unpleasant.
feelings about fitness and This has led to the promotion of ‘physical activity’ as the dominant concept in
exercise improving health.
Fitness and exercise are still clearly linked,
however, the term ‘physical activity’ implies
potential for the activity to be undertaken at a
lower level of intensity, for it to be an enjoyable
experience, and for the intended outcome to be
enhanced health and wellbeing, not necessarily
enhancing fitness.
Exercise as a priority
When we place a high priority on something,
we usually make adequate time for it. If we
truly value fitness, we will find the time and
opportunities to exercise. Perhaps the most
effective strategy for prioritising exercise is to
use a diary. By timetabling regular commitments
to exercise into your diary, you are more likely
to follow through on your commitments.

Fitness Profile—Veronica
Veronica is 78 years old, married, with three adult
children and six grandchildren.
‘I have always been active and tennis is the
sport I have played consistently since I was a
child. I met my husband at a tennis tournament in
the 1950s and played midweek social tennis with
a group of local mothers while we were raising
our children in the 1970s and 1980s. The children
are grown up now but most of the original mums
still play today—every Wednesday.
I had my first hip replacement in 1995 and the
doctor suggested swimming was good for the
rehabilitation process. I had never really been
into swimming but I followed the doctor’s advice
and I quite enjoyed it. When I had my other hip
replaced in 1999, I began swimming again and
I have kept it up—every Friday. A friend from
tennis and I catch the train to the pool, we swim
for an hour and then catch the train home again.
Tennis on Wednesday and swimming on
Friday works out really well from a family point of Figure 9.16
view because my husband plays golf on both of Veronica has found tennis and swimming
those days.’ to have a positive impact on her life
Influence of other responsibilities

Throughout life, there are different transition stages that are common
experiences for many people. These include starting and finishing school,
beginning fulltime work, getting married, having children and retiring from
fulltime work. Responsibilities that are inherent in these and other stages of
life can impact positively or negatively on participation in exercise.
The NSW school curriculum designates PDHPE as compulsory for
kindergarten to Year 10 students, thus providing exercise opportunities for
all children. Upon leaving school, greater personal freedom, part or fulltime
work, further study and a growing social life can restrict opportunities and
sometimes motivation to exercise. Alternatively, some people find that greater
personal freedom and financial independence gives them more scope to
pursue their exercise passions.
Having children is time consuming and often occurs at a time of life
when career advancement opportunities are emerging. These two factors
are common contributors to people experiencing weight gain and a decline
in fitness level. The other side is, children like to be active and parents can
choose to exercise with their children by doing activities like running around
with them, riding bikes together and swimming.
Retirees find themselves with more time available. It is important from
a mental and physical health perspective that some of this time be used for
regular exercise.

Fitness Profile—Josh
Josh is 22 years old and single. He finished his HSC in
2006 and works as an apprentice electrician.
‘I’ve always played lots of sport. At school, sport and
exercise were always organised for you. You didn’t have
to do anything, it just happened. I also did lots of sports
outside of school.
Since I’ve left school I’ve kept up nearly all of my
sports. I surf twice a week and I also play tennis, golf and
Oztag competitively each week. I just can’t sit still and do
nothing—I get bored. Even when I am at home not doing
anything special I still kick a ball around with my brother
or look for something active to do.
It can be hard to fit everything in with work and
socialising but mostly I manage. When I first left school
I did some tennis coaching but I gave that up when my
fulltime job became more demanding.
Having a driver’s licence has made it easier to keep
playing sport because everything I play is fairly local
so I can just jump in the car and be there within 5 or
10 minutes.’
Figure 9.17
Josh is finding that exercise and sport can be enjoyed even
when transition stages in life bring new responsibilities
chapter review
Recap
Exercise involves participating regularly in a structured activity or series of activities for a
sustained period of time, which can improve fitness.
Early experiences with exercise and fitness can influence our feelings about fitness in the
long term, positively or negatively.
People’s attitudes to fitness change over time and are influenced by transition stages
throughout life.
The fitness industry is expected to earn $60 billion per year by 2012.
For some people, exercise is preferred as a solo pursuit in which ever-increasing goals
are set and a program of exercise undertaken to achieve these goals. For others, the
social dimension and commitment to a team that exercise can have carries a high
priority and, therefore, group fitness activities and team-based games hold appeal.

Different fitness activities emerge or regenerate from time to time. Their increase in
popularity can increasingly be linked to globalisation and the ease of communication
possible in an era of pay TV, the internet and people becoming more globally connected.
Stand up paddle surfing and Pilates are two examples of this.
Useful strategies to help navigate through the maze of fitness advertising and promotion
include critical literacy, questioning, checking credentials and seeking references from
reliable sources.
Common strategies used to advertise and promote fitness products, services and
facilities include offering free trials, offering a free fitness assessment, using existing
members to attract family and friends to join up and using celebrity role models.
Legislation, self-regulation and industry codes of ethics are approaches used to help
ensure that information provided to consumers is accurate, and that the product or
service provided is safe and of suitable quality.
Making exercise a priority increases the likelihood that people will, in fact, exercise and
improve their fitness.

Fitness Australia www.fia.org.au Information about the fitness industry, provided by

the peak body in Australia
The Premier’s Council for www.pcal.nsw.gov.au Information about the NSW Government strategy
Active Living to increase physical activity participation
The Advertising Standards www.advertisingstandards Information about self-regulation in advertising

Bureau bureau.com.au
1 Discuss how attitudes to fitness have changed over time. (4 marks)
2 Design a profile of someone who would have their fitness needs suitably (4 marks)
met by Pilates.
3 Analyse ways that fitness product and service providers advertise to

potential clients. (12 marks)

Outdoor
10 recreation
Australians have a proud history of embracing the outdoors and participating in a

variety of activities, which make use of the wonderful environment that the country has
to offer. Whether it is sailing on Sydney Harbour, bushwalking in the Blue Mountains,
surfing on their favourite beach or fishing off the rock ledges in the Royal National Park
every weekend thousands of people enjoy the benefits of outdoor recreation.
What is the value of

outdoor recreation?
Outdoor recreation a Different people value different aspects of outdoor recreation. Some people
wide range of leisure, sport thoroughly enjoy the social aspects of activities such as bushwalking with
or recreation activities
undertaken outside friends, while others find the challenge of navigating through trackless terrain
intellectually rewarding.
Figure 10.1
People participate in
outdoor recreation for
a variety of reasons

Outdoor recreation CHAPTER 10 287
Reasons for participation in outdoor

recreation
People participate in a range of leisure, sport and recreation
activities in the outdoors for a number of reasons.
Stress management/relaxation
Stress is a normal and natural part of everyday life; simply learning
to live, getting an education and obtaining a job is stressful. This
level of stress can increase dramatically when you add other issues
such as conflicting relationships, financial difficulty, overcrowding
or urban noise into the equation. If levels of stress become high
and remain unresolved for an extended period, this can result in a
variety of stress-related illnesses such as heartburn, hypertension
and heart disease.
Outdoor recreation offers a range of ways to relax and reduce
stress levels. What makes outdoor recreation such a great tool
for alleviating stress and relaxing is that many outdoor pursuits
can be undertaken by people of all ages and at all levels of ability. If we take Figure 10.2
surfing as an example, we often see teenagers surfing alongside retirees in A surfer enjoying the thrill
the morning; then in the evening whilst watching the television we often see of riding big wave
professional surfers competing on huge waves at the world championships.
Enjoyment, challenge and excitement

Many people participate in outdoor recreation for intrinsic reasons, such as the Intrinsic reasons come
enjoyment and excitement that comes with completing a challenging activity. from oneself, without regard to
outside factors.
These intrinsic reasons affect people differently. What some people find
enjoyable others might not; what some people find challenging others might
find easy. An example of this would be walking up a steep, long mountain spur
with a heavy pack on, then sitting down at the top and enjoying the challenge
as much as the view. Some people might read that sentence, smile and think of
a time they have been in that situation, while others dislike the very thought
of it. What is great about outdoor recreation is that it is easy to change the
challenge to suit most people, and then everyone can enjoy it.
Figure 10.3
Competitive outdoor sports
like adventure racing, are a
part of outdoor recreation

Social interaction
Many outdoor pursuits require teamwork, cooperation and social interaction
in order to achieve planned outcomes. Rock climbing and canoeing are great
examples of these. With rock climbing, two people are needed to climb a
rock face safely. One person climbs first, while the second person belays the
climber to ensure their safety. Roles are reversed when the climber reaches
the top of the pitch. To do this safely, the two people must communicate
constantly throughout the climb.
Figure 10.4
In a two-person canoe, the person at the front provides the forward
Some people enjoy the
social interaction that is momentum, while the person at the back steers. Again, the two people must
a part of many outdoor communicate and interact to successfully get the canoe to go where they want
recreational activities it to, as without interacting they will not succeed.
Appreciating the environment

Another reason people choose to participate in outdoor recreation
is that it provides the opportunity to explore and appreciate
Australia’s diverse natural environment. With this environment
ranging from snow-covered mountains to tropical rainforests and
from hot sandy deserts to beautiful coral reefs, the Australian
outdoors has something to offer everyone. Having a greater
appreciation for this environment, leads to a greater understanding
of the environment and, in turn, to a realisation that we need to
protect it.
Health and fitness

The majority of outdoor pursuits require some degree of fitness
not only to participate in them, but also to enjoy them. This
requirement means people can either do the activity to improve
fitness, or specifically train for the activity so they can compete
at a higher level. Mountain biking is a great example of this.
Some people simply ride once or twice a week for exercise and
enjoyment, whereas others might train on a road bike 4 days a week
and combine this with several weights sessions, in order to enter
into competion. Either way, the outdoor activity is providing the
motivation to exercise and, therefore, improve fitness and health.

1 List the various types of outdoor recreation that you are
involved in and describe the reasons why you participate
in these activities.
2 Discuss the reasons that extreme adventurers, like
high-altitude mountaineers or big wave surfers, might
participate in these activities despite the inherent dangers.
3 Explain the reasons why some people like to participate
in outdoor activities by themselves. Consider any
spiritual outcomes in your answer.

What are the technical skills

and understanding needed
for safe participation
in outdoor recreation?
In order to participate safely in various outdoor pursuits, people need
to recognise that they require a number of skills. These include specific
technical skills like map reading, canoeing or abseiling skills, as well as a
variety of environmental and emergency management planning skills. The
right combination of these skills cannot guarantee safety, but will certainly go
a long way to minimising the risk inherent in outdoor activities. This lends
support to the saying ‘proper prior planning prevents poor performance’, and
it is worthwhile exploring the planning skills involved in outdoor recreation
in more detail.
Planning skills
Ensuring maximum fun and safety in outdoor recreation requires some degree
of planning. Whether this is quickly checking your tyre pressure and brakes
before a 30-minute bike ride or the years of planning needed to climb Mount
Everest, the degree of planning is likely to play an important role in the
success of the activity.
Environment planning
The environment plays an important part in outdoor recreation and knowing
how to plan a recreational activity considering all environmental factors is
an important skill in the outdoors. Without this, the enjoyment and safety of
the activity can be compromised. Important environmental factors to consider
prior to partaking in outdoor recreation include:
Weather—checking up-to-date weather forecasts prior to, and, if necessary,
during, an activity is an important consideration. During overnight camps,
think about getting weather forecasts twice a day, in the morning and
evening. This way you have more notice if bad weather is on the way and
can make appropriate arrangements. In countries like Australia, it’s not
only the cold and wet weather forecasts that you need to consider, but hot
and dry forecasts should also be treated with caution.
Venue—matching the skill level of the group with the venue, by planning
exactly where to go walking, camping, riding or climbing is also an
important consideration. By selecting an appropriate venue, a group leader
can help ensure that some group members are not out of their depth while
others are still challenged.
Emergency management planning

Spending time planning what to do if things go wrong is an important
investment that should be made prior to any outdoor adventure and
something that all group leaders must do. This type of planning should
include:

Identifying any possible escape routes, should the activity need to be cut
short for any reason, or if a group member becomes ill and needs to be
evacuated.
Identifying which phone numbers should be carried on the trip such as:
local police, hospital, national park offices, home contact numbers for all
group members, equipment rental company and transport company. In
addition, at what times will you contact outside people?
Risk management plan a Reconnoitering of the route by at least one group member prior to the trip.
document that identifies any Developing a risk management plan is also an important step in any
potential risks associated with
an activity and strategies to
emergency management planning. A risk management plan helps to identify
manage these risks. any potential risks as well as actions or precautions to minimise the risks.
A partly completed risk management plan for an overnight bushwalk can be
seen below.
RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN

Leader John Smith Activity Bushwalking
Contact number 04 2222 8888 Location Royal National Park (see route plan attached)
Start date and 9.30 am, 27 March 2009 End date and time 5.00 pm, 31 March 2009
time
Total number 16 (see list attached) Aim of activity To teach friends to navigate
of people
Experience of All group members have Medical conditions John Doe has asthma
participants been on one overnight hike. of participants (see medical forms attached)
Medications Ventolin inhaler Method of A phone call will be made to his mother twice a
carried communication day at 9.00 am and 5.00 pm
RISKS DANGERS RISK MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

People: attributes Low skill level of group Group members to be closely monitored
people bring to an
activity e.g. skills, Varying fitness levels Walk at the pace of the slowest person
fitness, health, fears Asthma attack Carry inhaler
Equipment: Inappropriate clothing, • Group list to be given to all members

resources that e.g. too much • Gear check prior to trip
impact on the • Group members to carry no more than ¼ of their body weight
activity: clothing,
tents, lights, Inappropriate shoes Checked before trip
vehicles, etc. Pack not waterproofed Checked that pack is lined with a large plastic bag
Environment: Hot conditions Ensure all members carry 3 litres of water and that they drink frequently
factors that impact
on the activity: Exposed cliffs Monitor everyone and ensure that all members are at least 2 body lengths
weather, terrain, back from the cliff edge
water, River crossing Group will be shown how to cross rivers safely
snow/ice, etc. (will not be attempted Waist straps on packs will be undone and shoulder straps will be
if flooded) loosened
Swimming A buddy system will be adopted before swimming, with one buddy
swimming and the other watching
Others … ???

Food and water considerations

The amount of food and water to be consumed on any outdoor adventure
will depend on the type, intensity and duration of the activity, as well as on
the age and body type of the participants. However, certain factors should be
considered when planning what food and water should be carried:
Food
How many meals will I need? For example, 2 breakfasts, 3 lunches,
2 dinners, 4 snack meals.
Will all the food have to be carried? If so, consider lightweight alternatives,
e.g. dehydrated food, 2-minute noodles etc.
Does the food require water to be cooked and will water be available?
How far do you have to carry it?
How is the food packaged and can I leave some of the packaging at home?
(Remember you will have to carry out all rubbish.)
How nutritious is the food?
Is anyone in the group allergic to any foods, e.g. nut allergies. If so, all
nut products should be left at home.
How easy is the food to cook, and how long does it take to cook? The correct
cooking utensils and the right amount of fuel will need to be carried.
Water
How much do I usually drink?
How hot will it be? Extra water will be required in hot weather.
How hard will I be exerting myself? (Extra water will be required if you are
working hard.)
How far or long before water will be available?
Will the water be safe to drink, or do I need to treat it or boil it?
Resources for safe participation

Participating in outdoor recreation a requires a certain amount of equipment
and, given the recent technological advances and increasing participation
rates, the amount and range of specialised equipment available on the market
today is vast. Deciding on exactly what equipment you need and what
equipment to buy requires doing research and asking experts in the area. As a
general rule of thumb, the more expensive the equipment is, the lighter, more
durable and more comfortable it will be—however, this is not always the case.
The suggested resources for an overnight trip can be seen in table 10.1
These resources can easily be modified for other types of activities.
The clothing used in outdoor pursuits should follow the three-layer
system. Having three different layers of clothing allows for maximum heat
retention and cooling efficiency in all weather environments. The principles
of the three-layer system are:
The base layer—consists of an inner layer designed to quickly wick
moisture away from your skin and towards the outer layers of clothing.
This layer is relatively thin, like a common t-shirt, although when it is
colder it could be a thermal top. In warmer weather, you can wear this
inner layer by itself to stay cool and dry.
The middle layer—is the main insulation layer that captures the heat from
the body and prevents it from escaping. The middle layer is commonly
made up of wool or fleece.

The outer layer—is a waterproof and windproof shell. A outer layer made
of Gore-Tex (or similar fabric) will also allow the moisture that is being
Table 10.1 wicked away from your body by the inner and middle layers to escape.
Suggested equipment
needed for an Using a combination of these layers, it is possible to stay warm and dry in
overnight trip all conditions in Australia.
Clothing Personal equipment Group equipment
Beanie Sleeping bag Tent (pegs and poles)

Wide-brimmed sun hat Sleeping mat Stove and cooking utensils
Thermal gloves Head lamp Fuel for stove
Thermal tops x 2 Sunscreen Food
Thermal pants x 2 Water bottles (3 litres) Maps and compass
Fleece or woollen jumper Toiletries First aid kit
Track or trekking pants Snacks Toilet paper and trowel
Waterproof jacket Eating utensils General purpose repair kit (needle, cotton,
Socks Whistle tape)
Shorts (quick drying material) Compass Rubbish bags
T-shirt x 2 (quick drying material) Pack and liner bag Matches
Underwear Camera
Waterproof over-pants Gaiters (optional)
Shoes or boots
Legal and administrative requirements

Many outdoor activities require access to national parks, waterways, state
forests and reserves or private land. If a trip you are planning travels through
these areas you may need to consider obtaining permission to access them,
and to book campsites. Many organisations and private owners also require
that you fill in trip-intention forms. These forms cover information such as
the date, start time, number of people in the group, contact details, activities
to be undertaken and an expected time of return. The forms are designed to
notify the authorities that your group is in the area and lets them know what
your intentions are if something goes wrong. Most trip-intention forms require
you to sign out afterwards. If this is the case, you must do this, otherwise
authorities may think you have not returned and start searching for you.

Imagine you and three of your friends are going on an overnight coastal walk through the
Royal National Park.
1 Develop checklist of personal and group equipment needed and discuss how the equipment
will be dividing between four group members.
2 Taking into consideration the stove you will be carrying and the cooking utensils you have,
create a menu for the trip. Then use the internet to find out prices and calculate how much
the food will cost per person.
3 Design your own risk management plan for the trip.
4 Using the internet, research the various types of tents available and explain what tent would
be perfect for the trip.

Campsite selection
Camping in a wilderness setting can be an amazing experience for some
people and a daunting prospect for others. To ensure you get the most out
of a camping experience, it is worthwhile spending time selecting the most
appropriate site to pitch a tent. This valuable investment can not only make
the camping experience more enjoyable for everyone, but it will also make the
experience safer and have less of an impact on the environment.
The initial planning can start at home prior to your trip. This is a good
time to research possible sites, as well as nearby alternatives in case the
scheduled campsite is unavailable. It is also a time to find the answers to
questions such as: Do you need to book or is a permit required to camp there?
Are there any fire restrictions? Is there water available at the campsite? What
is the weather forecast? Is there any specific local information that you need
to be aware of? Information like this can usually be found in guidebooks, on
websites, or in information centres.
Geographic, environment and climatic considerations

When you arrive at your campsite, spend time deciding where to camp and
where exactly to pitch your tent. Use the following checklist as a guide.
Establishing the campsite: checklist

Proximity to water Environmental considerations—fire
Is drinking water close by? Is a total fire ban in place?
Can you camp high enough above the water in case Is a campfire really necessary?
of flooding after heavy rains? Is it possible to get more Is there a plentiful supply of fallen wood?
than 50 metres away from the water, for toileting and Have you avoided breaking branches from a standing
washing purposes? tree (as wildlife makes use of them)?
If the water is still, are there lots of bugs around? Is there an existing fireplace or fire ‘scar’ that you
The tent site can use?
Will the fire always be attended?
Is the ground level and free from sharp rocks and
sticks (which could tear ground sheets or tent floors Can the fire be put out quickly if the need arises?
and provide an uncomfortable night’s sleep)? Is the camp fire at least 10 metres from tents (as sparks
Is the ground level or slightly raised, to prevent water can travel a long way)?
from pooling during rain? When you leave the site, have you remembered that a
Is there enough room to peg out all of the tent’s guy fire is only considered out if the ashes are cool to touch?
ropes, if necessary? Environmental considerations—hygiene
Are dedicated tent sites available or can an existing If toilet facilities are not available, have you assigned a
tent site be used to minimise the environmental private toilet area?
impact?
Is the private toilet area 50 metres away from any
Can the tent be pitched so that it faces east to catch watercourse and downwind from the campsite?
the sun’s early morning rays and promote an early
If washing facilities are not available, have you assigned
rise, or faces west to avoid the morning sun and help
a washing area for cleaning cooking equipment?
with sleeping in?
Is the washing area 50 metres from a watercourse?
Are there any branches or trees that could fall on
When you leave, have you carried all rubbish with you
the tent?
out of the campsite?
Are you far enough away from a tree if it does fall
Have you left the area cleaner than you found it?
down?

Conservation skills
As more and more Australians are heading into the outdoors for recreation,
leisure and sport, we are running the risk of ‘loving our natural areas to
death’. To avoid this and to reduce the impact users have on the environment,
several educational programs and camping practices and procedures have
been introduced. ‘Leave no trace’ camping and ‘minimal impact’ practices are
two of the most well known of these.
‘Leave no trace’ camping

Respecting the environment and ‘leaving no trace’ that you were there are key
components of sustainable outdoor recreation. Without protecting the areas
that people use for recreation, these areas will not survive. The international
‘leave no trace’ educational program aims to address this issue, to avoid or
minimise the impact that recreational users have on natural and cultural
resources. The educational program strives to achieve this by creating a
globally recognised and accepted outdoor ethic that promotes personal
responsibility and stewardship. It encourages outdoor recreationists to follow
seven principles to protect the environment. The seven ‘leave no trace’
principles are:
Plan ahead and prepare

By planning ahead, prior to participating in the outdoors, you minimise the
chance of things going wrong and help make the trip a success. Planning
also allows you to build the other ‘leave no trace’ principles into your trip.
For example, you can plan to use existing campsites rather than creating
new ones.
Travel and camp on durable surfaces

When you are planning your trip, or when you are actually outdoors walking,
riding or driving, always try to follow established tracks. Do not be tempted
to cut corners or travel on edges of tracks, as this makes the track wider and
increases the impact on the environment
Dispose of waste properly

All outdoor recreationists have a responsibility to clean up before they leave
any area they have been using. This means carrying out all rubbish and
kitchen waste, including leftover food.
Leave what you find

‘Take nothing but photos and leave nothing but footprints’ is something many
seasoned adventurers say. Abiding by this saying means that when we pass
interesting rocks, shells, plants, feathers or other remarkable objects, we leave
them there for others to enjoy.
Minimise campfire impacts

Every year in Australia, bushfires destroy hundreds of kilometres of
recreational areas. Some of these fires are either accidentally or carelessly lit
by uninformed campers. With the development of efficient lightweight stoves,
campfires are no longer essential for cooking or comfort and their use should
be minimised. If a campfire is to be set, use existing fireplaces and check with
local authorities for other information, such as fire bans.

Respect wildlife
All animals, to some extent, are affected by people visiting their habitats.
Some flee their homes; others are attracted by new sounds and food. Users
of the recreational area must consider this and plan to minimise their impact
and respect wildlife.
Be considerate of your hosts and other visitors

When we use recreational areas, we must consider and respect the rights of
the traditional landowners as well as share the areas with many other users.
Being considerate of these groups enables everyone to enjoy the outdoors.

1 Describe the procedures you would go through when camping near a stream to maintain the
purity levels of the water in the stream.
2 Discuss your response if you were out camping with your friends and they wanted to dig
trenches around your tent to stop the rain getting under it.
3 Debate the need for campfires in Australia—should they be completely banned?
Minimal impact practices

With ever-increasing numbers of visitors in outdoor recreational areas many
organisations, clubs and government bodies have formalised the ‘leave no
trace’ program and developed specific codes of practice to minimise the
impact that their groups have on the recreation areas they use. These codes
of practice may vary slightly between different groups, but all have the same
focus—preservation of the natural ecosystems. An example of some of the
codes of practice from the NSW Confederation of Bushwalking clubs can be
seen in the following box.
Sections from the ‘Bushwalkers’ Code’

Tread softly Pack it in, pack it out
• Keep walking parties small in number; four to six • Remove all your rubbish including food scraps,
people is ideal. paper, plastic, aluminium foil and empty containers.
• Avoid popular areas in holiday periods when Don’t burn or bury rubbish. Burning creates pollution
campsites are crowded. and buried rubbish may be dug up and scattered
• Use existing tracks; don’t create new ones. On by animals.
zigzag paths, don’t cut corners as this creates • Digging also disturbs the soil, causing erosion and
unsightly damage that leads to erosion. encouraging weeds.
• In trackless country, spread your party out; don’t • Carry a plastic bag for your rubbish. If you find litter
walk in one another’s footsteps. Avoid easily left by irresponsible people along the track or around
damaged places such as peat bogs, cushion moss, a campsite, please remove it. Show you care for the
swamps and fragile rock formations. environment, even if others don’t.
• Wade through waterlogged sections of tracks; don’t • Be hygienic.
create a skein of new tracks around them. • Bury all faeces and toilet paper at least
15 centimetres deep.

• Carry out things that won’t easily decompose. • Definitely don’t build a ring of stones as a fireplace.
• Carry a lightweight plastic trowel or a large This is unnecessary and unsightly. Dismantle stone
aluminium tent peg to make digging easier. rings wherever you find them.
• Sweep away all leaves, grass and other flammable
Keep water pure material for at least 2 metres around your fireplace.
• Wash cooking and eating utensils well back from the (Major bushfires have been caused by careless
edge of lakes and creeks, so waste water falls on campers who didn’t take this precaution.)
soil where it will be absorbed. • Burn only dead wood that’s fallen to the ground. Don’t
• Prevent soap, detergent or toothpaste from getting break limbs from trees or shrubs.
into natural water systems. Similarly, when washing • Keep your fire small—remember, the bigger the fool,
cooking utensils, don’t use detergent and don’t let the bigger the fire.
oils and food scraps get into creeks or lakes. Before you leave
• Always swim downstream from where you get your • Douse your fire thoroughly with water, even if it appears
drinking water. to be already out. Don’t try to smother a fire by covering
it with soil or sand, as the coals will continue to smoulder
Be very careful with fire for days. Only water kills a fire with total certainty.
• Have a fire only when you are absolutely certain you • Feel the ground under the coals. If it is too hot to touch,
can light it with safety. A fuel stove is preferable for the fire is not out. Douse it some more.
cooking and thermal clothing is better for warmth. • Scatter the cold charcoal and ashes well clear of
• Always use a fuel stove in places where even a your campsite, then rake soil and leaves over the spot
tiny fire may cause permanent damage. Places where your fire was. You should aim to remove all
where fire lighting should be avoided include many trace of it.
rainforest and all alpine regions. Respect Indigenous heritage
• Do not light fires: • Many places have spiritual or cultural significance for
– in hot, summer conditions our Indigenous communities. Treat such places with
– in dry windy weather consideration and respect.
– in declared ‘fuel stove only’ areas • Obtain permission from traditional landowners or the
– when there is a declared fire ban. relevant land manager to visit sensitive areas.
Always remember • Leave Indigenous relics as you find them. Don’t touch
paintings or rock engravings.
• Fire doesn’t destroy aluminium foil, and plastics
release toxic gases when burnt. So carry foil and Be courteous to others
plastics out in your pack with all your other rubbish, • The sound of radios, CD players, mobile phones
including food scraps. Don’t use your campfire as a and similar devices is out of place in the natural
rubbish incinerator. environment. Leave the electronics at home and switch
off your mobile phone.
If you light a campfire, follow these rules
• When you open a gate, make sure the last person
• In popular campsites, light your fire on a bare patch through knows it has to be closed.
left by previous fires. Don’t light it on fresh ground. • Respect the rights of landholders and land managers.
• Light your fire on bare soil or sand, well away from Don’t enter private property without permission. In
stumps, logs, living plants and river stones (which national parks, abide by plans of management and
may explode when heated). encourage others to do so too.
The Confederation of Bushwalking Clubs NSW Inc., 2004
Ethical issues
Simply being in the wilderness has an effect on the environment of that
natural setting. Bushwalking might mean crushing small saplings; mountain
biking around muddy patches could widen the track; rock climbing means
you could leave chalk on a rock face and four-wheel driving could leave deep
wheel ruts in a wet field. These are all examples of harming the environment.
From one person’s point of view, they may be able to justify their behaviour
based on a particular situation; from another person’s point of view, this type

of behaviour may be wrong in any situation. These ethical issues are just a
few examples of the many in outdoor recreation. For example, how can we
justify the costs of the development of alpine roads, electrical infrastructure,
chair-lift installation, lift passes, the impact on a fragile environment and the
initial outlay of personal clothing and equipment for
the human pleasure of simply skiing down a snow-covered slope?
When people’s values and beliefs are compared, debate often arises. These
Table 10.2
valuable discussions are interesting, as they enable people to hear a variety of
A variety of ethical
points of view and to develop and justify their own well thought-out ethical issues in outdoor
stance on the topic. recreation
Issue One point of view Another point of view
Should areas be set What is the point of saving that part of Yes, as it is the only way to prevent humans from destroying
aside as human free? the environment if nobody can use it the environment, and extreme measures are needed in very
or see it? sensitive areas.
Should 4WDs be banned No, as everybody has the right to visit We need to consider the use of different recreational areas
from some recreational recreational areas and 4WD tracks can on an individual basis, taking into account the access,
areas? provide rescue access to other users. environment impact and needs of users.
Should dogs be allowed Yes, because correctly trained dogs No, as native animals see dogs as predators and the lasting
in National Parks? on a leash provide no threat to native scent of a dog can easily scare away animals. In addition,
animals. dogs’ faeces can carry diseases harmful to native wildlife.
Should toilet paper be It’s only paper, it will get wet and It should be carried out, as that is the only way of completely
buried, burnt or carried break down naturally. reducing the impact of human waste.
out after it is used?

1 Explain the rationale for why different
organisations, clubs, and government bodies
each have their own specific minimal-impact
codes of practice.
2 Using specific examples, discuss the implications
of the minimal-impact code of practice during the
planning stage of a bushwalk.
3 Debate the following topic: ‘Should helicopter
landing areas be developed in remote World
Heritage-listed areas such as the Wollemi
National Park, to allow easier access for the
elderly, the young or the physically disabled?’
Figure 10.5
Navigational skills A walking track affected
by erosion
The ability to accurately read maps and navigate using a compass are
important foundational skills for many outdoor activities. Whether it is
planning an extended mountain bike ride, sailing to a remote island or even
driving to the trail head the night before you start bushwalking, the ability to

navigate can not only save you time, but it is also an important safety skill in
outdoor recreation.
The map (or maps) you bring with you on any trip in the outdoors should
match the journey that you have planned. The type of map(s) you will need
will depend on the type of trip you are going on. For a long-distance cycle-
touring adventure, a road map may be appropriate; while for a sea-kayaking
trip around Jervis Bay, nautical maps will be required. For many journeys in
the outdoors, you will need topographic maps.
Topographic map a A distinctive characteristic of a topographic map is that the shape of the
detailed and accurate graphic Earth’s surface is shown by contour lines. These contour lines are imaginary
representation of cultural and
natural features on the ground.
lines that join points of equal elevation on the surface of the land above or
below the mean sea level. Contour lines enable the three-dimensional terrain
Contour lines lines that join to be represented on a two-dimensional piece of paper. They make it possible
points of equal elevation.
to identify the height of mountains, depths of the ocean bottom and steepness
of slopes. An example of how contour lines work can be seen in figure 10.6.
200
30 0
40 0
50 0
A 60 0 60 0 B
200 300 400 500 600 600 600 600 500 400 300 200
600 600
500 500
400 400
300 300
200 200
Horizontal scale – 1cm : 1000m
Vertical scale – 1cm : 100m
100 100
VE = 10
B B
Figure 10.6 Initially, contour lines look confusing; however, if we break down the
The relationship between concept, there are five main features that cover many of the situations seen on
a three-dimensional world topographic maps. These five features can be seen in table 10.3
and a two-dimensional map
Topographic maps also combine the natural features shown with contour
lines with manmade structures such as roads, buildings, powerlines and
established walking tracks. All of the features shown on topographical maps
are described in the map legend. The legend explains the meanings of all the
symbols, lines and colours used on the map. Most of the symbols on maps are
standardised, but they may vary depending on the country and the company
that publishes the map. It is worthwhile examining a map’s legend to ensure
you are not making assumptions based on the symbol usage of other maps.

Table 10.3
Feature When standing What it looks like What it actually The five main features
on it … on a map looks like shown by contour
lines on topographic
maps
Hill, knoll or
600
570
all sides are lower
mountain top
0
60
3 sides are lower, Spur

Spur Spur
1 side is higher 570
0
57
0
60
3 sides are higher,

Gully or valley
1 side is lower Valley
560
2 sides are higher, 590
Saddle 2 sides are lower
1 side higher, 1 side Converging

contours
Cliffs lower—contour lines forming cliff
converge together 60 0
0
57
The map legend also gives the scale of the map. The scale refers to the Scale the ratio between
relationship between distance on a map and the corresponding distance distance on a map and the
corresponding distance on
on the ground. The map’s scale is given as a ratio that relates to a unit of the ground.
measurement on the map to some number of the same units
of measure on the Earth’s surface. For example, a map with
sealed unsealed
a scale of 1:10 000 indicates that 1 unit of measure (like Principal road; Built up area; Locality
a centimetre) represents 10 000 of the same units on the Secondary road; Bridge; Causeway
Earth’s surface. On a large-scale map, such as one of the Minor Road; Embankment; Cutting
world, a large scale of 1:10 000 000 would be required. Most Vehicle track; Gate; Stock grid
22
topographic maps in Australia are drawn to a much smaller Dual carriageway; Distance in kilometres
scale and are either 1:25 000 or 1:50 000. On a map with a Route Marker: National, State 1 5
scale of 1:25 000, 1 centimetre on the map equals 25 000 Airport; Landing ground; Heliport H
centimetres on the Earth or 250 metres. Multiple track railway; Station or siding
Single track railway; Bridge; Tunnel
Power transmission line
Homestead; Building/s; Ruin
Fence; Levee; Open cut mine
Figure 10.7 Mine; Windpump; Yard

The legend on an Contour with value; Depression contour 20
0
Australian topographic map Horizontal control point; Spot elevation 350

GN
The legend on a topographic map also indicates
which way the map is aligned, that is, which way
TN MN
it is pointing. This is displayed with a declination
diagram, which looks like a series of arrows, as shown
in figure 10.8.
Grid convergence
1.3° True north (TN or *) indicates the direction of
Grid/Magnetic angle
13.5°
the Earth’s North Pole. Magnetic north (MN) is the
direction a compass needle points. The reason that
this is different from true north is because true north
True North (TN), Grid North (GN) and Magnetic and magnetic north are not in the same spot. Magnetic
North (MN) are shown diagrammatically for the north is located northwest of Hudson Bay in Canada,
centre of the map.
about 800 kilometres from the Earth’s true North
MN is correct for 1997 and moves easterly by Pole. The difference between true north and magnetic
less than 0.1° in 10 years.
north is known as magnetic declination. It ranges
from about 5 degrees west of true north in Western
Figure 10.8 Australia to about 15 degrees east of true north in eastern Australia. Because
A declination diagram the position of the north magnetic pole moves slightly from year to year, the
showing the different magnetic angle and magnetic declination will vary by a small amount each
north points shown on a
topographic map
year. When using a map for accurate navigation, magnetic variation can be
important, particularly if the map is several years old.
Grid north (GN) is the direction of the vertical gridlines on a topographic
map. The angular difference between grid north and true north is known as
grid convergence. This also varies across the country, although its magnitude
and direction east or west of true north is usually less than 2 degrees.
Another main feature shown on topographic maps are gridlines. Gridlines
are the black lines intersecting at right angles that form squares on the
map. The longitudinal lines are vertical lines that run down the globe. The
meridian (zero degrees) runs through Greenwich in the United Kingdom and
longitude is measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds either east or west
from this meridian. Longitude numbers (also known as eastings) run along
the bottom and top of a map. The latitudinal lines are the horizontal lines that
circle the globe. The equator is the most famous line and is the zero degree
meridian. Latitude numbers (or northings) are measured in degrees, minutes,
and seconds either north or south from the equator. These numbers are
on the sides of maps. Using these imaginary lines that make up a grid around
the Earth, it is possible to indicate an exact location on a map by means of
grid references.
Grid references
A grid reference states a unique position on a map. A four-figure grid
reference is used to identify which grid square a feature is located in. A
six-figure grid reference is used to locate more specifically the feature to an
accuracy of one tenth of the grid interval.
To work out a four-figure grid reference, you need to know the eastings
and northings on the map. Remember, the eastings are located on the top and/
or bottom of the map, while the northings are located on the sides. The first
two numbers of the grid reference refer to the easting (the vertical line) to the
left of the point of interest. The second two numbers refer to the northing (the
horizontal grid line) below the point of interest. For example, Spot Height 345
in the middle map of figure 10.9 is located at grid reference 91 66. Remember
to always read the eastings first, then the northings.

Working out a six-figure grid reference is similar, and provides a much

more accurate and specific location within a grid square on a map. To work
out six-figure grid references, you need to imagine that each grid square is
divided into 100 smaller squares, and then estimate which smaller square the
point of interest is located in.
To work out the six-figure grid reference of Spot Height 345, in figure 10.9,
you need to divide the four-figure grid into 100 smaller squares and estimate
which square the Spot Height is located in. In figure 10.9 the six-figure grid
reference of Spot Height 345 would be:
• 91 indicating the easting
• 6 indicating 6 tenths of the way along the easting
• 66 indicating the northing, and
• 8 indicating 8 tenths of the way up the northing
• Giving the final six-figure grid reference of GR 916 668.
Figure 10.9
60˚N
Prime meridian
60˚N How the latitude and
longitude lines around
30˚N 30˚N
the world can be used to
0˚ + 60˚ 30˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ = 60˚ 30˚ 0˚ 30˚ 60˚ describe a unique position
W W E E W W E E
30˚S 30˚S
60˚S 60˚S
LATITUDE LONGITUDE EARTH’S GRID
68
67
345
66
66
90 91 92 93 94 95
9
8 The reference of spot height 345 is...
7 4 Figure - 91 66
6 6 Figure - 916 668
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Map reading
Figure 10.10
The features on a 1:25 000 Using a combination of the symbols shown on topographic maps with the
topographic map scale, contour lines and gridlines, it is possible to read maps accurately.
342 Corroboree
Flat 226
29
254
200
Eu
re
a k
28
377
276
Cree
k
Ca
pt
ain
27
358
Sp
ur
30
0
Clarke Saddle
Reynolds Saddle
26
300
405
423
25
04 05 06 07


Using figure 10.10:
1 Identify the main feature at the following grid reference location:
a GR 04 29 c GR 058 286
b GR 06 26 d GR 065 283.
2 Calculate the four-figure grid reference for:
a Spot Height 377 b Spot Height 342.
3 Calculate the six-figure grid reference for:
a Spot Height 377 b Spot Height 226.
4 What is the approximate height of the knoll (or hills) at grid reference?
a GR 045 256 b GR 050 291.
Magnetic compasses
A magnetic compass and a map are designed to complement each other.
While they are both useful tools on their own, when matched together they
can be extremely valuable, even life saving.
While there are numerous types of compasses, they all rely on the
principle that a magnetised needle will point towards the magnetic North
Pole. The most common type of compass for bushwalking is known as a
baseplate compass. Baseplate compasses, like the one shown below, have a
transparent base with a direction of travel arrow and orienting lines marked
on a rotating housing, which enables it to be used as a protractor to record
line of site bearings, to measure grid bearings, or to orientate a map.
To orientate a map with the ground, place the compass on it so that the
side edges of the baseplate are parallel with the vertical longitudinal lines
(or eastings). Turn the rotating housing so that zero is in line with the index
Figure 10.11
pointer, then rotate the map, with the compass sitting on top of it, until the
The features of a baseplate
red magnetic needle points to whatever the magnetic declination is in that compass
location—approximately 12 degrees in NSW. Now the map will actually be
pointing north and features on the map will correspond with the ground.
Compass housing
with degree dial
Baseplate 80 10 0
12
60 0
E
Orienting lines
14
40
0
Read Bearing Here
160
20
180
360
N
Orienting arrow
20 0
340
22
20
0
3
24
W
0
30 0
Direction of 280 260
travel arrow Magnetic needle
Index line

Grid bearing
To take a grid bearing, place a compass on a map with the long edge of the
compass along the desired line of travel. Ensure that the direction of travel
arrow is parallel to your desired line of travel and pointing the way you wish
to go as shown in figure 10.12.
Figure 10.12
Taking a grid bearing—
step 1
Destination
PH
Starting
point
280 30 0
32
309 26
0 0
34
0
0
24
360
N
220
20
200
40
180 S
60
0
16
80
E
140 10 0
120
Then turn the rotation housing until the orienting arrow points towards
north on the map. The orienting lines in the housing should be parallel
to the vertical longitudinal lines (or eastings). The number on the rotating
housing that is at the index pointer shows the grid bearing. Finally, you need
to adjust the grid bearing to allow for the magnetic declination, shown in the
declination diagram. If magnetic north is left of map north, add the degrees
of the declination to your compass bearing. If magnetic north is right of map
north (as it is in NSW), subtract the degrees of the declination from your
map heading.
Figure 10.13
Taking a grid bearing—
step 2
PH
360 20
309 340 N
0 40
32
Bearing
0
60
30
280
80
W E
10 0
260
12
0
24
14
0 0
22
20 0 S 160
180

To follow the bearing, the compass needs to be

held flat in the hand of the user, and the user needs to
rotate their entire body until the red magnetic needle is
aligned perfectly with the orienting arrow. The direction
of travel arrow now points towards the destination.
To follow this bearing, sight a feature on the way and
walk towards it. Repeat this procedure until you reach
the destination. 360 20
340
Figure 10.14 32
0 40
E
Taking a grid bearing—step 3
60
30
N
280
80
Magnetic bearing
260
10 0
0
12
S
To work out a magnetic bearing, you need to select a
24
0
0 14
W
visible feature and, holding the compass level, point 22 0
160
20 0 180
the direction of travel arrow towards the visible feature.

To find the bearing, turn the rotating housing until the
orienting arrow aligns with the red magnetic needle.
Then simply read the bearing at the index line.
Figure 10.15
Taking a magnetic bearing
Measuring distance
Measuring the distance to be covered on the map is
difficult to do precisely; however, there are a number
of ways to estimate the distance to be covered. One of
the most popular ways is to use a piece of string. Place
one end of the string at the starting point on the map. 360 20
340
Then carefully lay the string out along the intended 32
0 N 40
0
route, following the curves of the route as closely as
60
30
E
280
80
possible. When the destination is reached, simply mark
260
10 0
the finishing point on the string, straighten the string out W
0
12
24
0
and measure it against the map scale. 0
22
20 0 180
S
160
14
0
Figure 10.16 Using string to measure distance on a map
School School
5 6
1 2
0
My house My house

Figure 10.17 Walking speed

Using the Southern Cross
to locate the South Pole While walking speeds vary greatly; once you have
worked out the distance and you know the terrain
type, it is possible to estimate walking speed. A
commonly used ‘rule of thumb’ to work out walking
speed comes from the British Hill Walkers and is
Southern called Naismith’s Rule. This rule suggests:
Cross Large Magnetic Cloud
For every 5 kilometres of easy going, allow 1 hour.
Coal Sack For every 3 kilometres of easy scrambling, allow
1 hour.
Achernar
For every 1 kilometre of rough land, deep sand,
South Celestial Pole
Pointers
soft snow or thick bush, allow 1 hour.
Small Magnetic
Cloud Add an extra hour for every 500 metres up
(cumulative).
Add an extra hour for every 1000 metres down
(cumulative).
South Add an extra hour for every 5 hours, to allow
for fatigue.
Note that Naismith’s Rule is an estimate, and
individuals will need to adjust this rule to suit
themselves and the group they are walking with.
Natural navigation
Besides using a compass for navigation, it is also possible to find directions
using other means, including the stars and the Sun.
The stars in the southern hemisphere can easily be used to find an
approximate location of the South Pole. The first step involves locating the
Southern Cross. Once you have done this, there are three similar ways to
locate the South Celestial Pole and subsequently, the South Pole. It is worth
understanding all three ways, as debate on how to do it often arises around
campfires. Use figure 10.17 to explore each method.
The first way involves extending the long axis of the Southern Cross from
the bottom star four and a half times. This will give you the approximate
location of the South Celestial Pole. From there simply drop a straight line
down to the horizon to locate the South Pole.
The second way to locate the South Pole using the Southern Cross is
to extend the long axis of the cross below the cross. Then draw another
imaginary line starting half-way between the two pointer stars and at 90
degrees to a line joining the pointer stars together. Where the first and second
lines cross is, again, roughly the South Celestial Pole.
The last way to find the South Pole using the Southern Cross is to draw
a straight line between the bottom star in the cross and Achernar (the ninth
brightest star in the whole sky).The South Celestial Pole is approximately
half-way along this line.
The Sun can also be used to locate a bearing. All you need is an analogue
watch (or a drawing of the face of watch with the correct time on it) and,
using the Sun, you will be able to locate north. All you need to do is point the
12 o’clock mark to where the Sun is. Then north lies half-way between the
hour hand and the 12 o’clock mark. (Note that this only works in the southern
hemisphere).

Figure 10.18
North is halfway between Using a watch and the sun
the ‘12’ and the hour hand Sun Point 12
to locate the North Pole in
N to the sun
the southern hemisphere
12
9 3
It is worthwhile practising these techniques at

home, as they may be extremely helpful if you are Understand and apply
ever lost in the bush!
Using a compass and figure 10.10:
Emergency management skills 1 Calculate the distance between:
An emergency is cause for concern at any time but a Spot Height 275 and Spot Height 377
when the emergency is in a remote area, resources b Spot Height 377 and Corroboree Flat
are limited and help may be some time away. If c Corroboree Flat and Captain Spur
the situation is not brought under control quickly, (along the creek).
a manageable condition can rapidly deteriorate. 2 Apply Naismith’s Rule—how long would
Taking time to learn a few emergency management you estimate it would take to walk
skills is a valuable investment. between Corroboree Flat and Captain
Spur (along the creek).
Wilderness first aid 3 Calculate the grid bearing between:
While general first aid was covered in chapter 7, a Spot Height 275 and Spot Height 377
wilderness first aid is a specific discipline within b Spot Height 377 and Corroboree Flat.
general first aid. The two specific scenarios listed
here are possible situations that could arise while
participating in outdoor recreation in Australia.
With all first aid situations, the first priority is the safety of the rescuer,
followed by that of the rest of the group, then by that of the injured person(s).
It is important not to forget this key point, so that the rescuer does not become
part of the problem.
Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation refers to the human body’s ability to keep its core temperature
within certain boundaries. In normal environments, this temperature is
approximately 37 degrees Celsius; however, in hot or cold weather and with
exercise or illness, this temperature can change. If the body’s temperature
increases or decreases by even a few degrees, serious illness, or worse, can occur.
Heat-induced illness is called hyperthermia, and illness brought about by a drop
in the body’s temperature is called hypothermia. For a full description of these
conditions, please refer to chapter 7.
In the outdoor environment, it is important to be aware of these conditions
and to take precautions to prevent them from happening. Precautions include
wearing the appropriate clothing, staying hydrated, and keeping an eye on
each other for signs and symptoms so they can be treated early.

Snake bite
Australia has many different types of poisonous snakes. Although some
snake bites can be fatal, the number of people who actually die from them is
relatively low, especially if they receive the correct first aid.
As mentioned in chapter 7, the signs and symptoms of a snake bite will
vary depending on the type of snake and the amount of venom injected.
However, in Australia the treatment remains the same until experienced
Table 10.4 medical help is found. An overview of the signs and symptoms can be seen
Signs, symptoms and
primary management below. The table also outlines any possible considerations you may make in
of snake bites a wilderness setting.
Signs and symptoms (may vary) Treatment Considerations in the outdoors
• Intense pain at the site • Follow the DRABCD action plan, • If you can’t find a PIB you can make one
• Burning feeling where bitten as outlined in chapter 7 out of strips of clothes—be sure to keep
• Local swelling • Lie or sit the patient down the strips broad so they do not act as a
• Apply a Pressure Immobilisation tourniquet
• Swollen eyelids, lips, neck and face
Bandage (PIB) • Never remove the PIB
• Vomiting or nausea
• Ensure the casualty does not move • Minimise all movement of the patient
• Bite, scratch or fang marks
• Reassure the patient • Consider bringing a vehicle to the patient
• Sweating
• Monitor for shock and/or allergic or carrying the patient to the vehicle
• Blurred vision
reactions • Do not be afraid of asking the authorities
• Headache for a helicopter evacuation
• Call 000
• Muscle weakness
• Drowsiness
• Pain or tightness in chest
• Difficulty breathing
• Unconsciousness
What to do when you are lost

If you find yourself lost in the wilderness, do not panic, stop moving and
work through the following steps:
1 If your group is lost—keep the group together.
2 Find shelter—this may mean putting up a tent.
3 Sit down and do the following:
a Orientate your map and discuss as a group whether it is possible to
retrace your steps until you can identify a known location. This should
be easy if you have been navigating correctly.
b If the group decides it is not possible to retrace your steps, do not move.
Wait for help to arrive.
c Consider the following ways to signal for help:
i The international distress signal for help is three short whistle
blasts, followed by a long pause (at least a minute) and then
repeated at regular intervals.
ii Calling out with a distinctive call that carries, e.g. ‘Cooee’.
iii Laying out a tarpaulin in a clear area.
iv Tying a pack liner bag to a tree.
v Waving bright clothing.
vi Using a bright reflective surface as a signal mirror.
d If the weather is bad, be prepared to conserve energy, food and water
as a rescue party may be delayed.

Bushfire procedures
It is generally considered unwise to go bushwalking on extreme or even
high bushfire warning days, and it is certainly not wise to go into an area
where bushfires are burning nearby. If, however, you find yourself caught in a
bushfire, the NSW Fire Brigades recommend the following procedures:
Seek shelter in your vehicle or a large body of water—but never climb into
any type of water tank.
Never run uphill to escape a fire (bushfires spread more quickly uphill).
Try to find an open space such as a previously burnt-out area or rocky
ground, or clear litter away from around you and shelter behind your
backpack or a fallen log.
Stay low to the ground for fresh air and cover up exposed skin for
protection from radiant heat.
Never attempt to run through a bushfire unless it is small with flames less
than 1 metre in height (this should only be done as a last resort).
Use your mobile phone or CB radio (if working) to dial triple zero (000) to
notify the emergency services and the National Parks and Wildlife Service
of your situation and location.
Remember when camping to notify the National Parks and Wildlife Service
rangers of your location and obey fire restrictions.
What to do if lightning is present

If you think that you may be caught up in an electrical storm, start making a few
preparations early and, if possible, try to find substantial shelter in an enclosed
building. If there is no shelter around, move down from high peaks and off
ridges, and move away from tall trees and objects that could form lightning
conductors. If you are in a forested area, seek cover in low brushy areas. If you
are in an open area, try to find a low spot or a depression in the ground.
Once you have selected your spot to see out the storm, as the storm moves
overhead squat on the balls of your feet on whatever insulating material is
available. This may often be a sleeping mat, although a backpack, a coil of
rope, Personal Floatation Device (PFD) or even a pile of extra clothes can
provide insulation.
A nearby lightning strike can travel along the surface on the ground for over
50 metres as it dissipates. During this time, when it is moving over the ground
it seeks the path of least resistance, so your goal is to prevent it from travelling
up one leg and down the other (if your feet are apart) or through your vital
organs (if you’re lying down). So remember, in this situation, never lie down or
stand with your feet apart, as this will increase your chances of injury.
Flooded rivers
When you are out in the wilderness, you will generally have an idea of whether
the rivers are going to be flooded, as it will be raining or may have just finished
raining. However, sometimes it is possible that a rainstorm has passed upstream
from you and that a river you planned on crossing may now be flooded.
If you come across a flooded river, you need to ask yourself if you really
need to cross it and put yourself and your group in danger. Would it be better
to walk out another way, cross in another place, or even wait until the river
levels drop? Surely it would be better to be hungry and late rather than put
yourself in danger.


1 Imagine you are on a day walk in the Blue Mountains and you become lost. Describe how
you would build a shelter using natural materials.
2 Discuss various prevention strategies you could use to avoid becoming lost on a day walk.
Skills needed for other outdoor activities—

relevant to the experience
When participating in various outdoor recreational activities you need to
ensure that you, and/or the people in your group, have the skills necessary to
conduct the activity safely. The table below lists some of the skills required
for various activities.
Table 10.5
The specific skills
Canoeing Abseiling
needed for canoeing Forward stroke Site selection
and abseiling
Reverse stroke Anchor selection
Sweep stroke Linking of anchors
Draw stroke Knot tying: • figure of eight (on a bight) • Italian hitch
Sculling strokes • figure of eight (retrace) • double fisherman
Emergency stop • clove hitch • tape knot
• prussic knot
‘J’ stroke or rudder
Various belay techniques
Self rescue
Self-rescue
‘T’ Rescue
Partner rescue
There are a variety of ways to develop the skills needed to participate in

outdoor recreational activities like canoeing and abseiling. These include
attending certified courses, practising with knowledgeable others, or through
community organisations such as Scouts Australia.
What impact do group dynamics

have on the outdoor experience?
The very nature of outdoor recreation makes it an excellent setting for group
activities. When groups of people are put together in an exciting and dynamic
environment, they can create certain outcomes, such as team bonding,
discovering new skills or developing leadership abilities. These outcomes
can be planned, for example, the Wallabies attending an outdoor adventure
camp to specifically improve team cohesion and fitness, or the outcomes can
be unplanned and left to chance. Either way, a group participating in outdoor
recreation will be affected by the experience. Similarly, dynamics within a
group will also affect the experience. Understanding how group dynamics
work means outdoor leaders and instructors can have greater success when
planning outdoor recreation for specific outcomes.

Leadership styles
Whenever there is a group situation, there is a need for leadership. Whether
it is a captain of a sporting team, a principal of a school, a prime minister of a
country or an organiser on a weekend bushwalking trip, a good leader makes
a significant difference to the wellbeing of the group and the outcome of the
task. All leaders, including the ones listed above, have different styles and
ways of achieving their goals. A good leader will not only be able to identify
their natural leadership style, but also be able to modify their style to suit the
situation. Given the fact that the outdoors is a dynamic environment where a
situation can change quickly, the ability of a leader to modify and adjust their
style is even more important.
The four main leadership styles identified in outdoor recreation are:
Democratic
Democratic leadership is generally considered the most effective leadership
style. Democratic leaders offer advice and guidance to the group members.
They also listen to their group members and encourage their input when
group decisions are being made. Individuals in a democratically led group
often feel important and valued, resulting in increased motivation levels.
A weakness of democratic leadership is that it takes time to make
decisions, and input from inexperienced group members can be incorrect.
In addition, conflict may arise when different points of view are aired.
Laissez-faire
A laissez-faire leadership style is characterised by a very casual leader who
is often disorganised and leaves decisions to chance. This style can promote
leadership opportunities for group members, as they may feel forced to take
charge. This leadership style may be effective when group members are
skilled in the area of expertise; however, it often leads to poorly defined roles
and lack of motivation. It can also result in a dangerous situation developing,
as there may be a lack of guidance when required, for example, at the top of a
cliff or when crossing a river.
Autocratic
Autocratic leaders provide clear instructions for their group members, telling
them what needs to be done, when it should be done, and how it should be
done. With autocratic leaders, there is a clear distinction between leaders and
followers. These leaders make decisions independently of the group, often
allowing little or no input from the group. This style of leadership is often
required in potentially dangerous situations, where accurate decisions need to
made, and made quickly.
In an autocratically led group, members may feel as though the leader is
bossy or controlling, and that thoughts and input from other are not wanted.
This could possibly lead to frustration and conflict.
Strategic non-intervention
Strategic non-interventional leaders actively observe their group members
and step in when dangerous situations or valuable learning opportunities
arise.

This style of leadership, if used correctly, can promote group decision making,
teamwork and leadership within the group. If, however, the leader delays in
stepping in, or does not identify the need to step in, a dangerous situation
can arise.

1 Explain an appropriate leadership style for a group of friends heading out on an overnight
bushwalk.
2 Describe four situations that could arise on a cross-country ski trip where a schoolteacher
may use a different leadership style for each situation.
3 Discuss what type of leader you think you naturally are—and describe why you think this.
4 Discuss what type of leadership style a rock-climbing instructor may adopt.
Understanding group dynamics

People who work with groups and the actual group members can benefit from
having a greater understanding of people’s behaviour within groups. The
following section explains some of the theories underpinning the formation of
groups and dynamics within a group.
Stages of group dynamics

When people are first put together in a group situation to complete a task, it
has been suggested that the group goes through distinct five stages: forming,
storming, norming, performing and adjourning (sometimes known as
mourning).
Stage 1: forming
During this initial stage, individuals gather for the first time to form a group.
People are generally trying to be accepted by others in the group and avoid
controversy or conflict. Serious issues are often avoided and people tend to
concentrate on routine things such as deciding who does what and when.
This is generally a comfortable stage to be in.
Stage 2: storming
During the second stage of group development, individuals begin questioning
one another as important issues start to be addressed. Some people in the
group may lose patience and minor confrontations usually arise. These often
relate to the workings of the group itself, or to roles and responsibilities
within the group. Some people believe it is good to air their thoughts, while
others may suppress them, however, they may still be there under the surface.
Stage 3: norming
As the second stage progresses, certain rules for the group become established
and the roles and responsibilities within the group become clearer. People in
the group learn to understand each other and appreciate each others’ skills,
and they begin to feel part of a cohesive, effective group.

Stage 4: performing
This stage occurs after a group has been together for a while, but not all
groups get to this stage. During this stage, everyone knows each other well
enough to be able to work together. They trust each other and can change roles
and responsibilities almost seamlessly. This cohesiveness allows the group to
direct all its focus towards achieving the task.
Stage 5: adjourning
The final stage of group development is about completion and disengagement
from the task and the group itself. This is where the group ‘un-forms’ and the
group members go their separate ways and move on.
Figure 10.19
Good teamwork requires
practice, work and a leader
Conflict resolution
With an understanding of group dynamics and of how groups form, it is
possible to see that an important and healthy part of group development is
conflict. Knowing and understanding that conflict happens, means that group
leaders and group members can be aware of it and can put procedures in
place to resolve any conflict quickly. This enables the group to move on
and become more effective.
Team building
Teamwork is a large component of outdoor recreation, and being able to build
effective teams successfully and quickly is an important skill that outdoor
leaders and group members should work towards attaining. It is a skill that
can be constantly refined and perfected as every group situation is different.
Cooperation
The ability to cooperate within a team setting is a skill that does not just
happen, it is learnt and requires practice. It involves knowing how to
communicate tactfully, knowing when to offer suggestions and when to listen
to others. It also requires that members support group decisions, even if they
are not in total agreement with them.


Read the scenario below, and then answer the following questions.
Trainer steers trek to triumph;

Hawthorn members walk Kokoda track
Toowoomba trainer Glen Azar can Among their obstacles was pillars at one of the battle sights
lay claim to assisting Hawthorn in carrying 15 kg sand bags for an on the Kokoda Track.
their 2008 AFL premiership win. entire day, carrying 100 kg sand ‘The four pillars are of courage,
Early in 2008 Azar led a contingent bags on stretchers and carrying endurance, mateship and sacrifice
of the club on a gruelling trek on logs up mountains. ‘Everything and Hawthorn have put that in
the Kokoda Track providing them they did was to simulate how hard the gym,’ Azar said. ‘They believe
with the essential team-building it was for the Diggers on the Track,’ the players should show those
they needed to pull off their un- Azar said. qualities to themselves and each
likely triumph. He has walked the ‘Normally these guys would other’. Travis Tuck was awarded
Kokoda Track many times, but do it in five days, but because of the Bruce Kingsbury Award for
Azar said the Hawthorn group the obstacles they did it in eight the player showing the most team
would be hard to top for fitness. days. spirit on the walk. The award
While it took the group the ‘These guys are extremely fit. is named in honour of Victoria
usual eight days to complete the They’re like machines.’ Hawthorn Cross winner Bruce Kingsbury.
trek, they were forced to face a has done the trek previously and
number of obstacles each day. has adopted the wording from The Chronicle, 30 September 2008
1 Discuss why the extra ‘obstacles’ were included to make the trek harder for the players—
what benefit would this have had?
2 Participating in adventure training activities, like walking the Kokoda Trail, has certain risks,
for example, sprained ankles, malaria, and so on. Debate whether elite sporting teams
should face these risks prior to a long season—is adventure training worth the risks?
3 Using the stages of group dynamics, outline a series of situations that may have occurred
on the Kokoda Trail with the Hawthorn players.
Facilitation skills
Group work plays an important part in many outdoor recreational activities,
and being able to facilitate a group experience is an important skill that group
leaders and members should have. A good facilitator will be able to enhance
the effectiveness of a group by developing the processes that groups go
through. This typically includes improving how a group identifies and solves
problems, as well as how a group makes decisions. A good facilitator will
have excellent communication and decision-making skills and have a flexible
approach when dealing with groups.
Communication skills
Good communication involves being able to effectively transfer thoughts,
opinions and information between group members and to other people.
This may sound easy, but like all skills, excellent communication

requires practice. It is worthwhile developing your communication skills, as

poor communication can lead to misadventure, unhappy group members and
dangerous situations.
Practising how to communicate during outdoor recreation can be a fun
process, as it requires participating in outdoor recreational activities with
others, then reflecting on the interaction that occurs and working out any
strengths and weaknesses of the group.
Decision making
Encountering problems is, for many people, often an enjoyable part of many
outdoor activities. For others, the decision-making process surrounding
problems can be quite daunting. However, it need not be if you follow certain
steps. The steps involved in the decision-making process are:
1 Identify the exact problem and when it needs to be solved, i.e. is it
important and/or urgent.
2 Gather all the information and facts associated with the problem.
3 Brainstorm possible solutions.
4 Consider and compare the advantages and disadvantages of each solution.
5 Select the best solution.
6 Explain the decision to all involved, and implement it.
7 Reflect on the process afterwards and identify what can be learnt from it.
Flexibility
Being flexible in the outdoors does not just involve altering plans if weather
conditions change, or if a group member becomes ill. It also involves
flexibility on the leader’s part to select appropriate group management styles
and approaches. For example, a leader might decide before they meet a
group to take a democratic approach to leadership, however, when the leader
realises that the group is extremely confident and capable they might be
flexible and decide to take a strategic non-intervention approach.

1 Discuss how poor communication could affect the outcomes of a overnight canoeing trip—
give four examples. Outline how good communication would reduce these problems.
2 Describe how each step of the decision-making process can be applied to a group of novice
bushwalkers who are crossing a waist-deep river.
Understanding strengths and weaknesses

Identifying your own strengths and weakness, the strengths and weaknesses
of others in your group can lead to a successful and rewarding experience. For
example, identifying a stronger and fitter team member and giving them extra
group equipment to carry can make that person feel helpful and a valued team
member. Likewise, giving lighter group equipment to less able members can
help also make them feel valued, as they are still carrying something even if it
does not require the same amount of energy.

Participant readiness
Ensuring that a participant is ready to undertake various outdoor activities
is an important ethical decision that group leaders and individual group
members need to consider. Taking a direct approach and forcing people to do
activities that they may not wish to do can result in negative consequences.
However, giving group members the opportunity to challenge themselves
by letting them decide whether they participate in various activities or not
can be beneficial as it gives the individuals ownership of their decision and
responsibility of their actions.
Another important consideration when looking at participant readiness is
selecting an appropriate activity for that participant. That means considering
the age, fitness, prior expertise and maturity levels of all group participants
when deciding which type of recreational activity is going to be performed,
and where the activity should be conducted. Matching these skills with an
appropriate activity is vital if a safe and enjoyable, yet challenging experience
is to be had.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is commonly referred to as the belief in one’s capabilities to
achieve a goal or an outcome. For example, a person who cannot ride a horse
would probably have a poor self-efficacy with regard to horse riding. A person
who is a competent rider and who knows that they are skilled in this area
would have a high self-efficacy with regards to horse riding.
A well-planned and directed outdoor recreation experience, with a strong
leader, will have a positive effect on a person’s self-efficacy.
Balancing challenge and safety

Being able to balance the level of challenge and the risks associated with the
challenges can be extremely hard, especially when a leader needs to consider
the individual differences of the participants, for example, their skill level,
fitness, motivation, age and so on. This decision needs to be made whenever
groups are going into the outdoors. A poor decision can result in unhappy
participants, unsafe practices and unplanned outcomes, such as injuries.
While a good decision, where the participants are matched perfectly with the
correct level of challenge, will result in happy and fulfilled group members.
Pushing the comfort zone

The comfort zone refers to the environments or behaviours that people are
comfortable in. Pushing through the comfort zone so that participants go
beyond these areas is an important part of the growth process. When you are
outside your comfort zone, you often need to make decisions to get back into
your comfort zone. Many people use outdoor recreation to push other people’s,
or their own, comfort zones. For example, a teacher might take students
abseiling to teach them trust. When the student is on the cliff edge, they have
to make a decision about trusting the teacher, the ropes and their own ability
to abseil. On this edge, students may be pushing their comfort zones.
Pushing comfort zones is a delicate process, as pushing too far can have
negative effects, for example, the same student on the cliff edge being too
scared to participate and refusing to do the activity. This is where good group
facilitation skills are needed, to turn this potentially negative experience into
a positive one.


1 Discuss the ethical considerations that a leader might encounter
as they design an outdoor adventure experience that balances
challenge with safety.
2 Debate whether it is ethical to ‘push’ someone out of their comfort
zone if they do not want to go there.
3 Describe the difference between self-efficacy and self-esteem and
give examples.
chapter review
Recap
Outdoor recreation can be defined as a wide range of leisure, sport or recreational
activities that are undertaken outside.
People participate in outdoor recreation for a number of different reasons. These can
include, but are not limited to, stress management and relaxation, enjoyment, the
challenge and excitement offered, social interaction, appreciation of the environment or
for health and fitness reasons.
In order to participate safely in various outdoor pursuits, people need to realise
that a number of skills are needed. These include sport-specific skills like kayaking
strokes and map reading, as well as overarching environmental and emergency
management skills.
The environment plays an important part in any outdoor activity. The venue should match
the skill level of the group, and the weather should be monitored before and during
any trip.
A risk management plan should be developed before any trip, as it can help in identifying
any potential risks as well as any actions or precautions that could be taken to minimise
the risks.
The clothing used in outdoor pursuits should follow the three-layer system, as this will
allow for maximum heat retention and cooling efficiency. The system involves a base
layer to wick moisture away from your skin, a middle layer to capture the heat from your
body, and an outer layer to stop the wind and rain.
‘Leave no trace’ camping and ‘minimal impact’ procedures are two educational programs
that have been introduced to help preserve the environment from people who participate
in outdoor recreation.

Finding your way in a wilderness setting involves both compass- and map-reading
skills. Using a topographic map, one should know how to read grid references, take grid
bearings and identify land features. Using a compass, one should know how to orientate
a map, take a grid bearing and follow a bearing.
Understanding what to do if you are lost, caught in a bushfire or stuck in a thunder storm
is an essential emergency management skill that everyone who participates in outdoor
recreation should know.
Many factors affect the success of a group participating in outdoor recreation. Knowing
and understanding these factors can help to control them and potentially influence the
success of the group.

Outdoor Council Australia www.outdoorcouncil.asn.au Information about outdoor recreation in Australia
Leave no trace Australia www.lnt.org.au Information on minimal impact outdoor recreation
The Outdoor Recreation www.oric.org.au Information about the outdoor industry in NSW
Industry Council
Wilderdom www.wilderdom.com For general information about ‘living in

conjunction with nature’
Imagine you and three of your friends are about to embark on a three-day walk along
a remote section of the NSW South Coast. As leader of the group, you need to:
1 Outline three specific procedures that you will adopt to help protect the
environment during your journey. (3 marks)
2 Identify five possible risks you may encounter during your journey and
explain ways to manage these risks. (5 marks)
3 Identify and discuss four potential situations you may encounter on the
journey where a different approach to leadership may be required to
increase the safety or improve the dynamics of the group. (12 marks)

Suggested answers
CHAPTER 1
1 To outline means to sketch the concept in general terms or to indicate its main features.
Your answer could include:
• The name of each of the five dimensions of health—physical, mental/emotional,
cognitive/intellectual, spiritual and social.
• A brief description of each dimension, for example, the physical dimension of
health includes the functioning of the body, and things relating to this such as
physical activity and nutrition; the mental/emotional dimension of health refers to
our ability to cope and be resilient, and to recognise our emotions and so on.
• A statement about how each dimension of health relates to the other and if one
area of health is compromised this may have an affect on the other dimensions. (4 marks)
2 To explain means to relate cause and effect, to make the relationships between things
evident or to say why and/or how. Your answer could include:
• A brief description of what a person’s perceptions are—an individual’s picture of
what health means, how it looks and what they recognise as good or poor health.
• Our perceptions of health are formed or put together as a result of social
influences such as culture, religion, media, education, income, family and friends.
• These perceptions will shape how we value health and what meanings we give to it.
• You will need to include an example to show your understanding of how our
health perceptions are socially constructed. You could use the examples of young
people’s behaviour in cars, their relation to body image or their attitudes to
smoking, as mentioned in this chapter, or you can develop your own example
to illustrate your answer. (6 marks)
3 To identify means to recognise and name. To investigate means to plan, inquire into
and draw conclusions about. Your answer could include the following:
• Choose one health issue relating to young people from the list provided.
• List a number of risk and protective behaviours that are related this health
issue. You can find the risk and protective behaviours for each health issue in
this chapter but the lists provided are not definitive. Try to come up with other
behaviours for this issue.
• Look at the relationship between the different risk and protective behaviours. If a
person is able to include more protective behaviours in their lives in relation to
this health issue, does that counteract the risk behaviours and vice versa?
• Provide an example to show your understanding. For example, concerning mental
health, if a young person is feeling depressed and isolated and is beginning to
engage in risky activities or thinking about self-harm (risk behaviours), the risk can
be reduced if they:
• are aware of places they can go to seek help and to talk
• have supportive friends and family
• can possibly write about their feelings and emotions
• have some good coping skills such as problem solving (protective behaviours).
Alternatively, a young person’s coping skills could be poor and they do not have
a support network, which increases the impact that risk behaviours can have on
the person’s health and wellbeing. (10 marks)
PDHPE Pre END 4pp.indd 320 6/11/09 11:26 AM

CHAPTER 2
1 To outline means to sketch the concept in general terms or to indicate its main
features. Your answer could include the following points:
• The media is well placed to influence the health of individuals, as it is such a
prominent part of society.
• The media can have a positive or negative influence on health.
• The media can provide explicit messages and educate individuals about positive
health behaviours that they can incorporate into their life.
• The media can sometimes provide inaccurate information or misinformation
about health issues. (3 marks)
2 To propose means to put forward an idea or suggestion for consideration or action.

To answer this question, you need to address two determinants only. The proposed
suggestions will be dependent upon the determinants chosen, but could include
things such as:
• Family history—while family history is a non-modifiable determinant, if a person
is aware of diseases in their family, they can take measures to lessen their risk of
suffering from these diseases. For example, in relation to cardiovascular disease,
they could monitor blood pressure, eat a healthy diet, participate in regular
physical activity; in relation to breast cancer they could conduct regular breast
self-examinations and have mammograms; in relation to diabetes they could eat
a healthy diet, get regular physical activity and monitor their weight.
• Media—to modify this determinant, you could deconstruct health messages from
the media, make sure you are an informed and intelligent consumer, improve
health-literacy levels and know the criteria for evaluating health-related websites
and their information.
• Gender—to modify this determinant, make sure you are aware of the diseases and
illnesses that are common to each gender and their risk factors and put in place
behaviours to lessen these risk factors.
• Access to health services—you could research health services that are available
in your area and find out how to avail yourself of them; and/or research different
health-related services available online.
• Individual knowledge and skills—for this determinant, you could seek advice from
teachers and other adults for information on various coping skills, and practise
skills such as problem solving and conflict resolution with friends and family to
make these skills easier to use when needed. (5 marks)
3 To analyse means to identify components and the relationship between them;

draw out and relate implications. To do this critically, you need to add a degree
or level of depth, knowledge and understanding or questioning to your analysis.
Your answer could include each of the health determinants that needs to be
addressed—individual factors, sociocultural factors, socioeconomic factors
and environmental factors— and examples of how each determinant impacts
on the health status of young people specifically from low-SES backgrounds.
• Individual—attitudes around health may be poor, knowledge and understanding
may be low due to interrelating factors of education.
• Sociocultural—family and peers may not value a healthy lifestyle, if this is so,
they are more likely to believe misinformation from media, and possibly have
low health literacy.

• Socioeconomic—a low income may determine someone’s housing (for example,

it may be overcrowded or in an unsafe area); it will also determine education
levels, and education levels relate back to a young person’s ability to develop
knowledge and skills around health and health-enhancing behaviours
• Environmental—low SES may mean a person may be geographically further away
from health services; they may not be able to afford technology, such as access
to the internet, which can provide access to health information; they may lack
facilities and infrastructure, such as parks, recreation areas, cycle ways and so on,
which then makes it more difficult to partake in physical activity.
In your answer, the analysis should link the determinants to one another and to how
they combine to influence a person’s health behaviours. Each of the examples should
then explain how this will impact upon the person’s health status. (12 marks)
CHAPTER 3
1 In order to answer this question you should consider:
• Health promotion uses a variety of settings such as homes, schools and
workplaces to improve the health of individuals.
• Homes can improve the health of individuals by providing a safe and supportive
environment. This can be seen, for example, in chemicals and drugs being stored
in high locked cupboards; in parents assisting children to work through issues
rather than fighting; in providing healthy options at meal times and in participating
in physical activity together as a family.
• Schools provide various ways of improving the health of their community. Things
schools can do include providing counselling services to students to enhance
mental health, celebrating the school’s cultural diversity through multicultural
days, providing family breakfasts with a focus on healthy eating, bringing in police
as guest speakers in relation to safe partying and having canteens that provide
healthy food options.
• Workplaces provide various avenues by which staff and customers can improve
their health including:
• implementing policies that promote positive work habits, such as OH&S policies
on correct lifting of heavy materials and anti-bullying policies
• providing seminars on how to deal with stress
• providing flexible work hours to allow more family time
• participating in lunchtime sporting events
• conducting team-building activities to strengthen relationships. (3 marks)
2 In order to answer this question you should consider:

• The federal government is responsible for the health of Australia through the
provision of health services and health care and by regulating health products.
The federal government is responsible for allocating funding for preventative and
curative treatment. Establishing policies, such as OH&S, which protect workers
safety; anti-discrimination laws; labelling of food content on food products; and
displaying the effects of smoking on cigarette packaging are some measures the
federal government uses to take responsibility for the health of its people. The
federal government faces many challenges in ensuring all people have the same
access to health care and health services. It is responsible for ensuring equity of
resources and funding.

• The state government has a responsibility to ensure parks, roads and schools
enable positive health behaviours. Maintaining roads to ensure they are
roadworthy for drivers and pedestrians is a responsibility of the state government.
Implementing laws and actions to combat speeding, such as impounding P-plate
cars for those drivers exceeding the speed limit by 30 kilometres per hour is a
way the state government takes responsibility for an individual’s health. Another
strategy is changing laws to combat drunkenness and violence through the
implementation of 2 am curfews at certain venues that assists in preventing
drunken violence.
• Local governments take responsibility for their local communities by addressing
the various health needs and issues, and by implementing programs and events
to enable and empower individuals. Events such as Battle of the Bands at Ryde
during Youth Week celebrations allow young people to come together in a drug-
free environment to play music and feel connected. Providing activities for people
from non-English speaking backgrounds creates a sense of community for those
new to the area.
• While the various governments are responsible for the health of the populace
through the development of policies and environments conducive to positive
health, individuals also play a role in adopting these measures to enhance their
own health. (5 marks)
3 In order to answer this question, you should discuss concepts such personal skills,
strengthening community action, creating supportive environments, reorienting
health services and building healthy public policies in relation to your chosen
campaign. Using food habits and physical activity, for example, your answer
could show:
• The Australian government has developed a health-promotion campaign targeting
unhealthy food habits and lack of physical activity. The campaign ‘How do you
measure up?’ aims to provide society with the tools and knowledge to make
healthy lifestyle choices. The campaign uses a variety of strategies to assist people
to make these choices.
• This campaign works collaboratively with the federal, state and territory
governments to implement a national approach towards improving the health
of individuals.
• The campaign uses a variety of strategies to develop personal skills in individuals.
The campaign website provides individuals with a quiz to see how healthy they
are, which is an effective tool for assessing their current health status. If, after
completing the quiz, the results come back negative, the website also provides
information, recipes, recommended serves and helpful tips on improving your
health. The use of television commercials and advertisements further enhances
the skills of individuals to improve their health. These commercials visually show
individuals the effect of a lack of physical activity on a person’s health and provide
contact details for further assistance. The inclusion of these strategies makes this
healthy-promotion campaign effective.
• The campaign aims to strengthen community action through a variety of measures.
Including materials in various languages addresses different sub-communities,
encouraging different nationalities to take notice and adopt the strategies. Using top
chefs from various ethnic backgrounds to launch the campaign in a healthy cook-off
is an effective measure to engage the community in the program. The use of chefs
from a variety of cultures is effective, as individuals can see ways to make their own
cuisine healthier. To enhance the effectiveness of this campaign, communities could
run free cooking classes for adults, to show them how simple it is to cook healthy
and nutritious meals.

• Creating supportive environments for people to improve their nutrition and

physical activity levels is prominent throughout this campaign. The cook-off can
be viewed on SBS television so people at home can get ideas to create meals for
their family. Encouraging families to be physically active by providing information
creates a supportive environment at home. While no specific reference to school
activities are included, the campaign itself can inform schools about positive food
choices for their students, and about the benefits of creating physical activity
opportunities at school. Greater inclusion of ways in which workplaces can
improve the nutritional and physical activity levels of employees would enhance
the effectiveness of this campaign.
• Funding for this health campaign to promote healthy eating and physical activity
is part of reorienting health services. Allocating substantial money for the research
and promotion of this health issue is a positive aspect of this campaign. For
example, providing posters about healthy waist measurements on the inside of
shopping trolleys, on bus shelters or in shopping centres is an effective way to
reach people. To further enhance the effectiveness of this campaign, it could have
mobile vans that travel to rural and remote communities and provide them with
physical activity opportunities such as aerobic sessions or running groups. These
strategies would certainly improve the health of individuals.
• While there are no policies outlined in the campaign, the campaign has many
links to other health agencies that promote building healthy public policies. Links
to associations such as Nutrition Australia that have National Dietary Guidelines
for consumption of food, and the Australian government’s recommendations for
physical activity enhance and support this campaign. Notification of laws that
regulate food products and things such as labels on products and identification of
food additives could be advertised in the campaign to highlight the importance
of understanding the impact food can have on a person’s weight.
• Through the use of various strategies to promote healthy weight, the ‘How do
you measure up?’ campaign can be deemed effective in assisting individuals
to improve their overall health. (12 marks)
CHAPTER 4
1 In order to answer this question you need to consider the following:
• Bones can be classified based on their shape and size. There are five ways to
classify bones.
– Bones that are elongated and long in length are called long bones. They are
made of compact bone and contain spongy tissue on the inside; for example,
the humerus.
– Bones that are cube-like and mostly made of spongy tissue are short bones.
A thin layer of compact bone, which gives them shape, covers them. The tarsals
are an example.
– Flat bones are usually thin, flat and protect organs; for example, the skull.
– Bones that are usually complicated in shape and do not belong to one of the
other categories are called irregular bones; for example, vertebrae.
– Bones found in the body where tendons pass over a joint; for example, in the
foot, knee and hand are sesamoid bones. (3 marks)

• Blood plays a vital role in the efficient functioning of the body. Four components:
red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma make up blood.

• Red blood cells are responsible for transporting oxygen around the body. They
pick up oxygen from the lungs and transport the oxygen through red blood cells to
various body tissues. If red blood cells did not carry the oxygen to working tissues,
these tissues would die and the body would stop functioning. Red blood cells are
also responsible for carrying waste products such as carbon dioxide to the lungs
for waste disposal. If these waste products are not expelled from the body, the
body would not be as efficient. If you participate in aerobic-based activities over
time, this can increase blood volume and therefore increase the amount of red
blood cells in the body. This can enhance the oxygen-carrying capacity of
the blood.
• White blood cells are responsible for fighting infections. They attack and destroy
germs and infections in the body. If white blood cells were not present in the body,
infections would damage the body and make it less effective.
• Platelets are the clotting agents for the blood. When a blood vessel is broken,
platelets prevent excess bleeding as they stick to the damaged tissue. If platelets
were not present in the blood, uncontrollable bleeding would occur. (5 marks)

• The body responds to exercise in various ways. Depending on a person’s fitness
level, the cardiovascular and respiratory systems respond in different ways. The
cardiovascular system’s function is to transport oxygen around the body, whereas
the respiratory system’s function is to provide the exchange of gases so cell
tissues can function.
• When a person undertakes exercise, they place an increased demand on the
body’s ability to transport sufficient levels of oxygen to working muscles. When
the body is at rest, supply of oxygen to body tissue is met quite easily. The heart
is able to pump enough oxygenated blood into its vessels, which will transport
oxygen around they body. However, once the body starts to exercise, the demand
of oxygenated blood increases to ensure the body works effectively. This increase
in blood flow means the heart beats faster to pump more blood around the body.
If the body does not pump sufficient levels of blood to working muscles, the
person will fatigue and stop exercising.
• Exercise can strengthen the heart muscle so it can pump more blood into the
body with less contractions (cardiac output). Being able to pump the same levels
of blood in less contractions reduces stress on the body and enables a person
to exercise for longer periods of time. The body is able to meet the increased
demands for blood by beating its heart faster. For an unfit person, this could
cause a heart attack or stroke, if in a person who exercises regularly, it would have
limited negative impact on their health.
• Since the cardiovascular system and respiratory system work together, if the heart
beats faster, then the demand for oxygen uptake is increased. Exercise increases
the breathing rate of a person in order to meet the body’s oxygen debt. People
who are unfit will struggle to take in the added oxygen and therefore may find
themselves short of breath and easily fatigued. People who exercise regularly may
find that their breathing pattern changes when starting to exercise; however, as
time progresses, their breathing rate returns to a regular pattern, taking in ample
oxygen through the lungs for the blood to transport to the body’s tissues.
• While exercise places increased demands on the body, it enables physical
adaptations to ensure adequate oxygen is breathed in and transported round the
body and that waste products such as carbon dioxide, are expelled in order for
the body to perform effectively. (12 marks)

CHAPTER 5
1 Lactate response during a 1500-metre race:
a 1200 metres
b There is less oxygen available for the muscles; a reliance on anaerobic energy
sources for the sprint to the finish; and lactate is not being removed at the same
rate it was produced.
c An appropriate stategy would be active recovery consisting of jogging (as it uses
the same muscles) at a lower intensity to assist blood flow and removal of lactate.
d Heart rate will be elevated prior to the race, in anticipation. There will be a sharp
rise in heart rate during the early stages of the race. There will then be a more
gradual but linear rise in HR approaching maxHR by the end of the race. (5 marks)
2 The tests for the tennis player could be:

a aerobic fitness—the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test
b agility—the 5-0-5 test
c flexibility—sit and reach
d power—vertical jump
e coordination—alternate hand wall toss test. (5 marks)
3 The one-week training program using the FITT principle would need:
• Frequency—5 sessions per week
• Intensity—75 to 85 per cent maxHR
• Time—30–60 minutes
• Type—continuous, interval and circuit.
Therefore, two possible programs could be:

1 Doing a continuous jog/walk for 30 minutes at an intensity of 75 per cent maxHR
2 Completing a circuit involving squats, bench press, sit-ups, lunges, seated row,
shoulder press, tricep pushdown, arm curls; using three sets of 15 repetitions
with a light load and resting 30 seconds between sets. (10 marks)
CHAPTER 6
1 a 12.8 m/s (1 mark)
b 4.3 s (1 mark)
c 3.0 m/s2 (2 marks)
d Velocity slowed rapidly during the final second. (2 marks)
2 Centre of gravity must be located above the base of support in order to be stable.
Stability can be increased by:
• widening the base of support so that more movement of the centre of gravity can
occur without the line of gravity moving outside the base
• lowering the centre of gravity so that the body can lean further from side to side
without the line of gravity moving outside the base
• if force is expected from a particular direction, the base of support should be
widened in the direction of the force and the centre of gravity moved towards
the edge in a direction towards the force. (4 marks)

3 The legs are relatively dense because of their bone structure, while the rest of the body
has relatively low density due to its air-filled lungs. Therefore, the centre of
buoyancy is located more towards the head than is the centre of gravity.
• When suspended in water, the body is pulled up by the buoyant force and down
by the weight force, and rotates until the two forces are aligned one above the
other. Achieving a horizontal float requires the two forces to be at the same
location between the head and toes.
• Bending the knees and raising the arms will move the centre of gravity up towards
the centre of buoyancy.
• Lifting the hands out of the water will move the centre of buoyancy down towards
the centre of gravity. (4 marks)
4 Mass is a measure of the body’s inertia, its resistance to acceleration. Mass is

measured in kilograms and is determined by the amount of matter packed into
the body. Weight is a measure of the force of gravity pulling the body downwards.
Weight is determined by mass multiplied by acceleration due to gravity. On Earth,
weight is proportional to mass, but astronauts moving away from the Earth will
experience less weight when gravity is reduced. However, their mass, and hence
their inertia, will always remain the same. (2 marks)
5 Newton’s second law states that the acceleration of an object in response to a

force is proportional to the force applied and inversely proportional to the mass
of the object. A tennis ball has a much greater mass than a table-tennis ball.
Therefore, the tennis ball must be hit with more force to achieve an equal
acceleration to the table-tennis balls. A large tennis racquet has a larger mass,
and also moves at a higher velocity because of its longer handle length. The mass
and velocity of the racquet therefore give it more momentum, which can be used
to impart a large force onto the ball. (4 marks)
CHAPTER 7
1 To describe means to provide the characteristics and features of a head injury and
its management. Consider the following:
• Signs and symptoms can include—varying levels of consciousness, drowsiness,
confusion; slurred speech; vomiting and/or nausea; bleeding or fluid discharge
from ears, nose or mouth; a difference in size or shape of pupils; blurred vision
and loss of memory.
• Management of a head injury involves following DRABCD, while supporting the
casualty’s head and neck.
• Your answer should also include what to do if the person is conscious (place
in a comfortable position with head and shoulders raised) or unconscious
(place in the recovery position), and what to do if they are bleeding or have fluid
coming from the ear. (3 marks)
2 The term ‘distinguish’ asks you to note the differences between hyperglycaemia
and hypoglycaemia. You then need to make clear or plain (clarify) the management
of each condition. You answer should include the following:
• Hypoglycaemia is a medical emergency that arises when a diabetic’s blood sugar
levels become too low. It is generally caused by missing meals, eating too many
carbohydrate-rich foods, overly strenuous exercise and/or drinking alcohol.
• Hyperglycaemia is a medical emergency that arises when a diabetic’s blood
sugar levels become too high. It can be caused by sickness, infections, too many
carbohydrate-rich foods and/or not enough insulin.

• Management for hypoglycaemia involves getting the person’s blood sugar levels
up by giving them a quick source of carbohydrate, such as jelly beans, followed by
a longer acting carbohydrate. The person should be monitored and reassured. If
unconscious, follow DRABCD.
• Management for hyperglycaemia involves assisting the person to administer
insulin or other medication, giving them sugar-free drinks and seeking medical
assistance if necessary. If unconscious, follow DRABCD. (5 marks)
3 To explain means to discuss why and how. Your answer should include the following:
• Situational analysis—describe what should be looked for in a situational analysis.
• DRABCD—go through each step of the DRABCD Action Plan highlighting what it
means, what should be done at that step, why you do it and what should happen
next.
• STOP procedure—explain what would be done to assess a person who was
conscious and did not have serious or life-threatening injuries or illness.
• It is important to give information in your answer about why each step is included.
For example, you check for danger to ensure safety for yourself, the victim and
any bystanders; and you place an unconscious person in the recovery position to
maintain good head tilt and to ensure any fluids drain from the mouth and do not
block the airway. (12 marks)
CHAPTER 8
Your answer could include:
• Subjective appraisal is based on the impressions or feelings of the person who is
looking at a performance. For example, you could ask a group of people what they
thought about a dance performance. Subjective appraisal can vary from person to
person, as it is based on thoughts or opinion.
• Objective appraisal is a non-biased assessment of a performance against set
criteria, for example, the use of game statistics or using marking criteria to judge
a gymnastics routine. The inclusion of criteria means that the observation is based
on facts. (2 marks)
2 To explain means to relate cause and effect, and tell how. Your answer could include:
• A process is a series of steps that must be adhered to in order to create
movement.
• Every movement needs a starting point. To compose movement there needs to be
a purpose, which defines why the movement will occur.
• The purpose of movement will vary between mediums. You could give some
examples of movement purpose in your answer: such as to entertain, to score or
to communicate an idea.
• Purpose is more meaningful as there is motivation attached to it. Motivation
allows composers to be more creative.
• Once the purpose and motivation have been established, the composer needs to
decide what skills can be used that are relevant to the purpose of the movement;
for example, locomotor, non-locomotor, manipulative or a combination of these.
• During the process of creating movement, it is important to explore variations of
movement, for example, moving faster or slower.
• Improvisation is a part of creating movement, it provides different ways to
explore themes. (6 marks)

3 To analyse means to identify components and the relationship between them, to

draw out and relate implications. To do this critically, you need to add a degree or
level of depth, knowledge and understanding or questioning to your analysis.
Your answer should identify your movement medium clearly, relate all your
examples back to that medium, and cover each element of composition and its
component parts.
• Space—analyse how the use of direction, level, dimensions and patterns/
formations can be used in your chosen medium and give relevant examples.
• Dynamics—analyse how force and flow apply to you medium and give relevant
examples.
• Time and rhythm—analyse how beat, tempo and accent, duration, momentum,
pacing and timing can be used in your chosen medium and give relevant
examples.
• Relationships—analyse the relationships that are evident in your chosen medium
(other people, apparatus or equipment, formations and positions) and give
relevant examples.
• In order to make your answer a critical analysis, you need to also provide
information about the impact the manipulation of these elements has on
movement composition and performance in the chosen medium. (12 marks)
CHAPTER 9
1 • Attitudes to fitness are heavily influenced by advances in research, enhanced
technology and cultural trends.
• Current attitudes are based strongly around concerns related to obesity and costs
associated with chronic conditions that can be reduced with enhanced levels of
fitness, such as cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes.
• Previous eras have been defined by the growth of key trends such as jogging
and weight training (1970s), aerobics and celebrity-workout videos (1980s) and
personal training (1990s). (4 marks)
2 • Pilates involves completing a sequence of movements in a highly controlled

fashion. Through Pilates, a greater understanding of the body’s ideal position
during movement is developed, together with improved core body strength.
Pilates movements can isolate muscle groups to strengthen weak muscles and/or
lengthen tight, bulky muscles. The aim is to create balance within the body.
• Pilates is suitable for men and women and for people of all ages, although pre-
screening is recommended. Women have higher rates of participation, suggesting
it better meets their fitness needs and preferences.
• People wanting improvements in flexibility and core strength would form a
suitable profile. In addition to women, some people with sport-specific needs
around these areas may also form a suitable profile. (4 marks)
3 To analyse means to identify components and the relationship between them;

to draw out and relate implications.
• Common strategies used to advertise and promote fitness products and services
include offering free trials; offering a free fitness assessment; using existing
members to attract family and friends to join up; and using celebrity role models.
• These strategies have proven effective over time. Free trials and free fitness tests
provide an opportunity to showcase what you have to offer a potential client and
to establish a relationship with them. Contact details are also usually collected at
this time offering future potential for direct marketing.

• Having existing members encourage friends and family to join the gym is a cost-
effective strategy that can be win–win. The member receives a reward in the form
of a reduced cost of their membership and they also have someone to exercise
with. The gym benefits from getting a new member.
• Celebrity role models are renowned for being a deciding factor in people choosing
to spend money on their own fitness and to spend it on a particular product or service. (12 marks)
CHAPTER 10
Your answer could include the following:
• Use fuel stoves instead of open fires, as this will reduce the likelihood of a
campfire turning into a bushfire.
• Carry out everything that you carry in. This means that all food scraps, wrapping
paper and so on will be taken out of the wilderness setting, therefore, reducing
our impact on the environment.
• Wash cooking utensils away from waterways to keep the water pure.
• Where possible, stick to tracks over headlands rather than make new tracks. (3 marks)
2 To identify means to list the risks and to explain means to provide reasons how or why.
Possible risks could include:
• Encountering flooded rivers—obtain weather forecasts and do not cross flooded
rivers.
• Being caught by rising tides—check tidal charts on rocky sections.
• Exposure to the sun, leading to heat stroke—wear appropriate clothing and follow
SunSmart rules. (5 marks)
3 To identify and discuss means to list and describe in detail. Your answer should include
the following:
• Democratic leadership—generally considered the most effective leadership,
although it can be time consuming.
• Laissez-faire leadership—a casual leadership style, but can be effective when
group members are skilled.
• Autocratic leadership—can be beneficial in potentially dangerous situations when
strong leadership is needed.
• Strategic non-intervention leadership—the leader observes from a distance
and steps in when valuable learning experiences occur, or when dangerous
situations arise. (12 marks)

Glossary 331
Glossary
Abstinence means not partaking in a particular activity or behaviour, for example,
drinking alcohol or having sexual intercourse.
Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity. This is a similar concept to velocity
itself. While velocity tells us how quickly an object changes its position,
acceleration tells us how quickly it changes velocity.
Acceleration due is the rate of acceleration experienced by an object falling under the influence
to gravity of gravity. On Earth, acceleration due to gravity is approximately 9.8 m/s2.
It varies slightly with latitude and height above sea level but the change is
very small, with gravity on top of Mount Everest being only 0.3 per cent less
than that at sea level. The value 9.8 will be correct to a single decimal place
anywhere on Earth.
Actin is a protein that aids cell movement; it is important in the contraction of
muscles.
Action is movement produced by a muscle.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the chemical compound found in the body that produces energy.
Adrenalin is a hormone that increases the body’s heart rate and blood pressure. It is
manufactured by the body but can also be produced synthetically.
Advocate means someone who argues for a cause as a supporter or a defender, in this
case, of positive health.
Aesthetically pleasing refers to when something is pleasing to look at; it has a sense of flow
and balance.
Agility is the ability to change direction rapidly with minimal loss of speed or balance.
Airway is the means by which the body gets air into the lungs. The airways consist of
the mouth, nose, throat and the bronchial tubes that lead to the lungs.
Anatomical position is a reference point within the body that is used to describe and locate
body parts.
Anatomy is the study of the body’s structures and how they interrelate.
Appendicular skeleton consists of the upper and lower limbs, shoulder and hipbones that attach
the limbs to the axial skeleton.
Archimedes’ Principle says that the size of the buoyant force is equal to the weight of water
displaced by the body. This means that to maximise the buoyant force,
as much of the body as possible should be kept below water.
Assessment is an evaluation of the situation.
Average acceleration can be calculated by dividing the change in velocity by time (like velocity,
acceleration can only be directly calculated as an average between two points
in time).
Average velocity of an object is measured by considering the change in displacement divided
by the time taken.
Axes is the plural of axis. An axis is a mathematical line used to describe
displacement as distance from some arbitrary zero position. If two or
three axes are used, these are located perpendicular to one another so that
displacement can be measured independently along each axis.

Axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column and rib cage; it forms the long axis of
the body.
Binge drinking refers to the act of drinking heavily over a short period or drinking
continuously over a number of days or weeks. People who binge drink
tend to drink with the sole purpose of getting drunk.
Body fluids include blood, saliva, mucus, vomit, urine, tears, sweat, semen, vaginal fluid.
Buoyancy is an upward force on the body experienced when the body is immersed in
water. The effect of buoyancy is to reduce the apparent weight of the body by
opposing gravity.
Bystander is someone who is present at a particular event or situation but is not directly
involved—an onlooker.
Cardiorespiratory is the ability to perform strenuous exercise for a sustained time without
endurance fatigue.
Cardiovascular drift happens when cardiac output is kept constant in the latter parts of prolonged
exercise and is achieved by a slight increase in heart rate as stroke volume
slightly decreases even though workload stays the same.
Cartilage is a tough, elastic, fibrous tissue found in the body; for example, between
joints, in the nose and in the ear.
Cavitation is resistance caused by an air pocket behind the object being sucked along in
its wake. This same effect also occurs in water, where fluid is dragged along
behind an object.
Centre of buoyancy is the point in the body where the amount of volume under the water is
equally distributed on either side. The centre of buoyancy tends to be higher
in your body than the centre of gravity, because of the effects of dense legs at
one end and low-density lungs towards the other end.
Centre of gravity is the point at which the weight of a body is balanced above, below and on
either side.
Chlamydia is a sexually transmitted bacterial infection, which can affect the penis,
cervix, fallopian tubes, anus, and throat; it can cause serious health problems,
such as pelvic inflammatory disease and infertility, if left untreated.
Compact bone is an external layer of tissue that forms the hard surface of a bone.
Conscious refers to a person being alert and awake.
Consequences are what may happen because of a particular action.
Construct is something that is formed or put together as a result of various ideas or
influences.
Context the circumstances surround a particular situation, the setting in which
something occurs.
Continuous training involves exercising non-stop for a minimum of 20 minutes up to several
hours.
Contour lines are lines that join points of equal elevation.
Conventions refer to the customary way that things are done.
Criteria are standards or principles by which something can be judged or decided.
Debilitating is something that is weakening; stopping a person from moving forward.
Demeanour is the way a person behaves or looks.

Glossary 333
Density is calculated from the mass of an object divided by its volume. Water has a
density of 1 kg/L because 1 litre of water has a mass of 1 kg. If an object is
less dense than water then it will float, as the weight of water displaced will
be greater than body weight; meaning the buoyant force will be larger than
body weight. An object denser than water will sink because the buoyant force
will be less than body weight.
Detrimental means damaging or making something worse.
Developing countries are those with lower-level economies whose citizens are mostly agricultural
workers.
Diabetic coma is where a diabetic is unconscious due to blood sugar levels being too low or
too high.
Displacement is the location of an object, measured with respect to some known point.
Distance is the path travelled by an object as it moves from one displacement to
another.
Drag is used interchangeably with ‘resistance’ in biomechanics. Drag increases
with the density of the fluid and in proportion to the square of velocity.
Other effects on total drag are best considered by referring to the individual
components: surface drag, form drag and wave drag.
Drink walking is walking whilst drunk. Drink walkers are likely to stagger onto the road, not
use pedestrian crossings, and may fall asleep or lay down on the road. These
factors increase their risk of being hit by cars and seriously injured or killed.
Dynamic means characterised by energy or effective action, active, forceful; the
opposite to static.
Elevate means raising the limb/s to reduce blood flow to the area.
Emergency means an unforeseen or sudden occurrence. Many emergencies involve
danger to the health and wellbeing of the people involved and demand
urgent attention.
Emergency services are the police, ambulance and fire brigade.
Empower means to give an individual the knowledge, skills and understanding to make
a difference.
Enable means to provide an individual with the skills or opportunity to make
decisions.
Epiglottis is an elastic cartilage that opens to allow air into the trachea and closes when
food goes to the oesophagus.
EpiPen is an auto-injector of adrenalin, which is used to treat anaphylactic shock.
A person diagnosed with anaphylaxis will carry an EpiPen.
Ethics is the study of morality, where morality refers to the ‘rightness’ or ‘goodness’
of matters.
Execution is the delivery of movement, the way it is performed.
Exercise involves participating regularly in a structured activity or series of activities,
which can improve fitness.
Explicit is an idea or concept that is very clearly expressed.
Flexibility is the ability to move a muscle through a complete range of motion.
Fluid resistance is a force that opposes movement through a fluid.

Form drag is determined by the size and shape of an object. Objects with lower form
drag have a narrower profile and a tapered shape at the back.
Friction is a force present between two objects that are sliding past, or tending to slide
past each other. Friction acts in the direction opposite to the movement of the
objects, tending to oppose the movement.
Frontal area is the area of the object viewed head on in the direction of movement.
Game strategies are set patterns of movement sometimes referred to as tactics or plays that
players in a team will use to help them achieve the best game outcome.
Haemoglobin are red blood cells, responsible for carrying oxygen around the body.
Health behaviour is any activity by an individual that aims to promote, protect or maintain
their health.
Health-enhancing are behaviours beneficial to a person’s health, such as healthy eating,
behaviours physical activity, communicating with others and not smoking.
Health promotion are measures taken to effect positive change in an area of health at both
interventions individual and community levels.
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus.
Holistic refers to viewing health as something that involves the whole person (mind,
body and spirit) rather than just looking at an illness or disease.
Holistic approach means that in addition to placing our focus on the physical dimensions
of health, we also emphasise mental, emotional and sometimes spiritual
dimensions with a view to supporting and aligning the dimensions of the
whole person.
Homogenous means alike or all the same.
Hyperventilation is an abnormal increase in depth and rate of breathing.
Hypoventilation is abnormally slow and shallow breathing.
Hypoxia is a lack of oxygen in body tissues.
Immobilisation means reducing a patient’s movement as much as possible to reduce the risk
or further injury.
Immunisation means to make immune, especially by inoculation.
Implication refers to what might happen as a result of something else.
Implicit is an idea or concept that is implied rather than clearly stated.
Impulse can be calculated as force multiplied by time. For example, a force of 100
Newtons applied for a time of 2 seconds produces an impulse of 200 N s.
Incidental physical is unplanned movement that occurs normally within an everyday lifestyle,
activity such as walking to the bus stop instead of driving, or using the stairs instead
of an elevator.
Inertia is the resistance of an object to acceleration. If an object has a large inertia,
then it is difficult to accelerate. That is, a stationary object with large inertia
will be difficult to start moving, while a moving object with large inertia
will be difficult to stop. The inertia of an object is determined by its mass,
measured in kilograms.
Infrastructure is the basic framework of a community; the roads, railways, schools and other
permanent structures.

Glossary 335
Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of an object at a specific instance in time. Instantaneous

velocity can change within the period used to calculate average speed.
Intercostal means between the ribs.
Interrelated means something that is connected or linked to something else.
Interval training involves completing a number of prescribed bouts of exercise, each followed
by a recovery period.
Intricacy refers to the difficulty, complexity or sophistication of a movement.
Intrinsic reasons come from oneself, without regard to outside factors.
Joint is an area where two or more bones meet.
Kilopond is a measure of force defined as the magnitude of the force exerted on
1 kilogram of mass by a 9.80665 m/s2 gravitational field (standard gravity,
a conventional value approximating the average magnitude of gravity
on Earth).
Laminar flow is fluid travelling in straight lines, like flat sheets. Laminar flow of a fluid will
result in that fluid tending to remain travelling in a straight line as it passes
an object, potentially increasing the size of the air pocket behind the object.
Lifestyle is a way of living where individual characteristics combine with the social
and environmental conditions.
Line of gravity is an imaginary line drawn vertically downwards from the centre of gravity.
Manipulation means to change or alter in some way.
Marginalise is to regard a group of people as less important than others, treating them
differently and not affording them the same advantages as others.
Mass is measured in kilograms and refers to the amount of matter in your body. It
can affect the motion of an object. We must always be very careful to define
mass differently from weight.
Mastery means to have knowledge in and control over something. In physical activity,
it is the ability to perform a skill or movement at a high level. It involves
perfecting the move.
Maximum heart rate can be estimated at 220 minus the person’s age.
Mediate means to have different parties coming together to work towards a common
health goal or issue.
MedicAlert bracelet is a bracelet worn by people with a medical condition, allergy or taking
certain medications to inform others of these conditions/illnesses.
Medullary cavity is the space inside the bone where bone marrow is produced.
Melanoma is a malignant cancer of the skin. Melanoma is the fourth most common
cancer.
Mitochondria is a cell that is responsible for breaking down nutrients to create energy for cells.
Modifiable means able to be changed or altered.
Momentum is sometimes defined as the ‘quantity of motion’. Momentum is calculated
from the mass of an object multiplied by its velocity.
Mood disorders affect a person’s emotional balance. Mood may be too low (depression),
too high (mania), or too high at some times and too low at others (bipolar
disorder).

Morbidity rates are illness and injury rates in a population.

Mortality rates are death rates.
Movement medium is the context in which movement occurs, such as dance, gymnastics,
aerobics or games.
Movement phrases are a number of related skills or actions.
Muscular endurance is the ability to generate force over a period of time.
Myofilament is the term for the chains of (primarily) actin and myosin that pack a muscle
fibre.
Myoglobin is a protein that has oxygen attached; it provides reserve levels of oxygen to
muscles during high levels of physical activity.
Myology is the study of muscles.
Myosin is a protein that forms the thick myofilaments of muscle and binds with actin
for muscle contraction.
Natural resource is the sustainable management of Australia’s natural resources, such as our
management land, water, marine and biological systems.
Newton is the standard measure of force, abbreviated using a capital N. Named after
Sir Isaac Newton, a seventeenth-century mathematician and physicist, one
Newton (1 N) is the amount of force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kg at a
rate of 1 m/s2.
Newton’s first law (also known as the law of inertia) states that a body will maintain a state
of motion of rest or constant velocity in a straight line unless acted on by an unbalanced
external force.
Newton’s second law states that when a force is applied to an object, the object
of motion experiences an acceleration in the direction of that force that is directly
proportional to the force applied and inversely proportional to the mass of
the object. Known as the law of acceleration, this law is usually expressed
mathematically as acceleration equals force divided by mass.
Newton’s third law is the law of reaction. When one object exerts a force on a second, another
of motion force is applied back onto the first object, which is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the original force. This law is often stated as ‘every
action has an equal and opposite reaction’.
Outdoor recreation refers to a wide range of leisure, sport or recreation activities undertaken
outside.
Overuse injuries occur when repetitive actions place undue stress on muscles, bones and
joints.
Paraplegia/ is damage to a person’s spinal cord that results in the inability to move
quadriplegia the limbs below the damage. Paraplegia refers to two limbs (legs) and
quadriplegia refers to four limbs (legs and arms).
Phillips, the is an original balance beam mount, named after American gymnast Kristie
Phillips, and described as a press to side handstand, front walkover to side
stand on both legs.
Physical activity is the overarching term that includes all movement-related activities that
have a physical dimension, including exercise.
Physiology is the function of the body’s structures and how they work.
Potential refers to the possibility of something occurring—a yet to be reached capacity.

Glossary 337
Power is the ability to generate force as quickly as possible.

Priorities are the most important or urgent tasks. In a first aid situation, setting
priorities refers to deciding which condition is most in need of treatment.
Proprioception is an awareness of where the body is in space, and the capacity of the body
to determine where all of its parts are positioned at any given time.
Quadriplegia/ is damage to a person’s spinal cord that results in the inability to move
paraplegia the limbs below the damage. Paraplegia refers to two limbs (legs) and
quadriplegia refers to four limbs (legs and arms).
Reinforce means to strengthen.
Relative means that something exists in comparison to something else; it has some
relation to something else.
Repetition is the number of times the load is lifted consecutively before a rest.
Rescue breaths means breathing for a non-breathing person by blowing air into their mouth
or nose.
Risk management plan is a document that identifies any potential risks associated with an activity
and strategies to manage these risks.
RM stands for Repetition Maximum, which refers to the heaviest load that can
be lifted once.
Rules are a set of governing principles or regulations.
Scale is the ratio between distance on a map and the corresponding distance on
the ground.
Seizure means a fit or convulsion.
Self-regulation refers to the process by which industries, organisations or individuals
commit to meeting a set of agreed standards or codes. It is not a legislative
requirement but is rather an acknowledgment that behaviours identified in
the standards or code represent good practice and behaviours that fall outside
these should be avoided.
Sense of self is how a person percieves themselves. The unique qualities that make up an
individual.
Signs of life are consciousness, breathing and movement.
Sliding filament theory is the process where the thin muscle filaments slide over the thick muscle
filaments to contract.
Social cohesion is the things that bond people within a society; including tolerance, social
equality and fairness.
Social gradient is the term used when referring to the link between socioeconomic status
(SES) and health.
Socioeconomic status relates to an individual’s or a family’s income, education, occupation and
(SES) standing in the community.
Speed of an object is measured by considering the total distance travelled, divided
by the time taken.
Sphygmomanometer is a pressure gauge for measuring blood pressure.
Spongy bone is the internal layer of tissue within a bone that usually looks like a sponge.
Steady state is when your heart rate plateaus as exercise demands are met.

Sternum is the breastbone found in the upper-middle section of the chest.

Stigmatise means to disapprove of a person or group because they are perceived as being
different; making it clear that something is socially unacceptable.
Strength is the maximal force that can be generated in one repetition of a movement.
Surface drag is caused by friction between the surface of an object and the fluid
surrounding it. A larger surface area or a rougher surface will increase the
amount of surface drag present.
Thermoregulation refers to the body processes through which heat is gained and lost so as to
maintain the ideal body temperature of approximately 37 degrees Celsius.
Topographic map is a detailed and accurate graphic representation of cultural and natural
features on the ground.
Trait means a distinguishing feature, characteristic or quality.
Turbulent flow is fluid moving chaotically in many directions. Because the fluid is already
changing directions frequently, it tends to fill in behind an object moving past
and therefore reduces the size of the air pocket.
Velocity (or speed) of an object may be formally defined as the ‘rate of change in
displacement’. That is, velocity tells us how quickly an object changes its
displacement from one location to another.
VO2 max is the maximum amount of oxygen in millilitres one can use in one minute,
per kilogram of body weight.
Wakakirri Festival is a national performing and visual arts festival for primary schools that
challenges students to create a story, make an impact and share it with
Australia. Wakakirri means to describe the process of storytelling through
dance.
Wave drag is produced when an object moves near the boundary between two different
types of fluid (e.g. water and air).
Weight is a force equal to your body mass multiplied by the acceleration due to
gravity. In mechanics, weight is a force measured in Newtons, never a mass
measured in kilograms.
Wellbeing refers to a person’s experience of feelings of happiness, contentment and
satisfaction.
Wheels user is a term that incorporates bicycle riders, skateboarders, roller-bladers and
roller-skaters.

Acknowledgments 339
Acknowledgments
The authors and publisher would like to gratefully acknowledge the following
for permission to reproduce copyright material.
Photographs
Australian Associated Press/AP/AFP/Valerie Hache, 156; Getty Images/
Carl de Souza, 171 centre, /Jon Gray, 261 top left, /Jeff Gross, 142 top, /
Sajjad Hussain, 243 left, /JupiterImages, 166, 173 both, 288, /Manchan, 209, /
Marvin E Newman, 171 right, /Purestock, 10 bottom, /Brian Skerry, 171 left,
iStockphoto/Abejon Photography, 261 bottom left, /akurtz, 77, /allgord, 268, /
Keith Binns, 266, /claylib, 262, /elkor, 221 left, /forgiss, 287 bottom, /Liv Friis-
Larsen, 205 bottom, /Anton Gvozdikov, 286, /Kevin Jay, 284, /killerb10, 272, /
Rich Legg, 261, top right, /LisaFX Photographic Designs, 217, /Juan Monimo,
283, /monkeybusinessimages, 278, /Perderk, 17 bottom, /POBox, 265, /Daniel
Silva, 243 right, /splain2me, 205 top, /Sportstock, 313; /Alexander Yakovlev,
142 bottom; Laerdal Pty Ltd, 189 top; Long Reef Golf Club, 273; Newspix/Kym
Smith, 66; Photolibrary, 276, /Alamy Images 282, /Buzz Pictures Ltd, 287 top,
/Erik Isaksen, 235 bottom /Stock4B, 222; Peter Richardson, 297; Shutterstock/
Wolfgang Amri, 233 left, /Olga Besnard, 235 top, /Hannahmariah, 228 bottom,
/Alexander Kalina, 221 right, /Kzenon, 37, /Andre Nantel, 270, /Pete Niesen,
233 right, /Orange Line Media, 11 bottom, 54, /Kristian Sekulic, 11 top, /
Marek Slusarczyk, 10 top, /Tracey Whiteside, 38; Sport the Library/AAP
image, 128, /Delly Carr, 131 top, /B. Crockford, 138, /Jeff Crow, 132 right, 221
centre, /Lucie Di Paolo, 134, /Chris Elfes, 228 top, /Carlos Furtado, 141, /
Icon Sports Media, 223, /Tony McDonough, 132 left, /Photosport, 229, /Press
Sports, 140, /Tom Putt, 123, /Steve Robertson/ASP Australasia, 267, /Clifford
White, 261 bottom right.
Other material
Extract from website, The Advertising Standards Bureau, 280; article, ‘Brain
injury victims can seem ok, symptoms delayed’, The Associated Press,
19 March 2009, 195; images reproduced with permission of the Asthma
Foundation New South Wales, 60 bottom, 207; performance scoresheet,
Auscheer, 248; article, ‘Talent hunt for next generation of Olympians goes
online’, Ausport, 29 April 2009, 137; advertisement, ‘Give your kids the run
around’, used by permission of the Australian Government, 63; table data
from the Australian Institute of Health & Wellbeing, 8, 13 both, 14 top, 16
both, 17 top, 27 top, 71, 74; logo, The Black Dog Institute, 61 top; screenshot,
‘Kids Helpline’, Boystown, 47; logo, Cancer Council New South Wales, 61
bottom; cartoon, CartoonStock.com, 50; Triple Zero logo, Commonwealth
Attorney General’s Department, 186; images adapted with permission,
Copyright © Commonwealth of Australia – Geoscience Australia, 2005,
299, 300, 302; sections from the ‘Bushwalkers’ Code’, The Confederation
of Bushwalking Clubs NSW Inc. 2004, 295–6; health promotion posters,
Department of Health & Ageing, 21, 39 bottom; data adapted from Eriksen et
al, 2009, American Journal of Physics, 77 (3): 224-228, American Institute
of Physics/Hans Eriksen, University of Oslo, Norway, 157 all; text extract,
Fitness Australia Code of Ethics, 279; screenshot, Fitness First, 271; diagram

adapted from The Health Promoting Schools Association, 76; logo, The
Heart Foundation, 60 top; article: ‘Affluence at the heart of long life’ by
Martin Laverty, The Australian, 4 April 2009, 42; article: ‘Trainer steers trek
to triumph; Hawthorn members walk Kokoda track’, by Cameron Leslie,
The Chronicle, 30 September 2008, 314; article: ‘Planning a Healthier
Environment’, by Anne Moroney, Australasian Leisure Management
Magazine, January/February edition, 82–3; image and text reproduced with
permission from The National Stroke Foundation, 204; graphs adapted
from The NSW Centre for Road Safety, 15 all; graphs adapted from The
NSW Department of Health, 14 bottom, 64, 208; graph from The Human
Body, edited by Ruth O’Rourke et al, 2007, Dorling Kindersley UK, 118;
table, Health Promotion International Vol 19, No 1, 123-130, March 2004,
Oxford University Press, 57; poster, Michael Jennings, Origin representative.
Poster created to promote the importance of testicular self-examination
among young men as part of looking after their reproductive and sexual
health. Developed by Penrith Panthers (penrithpanthers.com.au), Andrology
Australia (andrologyaustralia.org) and Family Planning NSW (fpnsw.org.au),
27 bottom; article: ‘On a mission to find the needy’, by Heather Quinlan, The
Sun-Herald, 27 July 2008, 80; article: ‘Fitness first: your stories’, by Arjun
Ramachandran and Erik Jensen, The Sydney Morning Herald, 7 August 2008,
274–5; campaign image, Road Safety Marketing, Road Traffic Authority NSW,
39 top, 65; article: ‘Recapturing the active Australian’, by Julie Robotham,
The Sydney Morning Herald, 21 February 2009, 69; article: ‘Deadly danger of
dismissing shots’, by Kate Sikora and Clementine Cuneo, The Daily Telegraph,
12 March 2009, 72; illustration, South Australian Metropolitan Fire Service,
200; text extract, St Johns Australia, Australian First Aid, 2006, 189 bottom;
Visualcoaching® Pro software <www.visualcoaching.com>, 97 both, 100 all,
101 all, 102 all, 104, 107, 109, 131 centre and bottom; screenshot, Wakakirri
Performing and Visual Arts Festival, 240; graph adapted from Wilmore and
Costill, Physiology of Sport and Exercise, 2nd Edition, 1999, Human Kinetics,
149.
While every care has been taken to trace and acknowledge copyright, the
publishers tender their apologies for any accidental infringement where
copyright has proved untraceable. They would be pleased to come to a
suitable arrangement with the rightful owner in each case.

Index 341
Index
7-stage abdominal test 128–9 bearings 304–5
biomechanical principles
abdominal injuries 203 balance and stability 162–6
acceleration 160–1 fluid mechanics 167–72
due to gravity 173–4 force 173–80
actin 104 motion 155–62
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) 108 bites and stings 209
administering first aid, see also first aid Black Dog Institute 61
infection control and protection bleeding 192
213–14 blood pressure 118–19, see also
legal and moral dilemmas 214–16 haemoglobin
physical environment 212–13 body
support following first aid 216–17 composition 134–7
adolescence 18–19, see also health of fat 136
young people fluids 187
adrenalin 207 image 23–4
advertising and fitness 277–80 mass index (BMI) 135
Advertising Standards Bureau (ASB) 280 Boot Camp 270–1
advocacy 53 bowel cancer 74–5
aerobic brain injuries 195
fitness, see cardiorespiratory breast cancer 73–4
endurance breathing 188
training 145–8 buoyancy 167
aerobics 244, 253, 267 burn injuries 200–1
agility 140–1 bushfire procedures 309
airway 188
alcohol consumption camping 293
and abuse 84–5 cancer
and health of young people 48–50 bowel 74–5
alternate hand wall toss test 142 breast 73–4
anaerobic training 145–8 cervical 75
anaphylaxis 207–8 capillaries 116
anatomical position 91 cardiac output 150–1
anatomy 91 cardiopulmonary resuscitation 189–91
apparatus and equipment 236 cardiorespiratory endurance 120–7
appendicular skeleton 94–6 cardiovascular drift 148
appraising composing and performing cartilage 92
247–54 cavitation 170
aquarobics 267 centre
Archimedes’ Principle 167 of buoyancy 168–9
arm over and under test 133–4 of gravity 162–3
arteries 116 cervical cancer 75
asthma 21, 207 chest injuries 202
Asthma Foundation NSW 60 circuit training 268
Astrand submaximal test 124 circulatory system 114–20
Australian Government Department of cognitive dimension of health 4–6
Health and Ageing 62 community
Australian Institute of Health and action 80
Welfare (AIHW) 8, 12–13 facilities 273
axial skeleton 94–5 groups 58–9
health services 81
balance 142–3 compact bone 93
and stability 162–6 compasses, see magnetic compasses
base of support 164–6 composition and performance

appraisal criteria 252–4 facilitation skills 314–15

appraising 247–52 families 11
for different movement mediums FAST test 204
219–37 first aid, see also administering first aid
elements used for 237–47 injuries and medical conditions
concussion, see head injuries and 196–211
concussion managing and assessing patients
conscious 187 185–95
conservation skills 294–7 wilderness 307–9
continuous training 146 fitness, see also exercise; physical fitness
contour lines 298 and advertising 277–80
Coopers 12 minute run 126–7 attitudes to 260–2, 282
coordination 141–2 barriers to 281–3
counselling 217 centres and personal trainers 274–5
cranium (skull) 94 as a commodity 262–3
crisis management 190–5 and exercise 258–9
cuts and lacerations 196–7 group activities 267–71
cycling 264 individual activities 264–7
motivators 281–3
dance 243–4, 253 and outdoor recreation 288–9
debriefing 217 FITT principle 145–6, 258
defibrillation 189 flexibility 132–4
density 167–8 flotation 167–8
diabetes 21, 205–6 flow 171, 229–30
diseases 71–5 fluid
dislocations 198 mechanics 167–72
displacement 155–8 resistance 169–72
distance 155–8 food habits 21–2
diversity 86 force 173–80, 228–9
DRABCD Action Plan 186–9, 192–3 form drag 170
drag 169–72 fractures 197–8
drugs friction 170
protective and risk behaviours 25–6 frontal
and young people 15–17 area 172
dynamics 228–30 plane 91–2
group 310–13
games 218, 244, 253
electricity 213 government organisations 60–5
electrocution 202 gravity
emergency acceleration due to 173–4
management skills 307–9 centre of 162–3
services 186 line of 164
environmental factors and health 43–4 grid
epiglottis 111 bearings 304–5
epilepsy 206 references 300–1
EpiPen 190 group dynamics 310–13
equipment, see apparatus and gym exercises 107
equipment gymnastics 253
equity 86
ethical issues, see conservation skills haemoglobin 114–15
exercise, see also fitness handgrip strength test 130
clubs 275–6 head injuries and concussion 198–9
definitions of 257–63 health
factors influencing choice of 272–84 behaviour 36–7, 55
types of 263–71 cognitive dimensions of 4–6
expiration 112 definition of 3–4
externally paced movement 232–3 dynamic nature of 6–7
eye injuries 199 emotional dimension of 4–6

Index 343
and environmental factors 43–4 infection control and prevention 213

influences, see health determinants injuries 193–5
and the media 39–40 management of 196–203
nature of 6–7 overuse 269
and outdoor recreation 288–9 intercostal 112
perceptions of 8–11 international organisations 66–8
and physical fitness 120–38 interval training 146
potential 7 isometric contractions 109
services 81 isotonic contractions 109
as a social construct 10–11, 48–51
and social responsibility 83–4 joints 97–104
health determinants
environmental factors 43–4 kilopond 124
individual factors 32–6
individual responsibilities 50–1 lacerations, see cuts and lacerations
interrelationships of 48–9 lactate levels 151–2
modifiable and non-modifiable 45–6 laminar flow 171
sociocultural factors 36–40 leadership styles 311–12
socioeconomic factors 40–2 lifestyle approaches 68–70
through different life stages 46–7 lightning 309
health-enhancing behaviours 36–7 limbs 96
health of young people line of gravity 164
and alcohol consumption 48–50 lung function 112
health status and behaviours 12–30
perceptions of their health 8 magnetic
sexual 17, 26–7 bearings 305
health promotion compasses 303
approaches and strategies 68–77 management
definition of 53–5 crisis 190–5
interventions 56–7 of injuries 196–203
Ottawa Charter 78–85 of medical conditions 204–11
responsibilities for 56–68 maps, see also topographic maps
in schools 75–6 reading 302
settings for 55–6 mass 161
and social justice 85–6 maximum heart rate 148
heart media
attack 204 and alcohol advertising 49–50
rate 118, 148 and health 39–40
structure and function 115–17 and perceptions of health 11
Heart Foundation 60 mediation 54
heatstroke 210 MedicAlert bracelet 190
hepatitis B and C 214 medullary cavity 94
HIV/AIDS 13, 213–14 melanoma 13
hyperglycaemia 206 mental health problems and issues
hyperthermia 210–11 perceptions of 9
hyperventilation 113 protective and risk behaviours
hypoglycaemia 206 19–20
hypothermia 210–11 mitochondria 108
hypoventilation 113 momentum 161–2, 232
hypoxia 115 mood disorders 61
morbidity rates 28
illnesses, see diseases mortality rates 13
immunisations 71–3 motion 155–62
improvising 241 movement, see also biomechanical
impulse 176 principles
incidental physical activity 261 combining and arranging 242–7
Indigenous Australians and health 50–1 creating 238–41
inertia 177 externally paced 232–3

medium 218 cardiorespiratory endurance 120–7

phrases 244–5 coordination 141–2
self-paced 232–3 flexibility 132–4
muscle health-related components 120–38
contractions 109–10 muscular endurance 130–1
fibres 105–8 muscular strength 128–30
relationships 108–9 power 138–9
muscular protective and risk behaviours 22–3
endurance 130–1 reaction time 143–4
strength 128–30 skill-related components 138–44
system 104–10 speed 140
musical applications 230–1 physiology 91
myofilaments 104 Pilates 265–6
myoglobin 108 poisoning 208–9
myology 104 positional play 236–7
myosin 104 power 138–9
walking 264
nasal injuries 200 Premier’s Council for Active Living
navigational skills 297–307 (PCAL) 261
neck injuries 193 prone hold test 131
Nelson choice reaction time test 143–4 public health
Newton 173–4 approaches 75–7
Newton’s policies 81–2
first law of motion 177–80 pulmonary circulation 116–17
second law of motion 177–80 pump classes 267–8
third law of motion 178–80 push-up test 131
non-government organisations 60–1
NSW Cancer Council 61 quadriplegia 193
NSW Department of Health 63–4 QUITLINE 70
optimum weight 136–7 reaction time 143–4

Organisation of Economic Co-operation recreation, see outdoor recreation
and Development (OECD) 67–8 relationships 234–7
organisations repetitions 246, 264
government 60–5 rescue breaths 188
international 66–8 respiratory system 110–13
non-government 60–1 rib cage 95–6
Ottawa Charter 4, 78–85 risk management plans 289–90
outdoor recreation rivers, flooded 309
and group dynamics 310–16 RM (Repetition Maximum) 264
participation in 289–310 road
reasons for 285–8 safety 28–30, 64–5
overuse injuries 269 traffic injuries and fatalities 15
oxygen uptake 124–5 Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) 64–5
Rock Eisteddfod 251
paraplegia 193 rules 242–3
partner work 236–7 running 264
pelvic girdle (hip) 96
perceptions of health 8–11 sagittal plane 91–2
performance, see composition and scale of map 299
performance schools
personal trainers 274 communities, see community groups
The Phillips 250 health-promoting 75–6
physical activity 258–61 screening 73–5
physical fitness, see also fitness seizure 206
agility 140–1 self 35–6
balance 142–3 self-paced movement 232–3
body composition 134–7 sequencing 244–5

Index 345
sexual health Tai Chi 265

protective and risk behaviours 28 team
of young people 17, 26–7 formations 236–7
shock 192–3 games 268–9
shoulder girdle 96 teeth injuries 201
signs of life 188 tests
sit and reach test 133 7-stage abdominal 128–9
skeletal system 92–104 agility 140–1
skeleton 95 arm over and under 133–4
skills balance 143
conservation 294–7 body fat 136
emergency management 307–9 body mass index (BMI) 135
facilitation 314–15 Coopers 12 minute run 126–7
navigational 297–307 coordination 142
physical fitness 138–44 FAST 204
specific outdoor recreation 310 handgrip strength 130
skinfolds 135–6 Nelson choice reaction time 143–4
skull (cranium) 94 prone hold 131
sliding filament theory 108 push-up 131
snake bites 308 sit and reach 133
social speed 140
constructs of health 10–11 standing backward overhead throw
dimensions of health 4–6 139
gradient 40 sum of seven skinfolds 135–6
justice 85–6 vertical jump 138–9
responsibility for health 83–4 waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) 135
sociocultural factors and health 36–40 Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery 126
socioeconomic status (SES) 40–2 thermoregulation 269
space 219–27 time and rhythm 230–4
SPANS 14 timing 234
speed 140, 158–60 topographic maps 298
sphygmomanometer 119 traffic
spin classes 267–8 accidents 212
spinal injuries 193 injuries and fatalities 15
spongy bone 93 training
stability, see balance and stability aerobic and anaerobic 145–8
standing backward overhead throw 139 cardiac output 150–1
steady state 148 continuous 146
step classes 267–8 heart rate 148
sternum 93, 189 interval 146
stigmatise 9 lactate levels 151–2
stings, see bites and stings physiological responses to 148–52
STOP 190 stroke volume (SV) 149
strength, see muscular strength ventilation rate 149
stress management 287 traits 34–5
stroke 204–5 transition 245–6
volume (SV) 149 transverse plane 91–2
sum of seven skinfolds 135–6 turbulent flow 171
surface drag 170
swimming 264 United Nations (UN) 66–7
synovial joints 98–9
systemic circulation 116–17 vaccinations, see immunisations
systems veins 116
circulatory 114–20 velocity 158–60
muscular 104–10 ventilation rate 149
respiratory 110–13 vertebral column (spine) 94
skeletal 92–104 vertical jump test 138–9
VO2 max 123–7, 151

waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) 135

Wakakirri Festival 240
water environment 212–13
wave drag 170
weight 173, see also optimum weight
weight-training 264–5
wellbeing 5
wilderness first aid 307–9
WorkCover 77
World Bank 67
World Health Organisation (WHO) 4, 67
Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery test 126

yoga 265–6


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Preliminary Core 1 Better health for individuals

chapter Health and individuals 3

chapter Inﬂuences on the health of individuals 34

2 The determinants of health

chapter Strategies for promoting health 53

3 What is health promotion?

PDHPE Pre 00 4pp.indd v 6/11/09 10:47 AM

Preliminary Core 2 The body in motion

chapter Musculoskeletal and cardiorespiratory systems 91

chapter Physical ﬁtness, training and movement 122

5 Health-related components of physical fitness

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chapter Biomechanical principles and movement 155

chapter First aid 185

PDHPE Pre 00 4pp.indd vii 6/11/09 10:47 AM

chapter Composition and performance 220

8 How do the elements of composition apply to different movement mediums?

chapter Fitness choices 257

9 What does exercise mean to different people?

chapter Outdoor recreation 286

10 What is the value of outdoor recreation?

Planning skills 289

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Suggested answers 320

PDHPE Pre 00 4pp.indd ix 6/11/09 10:47 AM

About Visualcoaching® Pro

PDHPE Pre 00 4pp.indd x 6/11/09 10:47 AM

PDHPE Pre 00 4pp.indd xi 6/11/09 10:47 AM

PDHPE Pre 01 4pp.indd 1 6/11/09 10:58 AM

What does health mean to individuals?

PDHPE Pre 01 4pp.indd 3 6/11/09 10:58 AM

In 1946, the World Health Organization (WHO) defined health as: ‘a

While having set definitions of health gives us a starting point in

PDHPE Pre 01 4pp.indd 4 6/11/09 10:58 AM

5 Spiritual—the spiritual dimension of health involves finding purpose

The key to good health is exercising each of the dimensions and

PDHPE Pre 01 4pp.indd 5 6/11/09 10:58 AM

Table 1.1 Health-enhancing behaviours

Dimension Health-enhancing behaviours

Social • Spend time with family and friends

Relative and dynamic nature of health

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Understand and apply

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Perceptions of their health

Health status 15–17 years 18–24 years 15–24 years

Note: parents responded for young people aged 15–17 years.

PDHPE Pre 01 4pp.indd 8 6/11/09 10:58 AM

Perceptions of the health of others

Implications of different perceptions of health

health-compromising behaviours. For example, a young person’s perception Stigmatise to disapprove

PDHPE Pre 01 4pp.indd 9 6/11/09 10:58 AM

perceptions about young people’s health and

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