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Bottom bearing damage reason is the ovality, bearing clearance and condition of L.O supply
2. Why are concentric springs fitted for A/E cylinder head valves?
If the frequency of the natural vibration of air or exhaust valve springs is a harmonic of the
camshaft speed, then the spring may vibrate axially and are said to surge. Surge can be
avoided by modifying the sizes of springs by arranging the springs in pairs and fitting one
inside the other.
If one spring fails the valve is held up and is not damaged by striking the piston.
The thickness of individual springs can be reduced as against original thickness.
Normally two springs of different vibration characteristics are chosen.
Moreover, the stiffness requirements and the space congestion at this place warrants a
concentric springs arrangement. The net stiffness is equal to the sum of individual stiffness.
It is a venturi effect while vessel is moving on shallow water. A vacuum is created due
to which the draught of the vessel is increased there by increasing the engine load.
Steering ability of the ship is reduced as a result.
This is a regulator through which the refrigerant is metered from the high pressure side to
the low pressure side of the system. The pressure drop causes the evaporating temperature
(saturation temp.) of the refrigerant to fall below that of the evaporator.
a. Avoids liquid refrigerant return to the compressor suction.
b. Automatic expansion control and maintain 6 ~ 7 degree superheat.
The LP controller stops the compressor at low suction pressure caused by the closure of all
compartmental solenoids. When the pressure in the compressor suction rises due to
solenoid opening, the LP controller restarts the compressor.
This is used to protect the compressor against the low suction pressure due to loss of
refrigerant or blockage. If the a/c compressor suction pressure is allowed to fall below
atmospheric pressure then there exists a risk of moisture and air ingress into the system.
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8. Why is there a starting air overlap provided in a diesel engine?
10. What are the reasons for foaming in refrigeration compressor crankcase?
Due to rapid boiling out of the refrigerant dissolved in the oil when the pressure is
suddenly reduced.
When the compressor starts operating, if a large quantity of refrigerant has been
dissolved, larger quantity of refrigerant boils out and can be carried through the
refrigeration lines. Reasons:
a. Liquid in the suction line (viz. TEV stuck open, incorrect super heat setting, sensing
bulb not closing, overcharge etc.,)
b. Crankcase heater not working.
c. Compressor capacity too high at the start.
d. Expansion valve giving too small superheat
e. Oil charge is less.
a. Lubrication
b. Seal the clearance spaces between the discharge and suction sides of the compressor.
c. Act as a coolant.
d. Actuate capacity control.
e. Dampen the noise generated by the compressor.
ELECTRIC:
a. Electromagnetic brake.
b. Motor overload protection.
c. Short circuit protection.
d. Restart delay timer.
e. A Restart stop.
MANUAL:
a. Manual brake / mech. Brake.
b. Cable stopper.
c. Slipping clutch (torque limiter).
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a. Overload alarm.
b. 200% insulation in motor.
c. High temperature alarm.
d. Self-starting after power failure.
e. Short circuit trip.
f. Phase failure alarm.
g. One of the steering motor is fed from the emergency bus.
Hydraulic side there is two trips
a. Low level cutout
b. High lube oil temperature cutout.
Current to motor‟s field coils passes through solenoid coil of a brake which is magnetized and
holds a brake against spring and releases the rotor. Incase of power failure the solenoid is
demagnetized and brake is applied.
SAFETY:
a. Limit switch on the f‟wd, aft, port, s‟tbd, hoisting and lowering prevents movements
more than the allowed limits.
b. Overload trip.
c. Dead man‟s handle.
d. Guards over the pulley.
e. Locking device on the lifting hook.
f. Mechanical locking (to avoid crane movement during heavy weather)
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15. What is a critical pressure?
It is the pressure at which gas will just liquefy at its critical temperature.
It is the temperature above which the gas cannot be liquefied under isothermal compression.
a. Relief valve
b. Fusible plug
c. Drain
d. Low pressure alarm
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It is a variation of the constant pressure and constant horsepower control for variable
capacity pumps. It is used to achieve constant tension winch system. In this case the pump
control is automatically operative across the neutral such that constant system pressure and
hence a constant motor torque is maintained whilst both drawing in and paying out.
a. Scale deposits
b. Inefficient cooling water
c. Uneven tightening of bolts and fuel valves
d. Fluctuating cooling water temperature (excessive temperature gradient)
e. Overloading or racing of engine
f. Faulty relief valve
g. Mechanical failure due to gas corrosion, acidic corrosion due to leaky exhaust valves
h. Water side corrosion
22. What is the normal relief valve setting of cylinder head in a diesel engine?
10 ~ 14.5% more than the working pressure about 120 bar (some what higher
than maximum pressure)
25. What actions do you take incase of stern tube of the ship starts leaking?
26. How do you test a fresh water generator plant for leaks?
a. Close the outlet of the distillate pump, vacuum breaker valve, bottom blow off valve
and feed water valve
b. Inject air into the evaporator shell
c. Keep the shell pressed up to about 1.0bar gauge
d. Sprinkle soap solution on to the jointings, packings, and suspected areas of the shell
a. Casting defect
b. Thermal stresses due to cold starting air and scavenging air
c. Scavenge fire
d. Overheated piston(cooling failure, cooling side deposits due to oxidation of the cooling
oil)
e. After burning
f. Faulty fuel injection system (more penetration or loss of atomization)
28. What are the reasons for black smoke from a diesel engine?
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Types of vibration:
a. Linear vibration
b. Torsional vibration
c. Resonant vibrations involving any two of the above or may be combinational
Most damaging form of vibration is the torsional vibration mode, affecting crankshaft
and propeller shafting.
A node is found where the deflection is zero and the amplitude changes its sign in a
vibrating medium. The more the nodes in a given length the higher the corresponding
natural frequency.
W.r.t the crank shafts, the forcing frequencies are caused by the firing impulses in
the cylinders.
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Firing impulses superimpose on one another and appear as a complex waveform
represented by harmonics –
1x cycle frequency: first order harmonics of firing
2x cycle frequency: second order harmonics
3x cycle frequency: third order harmonics and so on…
33. How can the frequency of resonance, the forcing impulses and the resultant
stresses adjusted?
Balancing is a way of controlling vibrations by arranging that the overall summation of the out of
balance forces and couples cancels out, or is reduced to a more acceptable amount.
These moments acts in both vertical and horizontal directions. For engines with 5 cylinders or
more, the 1st order moments are of rare significance to the ship but it could be of a
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The second order moment acts only in the vertical direction and precaution needs only be
considered for 4, 5 and 6 cylinder engines. Resonance with the 2nd order moment may
only occur at hull vibrations with more than 3 nodes. A 2nd order moment compensator
comprises two counter rotating masses running at twice the engine speed.
38. What are the methods to cope up with the second order moments?
a. A compensator mounted on the aft end of the engine driven by the main engine chain
drive mechanism.
b. A compensator mounted on the fore end driven from the crankshaft thus a separate
chain drive.
c. A compensator on both aft and fore end completely eliminating the external 2nd order
moment.
The origin of the guide force moment is the angularity of the connecting rod. It is
the vibration of the engine about the foundation bolts.
Guide force moments are caused by the transverse reaction forces acting on the cross
head due to the con rod crankshaft mechanism.
Guide force moments may excite engine vibrations moving the engine top arthwartships
causing a rocking (excited by the H moment) or twisting (excited by X moment)
movement of the engine.
Guide force moments are harmless except when the resonance occurs in the engine double
bottom system. As a precaution, top bracing is installed between the engine‟s upper
platform brackets and the casing side for all its 2S models.
41. What are different types of the top bracing for a diesel engine?
a. It comprises of the stiff connections (links) either with friction plates which allows
adjustment to the loading conditions of the ship
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b. A hydraulic top bracing – by using the top bracing natural frequency will increase to a
level where resonance will occur above the normal engine speed.
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When the crank throw is loaded by the gas pressure through the conrod mechanism, the
arms of the crank throw deflect in the axial direction of the crankshaft, exciting axial
vibrations. These vibrations may be transferred to the ship‟s hull through the thrust
bearing. Its remedy is to axially dampen the crankshaft vibrations.
The varying gas pressure in the cylinders during the working cycle and the crankshaft /
conrod mechanism create a varying torque in the crankshaft. It is these variations that
cause the excitation of torsional vibration of the shafting system.
The torsional excitation also comes from the propeller through its interaction with the
non-uniform wake field.
Remedy: modify crankshaft natural frequency by adjusting the diameter. Use a
torsional damper.
The natural frequency of the one node vibration is so adjusted that the resonance with
the main critical order occurs about 35~45% above the engine speed at specified
maximum continuous rating (MCR). The characteristics of an under critical system:
a. Relatively short shafting system
b. Probably no turning wheel
c. Turning wheel with low inertia
d. Large diameter of the shafting
e. Without barred speed range
The natural frequency of the one node vibration is so adjusted that the resonance with the
main critical order occurs about 30~70% below the engine speed at the specified MCR. The
characteristics of the system are:
a. Turning wheel may be necessary on the crankshaft
b. Turning wheel with a relatively high inertia
c. Shaft with relatively small diameter (shaft material has to be of high UTS)
d. With a barred speed range of about +/- 10% w.r.t the critical engine speed
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48. Why are the CO2 bottles provided with dip tubes?
It is to ensure that only liquid is drawn during release. The liquid expands after the
nozzles and assumes the gaseous state. This will prevent co2 freezing and blocking the
nozzle Also it achieves the 85% discharge in 2 Minutes as liquid part represents a large
volume of gas
The materials used in its construction are copper, stainless steel
49. Why a crankcase relief door is not fitted in the refrigeration compressor
crankcase?
a. To avoid carry over of the lube oil because at low temperature, the separation of
the refrigerant and the oil is difficult
b. To condition the lube oil, by maintaining the viscosity so that the lubrication is
effectively carried out.
c. This prevents the lube oil achieving its floc point which may cause narrowing or
chocking of the passages (flocculation)
a. Friction and leakage losses, loss of suction head, chocked suction filter, worn out wear
ring, air ingress in the suction side
b. Low voltage is applied to the pump motor
c. Cavitations on the impeller
d. Bad maintenance, incorrect fixing up of the parts after overhaul
52. What are the causes of vibration in the vertical centrifugal pump?
Misalignment of the shaft, worn out bearing, foundation bolts loose, hydraulic clearances -
not proper on the impeller, coupling bolts / seating damaged, bottom bush worn out, heavy
objects/debris deposits, and corrosion/erosion on the rotating parts
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Ratio of the energy developed at the brake to the energy supplied. Amount of heat
liberated during the combustion to the heat equivalent at the brake
There is an electric signal actuated valve in the liquid line of the refrigeration system just before
the thermostatic expansion valve. This is being actuated by the thermostat in the refer
compartment. The solenoid shuts off the refrigerant supply if the compartment is sufficiently
cooled to the lower set point of the thermostat. Also it connects the supply when the temperature
of the compartment goes high i.e. above the thermostat higher set point
57. What is the function of the back pressure valve in the refrigeration system?
Back pressure valve is fitted just at the exit of the refrigerant from the evaporator coil in a
multi temperature rooms system. This being fitted at the exit of the compartments whose
temperature is set higher (usually at about 4~5 degrees centigrade). The function of the
valve is to maintain equilibrium of the system as the pressure of the gas at the exit of each
compartment differs. More over the back pressure valve creates a back pressure on the
evaporator coil and ensures that most of the liquid refrigerant is made available to the lesser
temperature requirement compartments as their demand for the refrigerant is higher than
the compartments being maintained at a higher temperature. It is spring loaded non return
valve
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This is a safety device (trip) provided in the discharge of the compressor. It functions to
trip the compressor if the pressure in the HP side goes high above the working level
The filter/drier is installed in the main liquid line of the system to absorb any moisture
present in the refrigerant. It consists of activated alumina or silica gel in a renewable
cartridge. It also accommodates the charging connection
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65. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the synthetic lube oils?
Advantages:
a. Better low temperature fluidity and pump ability, due to nil wax content
b. Better oil retention at high temperatures
c. Lower friction losses
d. Reduced thickening of the oil in service due to oxidation
e. Lower deposits at higher temperature due to resistance to oxidation properties and
thermal stability
Disadvantages:
a. To determine any deterioration in lube oil properties or additives levels and assess its
suitability for further service
b. To determine the type and level of the contaminants held within the oil which indicate
the rate of contamination and effectiveness of the purification process
c. To predict the internal wear rate on the machinery components
d. To lengthen the time between overhauls or surveys
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a. TBN reduces
b. Viscosity reduces
c. Flash point reduces
d. Oxidation increases
e. Water content high
f. Insolubles increase
g. Dispersancy increases
a. Turn the engine to coincide with the mark on the liner and the stern tube or normal
reference is taken to be that the engine‟s unit 1 will be in TDC prior measuring the
propeller drop
This could be also arranged as with a designated blade of the propeller up wards while
measuring this drop. Blades are assigned alphabets A, B, C, D and so on.
b. Take the poker gauge reading and the compare with the previous reading
c. Bearing clearance : 2mm (oil sealed)
: 8mm (sea water lubricated)
Bearing length is about 2xdia of the shaft for oil cooled stern tube
bearing 4xdia of the shaft for sea water lubricated stern tube bearing
Tie rods are provided to keep the whole engine structure in compression which:
a. Increases the fatigue strength of the engine structure as it is the tensile stress
which causes fatigue
b. Maintain running gear alignment to avoid fretting
The firing forces that press down the bearing saddle also attempt to push up the cylinder
covers, the net effect being to put the whole engine structure into tensile loading. So the
tie rods are tightened such that the engine structure is maintained in compression even
during the peak firing conditions and that the engine is not subjected to the tensile loading.
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During firing, the transverse girders are subjected to a bending moment as the saddle is
pushed down by the crankshaft acting on the cylinder head. To limit this bending effect and
consequent distortion of the bearing housing the tie rods are positioned as close as possible
to the centerline of the crankshaft.
Axial location of the crankshaft may be required if the coupling does not incorporate a thrust
housing. This is achieved by forming white metal rings on the sides of one main bearing shell
that allows the shaft to run with a small clearance between running faces on the two
adjacent webs.
In some engines a small collar may be provided at one side of the bearing. It is important to
appreciate that only one such locating bearing should be fitted to any one shaft, otherwise the
differential thermal expansions of frame and the crankshaft may cause problems.
74. What are the environmental problems with the use of CFCs?
a. CFC released into the atmosphere are broken down by pyrolysis to release chlorine
atoms which catalytically destroy ozone layer.(this layer in the stratosphere acts
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as a filter to the UV radiation from the sun)
b. Furthermore CFCs along with other greenhouse gases inhibit radiation from the
earth‟s surface thereby contributing to the global warming.
It is the logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion concentration expressed in gram
ion per liter.
Pure water at 25 degree centigrade consists of equal concentration of the hydrogen and the
-14
hydroxyl ions and equal to 10 gram ion per liter. If the hydroxyl ion concentration exceeds
the hydrogen ion concentration then the solution is basic and vice versa is acidic in nature.
pH value = log [1/H+]
If the water temperature is increased, the concentration of the hydrogen ion increases
and hence acidity.
Any opening in a pressure vessel is kept to a minimum and for a man entry an elliptical
hole is lesser in size than the corresponding circular hole. More over it is prime concern to
have a smoothed generous radius at the corners to eliminate stress concentration. Hence
other geometrical shapes like rectangle and square are ruled out.
To compensate for the loss of material in the shell due to opening, a doubler ring has to be
provided around the opening. The thickness of the ring depends on the axis length along the
direction in which the stresses are maximum and the thickness of the shell. It is important to
align the minor axis along the length of the vessel, as the stress in this direction is maximum.
Longitudinal stress: Pd/2t where P= pressure inside the vessel, d= diameter of the arc, t=
thickness of the shell plating
Circumferential stress: Pd/4t
More over a considerable material and weight saving is achieved as minor is along
the direction of maximum stress.
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79. What if the compressor motor connections are reversed after overhauling?
a. The lube oil pressure will not be sufficient for lubrication so the compressor may trip
on low lube oil pressure. The moving parts may get damaged due to the failure of the
lubrication.
b. The cooling water pump which is also shafted driven usually does not build up
enough flow/pressure hence the compressor may trip of the cool water non flow or
high air temperature.
80. If viscotherm is absent or damaged how do you maintain the fuel oil
viscosity?
The required viscosity prior injection and the viscosity of the fuel oil at 50°C are provided
by the fuel oil analysis report. Basing on the viscosity nomogram the required fuel oil
heating is determined. The steam inlet to the fuel oil heater is manually adjusted to
maintain the temperature and a close observation has to be maintained on the steam
pressure and temperature of the fuel oil at the outlet of the heater.
81. What are the reasons for the error between the helm order and the angle
shown locally on the steering gear unit?
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a. Air in the hydraulic telemotor system
b. Buffer spring too weak or stiff, faulty hunting gear
c. Instrument error/defective
d. Worn out linkages
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a. To absorb shock due to load variation or sudden change in the direction of flow,
impact loading
b. To maintain the circuit pressure by compensating for the loss due to leaks or pressure
increase due to rising temperature
c. To supplement the pump delivery where multiple circuit operations have wide flow
variations with a short term peak demand in excess of the pump capacity.
Accumulator charge can take place during low demand periods to meet maximum
demand later
a. The lubricating oil is fed to the guide shoes by a pipe from the main lube oil system
b. The lubricating oil may also be fed from the drilled passages in the pin to the slipper
faces
84. What is the material of the CO2 bottle and its accessories?
85. How will you decide for reentry into the engine room after flooding it with
CO2
Re-entry is determined by
a. Heat build up due to the scale of the fire and the elapsed time after release
b. Has the fire been extinguished or chances of a smoldering fire exists
c. Ship‟s position, condition and the prevailing weather (ship may be listing to the angle
of progressive flooding etc.,)
d. The location of the entry point
e. Risk analysis outcome
86. What is the quality of the vapor coming back to the compressor suction in
the refer system? In addition, how will you ensure that the vapor has adequate
degree of superheat?
a. The condition of the vapor coming to the compressor suction line should have
adequate degree of superheat
b. The condition is checked by reading the pressure of the returning vapor and its
corresponding temperature from the P-T chart provided for the specific
refrigerant. This temperature is compared with that of the evaporator outlet and
the degree of super heat is expressed as the difference in the temperature.
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In the traditional sea water lubricated stern tubes the bearing material consisted of the
staves of the wood called lignum vitae. This has a property of lubrication in the presence of
sea water. They are fitted with the grains in the axial direction for economy and are shaped
with V or U grooves between them at the surface to allow for access to water. They also
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act as a debris collector points. The staves are held in place in the bronze boss by bronze
keys attached to the bush by counter sunk screws. Bearing length is equal to 4times the
shaft diameter.
a. HP cut out
b. Differential lube oil pressure cutout
c. LP cutout
d. Relief valve in the condenser
e. Belt driven
f. Cylinder head relief valve
g. Cooling water low flow/high temperature alarm
h. Motor overload
i. Oil separator
j. Drier
k. Mech. Seal
l. Unloaders /capacity controllers
m. Non return shut off valves
n. Sensors – temperature, pressure
90. How will you know the presence of air in the refrigeration system? Explain
the procedure for purging air
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The material used in the gauge glass is a special toughened glass containing
a. Silicon oxide or magnesium oxide
b. Borosilicate or lime soda glass
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Silicon steels
101. What are the materials used for the diesel engine’s liner and piston rings?
State their principle differences
Generally the materials used for the piston rings are harder than the liner material. This is
due to the fact that the rings are subjected to wear always during their operation but only
the portion of the liner in contact with the rings wears.
Material used for the liner is generally the nodular cast iron, which is tailored to have
expansion along the length and negligible expansion circumferentially. Alloying materials are
added to improve certain characteristics like vanadium and titanium.
Piston rings are cast and machined from graphite grey cast iron. This ring may
include chromium, nickel & copper as alloying substances.
The prime property which distinguishes it from the liner material is that it has to
flex circumferentially.
This is of primary concern for running in and to match the contour of the wearing
liner surface. Also they have to form an effective sealing of the combustion gases.
102. What are the liner wear rates? And how is it achieved?
Stainless steel depends on the formation of a protective oxide film, tenacious chromium
oxide for resisting corrosion. This film is formed spontaneously on exposure to air or well
aerated water.
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104. What is the material of the fuel valve needle and body?
105. What is the material of the chain and its tightener arrangement?
107. What are the usual pressures to which the boilers are tested?
109. Differentiate between the terms priming and foaming with reference to their
occurrence in a steam boiler
Both refer to the carry over of water into the steam outlet. Priming is due to the
mechanical/physical aspects and the foaming refers to certain insouble/solubles in the
boiler water, which by the principle of increased surface tension cause priming.
The various reasons for priming:
metals a. Elasticity:
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111. What is a tie rod bolt pinch screw? And what is its purpose?
Pinch screw is normally provided at the foot of the engine cylinder jacket to stop the tie
rod from vibrating during the normal service of the engine.
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The pinch screw is fitted at the antinodal point of the tie rod to limit its transverse vibration
amplitude, thereby preventing its fracture due to vibrations. These can be arranged as a
group of three screws positioned equilaterally at the antinodal point. Each screw consists of
a stud, which is hand tightened by screwing the outer sleeve and held in place by a lock nut
which is tightened to a torque specified by the manufacturer.
112. What is the course of action after finding that a bottom end bolt is
slackened?
113. Define higher calorific value and the lower calorific value
[H2O formed by the hydrogen in the fuel oil cannot exist as water at the high
temperatures in an internal combustion engines. The water formed by the combination of
hydrogen and oxygen absorb the heat from the combustion and forms steam. Therefore,
some amount of available energy is lost in converting water into steam. This energy is not
available to the engine.
Therefore, the calorific value of the fuel reduced by this amount presents the actual calorific
value available to the engine.] - Æ This definition is given by reeds and I feel this has to
be altered after looking into the MANBW manual, which provides a graph to calculate
the Lower calorific value based on the Specific Gravity and Sulfur content.
Therefore, the amount of heat loss due to the inclusion of sulfur, which cannot be separated by
normal fuel oil treatment and its subsequent oxidation to SOx warrants the entire calorific
value to include correction for corresponding fuel content in a specific mass of fuel sample
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114. Explain gear pumps w.r.t the materials used and the clearances
a. Minimizing the radial clearances between the teeth of the gears and the housing
b. Increasing the number of teeth
c. Optimizing the side tolerances /play
Gear pump suitable for operating up to 25bar and can achieve displacement volume
of 0.35~1.0 liters/revolution
Clearances between the gear teeth and the housing are of the order 0.02~0.03mm
ADVANTAGES:
a. 100% contact on uneven surfaces
b. Cheaper to install as no hand fitting is required
c. Don‟t corrode and are resistant to most of the chemicals
d. As they achieve good contact, there is little chance of fretting, thus cheaper,
shorter, non resilient bolts can be used. These permit a reduction in the bolt tension
by a factor of 4
e. Avoid vibrations
DISADVANTAGES:
a. Overstressing of the bolts causes the resin to shatter and break
b. Maximum temperature is limited to about 80°C
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Vaporization due to oil pressure falling locally below vapor pressure causes bubbles in the
oil, which when goes to higher pressure region, collapses and shock wave is generated
causing heavy impingement. The causes:
a. High oil temperature
b. Low oil pressure
c. Vibration
d. Oil contamination
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Stellite: They are alloys of Cobalt, and Chromium, with the addition of varying amounts
of tungsten and other elements
They are very resistant to corrosion and abrasion. Retain their hardness at a red heat
Since they cannot be forged, they must be cast direct to shape or deposited by welding
It is used in the installations where a large drop in pressure occurs in the evaporator. In the
expansion valve, the pressure acting outside (top) of the bellow corresponds to the
saturation pressure plus the degree of superheat of the refrigerant leaving the evaporator.
This pressure is trying to open the valve against the spring force from below the diaphragm.
The external equalizer connection has a saturation pressure of the refrigerant leaving
evaporator, to act below the diaphragm. Therefore the saturation pressure from the external
equalizer connection balances the saturation pressure of the sensing bulb leaving only the
pressure due to degree of super heat only to oppose the spring force. Therefore, this degree
of superheat is supposed to open the expansion valve.
By this method, we are getting a control over only the degree of superheat of the
refrigerant leaving the evaporator coil. This is important to ensure proper utilization of the
refrigerant and that no liquid refrigerant reaches the suction of the compressor.
119. What are the reasons for short cycling of a refrigerant compressor?
120. What is viscosity? Differentiate between the kinematic viscosity and the
dynamic viscosity
Defined as the resistance of fluids to change of shape, being due to the internal molecular
friction of molecule with molecule of the fluid producing the frictional drag effect. Absolute
(Dynamic) viscosity is numerically equal to the force to shear a plane of fluid
surface of area of a unit square meter, over another plane surface at the rate of
one meter per sec, when the distance between the surfaces is one meter.
Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the absolute viscosity to the density at the
temperature of viscosity measurement.
Viscosity index is a numerical value which measures the ability of the oil to resist the
change in viscosity with the change in temperature. A high viscosity index shows a good
resistance to the change in viscosity with change in temperature.
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This is the constant volume cycle. Although no actual engine cycle operates strictly
following this ideal cycle, the analysis of this cycle provides a tool for comparison of
performances of actual engines under different operating conditions.
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The most important noted difference between this ideal cycle and the normal cycle is that
this is a non-flow cycle involving an ideal gas whereas the actual cycle is a flow process
and the gases are real.
This cycle is explained as follows:
At the beginning of the process the cylinder is assumed to be full with a charge of fresh air.
γ
The air is compressed isentropically following the law PV = constant. Heat is then added to
the same mass of air at constant volume. This point represents the maximum pressure and
temperature in the cycle. From here the air is expanded isentropically to the initial volume
and then the heat is rejected at the constant volume.
This thermodynamic cycle is first analyzed by Rudolph Diesel. This is a slight variation of
the above constant volume cycle, the difference being that the heat addition in the cycle
takes place at constant pressure. The other processes during compression, expansion, and
heat rejection remain same as with the constant volume cycle.
SMALL SOOT FIRES: Mainly occurs during maneuvering with the engine being operated at
prolonged low loads. The situation may arise even at short low load running if the fuel is bad.
Indications:
a. High economizer exhaust gas outlet temperature
b. Sparks from the funnel
c. Engine running parameters showing deviations due to increased exhaust back
pressure
d. High steam pressure or outlet temperature from the super heater section if fitted
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Hydrogen fire: Occurs because of dissociation of water (steam) into hydrogen and oxygen
or carbon in connection with carbon monoxide and hydrogen
This occurs only above 1000˚C
Iron fire: Oxidation of the iron at high temperature occurs at a rate sufficiently high to make
the amount of hest release from the reactions sustain the process. These reactions may take
place at a temperature in excess of 1100˚C
124. How do you identify the symptoms of a crank case explosion? What action
would you take to minimize the hazard?
a. Engine noise
b. Oil mist detector alarm
c. High bearing temperature (alarm if fitted)
d. In case of minor explosions the crank case relief door releases the pressure
ACTION:
a. Slow down the engine, inform the bridge
b. Take permission from the bridge for stopping the engine
c. Continue running the engine lube oil pumps
d. In severe cases, it is prudent to open the engine room skylights and other vents and
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abandoning the engine room. The doors from the engine room to the accommodation
should be kept shut. Return to the engine room only after carrying out risk
assessment
e. Turn the engine by turning gear with the indicator cock opened to prevent seizure of
the hot spots
f. Stay clear of the crank case specially in the region of the relief door to
the turbocharger suction
g. Don‟t open the crank case door until sufficient time has elapsed
ALARMS:
a. O2 content high
b. Scrubber tower water level low
c. Deck seal water level high
d. Deck seal water level low
e. IG pressure low
f. IG pressure high
g. IG temperature high
h. Boiler uptake soot level high (Ringlemann)
TRIPS:
a. Scrubber tower water level high
b. Venturi water pressure low
c. Low IG cool sea water pressure
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126. Reciprocating pump is getting over heated, what checks should be carried
out?
127. Explain the various rudder inspections and testing in the dry dock
COUNTER MEASURES:
a. Applying heat treatment process to relieve stresses after fabrication/repairs (welding
etc)
b. Correct and accurate boiler water treatment
c. Avoid DNB
d. Avoid accumulation of the deposits
e. Prevent leakage of corrodents
f. Prevent carryover
g. Use of rifling in the water tubes
129. A shell & tube type cooler tubes are leaking, what is the procedure to rectify
the leaks?
Before jumping to any conclusions it is prudent to check where the leaks are from. It could
be from the breach on the tube (a hole etc) or from the origination of small gaps between
the tube plate and the expanded portion of the tube. The procedure should to be based on
the findings.
A holed tube should be plugged from both the sides; the plugs can be of cork, wood, rubber,
brass, or copper as supplied by the manufacturer. Care should be taken when plugging with
the metal plugs, not to damage the tube plate.
If the leaks are from the gaps between the tube plate and the tubes, slight flaring of the
tube may help preventing the leaks however this flaring, if excessive will damage the tube
plate and also the tube itself. Alternative methods are available by carrying out surface
preparation and applying metal repair putty, like Devcon‟s brush able ceramic repair putty.
In the above process, if the plugging of the tubes is about 10% the tubes have to
be renewed.
To remove the tube, first remove the flare on the tube by chiseling off the flare flush with
the tube plate and then split the tube taking care not to damage the tube plate. The tube
can then be cut by a tube cutter to drop the tube inside the shell. Fitting of a new tube is
carried out by first positioning the tube in place between the end tube plates and flaring to
the correct amount by a flaring tool after fixing the other end by a brass wedge. It could by
either hand operated, pneumatic or motor operated. The tube should have a protruding part
about 1/4”~1/8” and the flaring should be to about 1/8” + tube diameter at the tip.
A reserve of phosphate should be present in the boiler water to neutralize any hardness salts,
which may enter. These salts would deposit as a scale on the heating surface if reserve were
too low while, too high a reserve leads to foaming and possible excess production of sludge.
It also gives alkalinity.
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Precipitates as Sludge
At high pressure and temperature, reaction from left to right will be more. Therefore, it is very
important in high pressure boilers to keep the reserve level up to required concentration to
avoid excessive caustic alkalinity and thus caustic cracking.
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In high pressure boilers where there is a risk of caustic concentration and subsequent
caustic attack it is common to apply a coordinated or congruent phosphate control
programme. These control methods are based on the hydrolysis of tri-sodium phosphate
(TSP) and disodium Phosphate (DSP) in the boiler water.
The objective is to maintain a desirable pH without the presence of free OH alkalinity. The
desired conditions are obtained by maintaining the relationship of the pH to phosphate
concentration in the boiler water at less than that of the equivalent stochiometric solution of
Na3PO4 (<3:1). This is achieved by the equilibrium reaction above. The congruent phosphate
approach utilizes mixtures of TSP and DSP to further ensure the absence of free OH alkalinity
and usually run with a Na:PO4 ratio of <2.8.
a. Brake drum should be free of oil, grease and other deposits. The brake drum should
be cleaned periodically with a solvent prescribed by the maker
b. The brake drum and the disk should be checked for wearing out or damage
c. Gear oil should be checked for contaminants and level
d. The direction of tensioning should correspond to the correct operation of the brake.
As the reverse direction for tensioning would render the brake ineffective, check
should be carried out to ensure the same
e. Brake test of the windlass is to be carried out to the pressure mentioned by the
maker on the jack tool. If necessary, the spring tension adjusted. It should be done
in guidance of the instructions and in the tensioning direction. The number of turns
on the drum should also be checked and should be same as to the makers quote
f. The securing device of the tension spring adjust should be checked periodically for
any tamper
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134. What is a pressure-vacuum valve and why can’t it be used to vent the cargo
vapors during loading?
PV valve is designed to compensate for the variations in the tank pressure conditions due to
variation of temperatures and the vapor quantity. A drop towards vacuum condition because
of condensation of steam will also be handled by this valve. Usual set point of the valve is
about +700mmHg and -350mmHg on the vacuum side.
This valve cannot cope up with the requirements of cargo loading, as its capacity
of pressure venting is small. Moreover it is not designed for this purpose.
The valves displace a weight that vents the tank in case of an overpressure or vacuum
condition. The valves are fitted with velocity vents that make sure that the inert gas is
ejected out of the tank with such a velocity that it clears the deck sufficiently
rendering the deck surface safe.
Tank vapors can be sent clear of the deck in case of excess pressure or during cargo loading
operation by a high velocity vent. The usual construction of such a valve is incorporated in a
mast riser, which is a long tower for safely venting the excess pressure of the inert gas in
the tanks to the atmosphere. The control is affected through a valve. The height of the
mast riser is arranged to vent outside the hazardous zone, generally 9m or more. The valve
consists of a variable moving orifice held by a counter weight to seal around the batten of a
fixed cone. Pressure build up in the tank causes the moving orifice to lift. The small gap
between the orifice lip and the fixed cone gives high velocity. The escaping gases are made
to pass through a flame arrestor and a flame screen. The valve has a cover that is normally
closed during sailing.
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136. Air bottle maintenance and inspection
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MINOR: clean the site of corrosion, observe the varnish manufacturer instructions for
surface finishing prior applying the coat. Apply new coat of the varnish.
MAJOR: The site has to be cleaned and revarnished as above. The air bottle has to
be derated.
Incase of excessive the entire bottle has to be replaced.
The derating procedure should be carried out as follows:
a. The extent of the derating is determined by the class surveyor to a value which
ensures the safe limit of the hoop stress at this reduced thickness of the shell plating
b. The derating should not violate the starting air requirements for consecutive starts of
the main propulsion engine
c. The setting of the safety/relief valve, should be set not exceeding 10% of the
maximum working pressure after derating
d. The cut in and cut out pressure switches for compressor automation should be
readjusted
For these reasons the air pressure vessels on board ship are fabricated to allow for derating in
future still complying with the consecutive start requirements of the propulsion engine
This is a U tube manometer filled with an ethylene glycol solution (as a measure against
freezing). The height of the manometer is manipulated such that the pressure on either
side may displace the solution, into tanks incase of vacuum inside cargo tanks and outside
on to the deck incase of over pressurization inside cargo tanks. Usual set values of PV
breaker are +1800mmHg on high pressure and -700mmHg on vacuum side.
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c. Abnormal rise or drop of pressure in cargo tanks which occurs, when the breather
valves fails to operate properly for the fluctuation of the pressure in cargo tanks,
due to variation in atmospheric and sea water temperatures, altering the vapor
pressure inside tanks
CHECKS:
a. Check the seal liquid periodically and replenish the liquid in case
• Liquid levels of inner and outer pipes do not coincide
• “0” points of inner and outer pipes do not coincide when the pressure inside
the cargo tanks is atmospheric pressure
b. Clean the flame screen in the cover at the top when the ships makes a dock-
in CHECKING PROCEDURE:
a. Checking the liquid level of the inner pipe (open the vent cock located at most top of
the gauge, close the upper gauge cock and open the lower gauge cock) this is also
termed as “bigger range”
b. Checking the liquid level of the outer pipe (close the vent cock, open the upper gauge
cock also open the lower gauge cock) this is also termed as “smaller range”
Two distinct scales are provided for the liquid gauge one “higher” and other “lower” the
respective readings (as in „a‟ and „b‟) should match numerically
MAINTENANCE & INSPECTION IN DRYDOCK:
Disconnect and remove top cover with attached internal stand pipe. Disconnect and remove
Flame Arrestor Assembly. Remove flame screen. Thoroughly clean internal of flame arrestor.
Renew flame screen with shipyard supplied equivalent type mesh. Drain breaker liquid,
thoroughly clean internal breaker body, and stand pipe. Apply two coats of shipyard supplied
tar epoxy by hand brushing to all internal surfaces. Level gauges, cocks and protective
housing to be removed and transported to workshop for cleaning and overhaul. Dismantle
sight glass tubes and cocks for overhauling and cleaning. Upon completion, re- assemble and
re-install onboard with new shipyard supplied approved type jointings, studs, and nuts. Prove
filling and level cocks clear and free. Disconnect and remove PV Breaker valve. Dismantle and
clean surfaces. Lap valve and disc. Set valve to +0.21kg/cm2 and 0.07kg/cm2 in the
presence of the attending superintendent. Record and submit calibration of valve settings.
Close on completion with new shipyard supplied approved type jointings and sealing
compound and bolts and nuts.
The alignment of boiler should incorporate provisions for thermal expansion at the boiler
feet (saddles) when the boiler is in hot operating condition. Expansion may be in the order
of 10mm. Assuming a four-point support; one foot will be bolted down hard to the
foundation, while the other three feet will be bolted down so as to permit the feet to slide.
Holes for the fixed bolts will be reamed in place. The foundation bolts in way of the sliding feet
must be accurately located with respect to the elongated holes in the boiler feet to enable the
feet to slide clear of the bolts. The pipe sleeves prevent the bolts from tightening down on the
sliding feet. A brass liner or a lubricant such as molybdenum disulfide is
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E LO NGA T E D
HO LE IN
BO I L E R FE E T
SL I D I N G FE E T
O U T LINE O F
BO I L E R
Lock Nut
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Boiler Feet
Steel Liner
Foundation Bolt
Interference body bolt or fitted bolt
FIXED FOOT
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The answer lies above. This is a closely fitted bolt. The holes are initially drilled to
undersize and are reamed in the assembling place before the bolts are tightened in place.
Accuracy is required in the machining. These bolts could be of two types one having a
slight taper of about 1:100 on diameter and the other having a large taper of about 1:15
on diameter. However, the holes in either case are reamed in final place.
Some times an oversized bolt is stretched hydraulically reducing the bolt diameter. When
tightened down and the hydraulic pressure is released the final exact fit in the bolt hole is
achieved, like a pilgrim nut on coupling shafts.
These bolts find place in engine / boiler mountings, coupling shafts etc. and form a rigid
fixture. On main engine mounting these are situated aft of the engine in the way of thrust
block. The foundation bolts towards the fore end (either side of the engine „P‟ „S‟) are
generally simple foundation bolts which are not fitted bolts. This system of foundation
bolts offers the rigid seating with provision for thermal expansion towards fore end.
149. What is the material of main steam piping and explain how it is supported?
Main steam piping is usually made of seamless low alloy steel. Where temperatures are
above 455˚C, the most widely used alloy contains 0.5% molybdenum, 1.25% chromium.
Gaskets between the flanges are made of thin stainless steel strips spiral wound with
insulating filler between successive layers.
There are three types of supporting to carry the weight of main steam piping.
a. Rod hangers
b. Variable spring hangers
c. Constant force spring hangers
Horizontal sway braces are often used to resist dynamic forces applied to the piping due to
rolling and pitching or due to vibrations transmitted to pipe anchor points. Sway braces could
be of the turnbuckle-rod type, the preloaded spring type or the hydraulically damped type.
At fixed anchor points, the pipe anchor brackets are separated from the anchor foundation
by insulating material to reduce the heat transfer from the steam piping to the hull structure.
144. Soon after complete overhauling a generator engine, its lube oil consumption
increases. What checks do you carry out in this regard?
a. Check that the lube oil system valves are set back to normal, and that the concerned
valves are correctly holding
b. Verify dip stick bottom for any blockage which can give erroneous results
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145. Generator lube oil sump level increases, what are the checks you would
carry out?
a. Check that the generator lube oil systems valves are correctly positioned and that
the sump filling valve is holding
b. Ask the personnel for if they have carried out any transfers just before, related to the
sump oil of the generator
c. Check the purifier for correct operation and that no water is being discharged with the
purified oil
d. Change over the generator concerned, isolate it and check the sump for any
contamination like water. Basing on the findings further inspections can be carried
out, like checking the cylinder liner jacket cooling water sealing O-ring etc.,
Before a survey, the boiler must be prepared. The preparation process involves:
I. Water side preparation prior entry into the steam drum for internal inspection
II. Gas side preparation for external tubes inspection also the refractory condition can
be inspected
III. Electrical isolation
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After the boiler has sufficiently cooled the access points can be opened, the
spaces well ventilated, enclosed space entry/steam drum entry procedures should
be followed. The fire/exhaust side should be cleaned after initial examination
a. Open access doors in way of the uptake and front and rear walls and the burner
register and all hand holes
b. Hydro-jet all soot deposits on tubes. Allow for collection and disposal of fresh water
c. Mop up the fireside to dry. Neutralizing chemical can be added in order to avoid
corrosion. Heating lamps can be used to dry out the furnace
d. Scrape hard deposits on all generating and water wall tubes, sweep and remove all
carbon, soot and debris on the furnace floor
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c. Remove all steam baffle plates in the steam drum
d. Hydro-jet cleaning of the internals of drums and tubes may be required to remove
mill scale and sediments
Oxygen scavengers are chemical compounds, which are added to the boiler feed water
to eliminate oxygen residuals and to assist in the passivation of metal surfaces.
There are a number of these chemicals available, and a selection is a function of the
amount of oxygen present, risk, feed system design, economics and any particular
limitations required by the process using the steam.
Some widely used oxygen scavengers are:
a. Sodium sulfite (Na2SO3)
Method of dosage: Dose the feed water continuously to maintain a desired
concentration. Where corrosion in the feed system is experienced, it is used as a
catalyzed form of sodium sulfite. The catalyst (usually a salt of cobalt) is to speed
up the following reaction, so that this is complete before the water gets into the
boiler. How is O2 Scavenged? : 2Na2SO3 + O2 --------- Æ 2Na2SO4
Limitations: The speed of the reaction is influenced by the pH of the feed water
which should be between 8.0~9.5. Sodium sulfite adds some solids to the feed
water, so it should not be overdosed or applied to the cold feed water. Otherwise,
this may lead to increased blow down requirement.
Sodium sulfite can be used in the boilers of pressures up to 62 bars. Above these
pressures, decomposition products such as H2S and SO2 can affect steam purity
b. Hydrazine (N2H4)
Method of dosage: Liquid hydrazine is injected at the earliest possible point in the
feed water system.
How is O2 Scavenged? : N2H4 + O2 -------- Æ N2 + 2H2O
Limitations: Excess hydrazine should be controlled to avoid an undue rise in the
ammonia level in the steam; there is a danger of copper corrosion in the condensing
plant. (Ammonia is produced by the decomposition of excess of hydrazine can
provide a suitable alkaline condition in the steam and in the condensate system,
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e. Proportional-plus-Integral controllers
f. Proportional-plus-Derivative controllers
g. Proportional-plus-Integral-pus-Derivative controllers
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The essential qualities of a copper gasket are softness and toughness (provision for cold
working without fracture). In its place the copper gasket is subjected to considerable
mechanical stress, resulting from elastic strains internally balanced. These elastic strains are
due to jamming of dislocations, which occurred during cold deformation (during service). If
this cold worked gasket is heated to a sufficiently high temperature the total energy available
to the distorted regions will make possible the movement of atoms into positions of equilibrium
so that the elastic strains diminish and the locked-up energy associated with them
„escapes‟. Tensile strength and hardness will fall to approximately their original values and
capacity for cold work will have returned.
151. What is the difference between a safety valve and a relief valve?
A safety valve is a pressure relief valve actuated by inlet static pressure and
characterized by rapid opening or pop action.
A relief valve is a pressure-relieving valve actuated by inlet static pressure and opens
in proportion to the increase in pressure over the opening pressure.
The terms „safety‟ and „relief‟ are synonymous; the safety valve is generally applied to
valves protecting any vessel, which could explode and endanger life whereas the relief valve
is more appropriate to the valve protecting system containing non-expansible liquid a burst
causing no violent explosion.
Another notable difference between these valves is that the vent of a safety valve is led to a
„safe‟ place (harmless to the working personnel) whereas a relief valve vents just outside
the valve.
The parameters of a two stroke, heavy fuel oil engine circulating/system lube oil are
a. Specific gravity: Range 0.90~0.98. This is used for identification of the oil. Limits: 5%
of initial value
b. Viscosity: Viscosity increases with oxidation, contamination with cylinder oil, heavy
fuel or water. Diesel fuel contamination decreases viscosity. Limits: Max 40%, Min -
15% of initial value
c. Flash point: Gives an indication of possible dilution with diesel oil. Limits: Minimum:
180˚C
d. TAN (total acid number): Expresses the total content of organic and inorganic acids in
the oil. Organic acids are due to oxidation products. TAN = SAN + weak acid number.
Limits: TAN 2
e. SAN (strong acid number): This expresses the amount of inorganic acids in the
lube oil. Inorganic acids are usually sulfuric acid from the combustion chamber or
hydrochloric acid arising from seawater. This will be stated. SAN makes lube oil
corrosive (especially together with water) and should be zero. Limits: SAN = 0
f. Alkalinity/TBN (total base number): Gives the alkalinity levels in the lube oil
containing acid neutralizing additives. Limits: High = 100%, Low = -30% of
initial value
g. Water: Could be fresh water or sea water, will be stated. Limits: Fresh water: 0.2%
(0.5% for short period), saline water: Traces
h. Conradsen carbon: Residue from incomplete combustion, or cracked lubricating and
cylinder oil. Limits: Max 3%
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Apart from the primary parameters as stated above, the insolubles are usually stated as
percentage/ppm of individual constituents such as Vanadium, Sodium, Aluminium, Iron,
Silicon, Tin etc., which shows the engine wear and tear empirically.
Reducing v/v
Evaporator
Re-evaporator
Sensing Line
D rain
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Hot Gas Solenoid v/v
Electric Motor
Condenser
Two kinds of hot gas defrosting systems by pass line are shown here.
A by pass line hot gas defrosting system as above. This can be carried out for one
evaporator coil when others are in use.
Below is another type of hot gas defrosting system which is also called reverse cycle
defrosting system and is used when all the evaporator coils have to be defrosted.
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Evaporator
Defrost circuit
Drain
Check v/v
Expansion v/v
Four
Electric Motor way v/v
A/C Compressor
Reservoir
Condenser
Check v/v
Expansion v/v
A Coalescer filter element consists of some pre-filter for particulate removal followed by
compressed inorganic fiber coalescing unit in which water is collected into larger globules
Coalescing action is relatively complex and simply it can be said to be due to the molecular
attraction between the water droplets and the inorganic fibers is greater than that
between the oil and the fibers. When the water globules are large, enough they will move
with the stream out of the coalescing unit.
Coagulation is the process of agglomeration of smaller particles into larger particle due to
intermolecular attraction between similar molecules in preference
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a. Order the drills in consultation with the personnel routinely working with the tools
b. Take the inventory of the drills, estimate the consumption of each drill, analyze to
ensure that excess inventory is not kept
d. Regarding the technical specifications follow the instructions as per the ordering book
viz. IMPA/ISSA
e. Some aspects should be looked into before arriving at a conclusion, these are:
a. Material of the tool and the intended nature of its work, like for light or heavy
duties
b. Industry specification like DIN, JIS, BIS etc.,
b. Length of the drill, normal or extra length
c. Cutting angle, standard angles are 118 & 135 degrees
d. Nature of twist, right handed, left handed, spiral etc.,
e. The shank shape, tapered, straight or „S‟ cut
f. Number of flutes
g. Drills and counter sinks
h. Reputation of the company and cost
i. Any previous experience with the company‟s tools
Most commonly used drills on board are jobber drills (drills without a shank, which are
gripped in the vice) for light duty, tapered shank drills for medium to heavy duty
157. What checks do you make if a compressor trips on low lube oil pressure?
158. What are the reasons of piston seizure in a reciprocating air compressor?
a. Failure of lubrication
b. Failure of cooling water
c. Valve part broken and fell into the chamber
d. Piston ring breakage
159. What are the instructions you would give to the watchkeepers regarding
boiler?
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161. What is the importance of starting air overlap? What should be the minimum
number of cylinders for a two-stroke engine for air starting? What is the
corresponding number for four-stroke engine?
Some overlap of the timing of starting air valves must be provided so that one cylinder air-
start v/v opens as another closes. It is essential that there is no angular position of the
engine crankshaft with insufficient air turning moment to give a positive air start. The usual
minimum overlap provided is 15˚. Starting air is admitted in the working stroke of the engine
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and the period of opening is governed by
a. The firing interval of the engine = No. of degrees in engine cycle/No. of cylinders
b. The valves must close before the exhaust commences. It is dangerous and a waste
blowing air to exhaust manifold.
c. The cylinder starting air valve should open after TDC to give a positive turning
moment in the correct direction.
The minimum number of cylinders for a two stroke engines is FOUR and that for a four
stroke engine it is SIX.
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Air on 15˚ATDC, Air off 40˚BBDC (exhaust valve opens at 30˚BBDC) therefore a net starting
angle of 125˚. Therefore, maximum possible crank angle difference between units is 125˚. A
four-stroke engine has a complete cycle of 720˚
Therefore, the minimum number of units in a four-stroke engine ≥ (720˚/125˚) = 5.76
Minimum possible number of units in a four-stroke engine is therefore SIX
If any hole drilled in the boiler shell exceeds the value 2.5t + 75mm, where t = thickness of
boiler shell, the vessel should be compensated for the loss of strength (due to lost material)
by a stiffening ring around the hole (circumferentially). This is called a compensating ring.
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A filter is a fine mesh insert in the pipeline of a fluid for the prime purpose of filtration. It is
normally positioned in the discharge line before the utility (equipment) or in the return line in
some hydraulic systems. The usual size of the mesh is mentioned in microns, which is the
smallest particle that can be filtered by the filter.
A strainer is a coarse mesh inserted usually in the pump suction. It is positioned for the
prime purpose of safeguarding pumps from ingress of heavy debris. In addition, this strainer
helps in preventing chocking of the pipeline in the upstream especially near sharp bends or
narrow passages like coolers. Its objective is not filtration. It is usually mentioned as
„mesh‟ and is the size of the holes of the mesh.
The principle of viscotherm is that a drop in pressure of a fluid of laminar flow, across a
tube is directly proportional to its viscosity.
In a viscotherm, a sample of the fuel is pumped at a constant rate through a fine capillary
tube. As the flow through the tube is laminar, pressure drop across the tube is proportional
to its viscosity. Tapping points are provided to enable the pressure difference to be
measured by means of a differential pressure gauge. The gauge is calibrated directly in
terms of viscosity. A differential pressure transmitter provides an analogue of viscosity to a
pneumatic controller, which regulates the supply of fuel heating.
The bearing sliding surface is machined at the mating faces of the upper and the lower
shells to create bore reliefs. Their main objective is to compensate for the misalignments,
which could result in a protruding edge (step) of the lower shell‟s mating face to that of
the upper shell. Such a protruding edge can act as an oil scraper and cause oil starvation
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Microbial infestation of lube oil is the undesirable growth of bacteria, yeasts and/or moulds in
the oil.
Infestation of the oil can be due to contaminated seawater, hydrocarbon
source already onboard or due to poor housekeeping practices.
The problems are like tank washing with contaminated seawater, water ingress from leaks of
seals (as in a stern tube, CPP etc.,), leaking cooling water, microbe infested fuel oil
contamination, onboard contamination due badly maintained or stagnant tanks (long lay off),
bilge water etc.,
The effects of such microbial infestation can be
a. Slimy appearance of the oil; the slime tends to cling to the crankcase doors
b. Rust films
c. Honey-colored films on the journals, later associated with corrosion pitting
d. Black stains on white metal bearings, pins and journals
e. Brown or grey/black deposits on metallic parts
f. Corrosion of the purifier bowl and newly machined surface
g. Sludge accumulation in crankcase and excessive sludge at the purifier discharge
h. Paint stripping in the crankcase
i. Additive depletion
j. Rancid or sulfitic smells
k. Increase in oil acidity or sudden loss of alkalinity. (BN)
l. Stable water content in the oil, which is not resolved by the purifier
m. Filter plugging in heavy weather
n. Persistent demulsification problems
o. Reduction of heat transfer in coolers
To counter the problems of the microbial infestation, it is necessary to take steps to
prevent such infestation.
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The microbial infestation is not possible without the presence of water. Some water in the oil
in inevitable due to leaks, condensation, etc., so it is necessary to constantly purify the oil.
Tanks should be provided with drain cocks at the bottom most part to regularly drain the
tank of water. The tanks should be designed to prevent any pockets where the flow is
minimal or stagnant. The oil should be stored outside the 15~35˚C range. This temperature
zone is very conducive for bacterial growth. Preferably, the tank should be kept at a higher
temperature to facilitate sterilization. Lube oils have a maximum risk of infestation in the
water-cooled pistons engine. Therefore, care must be taken not to allow any scope for
water leakage from the cooling system and the coolers should be kept leak free.
Once the oil is infested, it is necessary to kill the bacteria by physical, chemical or
other means.
PHYSICAL MEANS:
a. Settling: microbes settle the as they have a higher specific gravity (Sp.gr. 1.05)
b. Centrifuges: they can be separated by centrifuging
c. Filtration: microbes can be filtered by suitably staging filters
d. Heat: This is a function of both temperature and time at that temperature. A
temperature of over 70'C for 20 minutes is effective in killing the microbes. However
this is difficult to achieve at the plate surfaces and it may be necessary to sterilize
the tank first say by the use of steam lances before filling with oil for heat treatment
CHEMICAL MEANS:
Killing microbes using microbes is easy and effective, however the selection of chemicals
appropriate for the system application and should be done with care. Such things as
compatibility and hazards should be taken into account. However, if the infestation is acute,
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Osmosis describes the process whereby a fluid will pass from a more dense to a less dense
solution through a semi-permeable membrane. It is very important to the water absorption
processes of plants. Reverse Osmosis is a process, which uses a semi permeable membrane
that retains both salt and impurities from seawater while allowing water molecules to pass.
Filtration of up to 90% is possible thus making the produced water unsuitable for boiler feed
without further conditioning. Improved quality is possible using a two or more pass system.
Detergency of lube oil is the property of the lubricant to keep engine parts clean. In motor
oil formulations, the most commonly used detergents are metallic soaps, usually of calcium
(metalloid-organic compounds) with a reserve of basicity to neutralize acids formed during
combustion.
Dispersancy of lube oil is the property of the lubricant to keep solid contaminants in a
colloidal suspension, preventing sludge and varnish deposits on engine parts. Usually the
additives used to impart this property are nonmetallic ("achless"), and used in
combination with detergents.
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Crankcase oil mist monitoring for engine protection are to be provided when:
a. When arrangements are provided to override the automatic stop for excessive
reduction of lubricating oil supply or pressure
b. Power rating is 2250 Kw or more
c. Having cylinders of more than 300mm bore
Air compressors and generator engines in a ship usually do not meet any of the
above criteria and hence are not provided with crankcase oil mist detectors.
Steam traps are automatic valves that release condensed steam (condensate) from a
steam space while preventing the loss of live steam. They also remove air and non-
condensable gases from the steam space. Steam traps are designed to maintain steam
energy efficiency by performing specific tasks such as maintaining heat for process.
Once steam has transferred its energy, it becomes hot water and is removed by the trap
from the steam side as condensate and either returned to the boiler via condensate
return lines or discharged to atmosphere (a wasteful practice).
175. What are the reasons for a lot of deposits in the scavenge space of a marine
engine?
The usual reasons for a lot deposits in the scavenge space of a marine engine are
a. Chocking of the scavenge drains
b. Blow-by due to broken or sticking piston rings
c. Excessive liner wear
d. Faulty injection due to altered timing, bad fuel or incorrect atomization
e. Blow back of exhaust due to increased exhaust back pressure
f. Leaking piston stuffing box
g. Excessive cylinder liner lubrication
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As shown above the loss of intactness of the combustion chamber due to leakages, increased
volume or fouling causes the compression pressure and peak pressure to drop.
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177. What is the thermal efficiency of the main engine?
179. How do you operate the main engine after a Turbocharger breakdown?
Some points are to be taken into consideration for engine operation with turbocharger out
of operation:
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Purifier Clarifier
A centrifuge for separation two liquids of A centrifuge for separation of solid particles
different densities from a liquid
Sealing water is added to a purifier to No sealing water is added
establish a seal
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With the main suction of the pump closed, start the pump with discharge open. Monitor the
vacuum in the pump suction, if the vacuum is maintained for sometime the pump is in good
condition.
Proceed for checking the integrity of the suction lines as
follows: With the discharge of the pump opened for delivery,
a. Set the pump to draw bilge from each particular well closing other suction lines valves
b. Start the pump and note the build up of vacuum
c. Repeat the operation for all other suction lines individually, closing other remaining
lines
Now conclusion can be drawn with above observations.
The pump does not achieve good vacuum for any well, in this case
The manifold intactness by opening the sea water valve on the suction side and check it
for the seawater leaking. Repair the line after identifying the location
Identify for the leaks on the suction lines for which the pump does not achieve good vacuum
This can be done by pressure testing the line by opening the seawater valve on the pump
suction. The non-return valve on the line has to be dismantled and the valve put back after
removing the valve disc.
The sealings on the strainers have to be checked, like renewing gaskets.
Sampling points for an engine lube oil are clearly mentioned by the maker of the engine.
In any case, the following points are to be adhered to
a. Sample of lube oil should be drawn from the inlet to the engine
b. Before collecting a sample some amount of oil is to be drained from the
sampling point. Later sufficient amount of oil should be collected into a clean
container, decanted and collected in a clean sampling bottle
c. Engine should be in operation as close as possible to the MCR for some time before
collecting a sample
d. The sampling container should be unused one specially produced for lube oil sampling
e. After collecting a sample in the bottle, it should be stored in a cool dry place to let
the oil cool down before securing it with cap/seal. This is essential to prevent slight
condensation in the bottle
f. The sample should be fully identified with the date, vessel name, running hours of the
engine, lube oil running hours, sampling point identification
g. Each time the sample should be drawn from the same point
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continual stirring is provided. A small flame is directed through an open shutter at
regular temperature intervals, with simultaneous interruption of stirring.
The flash point is the lowest point at which the application of the test flame causes
the vapor above the test point to ignite. For a new oil the flash point should be above
220˚C, and any reduction would indicate fuel oil contamination.
2. BASE NUMBER
BN tester kits are provided onboard to determine the alkaline properties of the lube oil.
These testers use the chemical reaction of a reagent with the alkaline lube oil additive
(calcium) to produce a pressure rise. 10ml of oil is mixed with equal volume of a reagent.
10ml of another reactive reagent is placed in a plastic cup, which is floated on top of the
oil and reagent. The testing unit is sealed and thoroughly mixed. The resultant pressure
rise is directly read on an calibrated pressure gauge against base number.
3. KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
Onboard testing lube oil for viscosity is by the use of a comparative flow stick. This
measures the relative flow between two oils, usually a sample of the in-use lube oil
is measured against a fresh unused sample of the same grade of lube oil.
The flow stick is filled with 3ml of each oil in each reservoir, once both the oils are at the
same temperature, the flow stick is tilted to cause both oil grades to flow down the
channels. Once the new oil has reached the reference mark, the position of used oil in
the channel is checked. The following inferences can be drawn
a. If the used oil has a low viscosity, due to light fuel dilution. Then oil will have
traveled further down the channel than the new oil.
b. If the used oil has a higher viscosity, due to oxidation or heavy fuel oil
contamination it would not have traveled as far as the new oil.
4. DENSITY
This method uses hydrometer to test the sample oil density. It is important to keep
the oil and the hydrometer at the same temperature and maintained throughout the
experiment.
5. WATER CONTENT
Onboard water content is tested by using a calcium carbide. The tested is carried out
by mixing 5ml of oil with 15ml of a petroleum reagent (paraffin, toluene). The two liquors
are thoroughly mixed and then a measured amount of reagent (calcium carbide) is placed
on floating on the oil/reagent surface. The test unit is sealed and thoroughly mixed to
bring all liquids together. If water is present the carbide will produce acetylene gas, and
the resultant pressure rise will indicate the level of water contamination.
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187. What are actions you would take if a purifier starts overflowing?
Some or all of the following should be checked for in case the purifier overflowing:
a. Sealing water low
b. Excessive fuel back pressure
c. Low pressure, chocked water line (check the water filter)
d. Gravity disc oversized for the density of the fuel oil in question
e. Oil temperature high
f. Excessive sludge deposition inside the purifier bowl
g. Excessive feed rate
h. Sealing ring damaged (between the Bowl and Hood)
i. Check RPM and direction of rotation of bowl
j. Leaking three-way valve
a. Take the fuel oil flow meter readings for a specific time interval usually for an hour
b. Calculate the volume (difference between the above readings)
c. Using the fuel oil sample test results provided by the shore facility, calculate the
density of the fuel oil at the temperature near the flow meter
d. Calculate the mass of the fuel consumed by multiplying the results in b and c
e. Calculate the shaft power of the engine during this interval of time, take an average
value
f. Specific fuel consumption is calculated by mass of fuel consumed/Avg.shaft power
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developed by the engine in the time interval.
Express the result in the Units of specific fuel oil consumption: g/Kw-h
Calculate the average fuel pump index, Pθ = sum of all individual fuel index/total number
of cylinders.
Corrected fuel index, Pθ‟ = average fuel index x K Where
K = Correction factor for fuel pump index
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An example of calculation is shown with the following data to calculate K, Hence Pθ‟
Lower calorific value of fuel: 9700Kcal/Kg, Specific Gravity @ 15˚C: 0.947, Preheated
Temperature: 104˚C, Engine room temperature: 30˚C, Scavenge air temperature:
32˚C K1 = 0.953, K2 = 0.926
K = K1 x K2 x Sp.Gr. @ 15˚C = 0.836. Hence Pθ‟ = Pθ x K
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191. What is the difference between an over speed governor and a constant speed
governor?
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193. What is the material of connecting rod bolt? What is the importance of
elongation? What is the nature of stresses in this component and why should
these bolts be replaced after some time in service?
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Pretension of the bolts should be regarded as the single most important factor which
contributes towards the fatigue life of the material of the bolt. Pretension must be kept high
enough, so that the increase in stress owing to dynamic loading remains within the range of
stress already given by pretension.
Some routine checks on this part are (rejection criteria of the bolt)
a. Check for corrosion by acidic lube oil, discard if any present on shanks
b. Check the length of the bolt against a new or bolt tolerances. If longer, yielding of
the material should have taken place. Renew the bolt in this circumstance
c. Check for mechanical damage, especially on shanks
d. Check for fractures by NDT
e. Check the landing faces for uneven tightening
f. Discard the bolt when either designated life, over speed failure or piston seizure has
occurred
194. What are the bunker specifications? What changes would you make in the
event of a bad bunker?
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Grade DMX is a pure distillate used for emergency equipment external to the machinery
space. Grade DMA is the equivalent of a gas oil and is also a pure distillate. Grade DMB is
equivalent of a clean diesel, although it may contain some residue giving it a black color.
This means that an appearance test cannot be used on DMB as it is for grades DMX and
DMA. Grade DMC relates to a blended diesel oil which contains a residual component,
normally up to 10 %
Viscosity
Grades DMX and DMA have a specified minimum viscosity to ensure the fuel has
sufficient lubricity.
Flash Point
The flash points for marine fuels is determined by the closed cup method corresponding to
the opening of a previously closed vessel. The minimum flash point is 60°C for all fuels
within the machinery space of a merchant ship classed for unrestricted service, as laid
down by SOLAS national and classification regulations. Grade DMX, used for emergency
equipment external to the machinery space, must have a flash point greater than 43°C. It
should be noted in some countries gas oil and diesel oil are produced for local land based
market to a national specification. A minimum flash point is usually included in such a
specification, however, this value may be below that required by international legislation
for normal marine use.
Pour and Cloud Point
The pour point parameter specifies a winter and summer quality temperature. Normally
vessels burning DMA, DMB, and DMC do not have tank heating. Purchasers should ensure
the pour point is suitable for the equipment on board, particularly if a vessel is operating in
both Northern and Southern hemispheres.
The cloud point is the temperature at which wax begins to crystallize from a clear distillate
fuel. These wax crystals will cause rapid filter blockage. This parameter is only applicable to
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The sediment test for the DMB is sediment by extraction which defines the insoluble
residues remaining after extraction of the fuel by toluene. For the blended diesel grade
DMC, the sediment test specified is the Total Existent Sediment. This is the combination of
inorganic and hydrocarbon sediments existing in fuel when delivered. This test is aimed at
limiting the maximum amount of sludge present that could be separated by the filters or
centrifuges.
Catalyst Fines
In distillate fuels the elements vanadium and aluminium, plus silicon for grade DMC,
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relate to he residual component of the blend.
RESIDUAL FUELS
From table 2, ISO 8217 : 1996, there are fifteen grades of residual fuel which are
distinguished by three letters and two numbers. The first two letters are common to all
residual grades, „RM‟ denotes „Residual Marine‟, and the third letter refers to the
characteristic of the fuel. The two numbers are the viscosity of the fuel at 100°C. Grade
RMA relates to a residual fuel which normally does not require tank heating because of
the defined low pour point. Other residual grades require tank heating as they may have
a considerably higher pour point as defined in the specification.
ISO FUEL STANDARD 8217, 1ST REVISION 1996, FOR MARINE RESIDUAL FUELS
RMA RMB RMC RMD RME RMF RMG RMH RMK RMH RMK RM L RMH RMK RML
C HARAC TERISTIC UNITS LIMIT 10 10 10 15 25 25 35 35 35 45 45 45 55 55 55
DENSITY @ 15°C kg/m Max 975 981 981 985 991 991 991 991 1010 991 1010 - 991 1010 -
Density
Grades RMA 10 to RMA 15 have a restricted density so as to give acceptable ignition quality
characteristics when empirically determined from either the Calculated Carbon Aromaticity
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The below table shows the approximate equivalent viscosities at 50°C to those shown in
table 2. The data in the below table.
cSt
Kinematic viscosity @ 10 15 25 35 45 55
100°C
Kinematic viscosity @ 50 100 225 390 585 810
50°C
Carbon residue
The carbon residue of a fuel depends on the refining processes used in the manufacture.
Two grades have no defined carbon residue or density limit (RML 45 and RML 55), a
maximum of 22 per cent m / m applies to Rmh, RMK, 35, 45, and 55, while a limit of 18 per
cent m / m applies to RMG 25. The lower limits for viscosity grades 10, 15 and 25 reflect
the use of diluents to cut back heavy residual fuel to produce light intermediate fuel.
Ash
In general there is a relationship between the specified ash level in a residual fuel and
that for vanadium. This is because vanadium is the major ash forming component in
residual fuel.
Water
The specification limit for water in residual fuel is based on traditional limits.
Excessive water represents a loss of energy to the fuel purchaser, potential engine
operational problems and possible waste disposable problems.
Sulfur
Sulfur limits in residual fuel provides guidance to lubricant suppliers as to the level of
alkalinity required to neutralize corrosive compounds originating from the combustion
of sulfur.
Vanadium
The level of vanadium in residual fuel depends on the source of crude oil and the refining
process used in manufacture. On a global basis this varies considerably, from 50-100mg / kg
to over 500mg / kg, and the specification differentiates between low and high vanadium
fuels, such as RME 25 and RMF 25.
Catalyst Fines
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The purpose of a control for aluminium and silicon is to limit the amount of catalyst fines
delivered with the fuel. Globally, the composition of catalyst fines varies considerably and
can be controlled using limits for aluminium and silicon, considered better than the
historical method of just controlling the level of aluminium.
Sediment
Total Sediment Potential (TSP) provides a measure of the stability of a fuel.
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Running direction interlock is provided to withhold the fuel supply during maneuvering if
the running direction of the engine is not coincident with the setting of the engine
telegraph lever.
At the camshaft, forward end the shaft is coupled to the camshaft and carries round with
it, due to the key, a flanged bush and spring plates which cause an adjustable friction
pressure axially due to the springs and nut. This pressure acts on the coupling disc which
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Large reciprocating compressors are provided with an unloading system which enables the
compressor to start easily with no vapor pressure load in the cylinder, permitting the use of
electric motors with low starting torques. Unloading is effected by holding the suction
valves open, or by opening a by pass valve between the discharge and suction sides during
starting. The unloading mechanism is actuated hydraulically, mechanically or by solenoid
valve.
199. What are the reasons for engine running on air but failing to run on fuel?
a. Fuel pump valves are leaking: valve cages leaking, dirt in fuel, governor gear
jammed and holding valves off seats, faces require grinding
b. Fuel system not properly primed: water in fuel, air left in system, leaky valves,
priming connections left open
c. Fuel oil supply restricted: suction strainers dirty, gravity tank empty, vacuum in
gravity tank, valve in suction line not fully open
d. Fuel injection pressure too low: spill valve jammed, priming valves left open
e. Rotational speed on air too low: starting air pressure too low, starting air restricted,
cylinder head valve leaking, tight bearings
f. Compression pressure too low: piston rings leaking, indicator cocks open, cylinder
head valve leaking
g. Timing of fuel pumps incorrect: fuel pump plungers not functioning properly(spring
return type), incorrect spill valve timing
h. Speed governor jammed: inertial weight jammed, trip pawl not engaging,
connecting mechanism not properly adjusted
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201. Explain a torsion meter on a main engine shafting. How is engine power
calculated from the torsion meter?
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The signal out put from the instrument is directly calibrated in terms of torque developed
by the engine and read on the display.
Now as torque T is known, power developed by the engine can be calculated from
the following relation,
Shaft Power, P = 2 π NT/60 where N= RPM, π= 22/7 (PI)
The safety valve is the sole safety device, which relieves the boiler of a dangerous excess
pressure. In the majority of designs the oil fired boiler and the exhaust gas boiler have a
common steam circuit, though separate heat input and flue gas paths. The oil fired section of
the oil fired boiler has a fuel cut out which is operated by the steam pressure limiting device,
whereas the exhaust gas boiler has to depend solely on its safety valve to protect it. In a
composite boiler as mentioned above the pair of safety valves can serve to protect the
common steam circuit. An additional pair of safety valves is provided in the outlet header of
the exhaust gas boiler, which has to be set separately.
The setting of the safety valve has to be done when the heat input and the rate of pressure
rise is maximum. The setting of the exhaust gas boiler safety valve to comply with the above,
shall be carried out as follows:
While at sea, with the main engine running at normal service speed and when all systems are
steady, the oil-fired section of the boiler can be fired to augment steam production (all
precautions such as adequate water level in the boiler, operator standing by the burner quick
shut off valve etc. are to be followed). With the safety valve on the steam receiver of the
boiler lightly gagged. The safety valve of the exhaust gas boiler section is set at slightly
higher pressure. In order to ensure that the economizer (or the exhaust gas boiler) operates
under flooded conditions at all times, it is customary to adjust the safety valves of the
economizer to a slightly higher pressure than the safety valves of the boiler steam receiver of
which they are connected.
After setting the safety valve as above to satisfaction locking it to make it tamper proof, the
oil-fired boiler firing is stopped, the steam receiver safety valves gags removed and all the
easing gear properly connected.
The exact lifting pressures are recorded in the logbook authenticated by the CEO and a copy
of the above is to be forwarded to the classification society upon arrival next port.
In the setting of the safety valve of a boiler, three items are of great importance. They are:
1. Setting pressure at which the valve should lift.
2. The accumulation of pressure, which will be above the former due to the valve spring
characteristics
3. “Blow down” which is a drop in pressure below the setting pressure after the valve has
lifted and reseated.
4. For example the following values are relevant:
a. Boiler working pressure: 7 bar.
b. Safety valve setting pressure: 9 bar.
c. Accumulation of pressure: Maximum of 10% of the setting pressure = 9.9 bar.
d. Blow down at 3% of lifting pressure.
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