Journal of Latina/o Psychology © 2015 American Psychological Association

2016, Vol. 4, No. 1, 32– 42 2168-1678/16/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/lat0000049

Perceived Racism, Gender Role Conflict, and Life Satisfaction

Among Latino Day Laborers

Leticia Arellano-Morales Christopher T. H. Liang

University of La Verne Lehigh University

Lucerito Ruiz and Ernesto Rios-Oropeza

University of La Verne
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

Despite Latino day laborers being a vulnerable population of immigrant men, limited
research has examined their mental health, particularly within the context of ethnicity
and masculinity. The current study examined associations among perceived racism,
gender role conflict, and life satisfaction among Latino day laborers. Participants
included 159 Latino day laborers recruited from various informal sites within Southern
California. Findings indicated that perceived racism moderated the association between
gender role conflict and life satisfaction. Implications for clinical practice and future
research with Latino day laborers are provided.

Keywords: Latino men, perceived racism, gender role conflict, life satisfaction

Latinos are a heterogeneous group with dif-
ferences based on their regional locations, so-
cioeconomic status, acculturation, and other so-
ciocultural factors (Elder, Ayala, Parra Medina,
& Talavera, 2009). Latino day laborers (LDLs)
are one group that has received scant attention
in the psychological literature. An estimated
117,600 day laborers are employed daily within
the United States, and approximately 75% of
day laborers are undocumented Latinos who are
mostly Mexican (59%) or Central American
(28%) men (Valenzuela, Theodore, Melendez,
& Gonzalez, 2006). As predominantly undocu-
mented men, LDLs face increased risk of phys-
ical illness because of fear of deportation and
This article was published Online First September 7,
2015.
Leticia Arellano-Morales, Department of Psychology,
University of La Verne; Christopher T. H. Liang, Depart-
ment of Education and Human Services, Lehigh University;
Lucerito Ruiz and Ernesto Rios-Oropeza, Department of
Psychology, University of La Verne.
Funding for the current study was provided to L. A-M. by
the University of La Verne’s Faculty Development Grant.
The authors thank Ms. Yesenia Tello for her assistance with
their data collection.
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to Leticia Arellano-Morales, Department of Psy-
chology, University of La Verne, 1950 Third Street, La
Verne, CA 91750. E-mail: larellano@laverne.edu
32
constant exposure to stress (Cavazos-Rehg,
Zayas, & Spitznagel, 2007; Fussell, 2011; Negi,
2011, 2013). LDLs may define their well-being
in terms of their ability to financially provide for
their families and release from the stressors of
day labor work (Negi, 2011, 2013). Most LDLs
are employed within construction and landscap-
ing industries (Duke, Bourdeau, & Hovey,
2010), in which they experience abuse and ex-
posure to occupational hazards. Their high-risk
activities and limited safety controls expose
them to fatalities and work-related injuries, such
as musculoskeletal injuries, joint pain, burns,
lacerations, and crush injuries (Cheung, De-
lavega, Castillo, & Walijarvi, 2011; Negi, 2011;
Walter, Bourgois, & Margarita Loinaz, 2004;
Walter, Bourgois, Margarita Loinaz, & Schil-
linger, 2002).
The chronic experience of racism is also a
risk factor for their psychological well-being,
including depression, isolation, and psycholog-
ical distress (Negi, 2011, 2013). This abuse and
racism may exacerbate problems associated
with their gender role conflict and their quality
of life (O’Neil, 2015). Because many LDLs
note that their main objective is to financially
support their families, their economic insecurity
and social marginalization also affect their life
satisfaction (Ojeda & Piña-Watson, 2013). Ex-
amination of the associations among gender
 LATINO DAY LABORERS
role conflict, racism, and life satisfaction will
help to illuminate some of the processes expe-
rienced by LDLs, particularly because a limited
number of empirical studies have examined
these factors among LDLs (Ojeda & Piña-
Watson, 2013, 2014). Thus, the purpose of the
current study is to examine whether racism and
gender role conflict predict life satisfaction.
Gender Role Conflict
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Gender role conflict is defined as a psycho-
logical state in which conformity to masculinity
ideology results in negative consequences for
individuals as well as their intimate partners and
family (O’Neil, 2015). The experience of gen-
der role conflict is predicated on the assumption
that men internalize attitudes and beliefs about
masculinity, particularly from the dominant cul-
tural group. The dominant masculinity ideology
in the United States is associated with the pos-
session of traits that include assertiveness, dom-
inance, control, physical strength, and emo-
tional restraint (O’Neil, 2015). Recent studies
on Latino masculinity suggest that the beliefs
and attitudes of Latino men regarding their mas-
culinity are both unique and similar to the dom-
inant masculinity ideology in the United States.
Specifically, researchers have advanced a mul-
tidimensional view of masculinity that includes
positive and negative qualities (Arciniega, An-
derson, Tovar-Blank, & Tracey, 2008; Mirandé,
Pitones, & Diaz, 2011; Torres, Solberg, & Carl-
strom, 2002). Difficulties in living up to either
dominant or Latino masculinity ideologies may
result in gender role conflict and contribute to
problems with their psychological, relational,
and physical health (O’Neil, 2015).
Gender role conflict is associated with psy-
chological (i.e., depression, anxiety, self-
esteem), interpersonal (i.e., poor parenting,
marital conflicts, sexual harassment, and vio-
lence toward women), and health problems
among men from diverse backgrounds (see
O’Neil, 2015). For instance, Fragoso and
Kashubeck (2000) found that restrictive emo-
tionality, a form of gender role conflict, was
associated with higher levels of depression and
stress among Mexican American men (Fragoso
& Kashubeck, 2000). Likewise, among Latino
college students, success, power, and competi-
tion, another form of gender role conflict, pre-
dicted psychological symptoms (Carter, Wil-
33
liams, Juby, & Buckley, 2005). These findings
contribute to our understanding of Latino men,
but they fail to address how gender intersects
with perceived racial discrimination (Liang,
Salcedo, & Miller, 2011). It may be particularly
challenging for LDLs to adhere to their role as
providers within the context of unstable em-
ployment, racial exploitation, and numerous
chronic stressors (Duke et al., 2010; Furman,
Ackerman, Iwamoto, Negi, & Mondragon,
2013; Negi, 2011, 2013). The inability to fulfill
these roles may create psychological distress,
isolation, and substance use among LDLs
(Negi, 2011, 2013). Although literature regard-
ing the psychological distress of LDLs is help-
ful, it may underestimate the association be-
tween racism and life satisfaction. Given the
nature of their chronic stressors, it is important
to examine the factors that influence their life
satisfaction. Examination of the associations
among gender role conflict, racism, and life
satisfaction will aid in illuminating some of the
processes experienced by LDLs.
Experiences of Perceived Racism
Perceived racism, defined as the perception
of receiving unfair treatment because of one’s
racial or ethnic characteristics (Brondolo et al.,
2011), can encompass various forms of mal-
treatment and transpire within various settings
(Brondolo et al., 2009; Collado-Proctor, 1999;
Pérez, Fortuna, & Alegría, 2008). Exposure to
discrimination among Latinos may depend on
their phenotypic characteristics (e.g., darker
skin) and cultural characteristics (e.g., Spanish
language use; Araújo & Borrell, 2006). Per-
ceived racism among Latinos is associated with
adverse physical and mental health outcomes
(Araújo & Borrell, 2006; Brondolo et al., 2011;
Flores et al., 2008; Lee & Ahn, 2012; Todorova,
Falcon, Lincoln, & Price, 2010). Perceived rac-
ism appears to create an additional strain among
Latino men in their attempts to adhere to their
prescribed gender roles (Liang et al., 2011;
Ojeda & Piña-Watson, 2013). O’Neil (2015)
suggested that examining racial oppression
among ethnic minority men can provide more
information about the experience of gender role
conflict. He argued that racism and its threat to
their masculinity may lead to psychological
emasculation. In partial support of this conten-
tion, Liang et al. (2011) found that higher levels
 34 ARELLANO-MORALES, LIANG, RUIZ, AND RIOS-OROPEZA
of racism strengthened the association between
masculinity ideologies and gender role conflict
(i.e., success, power, and competition; restric-
tive affectionate behavior between men) among
Latino men. Researchers have demonstrated
similar findings with African American men.
For instance, Hammond (2012) found that mas-
culine role norms moderated the relationship
between racism and depressive symptoms for
African American men. Research is needed to
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understand how racism and masculine gender
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role conflict interact to influence the life satis-
faction of Latino men.
The experiences of Latino men, particularly
LDLs, likely differ from those of African Amer-
ican men and other men of color. Current anti-
immigrant sentiments and laws create signifi-
cant stress for LDLs because of their
undocumented status (Duke et al., 2010; Ojeda
& Piña-Watson, 2013). Many undocumented
Latino immigrants report greater experiences of
racism than their U.S.-born counterparts (Finch,
Hummer, Kolody, & Vega, 2001; Pew Hispanic
Center, 2007). In addition, race-related stressors
are amplified among many undocumented Lati-
nos because of prolonged exposure to stress and
constant fear of deportation (Fussell, 2011;
Negi, 2011, 2013). Compared with their docu-
mented Latino counterparts, many undocu-
mented Latino immigrants are more likely to
live alone or be separated from their immediate
family, endorse greater traditional gender role
attitudes, and demonstrate lower English profi-
ciency (Arbona et al., 2010). Because of their
undocumented status and urgent need to earn an
income (Valenzuela et al., 2006), many Latino
males are restricted to employment within the
informal work sector, such as day labor work.
These jobs are often rejected by others with
greater employment options because they are
menial, strenuous, low paying, and physically
dangerous (Walter et al., 2002).
Despite pride in their work ethic and ability
to provide for their families, LDLs may per-
ceive that their identities are under assault be-
cause of their experiences of economic insecu-
rity and competition (Walter et al., 2004). The
instability of their work combined with low
wages often creates anxiety and desperation
(Cheung et al., 2011; Negi, 2011, 2013) because
it is unlikely that their annual earnings exceed
$15,000 (Valenzuela et al., 2006). In addition to
their low wages, many LDLs are often the re-
cipients of injustice and abuse, including wage
theft, unsafe working conditions, and limited
employment benefits (Cheung et al., 2011; Va-
lenzuela et al., 2006). Although they may en-
dure severe hardships for the sake of their fam-
ilies, separation from their families also creates
significant stress regarding their roles as fathers
or spouses (Furman et al., 2013; Walter et al.,
2002, 2004). These findings further highlight
the need to examine the intersections among
gender role conflict, perceived racism, and life
satisfaction among LDLs.
Life Satisfaction
Life satisfaction is defined as the cognitive
appraisal of one’s life (Diener, Emmons,
Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). Standards for life sat-
isfaction vary across cultures, but these stan-
dards are associated with an individual’s needs
and salient cultural values (Oishi, Diener, Lu-
cas, & Suh, 1999). Although there are limited
studies that examine the factors that contribute
to the life satisfaction of LDLs (Ojeda & Piña-
Watson, 2013), related studies regarding Lati-
nos in general suggest that discrimination and
cultural factors are influential. For instance,
Barger, Donoho, and Wayment (2009) found
that African Americans and Latinos reported
less life satisfaction than their White/European-
American counterparts because of discrimina-
tion. Ojeda and Piña-Watson (2013) also found
that discrimination was associated with lower
life satisfaction in their sample of LDLs. In
addition, spirituality and perceived health sig-
nificantly buffered against the role of perceived
discrimination on life satisfaction. Qualitative
findings regarding the life satisfaction of Mex-
ican and Guatemalan immigrants who were pre-
viously undocumented indicated that their legal
status affected their employment, family life,
health, social interactions, and life satisfaction
(Tovar, 2009).
The limited research regarding life satisfac-
tion and gender role conflict indicates that life
satisfaction is associated with gender role con-
flict among male nurses (Rochlen, Good, &
Carver, 2009) and college football players
(Steinfeldt, Wong, Hagan, Hoag, & Steinfeldt,
2011). Given the limited data regarding the as-
sociations between gender role conflict and life
satisfaction, researchers should continue to ex-
amine these factors.
 LATINO DAY LABORERS
Intersectionality Among Ethnic
Minority Men
The construction of gender among Latino
men requires specific attention to the intersec-
tion of different power structures, including
gender, race, class, sexual identity, immigrant
status, and other social identities. Unfortu-
nately, most of the literature addressing Latino
men focuses upon either perceived racism or
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masculinity. However, there is a limited under-
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standing of how these two variables intersect
(Liang et al., 2011). An intersectional frame-
work is particularly helpful in understanding the
multiple social group memberships of ethnic
minority men (Liang, Rivera, Nathwani, Dang,
& Douroux, 2010; Schwing, Wong, & Fann,
2013) and allows for the simultaneous exami-
nation of different power structures and their
interactive effects among LDLs that are
grounded in sociohistorical contexts (Cole,
2009).
Consistent with this approach, recent work on
Latino masculinity (e.g., Hurtado, & Sinha,
2008; Liang et al., 2011; Ojeda & Liang, 2014)
highlights how an intersectional framework is
beneficial in the examination of intersections of
race/ethnicity, gender, class, and immigrant sta-
tus and related outcomes. Moreover, this frame-
work will assist in answering the following
question: Does perceived racism interact with
gender role conflict to predict life satisfaction?
Thus, based upon an intersectional framework,
the purpose of this study is to examine the
associations among perceived racism, gender
role conflict, and life satisfaction among LDLs.
On the basis of the racism and masculinity
literature, it was hypothesized that higher levels
of perceived racism and gender role conflict
would be associated with lower ratings of life
satisfaction among LDLs. It was also hypothe-
sized that the interaction of the two stressors
would significantly contribute to life satisfac-
tion. Specifically, it was expected that perceived
racism would exacerbate the effects of gender
role conflict on life satisfaction.
Method
Participants
Participants included 159 LDLs living in
Southern California and were largely (77%)
35
monolingual (Spanish language). All partici-
pants were born outside of the United States,
with most born in Mexico (74%), although
other participants included Central American
(24%) men. The amount of time (in years) of
the remaining participants ranged from 1 to 47
years (M ⫽ 12.96; SD ⫽ 8.44). More than 23%
of the sample did not report the duration of their
stay in the United States. Participants’ age
ranged between 18 and 65 years (M ⫽ 39.07
years, SD ⫽ 10.75). Approximately 77% re-
ported a heterosexual orientation, although
nearly 20% did not provide a response. Forty-
two percent were married, 31% were single,
11% were separated, 8% were cohabiting, and
4% were divorced. Approximately 74% of the
participants had children. With respect to part-
ner’s employment, 56% had spouses/partners
who were unemployed and 24% had spouses/
partners who were employed. Twenty percent
of the participants did not report the employ-
ment status of their spouse/partner. A signifi-
cant number of men (89%) reported weekly
incomes of $299.00 or less, 7% reported earning
a weekly income between $300 and $399, 4%
earned weekly incomes of more than $400, and
nearly 4% of the sample did not report a weekly
income.
Instruments
Demographic questionnaire. A demo-
graphic questionnaire was developed to collect
data regarding the participants’ age, place of
birth, number of years of years within the
United States, language proficiency, marital sta-
tus, number of children, educational back-
ground, weekly income, sexual orientation, and
partner’s employment.
Perceived racism. The Perceived Racism
Scale for Latinos (PRSL; Collado-Proctor,
1999) is a 34-item instrument that measures the
frequency of exposure to various forms of rac-
ism during the past year in several different
contexts. However, given our sensitivity to the
length of the survey for men who were looking
for work and because of the nature of our pop-
ulation, only items (18 items) from the General
Settings and Public Settings subscales were
used to form a measure of perceived racism.
Items are measured on a 5-point scale with
response options ranging from 1 (never) to 5
(several times a day). A sample item includes
 36 ARELLANO-MORALES, LIANG, RUIZ, AND RIOS-OROPEZA
“Because I am Latina/o, I have been made to
feel alienated or like an outcast in the U.S.
community.” The score was calculated by sum-
ming all item scores, and higher scores indicate
greater perceived frequency of perceived rac-
ism. Construct validity was established through
significant correlations with depression and
anxiety measures (Collado-Proctor, 1999). In
addition, the PRSL revealed excellent internal
consistency with a Cronbach’s coefficient of .95
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for a sample of Latino adults (Torres, Driscoll,
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& Voell, 2012). Data from the current study
yielded a Cronbach’s ␣ coefficient of .93.
Life satisfaction. The Satisfaction With
Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985) is a
5-item instrument that measures overall life sat-
isfaction. Items are measured on a 7-point scale
with response options ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). A sample item
includes “The conditions of my life are excel-
lent.” Mean scores were calculated by summing
all item scores, and higher scores indicate more
satisfaction with life. Convergent validity was
established by significant correlations with
measures of subjective well-being (Diener et al.,
1985). In addition, the SWLS demonstrated ad-
equate internal consistency of .71 among LDLs
(Ojeda & Piña-Watson, 2013). An ␣ coefficient
of .82 was obtained for the current study.
Gender role conflict. The Gender Role
Conflict Scale (GRCS; O’Neil, Helms, Gable,
David, & Wrightsman, 1986) is a widely used
37-item self-report instrument that measures
patterns of gender role conflict experienced by
men along four dimensions: Success, Power,
and Competition; Restrictive Emotionality; Re-
strictive Affectionate Behavior between Men;
and Conflict Between Work and Family Rela-
tions. Items are measured on a 6-point scale
with response options ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). A sample item
includes “Being smarter or physically stronger
than other men is important to me.” Total mean
scores are each derived by summing all item
scores; higher scores indicate greater levels of
gender role conflict. The GRCS demonstrates
acceptable internal reliability, with Cronbach’s
␣ coefficients ranging from .77 to .83 for sub-
scale scores and .91 for the total GRCS among
a sample of Mexican American men (Fragoso &
Kashubeck, 2000), and Cronbach’s ␣ coeffi-
cients ranging from .87 to .89 for subscale
scores and .93 for the total scale score among
Latino men (Liang et al., 2011). The total scale
score, which was used for this study, yielded a
Cronbach’s ␣ coefficient of .94.
Procedure
Upon receiving institutional review board ap-
proval, participants were recruited from various
informal sites (e.g., a local park where LDLs
congregate to obtain temporary work, a parking
lot from a home improvement store) within
Southern California by bilingual and bicultural
Latino research associates. The research associ-
ates (one undergraduate and two doctoral stu-
dents) were trained by the primary researchers
before entering the informal sites during prior
research meetings and completed prior research
and multicultural courses. Research meetings
included discussions and training of culturally
responsive research with LDLs, ethical issues,
and Latino men’s masculinity. Research associ-
ates introduced themselves as students from a
local university and demonstrated the cultural
values of respeto, dignidad, and personalismo.
They introduced the current study to the poten-
tial participants and discussed their rights as
research participants. Most participants were
willing to participate, and only a few (⬃10%)
refused to participate to ensure their availability
for a potential job prospect. Upon providing
informed consent, participants completed their
surveys either individually or within a large
group format with the assistance of a research
assistant. Although surveys were available in
English and Spanish, most (97%) completed
their surveys in Spanish. The surveys were
completed within approximately 30 – 45 min,
and all participants received a $20.00 Target
gift card for their participation.
Results
Data screening and cleaning procedures were
performed. Missing values were replaced using
the Estimation-Maximization procedure in
SPSS. Skewness and kurtosis of the continuous
data were within acceptable limits, and the data
met the univariate normality assumptions. We
did not include the variables Duration of Time
in the United States or Partner/Spouse Employ-
ment Status because of the large percentage the
sample who did not report that data. Age, mar-
ital status, and number of children also were
 LATINO DAY LABORERS
considered for inclusion in the moderator anal-
yses. Once data screening and cleaning were
complete, preliminary analyses were conducted
to examine the relationship among age, number
of children, and life satisfaction. Scores on life
satisfaction based on marital status also were
examined for differences. Neither age nor num-
ber of children were significantly associated
with life satisfaction, and no differences in life
satisfaction based on marital status were ob-
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served. Given the results of our preliminary
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analyses, none of these demographic variables
were included in our main analysis.
Bivariate correlational analysis using Pear-
son’s r indicated that gender role conflict was
positively associated with perceived racism, r ⫽
.62, p ⬍ .001, and inversely associated with life
satisfaction, r ⫽ ⫺.30, p ⬍ .001. Life satisfac-
tion was also inversely associated with per-
ceived racism, r ⫽ ⫺.41, p ⬍ .001. Table 1
presents the mean item scores, internal reliabil-
ity coefficients, and intercorrelation coefficients
for all variables examined in this study.
A hierarchical multiple regression analysis
(HMRA) was used to examine our hypothesis
that perceived racism would interact with gen-
der role conflict to predict life satisfaction. In
the first step, age was entered. Perceived racism
and gender role conflict were centered and en-
tered in the second step. In the third step, the
interaction term of gender role conflict and per-
ceived racism was entered. The HMRA yielded
a statistically significant interaction effect (see
Table 2). Tolerance parameter values were well
above .40, the value considered by Allison
(1999) to be problematic. With life satisfaction
as the dependent variable, results indicated a
significant moderation: adjusted R2 ⫽ .20,
⌬R2 ⫽ .18, F(1, 141) ⫽ 4.48, p ⬍ .05. Per-
ceived racism and the interaction term of gender
Table 1
Pearson Bivariate Correlations, Internal Consistency, Means, and Standard
Deviations (N ⫽ 159)
Gender role conflict
1. Gender role conflict — .94
2. Perceived racism .62ⴱⴱⴱ
3. Life satisfaction ⫺.30ⴱⴱⴱ
M 139.22
SD 18.60
ⴱⴱⴱ
p ⬍ .001.
37
role conflict and perceived racism were in-
versely associated with life satisfaction. Gender
role conflict was not significantly associated
with life satisfaction. Simple slope analysis in-
dicated that the association between gender role
conflict and life satisfaction was significant and
negative for high levels of racism, t ⫽ ⫺2.20,
p ⬍ .05, but not significant for low levels of
racism, t ⫽ 1.81, p ⫽ .07.
Discussion
There are limited empirical investigations
that examine the well-being of LDLs (Ojeda &
Piña-Watson, 2013). Given the nature of their
chronic stressors, it is important to examine the
factors that influence their life satisfaction. This
study contributes to an understanding of the
associations among perceived racism, gender
role conflict, and life satisfaction among LDLs.
Significant associations were observed among
perceived racism, gender role conflict, and life
satisfaction. For instance, gender role conflict
was positively associated with racism and per-
ceived racism was negatively associated with
life satisfaction. These negative associations are
consistent with the literature (Becerra, Androff,
Cimino, Wagaman, & Blanchard, 2013; Ojeda
& Piña-Watson, 2013; Rochlen et al., 2009;
Steinfeldt et al., 2011; Tovar, 2009) and suggest
that perceived racism, gender role conflict, and
life satisfaction are linked for LDLs. However,
because these associations have not been estab-
lished among LDLs, further examinations of
these associations are warranted.
As hypothesized, perceived racism moder-
ated the association between gender role con-
flict and life satisfaction. Examination of the
slopes indicates that the association between
gender role conflict and life satisfaction is pos-
Perceived racism Life satisfaction ␣
— .93
⫺.41ⴱⴱⴱ — .82
37.28 18.60
14.31 7.81
 38 ARELLANO-MORALES, LIANG, RUIZ, AND RIOS-OROPEZA
Table 2
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis Testing Life Satisfaction
Variable
Step 1
Gender role conflict
Perceived racism
Step 2
Gender role conflict
Perceived racism
Gender role conflict ⫻ Perceived racism
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ⴱ ⴱⴱⴱ
p ⬍ .05. p ⬍ .001.
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
itive for those men reporting low levels of rac-
ism, but the association is negative for those
reporting high levels of racism. A test of the
slopes suggests that association is significantly
different from zero for those who experience
higher levels of perceived racism and that it
approached significance for those who reported
lower levels of perceived racism. These findings
are not surprising given that racism is associated
with decreased life satisfaction (Barger et al.,
2009; Ojeda & Piña-Watson, 2013; Tovar,
2009).
That higher levels of gender role conflict are
associated with lower levels of life satisfaction
for those experience higher levels of racism is
consistent with literature. The findings suggest
that racism may interfere with men’s percep-
tions that they have the ability to succeed and
financially provide for their families (Furman et
al., 2013; Ojeda & Piña-Watson, 2013). Living
up to their roles as providers within the context
of economic exploitation and racism is distress-
ing (Duke et al., 2010; Liang et al., 2011; Wal-
ter et al., 2002). LDLs who perceive that they
are unable to successfully provide for their fam-
ilies may experience stress and problems with
their psychological health because of percep-
tions that their experiences of racism prevented
them from meeting their prescribed gender roles
as breadwinners (Negi, 2011, 2013). It is pos-
sible that because of their high levels of racism,
LDLs may have given up hope that they can
fulfill their roles as providers and consequently
experience a sense of failure and decreased life
satisfaction. Many LDLs immigrate to the
United States to fulfill their roles as the eco-
nomic provider of their family, but their undoc-
umented status can prevent the fulfillment of
their masculine role. For instance, it is not un-
common for many LDLs to experience wage
B SE B ␤ R2 ⌬R2
.17 .17ⴱⴱⴱ
⫺.01 .02 ⫺.05
⫺.21 .06 ⫺.38ⴱⴱⴱ
.20 .03ⴱ
⫺.00 .02 ⫺.01
⫺.20 .06 ⫺.36ⴱⴱⴱ
⫺.00 .00 ⫺.17ⴱ
theft and other forms of employer abuse and
perceive that they have no legal recourse
(Cheung et al., 2011; Fussell, 2011; Walter et
al., 2002). They may feel a sense of powerless-
ness and perceive that they cannot recover their
wages or report these violations as undocu-
mented men (Fussell, 2011; Negi, 2013). Un-
fortunately, their fear of deportation and distrust
of law enforcement may also contribute to their
sense of powerlessness. Therefore, it is conceiv-
able that their inability to fulfill their gender
roles creates distress and contributes to their
decreased life satisfaction because their right to
succeed within the United States is limited
(Negi, 2011, 2013).
The slope for those reporting lower levels of
racism approached significance at the .05 level.
It is conceivable that LDLs with lower levels of
discrimination have stable employment, good
health, and emotional support. For these men,
the ability to provide for their families and live
up to other traditional masculine gender roles
may not be detrimental to their life satisfaction.
Ojeda and Piña-Watson (2013) suggested that
when LDLs have greater confidence in their
abilities to acquire stable employment, they
may fulfill their masculine values of providing
for their families and are more tolerant of their
experiences of discrimination. LDLs may de-
velop positive feelings and pride because they
are able to provide for their families and fulfill
their roles, and these feelings in turn contribute
to greater life satisfaction. It is also possible that
although they experienced discrimination, their
spirituality or religious beliefs enabled them to
cope with these chronic stressors and protected
their life satisfaction (Krause & Bastida, 2011;
Merrill, Steffen, & Hunter, 2012; Ojeda & Piña-
Watson, 2013; Stephens, Stein, & Landrine,
2010). However, given that results of this study
 LATINO DAY LABORERS
indicate that the association between gender
role conflict and life satisfaction only ap-
proached significance for those who experi-
enced lower levels of racism, and that there is
only a limited body of literature regarding life
satisfaction among LDLs from which to draw,
further inquiry is warranted.
Limitations of the Current Study
There are several limitations to this study.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
First, data for the current study were obtained
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
through self-reports and are susceptible to recall
bias and social desirability distortions. In addi-
tion, our data were susceptible to possible errors
because of the low literacy of our participants.
We also recognize that the assessment of life
satisfaction was based upon participants’ sub-
jective evaluations and not objective measures.
Second, because our small sample largely com-
prised heterosexual Mexican American men,
these findings may not be generalized to other
groups of Latino men. Lastly, our results are
solely preliminary and are derived from cross-
sectional data; thus, we cannot infer causality.
Clinical and Research Implications
Given their distrust of social service agencies
and lack of health insurance (Cheung et al.,
2011), community-based health promotion pro-
grams that integrate strength-based approaches
and Latino cultural values are warranted. Col-
laborations with promotores de salud (male
community health workers) are recommended
(Elder et al., 2009; Worby et al., 2014) because
promotores may also aid in discussions regard-
ing racism, masculinity, and life satisfaction
and offer health promotion and access to com-
munity resources. Cheung et al. (2011) sug-
gested that partnerships with stable labor cen-
ters are critical for LDLs because they provide
a safe environment for LDLs, decrease their
social isolation, and increase their opportunities
to develop camaraderie. In addition to health
and mental health interventions, community
partnerships should also offer vocational Eng-
lish instruction to LDLs and emphasize the im-
provement of negotiation skills for wages and
employment (Worby et al., 2014). Furthermore,
because wage theft and employer abuse are not
uncommon, partnerships with advocacy groups
are also warranted to help LDLs recover their
salaries and sanction unscrupulous employers.
39
Culturally responsive interventions and
Spanish-speaking staff are essential. Clinical ef-
forts must recognize the chronic stressors that
are associated with being an undocumented
male immigrant and that multiple masculinities
exist among Latinos beyond monolithic notions
of machismo (Arciniega et al., 2008; Liang et
al., 2011; Mirandé et al., 2011; Torres et al.,
2002). Clinicians should consider the role of
racism and gender role conflict within the lives
of LDLs within the development of these pro-
grams. Although insight and self-disclosure are
often expected from clients, clinicians should
consider the possibility that because of mascu-
line norms, LDLs may avoid expressing their
painful emotions because it is inconsistent with
men’s need to demonstrate control and power
over themselves and their environment. They
may suppress their emotions to cope with their
experiences of discrimination and perceive that
discussions of these experiences are undesirable
and anxiety-provoking because these discus-
sions will involve recalling those painful expe-
riences (Brondolo et al., 2011). Clinicians
should consider validating these experiences
and are encouraged to help LDLs understand
how structural factors affect their economic and
sociopolitical realities and impede their abilities
to meet their roles as providers. Furthermore,
systems-level interventions, such as community
and cultural resources and activities that im-
prove the economic, social, and housing condi-
tions of LDLs, also are needed (Worby et al.,
2014).
Because of the homogeneity of our sample,
research with diverse samples of LDLs from
various nationalities and sexual orientations are
recommended. Researchers should consider the
use of an intersectional framework to under-
stand how multiple dimensions of inequality
intersect to affect the health and mental health
of this understudied population. Collaboration
with community organizations is also critical to
further understand LDLs (Duke et al., 2010;
Negi, 2011, 2013). Future studies also may con-
sider the use of another outcome of well-being
that reflects what is important to the group. For
instance, a measure of well-being based on the
ability to provide financially may be included in
future studies. Additional research, with the use
of other measures of well-being, is needed to
further understand these associations. Because
variance in life satisfaction is left unexplained,
 40 ARELLANO-MORALES, LIANG, RUIZ, AND RIOS-OROPEZA
other variables must be examined. For example,
the role of coping strategies or cognitive sche-
mas may be considered (Ojeda & Liang, 2014).
Future research should continue to examine the
factors that play a protective role against their
maladjustment, such as cultural values (Ojeda
& Piña-Watson, 2013, 2014), the ability to send
remittances, social networks, and spirituality
(Negi, 2011, 2013; Ojeda & Piña-Watson,
2013). Given that the well-being of LDLs is a
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
complex and multidimensional process, qualita-
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
tive methodologies are needed to further under-
stand it. For instance, Negi’s ethnographic work
with LDLs (2011, 2013) provides a contextual-
ized definition of well-being among LDLs that
indicates the central role of providing for their
families and how sending remittances was a
factor that enabled them to bear their hardships.
In addition, their definitions also reflected the
negative effect of their marginalization, such as
freedom from discriminatory security guards
and police officers, and discriminatory immi-
gration policies or city ordinances.
An intersectional framework was particularly
helpful in understanding the multiple social
group memberships of LDLs (Liang et al.,
2010; Schwing et al., 2013) and how power
structures affected their lives (Cole, 2009). The
current study highlights the need for research
and clinical practices that address the physical
and mental health of this poorly understood and
vulnerable population (Duke et al., 2010; Ojeda
& Piña-Watson, 2013, 2014) and the need for
systems-level interventions (Worby et al.,
2014). Indeed, clinicians, researchers, commu-
nity organizations, and policy-makers should
strive to improve the economic opportunities
and health and mental health of LDLs to miti-
gate the effects of racist or hostile social envi-
ronments (Worby et al., 2014).
Abstracto
Aún cuando los jornaleros Latinos son una población
vulnerable de hombres imigrantes, existen pocos es-
tudios que han examinado su salud mental, particu-
larmente en el contexto de la etnicidad y la mascu-
linidad. El presente estudio, examinó las asociaciones
que se perciben de racismo, entre el conflicto de rol
de género, y satisfacción propia entre los jornaleros
Latinos. Los participantes incluyeron 159 jornaleros
Latinos reclutados de diversos sitios informales del
sur de California. Los resultados indicaron que el
racismo percibido moderó la asociación entre el con-
flicto de rol de género y la satisfacción propia con la
vida. Se dan las implicaciones para la práctica clínica
y la investigación futura con jornaleros Latinos.
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Received October 20, 2014
Revision received July 15, 2015
Accepted July 20, 2015 䡲