CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The quest for a light weight structures is an ongoing task for engineering
community. However, Fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) do meet some of
these requirements. The development in FRP commenced only in 1940s.
After the use of FRP in defence, aircrafts, automobiles etc, it was
employed in structural applications. FRP have many excellent structural
qualities and some examples are high strength, material toughness,
fatigue endurance and light weight. Other highly desirable qualities are
high resistance to elevated temperature, abrasion, corrosion and chemical
attack.

1.1 Composite Material

Since the early dawn of civilization, the strong and light material has
always fascinated mankind for typical applications. The idea of
composite materials are formed by the combination of two or
morematerials that retain their respective characteristics when combined
together to achieve desired properties (physical, chemical, etc.) that are
superior to those of individual constituents. The main components of
composites are reinforcing agents and matrix. The fibers, particulates &
whiskers act as the reinforcement and provide most of the stiffness &
strength. The matrix binds the reinforcement together thus effecting the
load transfer from matrix to reinforcement. Other substances such as
fillers are used to reduce the cost and improve processsability&
dimensional stability.

Laminated composites are a special form of FRP which belongs to the

new generation of energy efficient materials, almost dominating over the
metallic materials. The potential of laminated composites offer several
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possibilities but on the other hand the mechanical characterization of a
composite structure is more complex than that of metal structures.
Composites exist in nature. A piece of wood is a composite, with long
fibers of cellulose (a very complex form of starch) held together by a
much weaker substance called lignin. Cellulose is also found in cotton
and linen, but it is the binding power of the lignin that makes a piece of
timber much stronger than a bundle of cotton fibers.

Fig. 1.1.Fibers Fig. 1.2.Composite material

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1.2 Characteristics of Composites

Composites have high strength-to-weight ratio and high stiffness-to-

weight ratio as compared to conventional materials. Composites
havemany excellent structural qualities and some examples are high
strength, material toughness and fatigue endurance. Other highly
desirable qualities are high resistance to elevated temperature, abrasion,
corrosion and chemical attack. The real advantage of the use of
laminatedcomposites lies in the fact that they provide flexibility to tailor
different properties of the structural elements to achieve strength and
stiffness requirements. The tailoring results in large mass savings. These
advantages include lightweight, resistance to environmental damage, long
life, and automated fabrication, ease of manufacturing, handling, erection
and rapid installation. In fact, with the technological leaps in recent times,
focus has been on developing the materials required to perform in
stringent conditions - high temperature & pressure, highly corrosive
environment, higher strength but without much weight implications etc.
which the conventional materials failed to service.

The mechanical properties of composites depend on many variables such

as fiber types, orientations and architecture. The fiber architecture refers
to the preformed textile configurations by braiding, knitting, or weaving.
Composites are anisotropic materials with their strength being different in
any direction. Their stress-strain curves are linearly elastic to the point of
failure by rupture.

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Fig. 1.3.Light weight composite panels Fig. 1.4.High strength of
composite

1.3 Making a Composite

Most composites are made up of just two materials. One material (the
matrix or binder) surrounds and binds together a cluster of fibers
orfragments of a much stronger material (the reinforcement). In
fiberglass, the reinforcement is provided by fine threads or fibers of glass,
often woven into a sort of cloth, and the matrix is a plastic. The threads of
glass in fiberglass are very strong under tension but they are also brittle
and will snap if bent sharply. The matrix not only holds the fibers
together, it also protects them from damage by sharing any stress among
them. The matrix is soft enough to be shaped with tools, and can be
softened by suitable solvents to allow repairs to be made. Any
deformation of a sheet of fiberglass necessarily stretches some of the
glass fibers, and they are able to resist this, so even a thin sheet is very
strong. It is also quite light, which is an advantage in many applications.

Fig. 1.5.Alignment of fibers

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1.4 Choosing the Manufacturing Process

Making an object from a composite material usually involves some form

of mould. The reinforcing material is first placed in the mould and then
semi-liquid matrix material is sprayed or pumped in to form the object.
Pressure may be applied to force out any air bubbles, and the mould is
then heated to make the matrix set solid. The molding process is often
done by hand, but automatic processing by machines is becoming more
common. One of the new methods is called pultrusion (a term derived
from the words 'pull' and 'extrusion'). This process is ideal for
manufacturing products that are straight and have a constant cross
section, such as bridge beams.

In many thin structures with complex shapes, such as curved panels, the
composite structure is built up by applying sheets of woven fiber
reinforcement, saturated with the plastic matrix material, over an
appropriately shaped base mould. When the panel has been built to an
appropriate thickness, the matrix material is then cured. In many
advanced composites (such as those used in the wing and body panels of
aircraft), the structure may consist of a honeycomb of plastic sandwiched
between two skins of carbon-fiber reinforced composite material. Such
sandwich composites combine high strength, and particularly
bendingstiffness, with low weight. Like everything to do with aircraft,
they can be very costly.

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Fig.1.6.Manufacture process

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 1.5 Advantages of Laminated Composites Compared to
Conventional Materials

Laminated composite stiffened panels have the advantage of both

features structural form and material
A few significant advantages are:
 Composites can provide structures that are 25-45 % lighter than the
conventional structures designed to meet the same functional
requirements.
 Tensile strength of composites is four to six times greater than that of
steel or aluminium.
 Unidirectional fiber composites have specific modulus (ratio of
material stiffness to density) about 3 to 5 times greater than that of
steel and aluminium.
 Fatigue endurance limit of composites may approach 60% of their
ultimate tensile strength. For steel and aluminium, this value is
considerably lower.
 Corrosion resistance of fiber composites leads to reduced life cycle
cost.
 Unlimited capacity to be molded (fabric impregnated in situ) and
perfect adaptability to the original shape of the structural element that
needs to be reinforced, stiffened or integrated.
 Simple application methods with absence of complex preparation.
 Better durability, excellent damage tolerance, non invasive
application, improved torsional stiffness and impact properties.
 Composites are less noisy while in operation and provide lower
vibration transmission than metals.
 Composites are more versatile than metals and can be tailored to meet
performance needs and complex design requirements.


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 Excellent fatigue, impact, environmental resistance and reduced
maintenance.
 Composites exhibit excellent corrosion resistance and fire
retardancy.
 Improved appearance with smooth surfaces and readily incorporable
integral decorative melamine are other characteristics of composites.
 Composite parts can eliminate joints/fasteners, providing part
simplification and integrated design compared to conventional
metallic parts.
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In addition to above, From an economic point of view, the main factors
contributing to their competitiveness with respect to conventional
materials are time saving, flexibility, low labor costs, low tooling and
machinery costs on the construction site because of the light weight and
manageability of tools, possibility of restoring a structure without
interrupting its utilization by users and durability. In spite of many
advantages of laminated composites over traditional materials, complex
mechanics involved in laminated fibrous composites poses new
challenges for the construction industry. The downside of composites is
usually the cost. Although manufacturing processes are often more
efficient when composites are used, the raw materials are expensive. At
present composites can not totally replace traditional materials like steel,
but in many cases they are just what we need. And no doubt new uses
will be found as the technology evolves.

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Fig.1.7.Comparison of different properties of composite materials with
traditional material
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CHAPTER 2
DESCRIPTION OF LAMINATED COMPOSITE STIFFENED PANELS

2.1 Classification of Composite Material

There are three commonly accepted types of composite materials

 Fibrous composite: it consists of fibre and matrix

 Laminate composite: it consists of layers of various materials

 Particulate composite: it is composed of particle in matrix

2.2 Laminated Fibrous Composite

Laminated fibrous composite are a hybrid class of composite involving

both fibrous composite and lamination technique. A more common name
is fiber-reinforced composites. Here, layers of fiber-reinforced material
are built-up with the fiber direction of each layer typically oriented in
different direction to give different strength and stiffnesses in the various
directions. Thus, the strength and stiffness of the laminated fiber-
reinforced composite can be tailored to the specific design requirement of
the structural element being built. Some of the basic terminology of
laminated fiber-reinforced composite material is as discussed below.
2.3 Laminae
A lamina is a flat arrangement of unidirectional fibers or woven fibers in
a matrix. Two typical laminae are shown if fig.8 Along with their
principal material direction. The fibers are the principal load carrying
agent. They are typically strong and stiff. The function of matrix is to
support and protect the fibres and provide a means of distributing load
among and transmitting load between fibres.

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
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 Fig.2.1.Typical laminate configuration

2.4 Laminate
A laminate is the stack of laminae with various orientation of the
principle material direction in the laminae. A typical laminate
construction is shown in fig.8. The layers of the laminate are usually
bound together by the same matrix material that is used in laminae.
Laminate can be composed of different material or, in the present context,
layers of fiber- reinforced laminae. The main purpose of lamination is to
tailor the directional dependence of strength and stiffness of a material to
match loading environment of the structural element.
The effect of proper bond between lamina can be seen by the considering
an example of two laminas each having width „b‟ and thickness „t‟ as
shown in fig.9.

Case1: when no bond exists between two laminas

3
Section modulus Z1 = 2(b x t /12)
Case2: when a bond between the laminas
3
Section modulus Z1 = b x (2 t )/12 = 4Z1

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 Fig.2.2.Effect of Proper bond between Laminas

2.5 Laminate Code

An x, y, z orthogonal coordinate system is used in analyzing laminates
with the z coordinate being perpendicular the plane of the laminate. The
orientations of the unidirectional laminas are specified by the angle θ (in
degree) with respect to the x-axis. The angle θ is positive in the counter
clockwise direction. The number of lamina group is specified by a
numerical subscript. For example the laminate consisting of
unidirectional plies as shown in fig.10 is designated as [45 3/03/902/60]
This laminate contains four lamina group
0
Three plies in the 45 direction
0
Three plies in the 0 direction
0
Two plies in the 90 direction
0
One plies in the 60 direction

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 Fig.2.3.Fibre orientation of laminas

2.6 Laminate Type

Symmetrical laminate
When the laminate is symmetrical with respect to the mid-plane it is
referred to as a symmetrical laminate. A symmetric laminate is
represented as
[-452/04/-452] = [-452/02]s
[45/-452/452/-452/45] = [45/-452/45]s
The subscript s indicates symmetry about the mid-plane.

Anti-Symmetrical laminate
When the laminate is anti-symmetrical with respect to the mid-plane it is
referred to as an anti-symmetrical laminate. A anti-symmetric laminate is
represented as
[-452/04/-452]
[45/-452/452/-452/45]

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Cross-ply laminate
In cross-ply laminate fibers are only in the 0 and 90 degree direction.
Cross-ply laminate may be symmetrical or unsymmetrical. Since there is
no distinction between the +0 and -0 and between +90 and -90 degree
directions, cross-ply laminate are balanced. A cross-ply laminate is
represented as
[0/90/90/0] or [0/90]s
[0/90/0/90]

Angle-ply laminate
Angle-ply laminate consists of plies in the +θ and -θ directions. Angle-
ply laminate may be symmetrical or unsymmetrical. An angle-ply
laminate is represented as
[45/-45/-45/45] = [45/-45]s
[45/-45/45/-45]

2.7 Stiffened Panels

Stiffened panel consist of plate provided with stiffeners in the

longitudinal and/or transverse direction. These plates are extensively used
in many industrial structures, aircrafts and ship hulls etc. The stiffened
elements representing a relatively small part of the total weight of the
structure substantially influence their strength, stiffness and stability. Fig
11 and 12 shows a schematic representation of different type of stiffeners.
Each geometry has its merit and demerits over other types of stiffeners.
Each type of stiffeners is used to serve an intended purpose. These are
broadly classified as open type close type or box type. Open type are
torsionally week while close type or box type are torsionally stiff. Blade
stiffener, T stiffener, J stiffener, I stiffener fall under the category of open

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type of stiffener and hat stiffener, U stiffener, V stiffener, Y stiffener fall
under the category of close or box type.

Some various shaped stiffening members commonly used for panel

structural concepts are “T”, “Z”, “I”, “C”, “J”, and hat. The stiffening
member provides the benefit of added load-carrying capability with a
relatively small additional weight penalty. Most stiffened panel designs
provide high bending stiffness in only one direction. However,
unidirectional designed panels cost less and are easier to inspect and most
applications do not require high bending stiffness in both directions. One
very common type of stiffener is the so-called blade stiffener which
actually is a plate perpendicularly attached to the laminated composite
plate. A typical arrangement of this class can be found in Fig. 13.

Fig. 2.4.Example for stiffeners cross section

Fig.2.5.Laminated composite blade stiffened panel

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 Fig.2.6.Panel cross-section, dimensions, and support locations for repeating
element of: (a, b) metal J- and blade-stiffened panels; and (c, d) composite
blade- and hat-stiffened panels

2.8 Types of Stiffeners

There are three arrangements of stiffeners commonly used to reinforce

plates.
1) The longitudinal stiffeners placed to the in-plane load to carry a
portion of the applied load.
2) The transverse stiffeners used merely to subdivide the plate into
smaller panels, since the portion of the load carried by them is relatively
small.
3) A combination of longitudinal and transverse stiffeners resulting in
an orthogonally stiffened plate.

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2.9 Role of Stiffeners

1) In a stiffened plate subject to large deflection, lateral load is

resisted by simultaneous bending and member action. Sufficient weight
reduction can be achieved by the use of stiffened plates.
2) The stability of a plate depends on the thickness of the plate. It
increases with increase in the plate thickness. By using stiffened plates,
stability can be increase keeping the plate thickness as small as possible

2.10 Laminated Composite Stiffened Panels

In all cases of buckling of plates, critical loads are proportional to the

flexural rigidity of the plates. The stiffeners are of very less weight but at
the same time enhance the in-plane critical load carrying capacity when
compared with unstiffened panels. Stability of the plate increases with the
increase in the thickness of the plate but a more economical solution is
obtained by keeping the thickness of the plate as small as possible and
increasing the stability by introducing stiffeners. Being a thin walled
structure the design of stiffened plates is governed both by stability and
strength criterion.
Stiffened panels are generic structural elements in weight sensitive
structural, aerospace and marine applications. These panels are becoming
increasingly used in structural applications because of their high specific
stiffness (stiffness per unit weight) and specific strength (strength per unit
weight). The stiffened elements representing a relatively small part of the
total weight of the structure substantially influence their stiffness and
stability. When these stiffeners are arranged in a regular orthogonal grid,
and the spacing is small enough to smear the stiffeners to a continuum in
the analysis, such a stiffened plate is called orthogonal anisotropic plate
or
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in short, an orthotropic plate. The lateral load is resisted by a stiffened
panel by simultaneous bending and membrane action. Sufficient weight
reduction can be achieved by the use of stiffened panels. Laminated
composite stiffened panels, which are anisotropic and orthotropic are
gaining popularity in structural applications such as long span bridge
decks, ship deck hulls and superstructure of offshore oil platforms etc.
The use of laminated composite provides flexibility to tailor different
properties of the structural elements to achieve strength and stiffness
requirements.

It is well known that stacking sequence optimizations are indispensable

for laminated composite structures. Stiffened composite panels usually
have more than two stacking 13 sequences because they consist of a panel
skin laminate and stiffener laminates. This means that the stacking
sequences need to be jointly optimized to achieve structural optimization
of the stiffened composite panel . Laminated composite stiffened
panelshave the advantage of both the stiffeners and lamina ted composite
material such weight reduction, better durability and excellent damage
tolerance. Because of the use of such panels in b ridge, they can be
subjected to patch load in the form of vehicle and pedestrian traffic.
Therefore, such type of patch load and their effects on stiffened panels are
important aspect of research for efficient use of composite in bridges.
There is also lack of database for laminated composite orthotropic panels
subject to patch load.

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Fig.2.7. Laminated composite stiffened panels

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 CHAPTER 3
APPLICATION OF LAMINATED COMPOSITE STIFFENED
PANELS

Laminated composite stiffened panels are widely employed in many

engineering application. Such structures are usually thin-walled and
therefore susceptible to buckling. Stiffened panels are generic structural
elements in weight sensitive structural, civil, aerospace and marine
applications. These panels are becoming increasingly used in structural
applications because they have high specific stiffness and specific
strength. A laminated composite stiffened panel, which is anisotropic and
orthotropic, are gaining popularity in structural applications such as long
span bridge decks, buildings, ship deck hulls, wing panels and
superstructure of offshore oil platforms etc.

3.1 Application of Laminated Composite Stiffened Panels in Marine

Engineering
With composites exhibiting excellent resistance to the marine
environment, their applications have made good inroads in the marine
sector worldwide. Complex configurations & the advantages of seamless
hulls were the main driving factors in the development of FRP boats.
Racing power boats employ advanced & hybrid composites for a higher
performance craft and driver safety. Major structural elements viz.
deckhouses, hatch covers, kings posts & bow modules appears to be very
well suited for FRP construction. Deck and ship bottom structures are
modelled as assemblies of stiffened composite panels. In India, composite
applications in marine segment has made some beginning in the last

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decade in high speed boats, naval vessels, sail boats, fishing boats, high
capacity trawlers, barges & other ship components.

The technological advances in materials and new understanding of how

composite materials behave under load have been crucial in the
developments for the marine industry. It is essential to fully understand
how these composites behave, because only that we can build stronger
and lighter marine application. Advanced composites materials on vessels
have a potential to reduce fabrication & maintenance cost, enhance
styling, reduce outfit weight and increase reliability. The consumption of
composites by this industry is mainly glass fibre reinforced polyesters.

The performance of future navy ships requires novel and innovative

material and structural systems to meet ever-increasing design
requirements. The application of composite materials for the primary
structure of shipbuilding surface combatants offers the potential to meet
these performance goals in the areas of increased payload fraction
reduced life cycle costs and improved survivability.

Fig.3.1.Constitution of laminate

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Fiber/matrix composite laminates in both military as well as industrial
applications have weight savings up to 70% compared to traditional
metallic structures. These weight savings can be used to maintain the
necessary stability criteria as a ship accommodates additional payload or
weapons systems and increases in tonnage throughout its service life. The
reduced weight may also be used to increase ship speed or mission range.
The layered configuration of laminated structures allows opportunities to
embed and integrate specialized materials into the composite lay-up
which provide improved electromagnetic performance.

A further challenge is that even as current composite applications become

more accepted and standardized in design and manufacturing, the
underlying technology and threats continue to move forward. Next
generation composite ship structures will need to provide better
performance to meet more severe blast, ballistic, and electromagnetic
requirements than ever before. Achieving this in an affordable system
will require improved resin systems, better core materials and a total
integration of technologies into a true multi-layered, multi-functional
structural system. Incorporation of these technologies and many others
will forever change the appearance, design, and performance of the
navy‟s future surface ships, as seen projected in Figure 16.

Fig.3.2..Evolution of the surface ships

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A new composite perform framing technology shows promise in the
reduction of fabrication costs for large ship construction. Larger ships
(over 150 ft in length), however, have been constructed traditionally from
steel and other conventional materials because higher cost of composite
panels compared to conventional materials. Therefore, new higher quality
materials with lower costs and new fabrication methods need to be
developed before composite materials will be fully accepted for the
construction of large ships. The U.S. shipbuilding industry recently has
started incorporating composite materials in the construction of both
military and commercial ships due to the advantages of composite
construction. Composite construction has many advantages compared to
steel construction. Weight savings lead to larger cargo capacity, fuel
savings, and increased stability of the ship. Composite materials are
corrosion resistant requiring less maintenance and can be tailored to meet
certain performance requirements allowing more design flexibility.
Composite materials provide improved stealth characteristics and better
protection against shrapnel for military applications.

One major disadvantage of composites is the higher construction costs

compared to steel and other traditional materials. This is partially due to
the labor-intensive nature of composite construction. Conventional hand
lay-up, open mold fabrication is cost effective for small boats; however,
hand lay-up typically is not used for larger vessels due to the high
construction costs. One exception to this is minehunters. As in the case of
minehunters, composites have been fully embraced only for larger vessels
with very specific functions where wood construction has been preferred
over steel construction. Before composites are completely accepted by
the shipbuilding industry for the large ship construction, new lower
cost/higher quality materials need to be developed and current fabrication
methods need to be improved.

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This technology replaces more labor-intensive, traditional framing
methods. These traditional methods involve forming trapezoidal foam
blocks which are bonded onto the laminate, then fabricating frame
laminates which are placed onto the foam blocks. The new technology
uses preform frames which are manufactured by casting a dry GRP fabric
into shape in a closed mold with a two-part, self-rising urethane foam
core. Radius edges to reduce stress concentrations and tabbing material to
provide primary bonding are built into the preform frames. Preform
frames can be used in resin infusion processes, but are typically installed
in an open mold. Hand lay-up installation is accomplished by first using
resin to wet the bottom of the frame tabs, then placing the frame onto the
laminate panel, and finally applying resin to the frame laminate and
rolling out the tabs.

New framing technology has been used in the construction of recreational

boats and yachts producing significant costs savings (Walsh, 1996). It
also shows promise in the reduction of fabrication costs in the large
composite ship construction for both military and commercial
applications. Before this preform frame technology can be accepted by
the shipbuilding industry, more technical information is needed. Sarah E
Mouring (1998) focuses on different fiber orientations for the frames and
summarizes preliminary results of the testing of composite stiffened
panels with preform frames under in-plane uniaxial compressive loads.
Such loads are representative of the forces caused by wave bending
moments which develop from alternative hogging and sagging wave
conditions. Biaxial (0, 90), quadaxial (0, 90,+45,−45), and
triaxial(+45,−45,0) laminateswereused in the frames.

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Fig.3.3.profile of AMT validation modal Fig. 18.Midships FEM of
AMT validation modal

3.2 Application of Laminated Composite Stiffened Panels in

Aerospace Engineering

The Air Force Research Laboratory Space Vehicles Directorate

(AFRL/VS) USA is exploring new structural configurations and
corresponding methods for fabricating launch vehicle fairings. The goal
of this research is to reduce the cost of these components while also
enabling large structures to be fabricated. This Process for fabricating
Advanced Grid Stiffened panel (Fig.24) composite structures have been
developed that show promise to help achieve these goals. These
procedures were successfully demonstrated in an Advanced Grid
Stiffened panel fairing for the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization‟s
(BMDO) Combined Experiments Program. One of the most common
structural element in aerospace structures stiffened panels. The aerospace
industry began to use composites in pressure vessels, containers, and non
-structural aircraft components. Composite panels are used some stressed
panels in aircraft.
A structurally efficient hat-stiffened panel concept that utilizes structural
foam as a stiffener core material has been designed and developed for
aircraft primary structural applications. This hat-stiffener concept is

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structurally more efficient than most other prismatically stiffened panel
configurations in a load range that is typical for both fuselage and wing

26
structures. The panel design is based on woven/stitched and braided
graphite-fiber textile preforms, an epoxy resin system, and Rohacell foam
core. The structural response of this panel design was evaluated for its
buckling behavior with and without low-speed impact damage. The
results from single-stiffener and multi-stiffener specimen tests suggest
that this structural concept responds to loading as anticipated and has
excellent damage tolerance characteristics compared to a similar panel
design made from preimpregnated graphite-epoxy tape material. A fire
retardant, low smoke-emitting, thermally stable, light weight sandwich
paneling, suitable for high traffic flooring on a passenger aircraft, was
evaluated. The material is of sandwich panel construction, with graphite
face sheets (a phenolic-vinyl resin) and honeycomb core.

Fig.3.4.The entire fuselage of the Boeing‟s 787 Dreamliner jet built with carbon
fiber

3.3 Application of Laminated Composite Stiffened Panels in Civil

Engineering

Laminated composite stiffened panels have long been used in the

construction industry. Applications range from non-structural gratings
and claddings to full structural systems for industrial supports, buildings,
long span roof structures, tanks, bridge components and complete bridge
systems. Composite panel‟s benefits of corrosion resistance and low

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weight have proven attractive in many low stress applications. Laminated
composites present immense opportunities to play increasing role as an
alternate material to replace timber, steel, aluminium and concrete in
buildings.

3.3.1. Laminated Composite stiffened Panels in Bridges

The existing inventories of deployable bridges in the Indian Armed

Forces are quite large and do generally meet the user aspirations.
However, India being a vast country and having sub continental weather
and terrain conditions, there is a huge scope for light weight, modular
FRP composite panels deployable bridges or components like FRP bridge
decks for specific areas like glaciated areas, states like Himachal Pradesh,
Uttrakhand, Jammu and Kashmir, North Eastern states where landslides,
avalanches, etc do occur at regular intervals and all flood affected states.
They can be located at important places so that they can be rushed to the
affected areas at a very short notice. Besides, India has a vast number of
road bridges which do need repairs and replacement. FRP composites
panels as deployable bridges can ensure a smooth transition from old to
new.
Civil engineers are beginning to gain confidence and experience in
applying this technology to civil structures. In October 1996, the Federal
Highway Administration organized and sponsored a scanning tour on
advanced composites in bridges to three selected European countries and
Japan. The purpose of the tour was to assess the state-of-the-art in the use
of composites stiffened panels in bridge construction. The technical
findings from the scanning team are basically categorized into new bridge
construction, and strengthening of existing bridges. The scanning report
states that the U.S. composite materials bridge technology has developed

28
concurrently with those of the world and is neither behind nor
significantly ahead of the countries visited.

With the ageing of (more than 50 years) many bridges in the US,
alternative options are being explored to retrofit the bridges or replace the
old decks with lighter decks which meet the service criteria of the
existing decks and even replace the bridges itself. Considering, the sheer
number (almost 23% 0f 600,000 bridges) of bridges which are
structurally deficient and functionally obsolete (Hwang-Chu Wu et al.
2006 and Halvard E. Nystrom et al. 2003). Structurally deficient are those
which are closed or restricted to light vehicles only and functionally
obsolete are those which are cannot safely service the volume or type of
traffic using them. According to a data base recently compiled by the
Composites Institute, there are more than 80 bridge projects worldwide
using FRP composites panels. The U.S. has a modest beginning with 30
projects, 26 of which were built within the last 4 years. The remaining
discussion in this will focus on some of the initial successful bridge
applications in the U.S. using FRP composites panels. The discussion will
also include the advantages, characteristics, concerns, and future needs to
advance the composite technology into the civil infrastructure. In new
bridge construction, the FRP composite panels may be used in the entire
structure, or they could be used as structural members or components
(Fig. 20).

Fig.3.5.FRP Bridge Decks: Panels being placed into position

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30
 3.3.2. Laminated Composite Stiffened Panels in Building
The composite panel is an ideal material for the manufacture of
prefabricated, portable and modular buildings as well as for exterior
cladding panels which can simulate masonry or stone. The all too familiar
translucent roof sheeting is now supplied in a variety of colours and
profiles to suit both commercial and domestic building needs. Stiffened
panels are used in wall, ceiling, door, building blocks and primary load
bearing structure etc. With the growing population pressure and increasing
labour & material costs, composite usage in construction may provide
cheaper solutions to a large extent. This area holds priority for the
induction of composites in place of conventional materials being used as in
doors & windows, paneling, furniture and other interiors. Components
made of composite panels find extensive applications in shuttering
supports, special architectural structures imparting aesthetic appearance etc.
with the advantages like longer life, low maintenance, ease in workability,
fire retardancy etc.

Fig.3.6.Site office/Visitor‟s Centre at Severn Crossing is made by composite

stiffened panel


31
 CHAPTER 4
LITERATURE SURVEY

This section brief-outs the various earlier works done in the area of
laminated composite material and Stiffened composite panels.

Hajianmaleki[1] presented a review of analysis of laminated composite

structures used in recent decades.

Laminated Beams
Yildirim [2] used stiffness method for the solution of the purely in-plane
free vibration problem of symmetric cross-ply laminated beams. The
rotary inertia, axial and transverse shear deformation effects are
considered in the mathematical model by the first-order shear
deformation theory. A total of six degrees of freedom, four displacements
and two rotations are defined for an element. The exact in-plane element
stiffness matrix of 6×6 is obtained based on the transfer matrix method.
The element inertia matrix consists of the concentrated masses. The sub-
space iteration and Jacobi‟s methods are employed in the solution of the
large-scale general eigenvalue problem.

Jun et al. [3] introduced a dynamic finite element method for free
vibration analysis of generally laminated composite beams on the basis of
first-order shear deformation theory. The influences of Poisson effect,
couplings among extensional, bending and torsional deformations, shear
deformation and rotary inertia are incorporated in the formulation. The
dynamic stiffness matrix is formulated based on the exact solutions of the
differential equations of motion governing the free vibration of generally
laminated composite beam.

32
Gurban and Gupta [4] analyzed the natural frequencies of composite
tubular shafts using equivalent modulus beam theory (EMBT) with shear
deformation, rotary inertia and gyroscopic effects has been modified and
used for the analysis. The modifications take into account effects of
stacking sequence and different coupling mechanisms present in
composite materials. Results obtained have been compared with that
available in the literature using different modeling. The close agreement
in the results obtained clearly show that, in spite of its simplicity,
modified EMBT can be used effectively for rotor-dynamic analysis of
tubular composite shafts.

Yegaoet al.[5] presented a general formulation for free and transient

vibration analysis of composite laminated beams with arbitrary lay ups
and any boundary conditions. A modified variational principle combined
with a multi-segment partitioning technique is employed to derive the
formulation based on a general higher order shear defomation theory. The
material coupling for bending-stretching, bending-twist, and stretching
twist as well as the poison‟s effect are taken into account.

Shell Structures
Qu et al. [6] introduced a variational formulation for predicting the free,
steady-state and transient vibrations of composite laminated shells of
revolution subjected to various combinations of classical and non-
classical boundary conditions. A modified variational principle in
conjunction with a multi-segment partitioning technique was employed to
derive the formulation based on the first-order shear deformation theory.

Xiang et al.[7] studied a simple yet accurate solution procedure based on

the Haar wavelet discretization method (HWDM) is applied to the free
vibration analysis of composite laminated cylindrical shells subjected to
33
various boundary conditions. The Reissner–Naghdi‟s shell theory is
adopted to formulate the theoretical model. The initial partial differential
equations (PDE) are first converted into system of ordinal differential
equations by the separation of variables. Then the discretizations of
governing equations and corresponding boundary conditions are
implemented by means of the HWDM, which leads to a standard linear
eigenvalue problem.

Plates
Sahoo and Singh [8] proposed a new trigonometric zigzag theory for the
static analysis of laminated composite and sandwich plates. This theory
considers shear strain shape function assuming the non-linear distribution
of in-plane displacement across the thickness. It satisfies the shear-stress-
free boundary conditions at top and bottom surfaces of the plate as well as
the continuity of transverse shear stress at the layer interfaces obviating
the need of an artificial shear correction factor.

Raraniet al. [9] used analytical and finite element methods for prediction
of buckling behavior, including critical buckling load and modes of
failure of thin laminated composites with different stacking sequences. A
semi-analytical Rayleigh–Ritz approach is first developed to calculate the
critical buckling loads of square composite laminates with SFSF (S:
simply-support, F: free) boundary conditions. Then, these laminates are
simulated under axially compression loading using the commercial finite
element software, ABAQUS. Critical buckling loads and failure modes
are predicted by both eigenvalue linear and nonlinear analysis.

Alnefaie [10] developed a 3D-FE model of delaminated fiber reinforced

composite plates to analyse their dynamics. Natural frequencies and
modal displacements are calculated for various case studies for different

34
dimensions and delamination characteristics. Numerical results showed a
good agreement with available experimental data. A new proposed model
shows enhancement of the accuracy of the results.

Sino et al. [11] worked on the dynamic instability of an internally

damped rotating composite shaft. A homogenized finite element beam
model, which takes into account internal damping, is introduced and then
used to evaluate natural frequencies and instability thresholds. The
influence of laminate parameters: stacking sequences, fiber orientation,
transversal shear effect on natural frequencies and instability thresholds
of the shaft are studied. The results are compared to those obtained by
using equivalent modulus beam theory (EMBT), modified EMBT and
layerwise beam theory (LBT).

Optimization issues and dynamics

Topal[12] presented a multiobjective optimization of laminated
cylindrical shells to maximize a weighted sum of the frequency and
buckling load under external load. The layer fiber orientation is used as
the design variable and the multi-objective optimization is formulated as
the weighted combinations of the frequency and buckling under external
load. The first order shear deformation theory is used for the finite
element formulation of the laminated shells. Five shell configurations
with eight layers are considered as candidate designs. The modified
feasible direction method (MFD) is used as optimization routine. Finally,
the effect of different weighting ratios, shell aspect ratio, shell thickness-
to-radius ratios and boundary conditions on the optimal designs is
investigated and the results are compared.

Topal and Uzman[13] proposed a multiobjective optimization of

symmetrically angle-ply square laminated plates subjected to biaxial
compressive and uniform thermal loads. The design objective is the

35
maximization of the buckling load for weighted sum of the biaxial
compressive and thermal loads. The design variable is the fiber
orientations in the layers. The performance index is formulated as the
weighted sum of individual objectives in order to obtain optimal solutions
of the design problem. The first-order shear deformation theory (FSDT)
is used in the mathematical formulation of buckling analysis of laminated
plates.

Roos and Bakis [14] analysed the flexible matrix composites which
consist of low modulus elastomers such as polyurethanes which are
reinforced with high-stiffness continuous fibers such as carbon. This
fiber–resin system is more compliant compared to typical rigid matrix
composites and hence allows for higher design flexibility. Continuous,
single-piece FMC driveshafts can be used for helicopter applications.
Authors employed an optimization tool using a genetic algorithm
approach to determine the best combination of stacking sequence, number
of plies and number of in-span bearings for a minimum-weight, spinning,
and misaligned FMC helicopter driveshaft. In order to gain more insight
into designing driveshafts, various loading scenarios are analyzed and the
effect of misalignment of the shaft is investigated. This is the first time
that a self-heating analysis of a driveshaft with frequency- and
temperature-dependent material properties is incorporated within a design
optimization model. For two different helicopter drivelines, weight
savings of about 20% are shown to be possible by replacing existing
multi-segmented metallic drivelines with FMC drivelines.

Sadr and Bargh [15] studied the fundamental frequency optimization of

symmetrically laminated composite plates using the combination of
Elitist- Genetic algorithm(E-GA) and finite strip method(FSM). The
design variables are the number of layers, the fiber orientation angles,
edge conditions and plate length/width ratios.

36
Kayikci and Sonmez [16] studied and optimized the natural frequency
response of symmetrically laminated composite plates. An analytical
model accounting for bending–twisting effects was used to determine the
laminate natural frequency. Two different problems, fundamental
frequency maximization and frequency separation maximization, were
considered. Fiber orientation angles were chosen as design variables.
Because of the existence of numerous local optimums, a global search
algorithm, a variant of simulated annealing, was utilized to find the
optimal designs. Results were obtained for different plate aspect ratios.
Effects of the number of design variables and the range of values they
may take on the optimal frequency were investigated. Problems in which
fiber angles showed uncertainty were considered. Optimal frequency
response of laminates subjected to static loads was also investigated.

Khandanet al.[17] researched and added an extra term to the optimisation

penalty function in order to consider the transverse shear effect. This
modified penalty function leads to a new methodology whereby the
thickness of laminated plate is minimised by optimizing the fiber
orientations for different load cases. Therefore the effect of transverse
shear forces is considered in this study.

Montagnier and Hochard [18] studied the optimisation of hybrid

composite drive shafts operating at subcritical or supercritical speeds,
using a genetic algorithm. A formulation for the flexural vibrations of a
composite drive shaft mounted on viscoelastic supports including shear
effects is developed. In particular, an analytic stability criterion is
developed to ensure the integrity of the system in the supercritical
regime. Then it is shown that the torsional strength can be computed with
the maximum stress criterion. A shell method is developed for computing
drive shaft torsional buckling. The optimisation of a helicopter tail rotor

37
driveline is then performed. This study yielded some general rules for
designing an optimum composite shaft without any need for optimisation
algorithms.

Rocha et al. [19] presented a genetic algorithm combining two types of

computational parallelization methods, resulting in a hybrid
shared/distributed memory algorithm based on the island model using
both Open MP and MPI libraries. In order to take further advantage of the
island configuration, different genetic parameters are used in each one,
allowing the consideration of multiple evolution environments
concurrently. To specifically treat composite structures, a three-
chromosome variable encoding and special laminate operators are used.
The resulting gains in execution time due to the parallel implementation
allow the use of high fidelity analysis procedures based on the Finite
Element Method in the optimization of composite laminate plates and
shells. Two numerical examples are presented in order to assess the
performance and reliability of the proposed algorithm.

Abadi and Daneshmehr [20] developed the buckling analysis of

composite laminated beams based on modified coupled stress theory. By
applying principle of minimum potential energy and considering two
different beam theories ,i.e, Euler-Bernouli and Timoshinko beam
theories, governing equations, boundary and initial conditions are derived
for micro composite laminated beam.

Apalaket al. [21] carried-out the layer optimization for achieving

maximum fundamental frequency of laminated composite plates under
any combination of the three classical edge conditions. The optimal
stacking sequences of laminated composite plates were searched by
means of Genetic Algorithm. The first natural frequencies of the
laminated composite plates with various stacking sequences were

38
calculated using the finite element method. Genetic Algorithm maximizes
the first natural frequency of the laminated composite plate defined as a
fitness function (objective function).

Stiffened Composite Panel

Naresh Reddy Kolanuet al. [22] studied the behavior of glass fiber
reinforced polymer(GFRP) composite panels with stiffener run out
condition and different stiffener configurations such as blade,T and hat
under axial compression. TheT-stiffeners were found to be effective in
resisting bending strains and produced more uniform distribution of
compressive strain compared to other stiffener configuration.

Dongyun Ge et al. [23] carried out to an experiment to study the buckling

and post-buckling behavior of stiffened composite curved panel under
shear and in-plane bending. A test fixture was designed uniquely which
was suitable for curved panel subjected to shear or shear and in-plane
bending. The stability of stiffened composite curved panel subjected to
shear and in-plane bending was analyzed by the obtained data.

Shuhua Zhu et al. [24] studied the effect of I-shape stiffener stiffness on
the buckling and post-buckling, up to collapse behavior of stiffened
composite panel under the uniform uniaxial compression load. The
experimental results show that the equivalent compression stiffness of I-
shape stiffener has great influence on the buckling load and failure mode
of stiffened panel, but a little effect on the failure load of stiffened panel.
The skin thickness has great impact on the buckling load and the final
failure load.

Nikola Momcilovicet al. [25] proposed a simplified strength calculation

procedure . FEM models are reduced to unstiffened thin plates only,
while influence of stiffeners is directly incorporated in plates` stiffness

39
matrixes. Although they are successfully dealt using FEM these days,
related models are complex and time consuming.

N. Li, P.H. Chen [26] investigated the effect of low velocity edge impact
damage on the damage tolerance of wing relevant composite panels
stiffened with both T-shaped and I-shaped stiffeners under uniaxial
compression load. Six stiffened composite panel configurations, including
four specimens for each configuration, were manufactured and tested. The
experimental results reveal the compression failure mechanism that local
buckling, subsequent damage propagation and final fracture of the edge
impacted stiffener are triggers of the final failure of a stiffened composite
panel, which as well determine the ultimate load carrying capacity.
\

Broderick H. Coburn et al. [27] proposed an analytical method for the

buckling analysis of a novel blade stiffened VAT panel to allow this
potential to be more fully exploited. The prebuckling and buckling
analysis, performed on a representative section of a blade stiffened VAT
panel, are based on a generalised Rayleigh–Ritz procedure.

40
 CHAPTER 5
METHODOLOGY

5.1. INTRODUCTION
Using hand lay up method, Flat Plate of dimension 300 X 200 mm is
Fabricated, Then stiffened panels with blade, Hat and T Stiffener is
fabricated using mould. Glass Fibre and Epoxy Resin are used for
fabrication. Hardener is used along with Resin. The dimensions of
stiffeners are as follows, Length 300 mm, Height 25 mm. The thickness
of the whole panel including the stiffener is 25 mm.
Using a Computerised UTM, Compression Test would be carried out and
the compressive Strength would be found and Compared and Best
Stiffener Configuration would be found.

5.2. HAND LAY UP METHOD

Hand lay-up technique is the simplest method of composite processing.
The infrastructural requirement for this method is also minimal. The
processing steps are quite simple. Wax is applied on the mold surface to
avoid the sticking of polymer to the surface. Thin plastic sheets (OHP
Sheets) are used at the top and bottom of the mold plate to get good
surface finish of the product.

Fig.5.1.Hand Lay up Method

41
5.3. REQUIREMENTS
5.3.1. Materials Required
Fibre used: Bi directional Glass Fibre
Resin used: Epoxy Resin LY556
Hardener used: HY951
Resin - Hardener Proportion : 1/10

Fig.5.2.Materials Used

5.3.2. Consumables Required

Roller - To Remove excess Excess Resin and Trapped Air

Mold – For fabricating Blade Stiffened Panels
Glass Beaker – For mixing the Resin and Hardener
Glass Stirrer – To stir the resin and hardener vigorously.
42
Weighing Machine – To weigh the Fibre and Resin Hardener mixture.
Gloves – To prevent the effect of Resin on our hands.
Thinner – To clean all the necessary materials after the fabrication.
Brush – To apply the Resin Hardener mixture over the fibre.
C Clamp – To calmp the T and I Stiffened panels Firmly.
OHP Sheets – For making the layup over it.
Wax – To prevent the layup from sticking to the OHP Sheets.

Fig.5.3.Consumables used

5.3.3. Experimental Set up

All the Fabrications were carried out in a neat and clean table. The table
Was cleaned first with the thinner. On the table OHP Sheets were placed
and the layup were made on this sheets. Wax was applied in the OHP
sheets to avoid the lay from sticking to the OHP Sheets. Once the layup
was done it was covered with another layer of OHP Sheets and weights
were placed on it and was allowed to cure for 24 hours. The Experimental
Set up is shown in the figure below.

43
 Fig.5.4.Experimental Set up

5.4. FABRICATION
5.4.1. Flat Plate
Flat Plate was fabricated by handlayup method using Bidirectional Glass
Fibre as the Reinforcement phase and Epoxy Resin as the Matrix phase.
Glass fibres were cut into the desired dimension and then weighed in a
high sensitive Weighing machine. Equal amount of Epoxy resin was
taken and appropriate proportion of hardener was taken. Here the Resin
Hardener proportion was taken as 1:10. The Resin hardener mixture was
stirred thoroughly using a glass stirrer. Experimental set up was made
ready. The table was cleaned thoroughly with thinner and then OHP
Sheets were arranged on the table for the layup. Wax was applied over
the OHP Sheets to avoid the layup from sticking to the sheets. The first
layer of fibre was placed in the OHP sheets, the the Resin was applied
over it using a brush. Once the Resin is applied the second layer of fibre
was placed and roller was rolled over it to remove excess resin and the
trapped air in it. Similarly, For a flat plate 15 layers of Fibres were
placed. Finally the layup was covered with the OHP Sheets and weight
was placed over it and was allowed to cure for 24 hours. The dimensions
of the flat plate fabricated was 300 X 200 mm. The thickness of the panel
was maintained to be 5 mm. In order to maintain the thickness as 5 mm,
15 Layers of fibres were taken.

44
 PROJECT PHASE II VIVA

Fig.5.5.Fabrication of Flat Plate

45
5.4.2. Blade Stiffened Panel
Blade Stiffened panel was fabricated by hand layup method using
Bidirectional Glass Fibre as the Reinforcement phase and Epoxy Resin as
the Matrix phase. Here Mould was used to fabricate the panel. The mould
is made up of Aluminum. Glass fibres were cut into the desired
dimension and then weighed in a high sensitive Weighing machine. Equal
amount of Epoxy resin was taken and appropriate proportion of hardener
was taken. Here the Resin Hardener proportion was taken as 1:10. The
Resin hardener mixture was stirred thoroughly using a glass stirrer.
Experimental set up was made ready. The table was cleaned thoroughly
with thinner and then OHP Sheets were arranged on the table for the
layup. Wax was applied over the OHP Sheets to avoid the layup from
sticking to the sheets. Here the panel is made as integrated panel by
means of Mould.10 Layers of Fibres was fabricated as in case of a Flat
plate. Once the Base plate was ready, Mould was placed on the layup in
the desired position depending on its dimensions required, three layups
were separately made, two from either sides and one from the centre.
While integrating the panel 5 Layups were made. Finally, the layup was
covered with the OHP Sheets and weight was placed over it and was
allowed to cure for 24 hours. The dimensions of the blade stiffened plate
fabricated was 300 X 200 mm. The thickness of the entire panel was
maintained to be 5 mm. The Height of the stiffener was 25 mm. In order
to maintain the thickness as 5 mm, 15 Layers of fibres were taken.

Fig.5.6.Fabrication of Blade Stiffened Panel

46
5.4.3. T Stiffened Panel
T Stiffened panel was fabricated by hand layup method using
Bidirectional Glass Fibre as the Reinforcement phase and Epoxy Resin as
the Matrix phase. Glass fibres were cut into the desired dimension and
then weighed in a high sensitive Weighing machine. Equal amount of
Epoxy resin was taken and appropriate proportion of hardener was taken.
Here the Resin Hardener proportion was taken as 1:10. The Resin
hardener mixture was stirred thoroughly using a glass stirrer.
Experimental set up was made ready. The table was cleaned thoroughly
with thinner and then OHP Sheets were arranged on the table for the
layup. Wax was applied over the OHP Sheets to avoid the layup from
sticking to the sheets.
For fabricating T Stiffened Panel, Base Plate was First fabricated. Then
another Plate was Fabricated to cut Stiffeners. Stiffeners were cut from
the plate Fabricated. The stiffeners were made in form of T as Shown in
the Figure and allowed to cure. The Stiffener was now attached to the
Base plate by means of Resin Hardener Mixture. The T Stiffened Plate
was Clamped using a C Clamp as shown in the figure for attaching the T
Stiffener very firmly with the Flat Plate. This is cured for 24 hours.
The T Stiffened Panel now is integrated to avoid the runout of the
stiffener. While applying Compressive load on the panel, Sometimes the
Stiffener comes out which is referred to as Run out. To avoid it,
Integration of the panel is done. For Integration of the panel, 5 Layers of
fibres were used.
5 Layers of Fibres were placed on all 3 sides of the panel to ensure proper
integration of the T stiffener with the panel. Once integrated, it was
allowed to cure for 24 hours. The Dimensions of the panel was 200 X 300
mm, The Height of the stiffener was 25 m. The thickness of the whole
panel including the stiffener was maintained as 5 mm.

47
Fig.5.7.Fabrication of T Stiffened Panel

48
5.4.4. I Stifened Panel
I Stiffened panel was fabricated by hand layup method using Bidirectional
Glass Fibre as the Reinforcement phase and Epoxy Resin as the Matrix
phase. Glass fibres were cut into the desired dimension and then weighed
in a high sensitive Weighing machine. Equal amount of Epoxy resin was
taken and appropriate proportion of hardener was taken. Here the Resin
Hardener proportion was taken as 1:10. The Resin hardener mixture was
stirred thoroughly using a glass stirrer. Experimental set up was made
ready. The table was cleaned thoroughly with thinner and then OHP
Sheets were arranged on the table for the layup. Wax was applied over the
OHP Sheets to avoid the layup from sticking to the sheets.
For fabricating I Stiffened Panel, Base Plate was First fabricated. Then
another Plate was Fabricated to cut Stiffeners. Stiffeners were cut from the
plate Fabricated. The stiffeners were made in form of I as Shown in the
Figure and allowed to cure. The Stiffener was now attached to the Base
plate by means of Resin Hardener Mixture. The I Stiffened Plate was
Clamped using a C Clamp as shown in the figure for attaching the I
Stiffener very firmly with the Flat Plate. This is cured for 24 hours.
The I Stiffened Panel now is integrated to avoid the runout of the stiffener.
While applying Compressive load on the panel, Sometimes the Stiffener
comes out which is referred to as Run out. To avoid it, Integration of the
panel is done. For Integration of the panel, 5 Layers of fibres were used.
5 Layers of Fibres were placed on all 3 sides of the panel to ensure proper
integration of the I stiffener with the panel. Once integrated, it was
allowed to cure for 24 hours. The Dimensions of the panel was 200 X 300
mm, The Height of the stiffener was 25 m. The thickness of the whole
panel including the stiffener was maintained as 5 mm.

49
Fig.5.8.Fabrication of I Stiffened Panel

50
5.5. CURING
All the panels which were fabricated were allowed to cure. The curing
process is done to make the panel highly strong. The Reinforcement phase
and the Matrix phase combines well in this period of curing. The duration
of curing of all the panels varies from panel to panel depending upon the
reinforcement and the Matrix phase. Here all the panels were cured for 24
hours. The Stiffeners like T, I which were clamped were also cured for 24
hours and even after the integration of the panels, it was cured for 24
hours before cutting.

Fig.5.9.Curing of a) Flat Plate b) Blade Stiffened Panel c) T Stiffened

Panel d) I Stiffened Panel

51
5.6. CUTTING
All the panels which were fabricated and cured are now cut. Cutting is
done to get the desired dimensions and a good finish of the panel. The
cutting was done by water Jet Cutting. The dimensions of all the panels
fabricated was kept 300 X 200 mm. The Height of the Stiffener was 25
mm. The thickness of the whole panel was maintained as 5 mm. The
panels were fed inside the water jet cutting facility available at Ambatur
and the panels were cut into desired dimensions.

Fig.5.10.Panels after Cutting

52
5.7. TESTING
The compression test for all the panels to determine the Critical load to
study the Compressive strength is carried out. The Test is done in the
Computerised Universal Testing Machine facility available at the
Materials Testing Laboratory, Central Institute of Plastics Engineering
and Technology, Chennai.

5.7.1. Computerised Universal Testing Machine

5.7.1.1. Application
Universal testing machine have a wide range of application. A number of
material and metals in different forms and shapes can be tested for a
variety of tension, compression, transverse, bend, shear, brinell hardness,
etc. special attachments are also available for testing of flat belts, chain
links, wire ropes, etc.

5.7.1.2. Construction
The Computerised Universal Testing Machine comprises mainly of the
following constituents :

Loading Frame
The base has a hydraulic cylinder at its centre, and two main screws at
both ends. The middle cross head is mounted on screws through main
nuts. The middle cross head can be moved up or down through chain
transmission and geared motor to adjust the initial tensile / compression
clearance. On the piston rests an assembly of upper, lower crosshead and
two columns. The individually lapped cylindrical piston assembly ensures
smooth transfer of force with minimum friction.

53
 Hydraulic System
Hydraulic circuit consists of hydraulic power pack having a directly driven
radial plunger pump which gives a continuous non pulsating flow of oil
pressure upto 250 bar. Oil filter, oil strainer, air breather, oil level
indicator, drain plug are on the power pack. A pressure compensated
needle type flow control valve is provided to control the oil flow to
cylinder thereby achieving desired piston speed. Infinitely variable speeds
can be obtained with the help of valves.
Electrical System
A separate switch box and electrical panels are provided. Both the
hydraulic pump motor and the geared motor have interlocks.Limit
switches are provided are to stop the hydraulic pump motor if the load
increases beyond the machine capacity or if pistonstroke is exceeded.

Fig.5.11.Computerised UTM

54
5.7.1.3. UTM Specification
The Capacity of the UTM is upto 100 kN or 10 Ton. The minimum Test
speed being 0.01 mm/minute and maximum Test speed is 500 mm/minute.
The Following test like Tensile test, Compressive test, Adhesion test,
Ductility test, Fatigue / Cyclic test, Flexure / Bending, Shear / Torsion test
can be carried out in this UTM. The UTM has a great accuracy of ± 0.5%
of reading.

5.7.2. Fixture Design

Fixture is a tool by means of which the panels can be placed in the
Universal Testing Machine for the required test. For different type of
specimens to be tested different fixtures are required. Here the fixture is
designed to fit a Plate into it so that compressive load can be applied on
the panels. Appropriate Fixture is designed for desired dimensions and is
fabricated. The Fixture is fabricated using Mild Steel. 28 Kilograms of
Mild steel was required of which the final fabricated fixture weighed 20
kilograms

Fig.5.12.Fixture design

55
5.7.3. Test Procedure
 The Panels to be Tested were Mounted in the UTM using appropriate
Fixtures Fabricated
 Calibration of the load cell & strain gauge was done as per the shunt
value
 The crosshead speed as per required strain rate was selected
 The Temperature of the the Test was kept at Room Temperature.
 The Test speed rate &DAQ Hz speed rate as per the test required was
set.
 The Sample was Test upto the Failure.
 The failed Specimen was removed from the fixture after the test was
over.
For computer data& chart-
 The DAQ report test file was selected to open the raw data
 The raw data was opened in excel sheet & the chart and data were
arranged.
 Excel file save was saved in desired location.

56
 CHAPTER 6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

From the Computerised Universal Testing Machine, a graph was obtained.

The graph was plotted for Load Vs Displacement. We can get the value of
Peak load from the graph. The peak load is otherwise known as the
Critical load. Critical load is the maximum load a material can withstand
after which it buckles. This Critical load is in direct relation with the
Compressive Strength. As the Critical load is higher, the Material has high
compressive strength and as the critical load of the material is lower, the
Compressive Strength of the material is lower. This concept was used in
analysing the compressive strength of the material.

57
 6.1. FLAT PLATE
Flat Plate is the basic panel for our analysis. Three samples of flat plate
was fabricated and tested repeatedly. The average values of all the three
samples was taken as the critical load for the flat plate.

Fig.6.1: Flat plate after testing

Fig.6.2. Load Vs Displacement Graph for Flat Plate

58
The Critical load were as follows for a Flat Plate:
Sample 1 – 23.2 kN
Sample 2 – 21.4 kN
Sample 3 – 23.7 kN

Average Critical Load for a Flate Plate = (Sample 1 + Sample 2 + Sample

3) / 3 = (23.2 + 21.4 + 23.7 ) / 3 = 22.8 kN

Compressive Strength = Average Critical load / Cross sectional Area.

= 22800 / (200 * 5) N/mm2
= 22.8 N/mm2 = 22.8 GPa.

59
6.2. BLADE STIFFENED PANEL
Flat Plate is the basic panel for our analysis. Three samples of flat plate
was fabricated and tested repeatedly. The average values of all the three
samples was taken as the critical load for the flat plate.

Fig.6.3: Blade stiffened panel after testing

Fig.6.4. Load Vs Displacement Graph for Blade Stiffened Panel

60
The Critical load were as follows for a Blade Stiffened Panel:
Sample 1 – 39.4kN
Sample 2 – 38.5kN
Sample 3 – 40.3kN

Average Critical Load for a Flate Plate = (Sample 1 + Sample 2 + Sample

3) / 3 = (39.4 + 38.5 + 40.3 ) / 3 = 39.4kN

Compressive Strength = Average Critical load / Cross sectional Area.

= 39400 / (200 * 5 ) N/mm2
= 39.4 N/mm2= 39.4 GPa

61
6.3. T STIFFENED PLATE
Flat Plate is the basic panel for our analysis. Three samples of flat plate
was fabricated and tested repeatedly. The average values of all the three
samples was taken as the critical load for the flat plate.

Fig.6.5: T Stiffened panel after testing

Fig.6.6. Load Vs Displacement Graph for T Stiffened Panel

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The Critical load were as follows for a T Stiffened Panel:
Sample 1 – 43.5kN
Sample 2 – 44.8kN

Average Critical Load for a Flate Plate = (Sample 1 + Sample 2) / 2 =

(43.5 + 44.8) / 2 = 44.2kN

Compressive Strength = Average Critical load / Cross sectional Area.

= 44200 / (200 * 5 ) N/mm2
= 44.2 N/mm2= 44.2 GPa

63
6.4. I STIFFENED PLATE
Flat Plate is the basic panel for our analysis. Three samples of flat plate
was fabricated and tested repeatedly. The average values of all the three
samples was taken as the critical load for the flat plate.

Fig.6.7: I stiffened panel after testing

Fig.6.8. Load Vs Displacement Graph for I Stiffened Panel

64
The Critical load were as follows for a I Stiffened Panel:
Sample 1 – 47.5kN
Sample 2 – 45.3kN
Sample 3 – 48.4kN

Average Critical Load for a Flate Plate = (Sample 1 + Sample 2 + Sample

3) / 3 = (47.5 + 45.3 + 48.4 ) / 3 = 47.1kN

Compressive Strength = Average Critical load / Cross sectional Area.

= 47100 / (200 * 5 ) N/mm2
= 47.1 N/mm2= 47.1 GPa

6.5. COMPARISON

COMPARISON
60
CRITICAL LOAD
50

40

30

20

10

0
FLAT PLATE BLADE STIFFENED T STIFFENED PANEL I STIFFENED PANEL
PANEL

Fig.6.9.Comparison

65
 CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION

When we compare the four models, Plate with Stiffener Shows Better
Buckling behavior as the Critical load is higher and hence the compressive
strength. Hence Stiffened Plate can withstand more load before it buckles.
In the three stiffened plate fabricated and tested in this project, I-Stiffened
plate shows better buckling behaviour as the critical load is higher and
also the deformation at the peak load is higher. Hence we conclude that I
Stiffened composite panel has more compressive strength compare to that
of T and Blade Stiffened composite panel.

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 CHAPTER 8
FUTURE SCOPE OF PROJECT

• Stiffened composite panels can be applied for curved panels and hence can
be used in the Aircraft Fuselage Structure.
• Stiffened composite panels with different stiffener configuration like Hat,
Z, Channel Stiffener can be studied.
• Effective width between the stiffener can be studied.
• Carbon Nano particles can be impregnated and then effect of the
compressive strength can be studied.
• GLARE (Glass Aluminium Reinforced Epoxy) Material can be used as the
Matrix Phase and the effect of compressive strength can be studied.

67
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