Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
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August 2011
A b o u t T h e s e B r i e f i n g Pap e r s
In 2010–2011, Clean Energy States Alliance produced a series of briefing
Contents
papers for state policymakers on various topics related to stationary fuel
cells and hydrogen. This booklet collects those briefing papers together 1 Fuel Cell Technology:
in one volume: An Overview
· Fuel Cell Technology: An Overview 6 Advancing Fuel Cells
· Advancing Fuel Cells through State Policies through State Policies
· Hydrogen Production and Storage
· Fuel Cells for Supermarkets 11 Hydrogen Production
· Fuel Cells and Critical Power Applications and Storage
These materials were produced as part of a larger education and outreach 14 Fuel Cells for
initiative by Clean Energy States Alliance (CESA) to inform and engage state Supermarkets
policymakers about the benefits of fuel cells and model state policies to 18 Fuel Cells and Critical
support them. Power Applications
The briefing papers are available individually with larger graphics on the CESA
website. For further information on CESA’s hydrogen and fuel cell activities,
and to download the individual reports, please visit www.cleanenergystates.org/
projects/hydrogen-and-fuel-cells.
A C K NO W L E D GE M ENTS
Many people assisted with these briefing papers by providing information
or review. We want to thank Lewis Milford and Jessica Morey (Clean Energy D IS C L A I M ER
Group); Maria Blais and Anne Margolis (Clean Energy States Alliance); Carole Clean Energy States Alliance
does not assume any legal liability
Read and Gregory Kleen (US Department of Energy); Dustin Lilya and Pete
or responsibility for the accuracy,
Pearson (Albertsons, SuperValu); Rizaldo Aldas (California Energy Commission); completeness, or usefulness of any
Joel Rinebold (Connecticut Center for Advanced Technology); Selya Price, information, apparatus, product or
John Murphy, and Rick M. Ross (Connecticut Clean Energy Investment and process that is referred to in this
report. References in this report to
Finance Authority); Donna Ferenz (FuelCell Energy); Kerry-Ann Adamson any specific commercial product,
(Fuel Cell Today); Kathy Haq (National Fuel Cell Research Center); L. Scott process, or service by trade name,
Larsen, Paula Rosenberg, and Dana Levy (NYSERDA); Frank Blake and Benny trademark, manufacturer, or other-
wise, does not constitute or imply
Smith (Price Chopper); Timothy Lipman (University of California at Berkeley); endorsement, recommendation
Michael Glynn and Homer Purcell (UTC Power); David J. Allar (Wegmans), or favoring neither by the United
and Kathy Loftus and Lindsay Lehfeld (Whole Foods Market). We also want States Government or any agency
thereof, nor of the individual
to thank DG Communications for designing and producing the individual
members of Clean Energy States
briefing papers and this booklet. Alliance. The views and opinions
expressed in this series of reports
This four-part series was begun by Charlie Kubert (1959-2010), who wrote do not necessarily state or reflect
three of the reports and laid the ground work for a fourth. Charlie was a those of the United States Govern-
valuable member of the CESA team, and we would like to honor his ment or any agency thereof, nor
the individual members of the
contributions to this project. Clean Energy States Alliance.
FIN A N C I A L SU P P ORT
Work on these briefing papers
Funding for this report was generously provided by the US Department was conducted under US DOE
of Energy’s Hydrogen Education State Partnership Project with supplemental Grant DE-FC3608GO18111 A000,
support from Clean Energy States Alliance. Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy Fuel Cell
Technologies Program.
Fuel Cells: Briefing Papers for State Policymakers • Fuel Cell Technology 1
Introduction
F
or many years, the focus of the emerging “hy-
Figure 1:
drogen economy” has been on the use of
How a Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Works
hydrogen fuel cells for vehicles. While federal
and state government and automakers still
R
continue to invest in and promote policies to
AI
create the “hydrogen highway,” private businesses and CO2 Cathode e-
government agencies are increasingly deploying fuel
cells for stationary power applications. Stationary fuel
2
Electrolyte
CO
cells are a technology that is commercially available, reli- DC Power
able, suitable to a wide variety of applications, declining Anode
2
CO
in costs, and with federal and state support, becoming CO2
e-
e-
more affordable.
EL
Technical Background FU
A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy Water Heat
of a fuel (usually hydrogen derived from natural gas or
biogas) and an oxidant (air or oxygen) into electricity. In kinds of fuels cells, and each works slightly differently.
principle, a fuel cell operates like a battery. Unlike a battery, In general terms, at the anode, hydrogen atoms enter and
however, a fuel cell does not run down or require recharg- their electrons are separated so that the hydrogen ions
ing (although cell stacks may need periodic replacing). (protons) pass through the electrolyte, while the nega-
It will produce electricity and heat as long as fuel and an tively charged electrons pass through an external electrical
oxidant are supplied. The fuel cell itself has no moving circuit as direct current (DC) that can power useful devices.
parts—making it a quiet and reliable source of power (see Whether the hydrogen ions combine with the oxygen at
Figure 1). A fuel cell stack is a chemical power generator the cathode or at the anode, together hydrogen and oxy-
“sandwich” that consists of three parts: an anode, a cathode, gen form water that is drained from the cell. The chemical
and an electrolytic material in the middle. There are several reactions for a molten carbonate fuel cell are as follows:
80
50
70
60 40
50
30
40
30 20
20
10
10
0 0
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Source: Fuel Cell Today, 2008 Large Stationary Survey; Pike Research, Research Report Stationary Fuel Cells (2011); DOE, 2010 Fuel Cell Technologies
Market Report
fuel cell technology. It has formed the Solid State Energy Benefits of Fuel Cells
Conversion Alliance (SECA), a government-industry part- Stationary fuel cells have considerable benefits both
nership to achieve that goal. Like renewable energy tech- to the facility where they are installed and to the public
nologies, fuel cells are eligible for the 30% federal Invest- at large. These benefits will multiply as the costs of fuel
ment Tax Credit and for direct financial subsidies, in cells continue to decline relative to grid power and the
some states, lowering their capital costs considerably. number of installations increases.
Because fuel cells can operate as a continuous, baseload
source of power (unlike solar or wind which are intermit- User Benefits
tent), these capital costs can be spread out over far more Reliability
kilowatt-hours (kWh) produced, especially when the by- Fuel cells are well suited for primary power applications,
product heat is captured and re-used. UTC Power projects providing both an extremely reliable and high-quality
that its PureCell® 400 kW unit will be able to produce power source of on-site power. This reliability makes them ideal
at 16¢/kWh (with 50% heat utilization), and at 14¢/kWh for public safety facilities such as emergency dispatch
(with 100% heat utilization), before any federal or state centers, police and fire stations and hospitals. For private
subsidies. The capital costs of fuel cells can also be transferred facilities such as computer server farms, data centers and
through third-party ownership, in which a manufacturer laboratories where even momentary losses of power or
or financial intermediary owns the system, realizes the tax voltage changes can disrupt computers and sensitive
benefits and sells energy to the host facility under a fixed equipment, fuel cells deliver the sustained power quality
price contract. needed, with grid power acting as a backup. Even non-
critical facilities such as office buildings, retail stores and
Table 2: Comparative Capital Costs for Distributed hotels can benefit from a grid-independent source of
Generation Technologies power that can also displace other fuels for heating,
cooling and refrigeration.
Technology Cost ($/kW)
Diesel Generator $800–$1,500 Siting
Reciprocating Gas Engine $1,800–$2,000 While fuel cells have some local siting challenges, in
general they are easy to site relative to other distributed
Stationary Fuel Cells (1–200 kW) $2,500–$4,500
generation technologies because they can operate
Wind Turbine (50 kW–100 kW) $1,500–$5,000 emission-free, are quiet and compact. In some states
Solar Photovoltaics (1–100 kW) $6,000–$8,000 such as California, they are completely exempt from
Public Benefits
United States Postal Service, Environmental
San Francisco CA Stationary fuel cells result in dramatically reduced on-
T
site air pollution relative to back-up diesel generators. They
he 680,000 square foot facility is a major postal
can also result in reduced emissions relative to grid power
service hub, processing 7.5 million pieces of mail
depending on the source of generation that is displaced.
per day. With the assistance of a third-party
This is due to the use of natural gas or biogas as the source
energy service provider, the facility installed a 250 kW
of hydrogen, the high conversion efficiency of fuel cells,
fuel cell to provide a portion of both its power and
and the absence of particulate emissions. Fuel cells are
space heating needs. The fuel cell complements a 285
driven by electrochemistry, not combustion. As a result,
kW, roof-mounted solar photovoltaic system that pro-
fuel cells emit only trace amounts of NOx. Because fuel
vides maximum output during periods of peak de-
cells are intolerant of sulfur, the fuels used have to be de-
mand. The facility received financial support from
sulfurized, and thus fuel cells emit no SOx. If the direct
both the California Self-Generation Incentive Program
fuel input is hydrogen, then only water vapor is generated
(SGIP) which provides incentives of $2,500 per kW for
in the exhaust. Because of the high electrical efficiency
natural-gas fuel cells, as well as the U.S. Department
of fuel cells, the amount of CO2 emitted per kWh of elec-
of Defense Climate Change Fuel Cell Program.
tricity generated is lower than from conventional fossil-
fuel generation. Avoided emissions are further increased
when the facility is configured to utilize the waste heat
permitting requirements. Fuel cell technologies that from the fuel cell. Table 3 compares the emissions profile
directly utilize natural gas (or biogas) avoid any local of a fuel cell versus other forms of distributed and central
concerns over on-site hydrogen storage. power generation.
Table 3: Comparative Emissions Profiles of Fuel Cells vs. Distributed and Central Generation
Particulate Matter
Generation Technology NOx (lbs/MWh) SO2 (lbs/MWh) (lbs/MWh) CO2 (Tons/MWh)
Fuel Cells 0.01 0.001 None 0.49*
Diesel Generators 5.9-17.1 0.3-0.5 0.74-3.0 0.75-0.9
Combined Cycle Natural Gas 0.11 0.022 0.067 0.50
Pulverized Coal 0.69 1.41 0.28 0.97
*Assumes internal conversion of natural gas to hydrogen within the fuel cell. Source: National Fuel Cell Research Center
CO2-equivalent emissions would be reduced or eliminated if biogas or a renewable source of hydrogen were used.
Fuel Cells: Briefing Papers for State Policymakers • Fuel Cell Technology 5
A
Chico, CA
s part of a major renovation, the 1,750-room
The Sierra Brewing Company
Sheraton New York Hotel installed a 250 kW fuel
wanted to find a reliable and
cell. This was the first hotel in New York to do so.
affordable way to power its
state-of-the-art brewing facility The unit provides 10% of the electrical load of the hotel
and, due to the hotel’s large and constant hot water
FuelCell Energy
W
hile fuel cells in the United States are today
targeted towards commercial use, in Europe
Dublin San Ramon Services District Regional and Japan, they are beginning to be manu-
Waste Water Treatment Facility, Pleasanton, CA factured and sold for the residential market. In Japan,
Two 300 kW fuel cells residential fuel cells, about the size of a refrigerator,
were installed at the are being sold for $30,000 ($15,000 after government
DSRSD regional waste- subsidy). More than 10,000 units were sold there in
water treatment plant. 2009 and 2010. Analysts expect the cost to drop to
This fuel cell system about $5,000 within five years and one in four homes
was designed to use in Japan to have them by 2050. Beyond reducing
the biogas generated dependency on the electric grid, converting natural
by the wastewater
gas into electricity (with the waste heat being used for
treatment process as
FuelCell Energy space and hot water heating) would save homeowners
their renewable fuel
a considerable amount in energy costs and also re-
source. The fuel cells also generate heat that is used to pre-
heat waste sludge, optimizing the anaerobic digestion pro- duce the net carbon emissions of a home. Although
cess. The fuel cell helps reduce the demand on the local power the Japanese fuel cells are not likely a good match for
grid by providing as much as 50% of the facility’s required the energy load of most American homes, ClearEdge
power. Because the facility is utilizing biogas, it was eligible Power, an Oregon-based company, has introduced
for a larger $4,500/kW incentive from California’s SGIP. a unit designed for the American market.
Introduction
O
ver the past decade, states and munici- the Connecticut Center for Advanced Technology
palities have increasingly shaped public website at http://energy.ccat.us/energy/fuelplan.php.
and regulatory policy to support renew-
able energy generation, from residential, Renewable Portfolio Standards
roof-mounted, solar photovoltaic systems Twenty-nine states now have renewable portfolio standards
to large, commercial wind farms. They have done so for (RPS), which have been the most important state-level
a number of reasons: in-state economic development, policy driver for renewable energy development. These
displacing emissions from conventional energy sources, RPS policies primarily support large-scale projects such
diversifying the state’s energy portfolio, and providing as wind energy. Few RPS laws include fuel cells as an eligi-
a long-term hedge against uncertain and volatile ble resource unless the hydrogen used in them is pro-
energy prices. duced from a renewable resource such as biogas (almost
Stationary fuel cells share many of the characteristics all hydrogen produced in the United States currently is
of renewable energy generation. Fuel cells provide clean, reformed from natural gas). By including fuel cells that uti-
quiet, efficient, and reliable distributed generation for a lize natural gas as an eligible resource, these technolo-
variety of applications: from critical facilities such as airports, gies would qualify for the state RPS. If included in a distrib-
emergency dispatch centers, hospitals, and telecommu- uted generation technology set-aside, as states have done
nications towers to office buildings, retail stores, and with solar photovoltaics, fuel cells could receive some
industrial facilities. Unlike many renewable energy tech- market-based financial support as well. Currently, only
nologies, fuel cells are not an intermittent source of seven states (CT, DE, ME, MN, NY, OH, and PA) include all
power and can provide consistent, reliable power. fuel cells, regardless of the fuel source, as RPS-eligible.
Yet, despite these advantages, most states have yet An alternative approach would be to require utilities to
to give fuel cells the level of support they have provided install a certain amount of fuel cell generation capacity
to other clean energy technologies. This briefing paper (either utility- or customer-sited) by a certain date and
identifies those policies that states have or can adopt to to allow cost recovery of these installations.
support fuel cells. These policies are broken down into
three areas: 1) those that support the deployment of fuel Tax Incentives
cells, 2) those that remove state and local barriers to fuel Many states provide sales tax and property tax exemp-
cell installations, and 3) those that promote the develop- tions for renewable energy technologies. These exemp-
ment of an in-state fuel cell manufacturing sector. tions should be extended to fuel cells to assist this clean
energy technology to gain marketshare. This would com-
Policies to Support Fuel Cell Installations plement the 30% federal investment tax credit (extend-
Hydrogen “Road Maps” ed through 2016), for which fuel cells are eligible.
Many state energy or economic development offices
have developed strategic plans to grow hydrogen and State Purchasing Leadership
fuel cell industries and markets within their states. While States can take the lead in acquiring fuel cells to replace
a number of these have focused on hydrogen-powered diesel generators for back-up power in both new and
fuel cells for transportation applications, other state existing facilities. Fuel cells could also be deployed as
plans are centered on the development of a fuel cell a primary source of power in new, high-profile public
manufacturing industry and the deployment of fuel cells buildings such as at universities, administrative buildings,
in stationary applications. These plans help to provide or airports. The long ownership cycle of these buildings,
policymakers with a vision of how fuel cells can play a together with low financing costs, allows states to spread
role in their state’s economy and energy portfolio. For an out the cost of these installations over many years.
example of a state hydrogen and fuel cell roadmap, see
Fuel Cells: Briefing Papers for State Policymakers • State Policies 7
Critical Facilities $1 million per project site. Projects can apply for capacity
States can encourage the use of fuel cells as primary and/or incentives based on the manufacturers’ nameplate rating
back-up power in new telecommunications towers, hos- of the fuel cell, with an upper limit of $200,000 per project
pitals, and emergency service facilities. They could do so site. Projects at sites of Essential Public Services, such as
directly by specifying that fuel cells be used, or indirectly by police stations and hospitals, or where the fuel cell system
increasing the performance standards for back-up power will be an integral part of a documented and verifiable
(e.g., lower emissions, greater operating efficiency or more “facility of refuge”, may receive up to an additional $100,000.
reliable performance), which would lead to the selection Performance-based incentives are paid to facilities that
of fuel cells as the ideal generation source. While it is diffi- operate with an annual capacity factor of at least 50%.
cult to calculate “payback” on emergency and back-up They are paid based on performance during the first three
power installations, the long investment time horizons operating years subsequent to commissioning and are
and the public purpose of these facilities should allow capped at $300,000 per year.
states and municipalities to support the higher up-front Under the Small Fuel Cell Program, performance
costs of fuel cells for backup power. For more informa- incentives are available of up to $50,000 per project site.
tion on the application of fuel cells for critical facilities, They are paid to those facilities operating with an annual
please see the companion briefing on Stationary Fuel capacity factor of at least 50%. Like the performance in-
Cells and Critical Power Applications. centives for large systems, they are based on the first three
years of operation but are capped at $20,000 per year.
State Clean Energy Funds
Eighteen states have ratepayer-supported clean energy CLEAN ENERGY
funds that collectively have provided billions of dollars FINANCE AND INVESTMENT AUTHORITY
in support to renewable energy projects over the past
decade. With the exception of California, Connecticut, Clean Energy Finance and Investment Authority
New York and Ohio, state funds are not yet targeting fuel The Clean Energy Finance and Investment Authority (CEFIA),
cells as an area of support. Direct grant assistance would formerly the Connecticut Clean Energy Fund, has been a
encourage both private and public sector facilities to ac- national leader in the support of fuel cell installations. CEFIA’s
quire fuel cells. These installations would, in turn, raise On-site Renewable Distributed Generation Program has
visibility of the technology and encourage further instal- provided grants totaling approximately $23 million to 18
lations. States could consider establishing performance- fuel cell projects representing installed capacity of 7.5 MW.
based incentives rather than lump-sum grants at time of There are an additional 3.4 MW of pending projects sup-
project completion. In addition, states will want to consid- ported by $8 million in grants from the Federal Government
er whether to only support projects using fuel cells for base- through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act.
load power, or to also support back-up power applications. Connecticut’s Project 150 is an initiative to increase
These state clean energy funds have been the most the amount of in-state renewable energy generation
active in supporting fuel cell installations at both private by requiring utilities to enter into long-term contracts
and public facilities. for 150 MW of Class I renewable energy generation
(fuel cells are Class I in Connecticut). Seven fuel cell
NYSERDA projects were awarded contracts under Project 150.
The New York State Energy Research and Although CEFIA is not directly funding these projects,
Development Authority (NYSERDA) is it played an important role in evaluating project
the administrator of the State’s Renew- proposals.
able Portfolio Standard Customer Sited CEFIA’s New Technology Programs support develop-
Tier Fuel Cell Program. The program has ment and commercialization of emerging clean energy
a total of $21.6 million in available funding ($3.6 million technologies, including fuel cell and hydrogen genera-
per year) through 2015. The program is divided into two tion technologies. The Operational Demonstration
categories; the Large Fuel Cell Program for systems larger Program has provided funds for a number of projects
than 25kW and the Small Fuel Cell Program for smaller to demonstrate commercial viability of new methods
systems. Through this program and similar predecessor of hydrogen and electricity production using fuel cell
programs, NYSERDA has approved funding to install 33 technology. These projects were supported by nearly
large stationary fuel cells and 24 small stationary fuel cells. $1.1 million in seed funding which has leveraged approxi-
Under the Large Fuel Cell Program, NYSERDA offers mately $36 million in federal support. The program will
two types of financial incentives, with a maximum of continue to provide $2 million annually to fund a mini-
8 Clean E n e r g y stat e s a l l i a nce
Project Zoning, Siting and Permitting processes. Connecticut is home to UTC Power, FuelCell
Siting approval and permitting for fuel cell projects is Energy and Proton Energy Systems, among others.
the domain of local governments. Like any energy project, One of the key strengths of Connecticut’s program is
local discretion can move a project forward or stall it. State that it has combined the industry development focus of
policymakers should review local zoning and permitting the Fuel Cell Coalition with additional support for project
codes regarding hydrogen storage and fuel cells and, to deployment through the Connecticut Clean Energy In-
the extent possible, attempt to develop a consistent set vestment and Finance Authority (CEFIA). CEFIA’s financial
of standards used by local governments. For more infor- support of commercial fuel cell installations not only helps
mation on permitting, see http://www.hydrogen.energy. the industry to build an in-state market but also provides
gov/permitting/permitting_process.cfm. outstanding fuel cell demonstrations which can be used
to promote the technology
Fuel Cell Industry Support and the industry throughout the country.
Several states have invested considerable resources As a result of these efforts, employment in the fuel
in building fuel cell manufacturing clusters. Connecticut, cell industry has grown dramatically in Connecticut, with
Ohio, South Carolina and Hawaii have all worked hard to an estimated 2,000 working in the industry supply chain,
make their states leaders in a growing fuel cell industry. representing over 70% of all renewable energy jobs in
While the industry is not yet large enough to support manu- the state.
facturers in every state, the activities in these states pro-
vide collaborative models for stimulating industry growth. Ohio
For the past decade, the State of Ohio has focused
Connecticut on building a fuel cell research and manufacturing clus-
The Connecticut Hydrogen-Fuel Cell Coalition (www. ter and industry supply chain. These efforts have been
chfcc.org), administered by the Connecticut Center for financially supported by the Ohio Third Frontier Pro-
Advanced Technology (CCAT), is comprised of representa- gram (www.ohiothirdfrontier.com), a state economic de-
tives from Connecticut’s fuel cell and hydrogen industry, velopment program funded through tax-exempt bonds
labor, academia, government, and other stakeholders. CCAT that provides financial support to move companies and
and the Connecticut Hydrogen-Fuel Cell Coalition work products from R&D through commercialization. The pro-
to enhance economic growth through the development, gram focuses on industry clusters where the state has
manufacture, and deployment of fuel cell and hydrogen competitive strengths, including advanced materials
technologies and associated fueling systems in Connecticut. and fuel cells.
Connecticut companies now lead the world in the The Third Frontier Program has been enhanced by the
development of alkaline, molten carbonate, and phos- work of the Ohio Fuel Cell Coalition (www.fuelcellcorridor.
phoric acid fuel cells and are among the leaders in pro- com), a group of industry, academic and government
ton exchange membrane and solid oxide fuel cell devel- institutions working collectively to strengthen the state’s
opment. Connecticut companies in hydrogen generation fuel cell industry and become a global leader in fuel cell
are leaders in both alkaline and proton exchange mem- technology. Its primary objectives are to:
brane electrolysis systems and in converting natural gas • Build upon existing industry and academic strengths
or petroleum products to hydrogen through reforming in the state to advance the integration of a coordinated,
robust fuel cell supply chain.
• Promote public awareness of fuel cells as both a source
Gills Onions of Oxnard, CA, with its of clean energy and a source of economic growth for
FuelCell Energy
Hydrogen Production
and Storage
Charles Kubert and Warren Leon • May 2011
Introduction
W
hen policymakers consider the ex- methane source is reacted with steam in the presence of
panded use of hydrogen in either vehi- a catalyst to produce hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The
cles or stationary applications using current cost of producing and transporting hydrogen
fuel cells, they sometimes express con- through SMR as a dedicated process (rather than as a
cern about how the hydrogen will be by-product) is $2–$5 per delivered kilogram.
produced, transported, and stored. This briefing paper Hydrogen can also be produced by electrolysis, in
provides background information on hydrogen production which water is split into hydrogen and oxygen atoms in
and storage, and shows that there is already considerable an electrolyzer, using only electricity. This process currently
experience with hydrogen. It also looks at ways to produce costs about twice as much as SMR, although it could be
hydrogen from renewable resources both in the near- more competitive in places where the cost of the elec-
term and long-term. The paper’s focus is on the produc- tricity for electrolysis is particularly low. Electrolysis may
tion and storage methods needed for stationary fuel cell be used as a means of storing energy. For example, the
deployment rather than on the larger infrastructure re- electricity produced by wind turbines during off-peak
quired to support using hydrogen extensively in vehicles. periods could produce hydrogen, which could then be
As an introduction, although hydrogen is the most stored and used to generate electricity at a later time
common element in the universe, it cannot be mined or in an on-site fuel cell system or to provide hydrogen
extracted in its elemental form. It instead needs to be sep- for other applications.
arated from other compounds (such as water or hydrocarbon Additional emerging hydrogen production methods
fuels). This conversion process requires energy, but the include gasification or pyrolysis (gasification in the absence
hydrogen produced can still be a cleaner and more reliable of oxygen) of coal, low-value oil refinery products or
source of stored energy than either fossil fuels or grid biomass, and direct solar photochemical processes. The
electricity. US Department of Energy is placing particular research
Currently, hydrogen is widely used as a commodity emphasis on hydrogen production methods that have
chemical, with approximately 10–11 million metric tonnes low overall emissions of greenhouse gases per unit of
produced in the US each year. If it were used directly as usable energy (i.e., those utilizing renewable non-carbon
a fuel, that amount would be enough to power about resources).
30 million cars or 5–8 million homes.
Hydrogen production falls into four general categories. Hydrogen Delivery and Storage
According to the US Energy Information Administration, For some stationary fuel cell applications, transportation
about 25% of the total is produced and used on-site at of hydrogen is not an issue, because the hydrogen is pro-
oil refineries, generally for “hydro-treating” crude oil as duced on-site. That is the case with molten carbonate fuel
part of the oil refining process to improve the hydrogen-
to-carbon ratio of the fuel. Production for ammonia for
fertilizer accounts for 21%. Merchant production for sale
Hydrogen
to diverse parties for such purposes as treating metals and Production
“hydrogenation” in food processing accounts for another by Alkaline
15%. Finally, about 36% of total US production is a by-product Electrolysis
of another process, most frequently catalytic reforming These electrolyzers
at oil refineries or production of chlorine and caustic soda. are manufactured by
Hydrogen Technolo-
Norsk Hydro
cells, some phosphoric acid fuel cells, and solid oxide fuel These codes specify that hydrogen cylinders and stor-
cell technologies. They all directly convert natural gas or age tanks should be stored outside at a safe distance from
biogas into hydrogen internally within the fuel cell itself. structures, ventilation intakes, and vehicle routes. When
However, smaller stationary fuel cells, such as those it is necessary to locate storage inside, the provisions
using proton-exchange-membrane (PEM) technology in National Fire Prevention Association (NFPA) Com-
(e.g., those used in forklifts and telecommunications pressed Gases and Cryogenic Fluids Code (www.nfpa.
towers) and some phosphoric acid fuel cells, often rely org/aboutthecodes/AboutTheCodes.asp?DocNum=55)
on hydrogen produced off-site and delivered in tanks should be followed. Although codes and standards
to be stored on-site. provide valuable guidelines, local officials have the final
Some code officials and policymakers, as well as the authority for permitting hydrogen storage and power
general public, remain concerned about the flammable generation facilities in a given jurisdiction.
nature of hydrogen. In reality, through 40 years of indus-
trial use, well-developed codes and standards governing Production of Renewable Hydrogen
hydrogen’s transport, storage, and use have evolved to Although stationary fuel cells can be highly efficient
ensure safety. Like gasoline and natural gas, hydrogen is (with a combined efficiency of up to 80% when waste
flammable. But also like gasoline and natural gas, it can heat is utilized), they presently still rely primarily on non-
be managed safely when the codes are followed and its renewable fuels such as natural gas. In the longer term, it
properties are understood. is envisioned that cleaner and more sustainable sources
Hydrogen is often delivered in 22-foot or 44-foot of hydrogen will be employed. In fact, a number of states
steel tube trailers and can be stored on-site in the trailer are facilitating this goal by offering financial incentives
vessels or transferred to code-certified pressure vessels. for fuel cell installations that employ hydrogen derived
When needed in larger quantities or when transporting from renewable resources.
hydrogen over long distances and/or to multiple sites, There are four key technology platforms for the
it is often delivered as a liquid in a cryogenic tanker. After production of hydrogen from renewable resources:
transport, the liquid can be transferred directly to an in- 1. On-site Use of Biogas: Methane biogas is produced
sulated storage vessel where it is later vaporized for use as a by-product of wastewater treatment, the decom-
as a gas, or it can be vaporized from the tanker and used position of landfills, and anaerobic digestion of manure
to fill on-site gaseous storage vessels. Hydrogen is also or food processing waste. This biogas is often used to
transported by pipeline, typically as a low-pressure gas. fuel conventional reciprocating engines, but can also
Several small hydrogen pipeline networks exist in the be used to generate power and process heat directly
United States, usually near petrochemical production in an on-site fuel cell. Several wastewater treatment
facilities, such as those along the Texas Gulf Coast and plants, wineries, breweries, and a food processing facility
in Louisiana and California. in California have installed fuel cells to utilize their
The applicable codes that states should follow are on-site biogas, and California’s Self-Generation Incen-
the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII tive Program provides enhanced incentives for fuel
(http://campaign.asme.org/bpvc10/Pressure_Vessels.cfm) cells using on-site biogas. For an example, see the
for stationary uses and 49 Code of Federal Regulations sidebar on Sierra Nevada Brewery.
(www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_99/49cfr172_99. 2. On-site Solar or Wind: Solar panels or wind turbines
html), which covers the transport of hazardous materials. installed at commercial/industrial sites to produce
electricity can be used to produce hydrogen through
electrolysis. AC Transit (a San Francisco Bay Area
transit agency that operates a fleet of fuel cell buses)
Compressed
and Honda (see sidebar) are implementing demon-
Hydrogen Gas
stration projects for this.
Tube Trailer
3. Industrial-scale Solar, Wind, Geothermal, or
This hydrogen
Hydropower: Electrolysis-based hydrogen production
FIBA Technologies
I
ing share of their electricity from renewable sources.
As these portfolio requirements are tightened, renew- n 2010, Honda Motor Company in Torrance, California opened
able energy will occupy an ever larger share of the a new, more compact and efficient solar-hydrogen refueling
country’s overall energy mix. As a result, hydrogen station. Solar PV panels produce electricity for hydrogen pro-
produced from a national grid that is increasingly duction through electrolysis. The system uses a 48-panel, 6-kilowatt
enriched with renewable sources, will itself become solar PV system. It is designed to demonstrate what could ultimately
increasingly renewable-based. be appropriate at the household level.
It is expected that the costs of renewable energy and The most noteworthy feature of the prototype is the use of a new
the processes used to convert these sources to hydrogen type of electrolyzer that eliminates the need for a compressor. This
will decline over time. However given the current high is expected to improve system efficiency by about 25% compared
costs for these technologies and the low cost of natural to a previous Honda prototype, while also reducing the size and
gas, steam reformation of natural gas will continue to cost of other key components.
be the low-cost source for hydrogen for the foreseeable
The station has a modest capacity and flow rate, producing about
future, whether produced on-site or off-site.
0.5 kg of hydrogen over 8-hours. The company projects this would
be sufficient for an individual with a consistent commute to drive
Conclusions
10,000 miles per year. An interesting feature of the station is that it
Although large-scale commercialization of hydrogen
is designed to take advantage of net metering and potential future
vehicles will require a significant ramp-up in hydrogen
smart-grid developments by exporting electrical power to the grid
production and development of an extensive delivery
during the day and then using a similar amount of energy at night
infrastructure, the technologies and safety standards are
during off-peak times when the cost of electricity is typically lower.
already in place to handle hydrogen production, distribu-
tion, and storage for stationary fuel cells and early-market
material handling applications, such as forklift trucks. Most Electrolysis Using
larger-scale stationary fuel cell installations produce hydro- Solar Electricity
T
example producing hydrogen from biogas obtained from he Hawaii Natural Energy Institute of the University of Hawaii
wastewater treatment. However various cost and technical is implementing a project to demonstrate how electrolyzers
challenges remain in producing larger quantities of hydro- can be used to take the surplus production from renewable
gen at central locations from renewable sources such as energy facilities and convert it to hydrogen. This approach is espe-
solar, wind, and hydropower. State policymakers should cially appropriate to Hawaii, which has excellent renewable resources,
encourage research and demonstration projects that variability in generation from those resources, and a significant
address those challenges. difference between base load and peak load. The electricity for the
demonstration will be supplied by Puna Geothermal Venture and
the hydrogen will be used by the County of Hawaii Mass Transit
Agency for two shuttle buses. US DOE is Project Sponsor and the
Naval Research Laboratory is Federal Technical Program Manager.
14 Clean E n e r g y stat e s a l l i a nce
Introduction
S
upermarkets are turning out to be an important new technology, it makes sense to concentrate on a few
early market for stationary fuel cells. State clean niche markets where it can gain traction and become self-
energy agencies that are interested in helping sustaining, rather than trying to spread the technology
to bring fuel cell technology into widespread use thinly over a small number of random installations in
would be well-served by explicitly supporting diverse settings.
fuel cells for supermarkets as a key market niche. The early installations among supermarket chains have
created growing visibility for fuel cell technology within the
The Appeal of Fuel Cells for Supermarkets industry. This is starting to stimulate other supermarket
In recent decades, supermarkets have grown larger and companies to want to learn about fuel cells and consider
some have moved to 24-hour operation, 7 days a week. emulating the early adopters.
Stores have added large banks of freezers and refrigerated Beyond the essential starting point that fuel cells are
cases, as well as sections where prepared foods are cooked a good match for the energy needs of supermarkets,
and kept warm. These changes have not only significantly there are other reasons why this is a promising niche:
increased the electrical, heating, and cooling loads of • Supermarket chains own multiple stories. As in the cases
supermarkets, but have made them well-suited to take of Price Chopper and Whole Foods Market described
advantage of the electricity and heat provided by fuel cells. below, a company that climbs the steep learning curve
Fuel cells provide a constant supply of electricity, which for the first installation can then take what it has learned
is just what these new supermarkets need. The heat pro- and apply it to additional installations in other stores.
duced by the fuel cells can be used for a variety of purposes, Each new installation becomes easier and better
from heating water to running absorption chillers for cool- adapted to the specific needs of the company.
ing the stores. Using both outputs is key to the economics • Because of their many customers, supermarkets can
of a supermarket strategy for fuel cells, and also yields educate large numbers of people about fuel cells
significant greenhouse gas emission reductions and other through information panels and educational materials
environmental benefits. The total efficiency of supermarkets’ in those stores that have fuel cells.
fuel cell systems can be quite high—often twice or more • Supermarket chains can use fuel-cell-powered fork-
efficient as getting power from a central utility. lifts and other materials handling equipment at their
Because supermarket owners need to worry about distribution centers, as well as stationary fuel cells
the risk to the large inventory of cooled and frozen food at their stores.
during an interruption of power from the electric grid, they Grants and other incentives from state agencies have
appreciate a fuel cell’s ability to keep operating during a been essential to make the initial fuel cell installations
blackout. With a fuel cell, a supermarket can remain open possible. Such support will continue to be important in
at a time when the surrounding community is vulnerable the coming years. Through it, states can help to advance
and in need of supplies. a promising clean energy technology, while helping
Recent trends in fuel cell financing have made them important local businesses.
more business friendly. Manufacturers and system inte- The rest of this briefing paper describes a few of
grators increasingly offer lease arrangements that reduce the early uses of fuel cells at supermarkets. In addition
the up-front cost of an installation. Longer initial warranties to these examples, other supermarket companies have
and the option of purchasing an extended warranty used fuel cells, including Central Grocers, H.E. Butt
reduce the risk to the supermarket company. Grocery Com-pany, Safeway, Star Market, Stop & Shop,
and Wal-Mart.
Reasons for State Agencies to Target
Supermarkets Albertsons Implements a Model Installation
Fuel cells clearly have appeal for supermarkets, but A 50,000 square-foot Albertsons supermarket that opened
why might state agencies want to give special attention in San Diego, California in 2010 is being powered by a
to supermarkets? Most importantly, to commercialize a PureCell 400-kilowatt fuel cell system from UTC Power. The
Fuel Cells: Briefing Papers for State Policymakers • Fuel Cells for Supermarkets 15
system was leased from UTC, reducing Albertsons’ up-front independent power during a electric grid power outage.
costs and risks. “Particularities of the interconnection with the grid in San
The fuel cell provides about 90% of the electricity Diego area were unknown to us,” comments Pearson. “But
that the store needs. Albertsons is also using almost all of we communicated with San Diego Gas & Electric; they
the heat produced by the system for heating and cooling. provided us with the requirements to safely disconnect
In the case of a power outage, the fuel cell can generate from the grid.”
enough energy on-site to power the building. Because As advice for other companies that may want to con-
of the use of the heat, the total efficiency of the system is sider installing a fuel cell, Pearson points out that “you
about 60% (nearly twice as high as relying on the electric have to have adequate gas and electrical connections
grid) and the store’s annual carbon footprint is reduced that could run in parallel with the fuel cell. Furthermore,
by 478 metric tons of CO2. In addition, the PureCell system fuel cells are not ‘one size fits all’. You have to work closely
is designed to operate in water-balance, saving millions with the vendor and the utility company and, of course,
of gallons of water annually when compared to traditional get the financial piece settled first.” Because a fuel cell is
power generation. still a relatively new technology, the company “has to make
Pete Pearson, Director of Sustainability and National sure there is proper service and support provided from
Accounts for SuperValu, Albertsons’ parent company, the vendor’s side. We negotiated a clause with UTC to
explains that the company weighed its energy options as assure that we have availability of parts and service con-
part of the planning process for the new store. “At the very tractors in case of malfunction of the fuel cell. UTC Power
beginning of the project, we thought of implementing a has a remote control system which can track the operation
system that would provide clean energy for our facility. of the fuel cell and dispatch service technicians within
We considered solar installations but a fuel cell seemed to 24 hours to repair it.”
be the perfect solution. We wanted to help the environ- It has been important to Albertsons to let shoppers
ment, reduce our carbon footprint, and gain operational know that the store is powered by the fuel cell. The store
efficiency. We performed a thorough engineering and therefore features abundant signage about it and the com-
financial analysis before proceeding with implementation. pany will highlight the fuel cell in the store’s upcoming
And now the system is in place and is working just fine one-year anniversary celebration.
and as expected.”
Federal and state financial incentives were necessary Price Chopper: One Fuel Cell Leads to Another
to make the project financially feasible. Especially impor- Price Chopper’s experience shows how an initial successful
tant was a grant from California’s Self-Generation Incentive fuel cell installation can lead to additional installations.
Program through San Diego Gas & Electric. The supermarket chain, which is based in Schenectedy, New
Albertsons also needed to learn about and give special York and has 128 stores in six Northeast states, started by
attention to the interconnection process, especially because installing a fuel cell in its Colonie, New York store. It then
of the company’s desire for the fuel cell to be available as moved on to install a fuel cell in its Glenville, New York
location, and more recently installed a third system in
Middletown, Connecticut.
Price Chopper started to investigate fuel cell projects
because of concerns about the instability in electricity
prices and the price spikes of 2007. Grants from the state
of New York through the New York State Energy Research
and Development Authority (NYSERDA) were essential to
achieving an appropriate return on investment for the
Colonie and Glenville projects. With grants of roughly
$800,000 for each project, the price of each fuel cell went
down to between $1 million and $1.5 million. Significantly,
Price Chopper’s management projects a five-year payback
period. “Without the grants, the projects would not have
been approved,” notes Benny Smith, Vice President of
Facilities at Price Chopper.
The Colonie project was the first field-connected
installation of UTC Power’s new 400-kilowatt PureCell
The fuel cell at an Albertsons supermarket in San Diego. system. Price Chopper is leasing the fuel cell, which was
installed in June 2009. It generates up to 70% of the store’s
16 Clean E n e r g y stat e s a l l i a nce
1 Jennifer Gangi, “Fuel Cell-Powered Forklifts: Raising the Bar,” Industrial Utility Vehicle & Mobile Equipment Magazine (May–June 2008).
Available at http://www.iuvmag.com/articles/2008_05-05.html
Fuel Cells: Briefing Papers for State Policymakers • Fuel Cells for Supermarkets 17
Another important benefit of the hydrogen-powered The system provides half of the store’s electricity needs
forklifts is that, once installed, they do not require any and all of the required hot water.
special charging space. Rooms that were previously used A fuel cell has also been put in place in Dedham,
to recharge the lead-acid batteries can now be used as Massachusetts with help from a grant from the Massa-
additional space for product storage. According to Allar, chusetts Renewable Energy Trust. The 400-kilowatt fuel
just gaining this extra space was a large enough financial cell generates most of the electricity for the store. “With
advantage to the company to almost pay for the fuel cells. the combined power generated from our fuel cell and solar
“The fuel cells have performed far beyond our ex- panels, the Dedham store is essentially able to generate
pectations,” concludes Allar. “There was nothing that in- almost 100 percent of its power needs onsite with clean
terrupted our operations in the least and the employees’ energy resources,” observes Kathy Loftus, Global Leader
reception of the new technology was incredible.” of Sustainable Engineering, Maintenance and Energy for
It is unsurprising that Wegmans has added to its fuel Whole Foods Market. The clean energy systems help the
cell fleet and currently has 37 forklifts in operation. The company reduce its carbon footprint by 764 metric tons
company is now looking to expand its use of fuel cells of CO2 per year.
to yard tractors and refrigerated trailers at the Retail Whole Foods Market has also started to use fuel-cell-
Service Center. powered forklifts. Sixty-one forklifts are in operation at
a distribution center in Landover, Maryland. Although
Whole Foods Thinks Holistically the company had been aware of the labor-saving virtues
Whole Foods is serious about “whole energy” as well. of fuel-cell-powered forklifts, the equipment was not
The company takes a systematic, holistic approach that affordable until Genco Supply Chain Solutions received
seeks to reduce energy use at all stages in a store’s life- a $6.1 million award from the US Department of Energy
cycle, from store design and construction through engi- through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act.
neering, procurement, relationships with suppliers, and Now, by introducing the new forklifts, Whole Foods has
maintenance. As part of the search for the best energy reduced the 4,000 hours in labor time that it took annually
solutions, the company has experimented with fuel cells to recharge the batteries of the previous folklifts to only
and installed them in four stores in California, Connecticut, 250 hours.
and Massachusetts. But the company is not stopping there. As Loftus
In San Jose, California, a UTC 400-kilowatt PureCell notes, “Whole Foods also hopes to retrofit one or two
system installed in 2010 is generating more than 90% sites with 100-kilowatt, solid-oxide fuel cells from Bloom
of the store’s needs. The heat produced by the fuel cell Energy of Sunnyvale, California, in the near future.”
is being used for heating and cooling, as well as for
refrigeration of the produce in the store. Because the
system takes advantage of both the electricity and heat
generated by the fuel cell, it is approximately 60 percent
efficient. Whole Foods Market estimates that the installa-
tion reduces its carbon footprint by 370 metric tons of
carbon dioxide each year. The California Energy Commis-
sion provided valuable support to make the installation
possible.
Two stores in Connecticut have been equipped with
UTC Power fuel cells. In Fairfield, another 400 kilowatt
UTC Power fuel cell has been installed. The project received
a grant of $731,291 from the Connecticut Clean Energy
Fund as part of that agency’s On-Site Renewable
Distributed Generation Program.
UTC Power
Introduction
I
n recent years, events ranging from weather to of the chemistry of fuel cells goes back more than a
natural disasters to human error have exposed the century, they are very much a 21st century technology.
vulnerability of our electric grid. For many individu- The basic design and electrochemical principle behind
als and businesses, these power outages are often fuel cells is straightforward. A fuel cell stack requires only
no more than a temporary inconvenience. But for hydrogen (or a similar energy carrier), oxygen, and an
critical facilities in both the public and private sector— electrolytic solution. Hydrogen and ambient air flow into
telecommunications towers, hospitals, airports, emer- the fuel cell, which contains an anode and a cathode. At
gency dispatch, banks and data centers, and even basic the anode, the hydrogen separates into a proton and an
infrastructure such as water and sewage pumps, traffic electron. The proton migrates to the cathode, where it reacts
signals, and refrigeration—even brief outages represent with the oxygen to form water. The electrons, which can-
a risk to public safety and potentially significant societal not pass through the membrane, flow from the cell to
and economic costs. provide useful electrical power.
For decades, these types of critical facilities have relied Fuel cells are quiet, have no moving parts, and produce
on two types of back-up power: banks of valve-regulated no particulate emissions. They are virtually maintenance-
lead-acid (VRLA) batteries and diesel generators. While both free and can be both tested and operated remotely. Because
of these technologies are relatively low cost, each has short- they are modular, they can be configured for any size
comings, particularly for facilities that need to plan for power needs, from a few kilowatts for a remote telecom-
power outages measured in hours and days, not minutes. munications tower to megawatt-scale for hospitals and
VRLA battery systems are typically designed to only airports. Hydrogen is safely stored on-site or produced
provide power for approximately 15 minutes at full power, within the fuel cell itself. (For more on fuel cell technolo-
enough time to complete an orderly shutdown of equip- gies, please see accompanying CESA briefing papers at
ment. They can also assure a constant supply of power www.cleanenergystates.org/JointProjects/hydrogen.html.)
so that even temporary (under 1 minute) power outages
or surges do not disrupt computer equipment. However, Fuel Cell Application Platforms
batteries are sensitive to extreme heat and cold, making There are two primary application platforms in the use
them imperfect for outdoor applications in many locations, of fuel cells for critical facilities. The first application uses
and they need to be replaced every few years due to fuel cells strictly as standby power in the event of grid
declining performance. failure. The second application utilizes fuel cells as a high-
Diesel generators (gensets) are today’s primary source quality source of primary power for the facility that will
of backup power. However, they are inefficient, produce also continue to provide uninterrupted power during
emissions from fuel combustion, and require periodic main- an electrical outage.
tenance. Often, they are not suitable for urban locations,
where the associated noise, fuel storage, and pollution are Standby Power
unwelcome. In some jurisdictions, such as the state of In a standby power application, the fuel cells, or a combi-
California, the use of diesel generators for back-up power nation of fuel cells and batteries, provide direct current
purposes is subject to strict air quality regulations. In addi- (DC) power to run the equipment or facility. The fuel cells
tion, in extreme disasters and prolonged power outages, have internal batteries that provide temporary “bridge”
diesel generators are reliant upon the delivery of fuel. power until the fuel cell reaches peak power production
Hurricane Katrina and the earthquake in Haiti are both and takes over the load. When grid power is restored, the
reminders of that risk. fuel cells shut down. Fuel cells can be ramped up quickly
Fuel cells are a technology that both the public and and can operate indefinitely as long as there is a continu-
private sectors are increasingly turning to for both primary ing source of hydrogen or other fuel. Proton Exchange
and back-up power needs. Although the understanding Membrane (PEM) fuel cells are used for this application.
Fuel Cells: Briefing Papers for State Policymakers • Critical Power Applications 19
duce enough energy to power eral airports are testing fuel-cell operated ground handling
250 typical homes in Anaheim equipment. Airports should also consider the replacement
and any excess power is then of diesel generators with fuel cells for back-up power. To
fed back into the electric grid. It can also provide backup power amortize the costs of these systems, airports should con-
to its dedicated loads in the event of a power outage.
sider the installation of fuel cells large enough to provide
a source of primary power for the entire facility.
Emergency Centers
According to the Department of Energy, under an ex-
Air to Ground Communications treme national disaster scenario, schools could provide
T
he Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) a safe haven for 25 to 50 million citizens. Several state
launched a program in September 2009 to clean energy funds support on-site clean energy projects
deploy fuel cell backup power units ranging in at schools that can serve as emergency shelters. If grid
size between 1 kW and 4 kW (51 kW total) at 26 sites across power is down, many of these facilities will have at least
the FAA’s three service centers: east, central, and west. partial power to conduct emergency management oper-
ations and meet community needs. For example, South
The FAA has been using fuel cells at its sites since 2003
Windsor High School and Middleton High School in Con-
to provide backup power to air-to-ground communi-
necticut are home to fuel cell systems that provide a por-
cation and repeater equipment. This new project will
tion of the schools’ primary power under normal opera-
provide fuel cell backup power to radio transmit receive
tions and provide grid-independent power which enable
(RTR) and air traffic control sites that are not currently
the schools to be used as emergency shelters.
using traditional backup power systems. At these sites,
if grid power goes out, the site goes down, causing a
Wastewater Treatment
disruption in communication between pilots and ground
Wastewater treatment is critical public infrastructure
control. The high reliability of fuel cells is expected
that needs to keep operating in the event of power loss.
to improve communications at these locations in an
In addition, the biogas produced in the treatment pro-
environmentally responsible manner.
cess provides a readily available renewable fuel to power
a fuel cell system, while avoiding the flaring or release of
methane. To reduce air pollution and reliance on the local
Hospitals power grid, the Regional Wastewater Treatment Facility
Hospitals are required by law to have a secure, resilient in Tulare, California, decided to implement a reliable and
power supply to continue to operate critical equipment clean, onsite, distributed power resource. Tulare is home
during power outages. For most hospitals, this has meant to more than 50,000 residents and the wastewater facility
diesel generators. The Connecticut Clean Energy Fund treats nearly 9 million gallons of water per day. The facil-
sponsored a fuel cell installation at the Saint Francis Hos- ity installed an anaerobic digester to capture methane
pital in Hartford, CT. The St. Francis fuel cell operates in from the wastewater treatment process, which then is
a combined heat and power application that produces used by three stationary fuel cells to provide high-quality,
up to 200 kW of baseload electricity and preheats boiler clean baseload power, resulting in substantial cost savings
feed water with the heat recovered from the fuel cell. to the facility. The fuel cells have successfully addressed
The fuel cell system also provides secure power in case emissions non-attainment restrictions in place through-
of grid failure. out California’s San Joaquin Valley. The fuel cells have
successfully reduced the facility’s emissions as well as
Airports its reliance on the local power grid.
Power blackouts at airports are infrequent but extremely
disruptive and costly for air traffic control, airlines, airport Policy Support for Fuel Cells
security, and passengers. The power outage at Reagan in Critical Facilities
National Airport on January 4, 2010 was not just a local State and local governments can promote the use of
problem; it represents a national energy reliability and fuel cells in critical facilities through a number of policies.
Fuel Cells: Briefing Papers for State Policymakers • Critical Power Applications 21
S
St. Francis Hospital is the first hospital tate and local codes for emergency and back-up power
in Connecticut powered, in part, by a requirements generally follow the National Fire Protec-
fuel cell. The PC25 cell, manufactured tion Association’s (NFPA) National Electrical Code (NEC).
and installed by Connecticut-based UTC NEC Article 708, first included in 2008, covers Critical Opera-
Power, generates 200 kW of electricity. It tions Power Systems (“COPS”) and is the most comprehensive
eliminates part of the hospital’s depen-
and stringent set of standards for back-up power established
UTC Power
Conclusions
Reliable sources of standby and primary power are
essential for the tens of thousands of facilities—from
telecommunications towers to hospitals and data centers
—for which even brief interruptions of power can have
significant impact. Fuel cells are an ideal source of both
FuelCell Energy
Many states across the U.S. have established public benefit funds to support the deployment
and commercialization of clean energy technologies. More than twenty states are actively participating in
CESA membership activites. Though these clean energy funds, states are investing hundreds of millions of
public dollars each year to stimulate the technology innovation process, moving wind, solar, biomass, and
hydrogen technologies out of the laboratory and toward wider use and application in business, residential,
agricultural, community and industrial settings. State clean energy funds are pioneering new investment
models and demonstrating leadership to create practical clean energy solutions for the 21st century.
www.cleanenergystates.org