how acidic or basic a water-based solution. Acidic solutions have a lower pH, while basic solutions have a higher pH. At room temperature (25°C or 77°F), pure water is neither acidic nor basic and has a pH of 7. The p stands for "decimal cologarithm of", and is also used in the term pKa, used for acid dissociation constants and pOH, the equivalent for hydroxide ions. The pH scale is logarithmic and inversely indicates the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution - a lower pH indicates a higher concentration of hydrogen ions. This is because the formula used to calculate pH approximates the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. More precisely, pH is the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the activity of the hydrogen ion. At 25 °C, solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. The neutral value of the pH depends on the temperature, being lower than 7 if the temperature increases. The pH value can be less than 0 for very strong acids, or greater than 14 for very strong bases. The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement. Primary pH standard values are determined using a concentration cell with transference, by measuring the potential difference between a hydrogen electrode and a standard electrode such as the silver chloride electrode. The pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter, or a colour- changing indicator. Measurements of pH are important in chemistry, agronomy, medicine, water treatment, and many other applications. Introduction to Cold Drinks A Cold drink alias Soft drink is a drink that usually contains carbonated water, a sweetener, and natural or artificial flavouring agents. The sweetener may be a sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice, or some combination of these. Cold drink alias Soft drink may also contain caffeine, colourings agents, preservatives, and/or other ingredients. Soft drinks are called "soft" in contrast with "hard" alcoholic drinks. Small amounts of alcohol may be present in soft drinks, but the alcohol content must be less than 0.5% of the total volume of the drink, and this is the reason that in many countries and localities the soft drink is to be considered non-alcoholic. Cold drinks alias Soft drinks may be served chilled, over ice cubes, or at room temperature, especially soda. They are available in many container formats, including cans, glass bottles, and plastic bottles. Containers come in a variety of sizes, ranging from small bottles to large multi-litre containers. Cold drinks alias Soft drink are widely available at fast food restaurants, movie theatres, convenience stores, casual-dining restaurants, dedicated soda stores, and bars from soda fountain machines. Cold drinks alias Soft drinks are usually served in paper or plastic disposable cups also. In casual dining restaurants and bars, Cold drinks alias Soft drinks are often served in glasses made from glass or plastic. Cold drinks alias Soft drinks may be drunk with straws or sipped directly from the cups. Cold drinks alias Soft drinks are mixed with other ingredients in several contexts. Examples of brands include Coca- Cola, Pepsi, Sprite, Sierra, Mist, Fanta, Sunkist, Mountain Dew, Dr. Pepper, and 7 UP. Measurement of pH:
The first electronic method for measuring pH was
invented by Arnold Orville Beckman, a professor at California Institute of Technology in 1934. It was in response to local citrus grower Sunkist that wanted a better method for quickly testing the pH of lemons they were picking from their nearby orchards. pH
pH is defined as the decimal logarithm of the
reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity, aH+, in a solution. For example, for a solution with a hydrogen ion activity of 5×10−6 (at that level, this is essentially the number of moles of hydrogen ions per liter of solution) there is 1/(5×10−6) = 2×105, thus such a solution has a pH of log10(2×105) = 5.3. For a commonplace example based on the facts that the masses of a mole of water, a mole of hydrogen ions, and a mole of hydroxide ions are respectively 18 g, 1 g, and 17 g, a quantity of 107 moles of pure (pH 7) water, or 180 tonnes (18×107 g), contains close to 1 g of dissociated hydrogen ions (or rather 19 g of H3O+ hydronium ions) and 17 g of hydroxide ions. pH depends on temperature. For instance at 0 °C the pH of pure water is 7.47. At 25 °C it's 7.00, and at 100 °C it's 6.14. The pH scale is logarithmic and therefore pH is a dimensionless quantity. pH indicators
pOH
Relation between p[OH] and p[H] (red = acidic
region, blue = basic region) pOH is sometimes used as a measure of the concentration of hydroxide ions. OH−. pOH values are derived from pH measurements. Soft Drinks alias Cold Drinks – Carbonated drinks
Priestley found that water treated in
this manner had a pleasant taste, and he offered it to his friends as a refreshing drink.
John Mervin Nooth, improved
Priestley's design and sold his apparatus for commercial use in pharmacies.
Swedish chemist Torbern
Bergman invented a generating apparatus that made carbonated water from chalk by the use of sulfuric acid.
Thomas Henry, an apothecary, was the
first to sell artificial mineral water to the general public for medicinal purposes.
Johann Jacob Schweppe developed a
similar process to manufacture carbonated mineral water at the same time. Schweppes commercialized Malvern Water at the Holywell Spring in the Malvern Hills. The Codd-neck bottle provided an effective seal for soft drinks in the late 19th century Production of soft drinks can be done at factories or at home. Soft drinks can be made at home by mixing a syrup or dry ingredients with carbonated water, or by lacto-fermentation. The frequent consumption of acidic beverages is a developing problem for children, teenagers, and adults. The dramatic increase in consumption of acidic soft drinks, fruit juices, fruit drinks, sports drinks, and carbonated beverages is now thought to be the leading cause of dental erosion observed among children and adolescents. The dental erosion in children indicates its prevalence may range from 10% to 80%. Primary teeth, having a thinner enamel layer, are more susceptible to rapid erosion into dentin, leading to exposure of the dental pulp.
Experimental Title: Testing For PH Value of Acids and Bases Reagent /equipment: Vernier PH Sensor, Computer, Test Tubes, Beral Pipette, 12 Beakers, Litmus