COMPUTER GRAPHICS NOTES Page 1

CHAPTER -1

Interactive Computer Graphics

Interactive Computer Graphics provides the user, the facility of interaction with
the system to create the new picture, to modify the existing pictures to have many
views of picture. To interact with the system, user gives series of computer command
that is called as interactive computer graphics.
Advantages:
1. The use of designs and pictorial data allows us to process information efficiently.
2. Scientific visualization helps in the process of understanding complex phenomenon
and concepts.
3. Important role in the field of printing.
4. To analysis the complex system.
5. To simulate the real world.

Applications / [Interactive computer graphics tools]

1. Auto CADD [Computer Aided Design and Drafting] :

 It is a powerful tool to create very accurate, dimensional object.

 When object dimensions have been specified to a computer system, designer
can view any side of the object, how it looks after completion or before
modification or after modification.
 Experimental changes can be made freely in auto CADD software.
 Automobile, aircraft and ship designer used CADD techniques in design of
various types of vehicles

2. 3D Home Architecture:

 3D building model permits the architecture to study the appearance of a single

building or group of buildings such as campus of an industrial complex or
college or university.
 Using sophisticated computer graphics packages, designer can go for a
simulated walk through rooms and outside of the building and any part in that
object.

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3. Presentation Graphics and charts/ Graphs:

 Plotting programs will have the capability of generating a variety of graph types
such as bar graph, line graph, stacked bar graph and pie chart etc.,

4. Animation:

 The animation images impress the user in many ways. Animated picture are
broadly generated by an interpolation and faming method.
 Another important technique in computer animation is interpolation method.
This generates transitional time between two frames with slight variations.

5. Digital Image processing:

 An image is digitized to convert it to a form which can be stored in a

computer’s memory or on some form of storage media such as a hard disk /
CD_ROM.
 Image processing operation can be, Image compression, Image Enhancement
and Restoration.

6. Video Games and Simulation:

 Computers are commonly used in video games.

 The process of simulation and developing simulated models allows us to study
abstract mathematical entities.
7. Training and Education:

 Models of physical systems, physiological systems, population charts can

help trainees to understand the system in a better manner.

Color Display:
Color displays contains three colors only. These three colors are combined to
form eight colors. The following table gives the binary code for each color.

Color Name Red Blue Green

Block 0 0 0
Blue 0 1 0
Green 0 0 1
Red 1 0 0
Magenata 1 1 0
Cyan 0 1 1
Yellow 1 0 1
White 1 1 1

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a) Additive color:
The tools we use to describe color different when the color is printed
than from when it is projected. The projected color is additive color.
b) Subtractive color: The color we see on paper is created using subtractive
model, where the frequencies that are not absorbed form the color we see.
Mixing different paints makes darker color because more of the light
frequencies are absorbed. This method of mixing color is called ‘Subtractive
color’, because each color absorbs , light frequencies subtractive them from the
total mixture.
c) Describing color: There are lots of different ways to describe color. Some of
the most common terms are :

1. Cathode Ray Tube(CRT) :

FOUCING AND DEFECTING SYSTEM

PHOSPHOUR
ELECTRON GUN COATED SCREEN

CONTROL GRID

A beam of electron emitted by electron gun, passes through focusing and

deflection system (Horizontal & Vertical), that directs the beam towards the specified
points on the phosphorous coated screen. The phosphorous then emits a small spots
of light at each time contacted by the electron beam. Since the light emitted by the
phosphorous fades very rapidly. Some method is needed for maintaining the screen
pictures. One way to keep phosphorous glowing continuously to redraw the picture
repeatedly by quickly redirecting the electron beam back over the same point. This
type of display is called ‘Refresh CRT’.

Some Important terms associated with display devices:

a). phosphor : The screen is coated with a special organic compound called a
‘phosphor’ . For color systems there are groups of 3 different phosphorous, one to
produce red shades, on for green shades and one for blue shades.

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b). Fluorescence: Electron hit the screen phosphor molecules and cause a ground
state to singlet excited state transition. The phosphorous relax back to the ground
state by emitting a photon of light which is called ‘fluorescence’.
c). Phosphorescence: Phosphors then emit light is called phosphorescence that
decays slower but still rapidly.
d). Resolution: The maximum number of points that can be displayed without
overlap in a unit area is called the ‘resolution’.
f). Aspect Ratio: This term gives the ration of the vertical pixels to the horizontal
pixels necessary to produce equal length lines in both directions on the screen. An
aspect ratio of 5/4 means that a vertical line with 5 points has a same length as
horizontal line point plotted with 4 points.
g). Persistence: Means that how long the phosphorous continue to emit light after
the electron beam is removed from the point. Lower persistence phosphorous requires
higher refresh rate. The phosphorous with low persistence is useful for animation and
high persistence phosphorous are better suitable for displaying highly complex and
static or still picture.
h). Size: The size of a monitor is normally measured diagonally across the screen in
the indices. They come in size of 15, 17, 19 and 21 inches.
i). Refresh Rate: It is the number of times per second, the pixels are displayed on
the screen. Normally on image is refreshed at least 60 to 80 times per second. A
refresh rate of 70 to 75 Hz produces flicker free images.

Random-Scan Display/Monitor:

Random-scan displays are suitable for engineering and scientific drawing. While
using a random scan display unit, the CRT directs the electron beam to only those
parts of the screen where a picture is to be drawn. These types of monitors draw a
picture one line at a time. This system is also called as ‘vector display’ or ‘stroke-
writing’ or ‘calligraphic display’.

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Refresh rates of random scan display depends on the number of lines to be

displayed. The picture definition is stored as a set of lines drawing command in an
area of memory called the ‘refresh display file’ or ‘refresh buffet’. Random scan
monitor operates like pen plotter.

Advantages:
1. These systems are designed for line-drawing applications.
2. It requires little memory just enough to hold the display programs.
3. This is suitable for animation.
4. It have higher resolution.
Disadvantages:
1. It can not display realistic shaded scenes.
2. It can not be used to draw complex images.
3. It have limited color capability.
4. Very high expensive.

Raster-Scan monitor: Raster scan display is based on the television technology. In

these types of display, the electron beam is swept across the screen, one row at a
time from top to bottom, which defines the scan line. As the electron beam moves
across each row, the beam intensity is turned on and off to create a pattern of
illuminated spots. Picture definition is saved in a memory area called the ‘refresh
buffer’ or ‘frame buffer’, which holds the set of intensity values for all the screen
points. These intensity values are then retrieved from the refresh buffer and drawn on
the screen one row at a time as shown in the following figure.

The frame buffer of a black and white system where on bit is needed per pixel
is termed as a ‘bitmap’. The frame buffer of a multi bit per pixel system is referred to
as ‘pixmap’.
The raster-scan displays are commonly used to display highly complex and
static picture.

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Advantages:
1. Images can be displayed with realism to include 3D effects.
2. Very low cost compared to any other devices.
Disadvantages: 1. Very low resolution.
2. Preventing display of high quality images.
3. High speed display application and Animation can not be used
4. Slow speed of scan conversion.

Colored CRT: A colored CRT monitor display the picture by using the combination of
phosphorous colored pigment. By combining the emitted light from the different
phosphorous a range of colors can be generated.
The two basic techniques for producing colored display are:
1. Beam penetrating method and
2. Shadow mask method.

1. Beam penetrating method:

The beam penetrating method for displaying colored picture as beam used with
random scan, usually a red and green colored phosphorous dot and display color
defends on how far the electron beam penetrates into the phosphorous layer. A beam
of slow electron emits only the inner layer red, and then creates a small re light spot
on the screen. A beam of very fast electron penetrates through the red layer and
strikes in to the outer green layer, then creates a small green light spot on a screen.
Inter mediate beam speed combination of red and green lights are emitted to show
two additional colors yellow and orange.
The speed of electrons and the screen color at any point is controlled by the
beam acceleration voltage. The beam penetration method is inexpensive way to
produce the color in random scan monitor. But only colors are represented and the
quality of the picture is not as good as with other method.

2. Shadow mark method

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This method produces a much screen in winder range of color then beam
penetrating method. In shadow mask method, the screen coated with small triangular
patterns. Each pattern consists of three different closes the speed phosphorous dots,
red, green, and blue. Type of CRT has free electron gun, one for each color dot. The
shadow mask grid is placed just behind phosphorous coated screen as shown in the
above figure. Three electron beams are deflected and focused on a grid in to the
shadow mask, which contains series of holes aligned with phosphorous dot pattern.
When the three beams passes through hole in a shadow mask. They activate the
triangle which appears as a colored light spot on the screen.
The three electron guns are arranged to co inside with the colored dot pattern
on the screen are directed to each colored dot triangle in a shadow mask. Color
variations in a shadow mask CRT are obtained by combining different intensity values
of the electron beam. By turning off the red and green gun we get only blue color
light spot and other combination of beam intensity to produce deferent colored light
on the screen.
The white color is a result of activating all three electron guns with high
intensity. To produce yellow color with the combination of green and red dots,
magenta is produced with the combination of blue and red dots. Cyan is a produced
with the combination of blue and green are activated equally.

Advantages:
1. Displays bright, clear and colorful picture.
2. Reliable and relatively cheaper.

Disadvantages:
1. Unfavorable in resolution and inefficiently light output.
2. It is very difficult adjust the three guns and the deflection system.

DVST [Direct View Storage Tube]:

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The DVST behaves like a CRT with an extremely long persistence phosphorous.
A line written on the screen will remain visible for an hour before it fades from sight.
The DVST resemble CRT, it uses a similar electron gun and some what similar
phosphorus coated screen. The beam is designed not to write directly on the
phosphorus coated screen, but on a fine mesh wire grid, coated with dielectric and
mounted just behind the screen, a pattern of +ve charge is deposited on the grid and
this pattern is transferred to the phosphorous coated screen by a continuous flood
electron issuing from a separate flood electron gun. Just behind the storage mesh is a
second grid, the collector and whose main purpose is to smooth out the flow of flood
electron. The writing electron beam passes through the collector at a low velocity and
are attracted to the + ve charged portion of storage mesh repel by the rest. The
electrons are not repelled by the storage mesh passes write through storage grid and
strike the phosphorous coated screen and form a picture. In order to increase the
energy of these relatively by slow moving electrons and create a brief pictures.
In order to increase the energy of these relatively by slow moving electrons
and create a brief pictures.

Advantages: 1. Display complex picture.

2. Very high resolution.
3. Display the high resolution image for a long time without flickering.
Disadvantages: 1. relatively poor contrast.
2. The part of the picture cannot be erased.
3. It is high expensive device.
4. Gradually the picture quality and intensity decreases.

Flat-panel Display: Flat-panel display has reduced volume, weight and power
requirements compared to a CRT. The important features of flat-panel displays are:
 They are thinner than CRTs
 They can be hang on walls
 One can write on some flat-panel displays.
 It requiring continuous
Application of flat-panel displays include small TV monitors, calculators, pocket video
games, laptop computers, armrest viewing of movies on air lines, as advertisement
boards etc., Examples,
 DLP [Digital Light Processing]
 Plasma Panel Display
 Liquid Crystal Display [LCD’s]

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 Organic Light-Emitting Diode Display [OLED’s]

 Light-Emitting Diode Display [LED’s]

LED and LCD display:

LED: Light-emitting –diode

LCD: Liquid-crystal-display.

The other two techniques used in designing graphics monitors are LED and
LCD. In these devices light emitted from diodes or crystals instead of phosphorous
pigment/dots or neon gas, to display a picture.
LED and LCD are particularly useful in designing of min-screen and video game,
calculator, digital diary & laptops.
An auxiliary memory is similar to frame buffer is used to store screen pattern
for display. The system repeatedly cycle through the memory area turning on the
appropriate LED position in the screen by displaying firing voltage turning on the
appropriate horizontal and vertical grid. Each LED and LCD produce a short pulse of
light & form a predefine pictures.
Liquid -crystal displays are generally used in small systems, such as calculator,
laptop computer. They are non-emissive device which produce picture by passing
polarized light from the surrounding. Pictures can also be reduced from an internal
light source passing through a liquid crystal material to block or transmit the light.
ADVANTAGES OF LCD:
 Occupies less space.
 Requires less power than compared to a CRT monitor.
 It is portable as it weights less.

DISADVANTAGES OF LCD:
 Relatively expensive when compared to a CRT-display.
 Images are not clear in bright light.
 Limited angle of viewing.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LCD AND CRT MONITOR

LCD CRT
1. User liquid crystal display technique 1. Users CRT Technique

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2. Requires less power consumption 2. Requires more power

consumption
3. Expensive when compared to a CRT 3. Less expensive
4. Occupies less space 4. Occupies more space
5. light weighted & easy to carry 5. Bulky & heavy
6. Displays crystal clear & steady images 6. Display flickering images
7. Does not exhibit a wide range 7. Exhibit maximum range of
colors

Laser beam technology [Laser-scan display]:

Another technique for generating graphics output on the CRT is to Trace the
required pattern in a photo-chromic films which is temporarily darkened by the
exposure of light. The patterns are formed on the photo chromic film with the use of a
laser beam, deflected by electromechanically controlled mirrors. Anyone light source
is then used to project the images on a screen a charge in the screen displays is
obtained by prices highly complex pattern can be displayed in a very short period of
time with these systems, but selective erase is not possible. Changes to a picture can
be made only by completely redrawing the pattern on the next frame.

Raster-Scan Display Processor System

Graphics Display file DISPLAY Display

Display REFRESH
application translator PROCESSO Controller DISPLAY
file R
DISPLAY
program
FILE

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 It digitizes a given picture into a set of intensity values and stores them in the
frame buffer.
 This process is called scan conversion, where straight lines and other geometric
objects are scan converted into a set of discrete intensity points.
 The pixel positions closets to the lines are located and their intensities are
stored in the frame buffer. Similar methods are used to convert curved lines
and polygons.
 Pixel position in the frame buffer is organized as a two-dim array of intensity
value, corresponding to the co-ordinates screen position. The number of pixel
position in the raster is called the resolution of the display processor. Since
different resolution are used for the monitor and the frame buffer, for better
quality pictures the resolutions of the display monitor should be equal to or
higher than the resolution of the frame buffer.

Random – scan display processor

Display
Graphics file
Display file DISPLAY
application program
translator PROCESSO DISPLAY
program in the R
refresh
storage
area

The warning of random-scan display processor is as follows:

 The application program is loaded and stored in the system memory along
with a graphics package.
 Graphics commands given in the program are translated into a display file
and store in memory.
 This display file is then accessed by the display processor (graphic
controller) goes through each command in the display file during every
refresh cycle’s
 To draw graphics pattern on a random- scan system, the electron beam is
directed along the components lines pictures.
 Gives are defined by their end-point co-ordinates, which are converted to X
and Y defection voltages. The complete picture is then drawn one line at a
time by positioning the beam to fill in the line between specified end
points.

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