Hauk 2014

AIAA 2014-3046
AIAA Aviation
16-20 June 2014, Atlanta, GA
6th AIAA Atmospheric and Space Environments Conference
Investigation of the Impact Behaviour of Ice Particles
Tobias Hauk*
Airbus Group Innovations, Munich, 81663, Germany
Ilia Roisman† and Cameron Tropea‡

Technische Universität Darmstadt, Center of Smart Interfaces, Darmstadt, 64287, Germany
In this study, the impact behaviour of irregular and spherical ice particles on a solid
Downloaded by KUNGLIGA TEKNISKA HOGSKOLEN KTH on September 17, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.2014-3046
surface was investigated. The ice particles were accelerated within the Icing and
Contamination Research Facility (iCORE) by an ejection module using compressed air. The
impact velocity of the particles was varied between 1 m/s and 74 m/s. The maximum
dimension of the particles ranged from several microns up to 1.6 mm. The impact target
consisted of a tiltable aluminium surface and impact angles of 30° and 90° were set. The
impact process was recorded by a high-speed camera. Based on the observations, four
different fragmentation cases were defined. Fragmentation models for the description of the
deformation of the particle and the development of lateral cracks within the particle on
impact are presented. The velocity up to which no particle fragmentation occurs and the
maximum velocity up to which only minor fragmentation occurs were defined based on the
experimental results.
Nomenclature
a = radius of the impression

ares = maximum residual impression radius
AGARD = Advisory Group for Aerospace Research and Development
b = distance of particle centre from wall
c = speed of sound
CPI = Cloud Particle Imager
CRYSTAL FACE = Cirrus Regional Study of Tropical Anvils and Cirrus Layers - Florida Area Cirrus
Experiment
D = diameter
E = Young’s modulus
EHWG = Engine Harmonization Working Group
HAIC = High Altitude Ice Crystals
iCORE = Icing and Contamination Research Facility
IWC = ice water content
Kc, KIc = fracture toughness
KWAJEX = Kwajalein Experiment
lcr = length of lateral crack
LBA = Large Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere Experiment
LWC = liquid water content
MT = Megha-Tropiques
p = pressure
R = radius
t = time
tmax = total duration of impact
*
PhD student, IW-MSSE, 85521 Ottobrunn, Tobias.Hauk@eads.net, AIAA Member
†
Senior scientist, Alarich-Weiss Str. 10, Darmstadt, Germany, roisman@sla.tu-darmstadt.de, not an AIAA member
‡
Professor, Alarich-Weiss Str. 10, Darmstadt, Germany, ctropea@sla.tu-darmstadt.de, AIAA member
1
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Copyright © 2014 by Tobias Hauk, EADS Deutschland GmbH; Cameron Tropea, Technische Universität Darmstadt. Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., with permission.
T = temperature
TAT = total air temperature
TWC = total water content
u = instantaneous velocity
U = impact velocity
Uc1 = first critical velocity of particle breakup
Ucrack = particle breakup velocity
UI = interface velocity
v = velocity
Y = yield stress
α, β = empirical coefficient
δ = dimensionless displacement
̇ = rate of strain
η = dimensionless attrition propensity parameter
θ = impact angle
ν = Poisson’s ratio
ρ = density
φ = relative volume of the fragmented part
Subscripts
0 = initial
attr = attrition
i = particle
I = interface
max = maximum
res = residual
w = wall
I. Introduction
Up to date, more than 100 jet engine powerloss events of commercial aircraft at an altitude of more than
22.000 ft in the vicinity of deep convective clouds have been reported. According to the Engine Harmonization
Working Group (EHWG) and Mason et al.1, it is assumed that these events can be traced back to a new form of
icing, called “glaciated icing”, which is caused by the ingestion of large amounts of ice particles of up to 8 grams
per cubic meter of ice water content. This assumption is underlined by the fact that above 22.000 ft, it is generally
assumed that supercooled liquid water is no more present. Most of these events occurred at northern and southern
latitudes of less than 40° where air with relatively high humidity can be transported by deep updrafts high into the
atmosphere. Ice particles which are in the flowpath of a jet engine enter the engine’s front part where bouncing and
fragmentation on the cold inlet, fan and spinner can occur. Further downstream, part of the ice particles enter the
engine core and reach the first compressor stages, where an ambient and surface temperature above freezing is
present. In this region, as discussed by Mason et al.2, the ice particles (partially) melt and mixed-phase conditions
are generated. On impact with compressor parts, a liquid film can be formed which allows further incoming ice
particles to stick on these wetted surfaces. The following accretion of ice on these surfaces, whose temperature was
initially higher than 0 °C, is made possible by the cooling of the like by further ice particles. Due to the reduced
aerodynamic performance of the engine and ice shedding in the compressor, powerloss and damage to engine parts
can occur.
The European HAIC project is devoted to the investigation of glaciated and mixed-phase icing conditions which
can have serious effects on aircraft engine and probe performance. The project, which started in 2012 and lasts for
four years, will contribute to further enhancement of international flight safety. Among other topics, HAIC focuses
on the not yet fully understood and complex physical phenomena related to glaciated icing conditions, which are
important for the modelling and simulation of icing processes in an engine environment. This includes fundamental
research on the impact behaviour of ice particles, which is the main topic of this paper.
In the next chapters, an experimental test apparatus is presented which allows the investigation of the impact
behaviour of irregular and spherical ice particles. Impacts of irregular particles, whose diameters range from several
microns up to few millimetres, and the impact of spherical particles with diameters of several hundreds of microns
2
can be investigated. The ambient temperature (-30 °C < T < 30 °C), impact velocity (up to 90 m/s) and impact angle
(30° ≤ θ ≤ 90°) can be varied. Data based on more than 200 impact events are shown. Moreover, a model which
describes the bouncing – fragmentation threshold of ice particles is presented.
II. Literature Review
A. Shapes of Ice Particles in Deep Convective Clouds
Data about ice particles in deep convective clouds have been

collected during several measurement campaigns in the last
15 years, e.g. the Large Scale Biosphere-Atmosphere
Experiment (LBA) in Brazil, the Cirrus Regional Study of

Tropical Anvils and Cirrus Layers - Florida Area Cirrus
Experiment (CRYSTAL FACE) project in the US, the
Kwajalein Experiment (KWAJEX) on the Marshall Islands and
the Megha-Tropiques (MT) project over West Africa and the
Indian Ocean. As a result, it was shown that ice particles may
occur in the form of irregular shapes, aggregates and more
pristine crystals (e.g. plates, columns, etc.). Regarding their
size, the maximum dimension of different ice particles can vary
between several microns and a few millimetres. Exemplary ice
particles are shown in Fig. 1 in three size ranges, which were
recorded by the Cloud Particle Imager (CPI) probe on August
22nd, 1999 during KWAJEX. The samples were taken on
heights between approx. 7 km and 11.2 km in close proximity
to deep updrafts. In the smallest size range, the particles appear
rather spherical. In the intermediate and large size ranges, rimed
ice particles and aggregates can be seen.
Figure 1 (right). Examples of particles vs. altitude (km) and

temperature (°C) imaged in three size ranges (<100, 400 –600,
>800 µm) by CPI probe on August 22nd, 1999 from Heymsfield et
al.3. Magnification between different size ranges is not the same.
B. Studies on Ice Particle Impact in the Past
Hail impact on aircraft structures and jet engines are a serious threat for aviation safety. For this reason, hail
particle impact has been investigated in several studies. Guégan et al.4 used a dropweight technique to measure the
critical impact velocity for ice fragmentation which seperates the post-impact state of the ice ball in a non-altered
and altered state. The altered state includes the cracked and fragmented state. The ice ball diameters ranged from
12.9 to 42 mm. The impact velocity was varied between 1 and 5 m/s and three different impact angles were
considered (45°, 70° and 90°). The AGARD model5 was applied which assumes that the altered state is observed if
the kinetic energy is higher than a certain value of the deformation energy. This model depends on one parameter
which was successfully determined from the tests for several conditions. Higa et al.6 investigated the impact of ice
spheres with diametes ranging from 2.8 to 72 mm on ice blocks. The authors observed that the onset velocity of
fracturing, ranging from 0.23 to 1.24 m/s, decreases with increasing particle diameter. Moreover, Guégan et al.7 shot
ice balls on a glass plate with a gas gun to investigate the kinematics of post-impact ice fragments. The ice ball
diameters ranged from 6.2 to 27.5 mm. The impact velocities were between 60 and 200 m/s, a range where always
catastrophic fragmentation occurred. Four different impact angles were chosen (20°, 45°, 67°, and 90°). It was
observed that the angle between the fragments’ velocity vectors and the surface was smaller than 2° at these impact
conditions. Furthermore, the velocity of the centre of the fragments was as large as the tangential velocity of the ice
ball before the impact.
About 20 years ago, Pan and Render8-12 made several studies on hail impact on flat plates, rotating spinners, and
fans. Ice balls with diameters of 12.7 and 19 mm, impact velocities between 102 and 175 m/s and several impact
angles were considered. Pan and Render found out that the Rosin-Rammler distribution, which is commonly applied
3
for representing particle size distributions generated by grinding, milling and crushing processes, can be applied to
describe the post-impact particle size and velocity distributions. The distributions showed no measurable difference
for impacts on the flat plate, the stationary spinner, and the rotating spinner. However, the distributions strongly
depended on the impact position for the rotating fan case. Moreover, it was shown that the surface temperature did
not have a significant influence on these distributions.
Ice particle bouncing and breakup prior to detection should be considered for the development of various in-
flight measurement instruments, like LWC or TWC sensors, to guarantee adequate accuracy of measurement data.
Impacts on aircraft probes of natural ice particles with diameters ranging from several microns to hundreds of
microns have been analysed by Vidaurre and Hallett13. The authors applied the ratio of kinetic energy to surface
energy as a criterion to characterise the threshold at which ice particle fragmentation starts. They concluded that the
same criterion for drops is applicable to ice particles and that breakup plays an important role for the in-flight
measurement of LWC and TWC.
Particle bouncing on LWC and TWC probes were investigated by Emery et al.14 and Isaac et al.15 to better
interprete the indicated IWC and TWC values. As a result, it was assumed that the actual IWC and TWC were
underestimated and that further effort was nedded for the quantification of the influence of particle bouncing on the
measurement of these values.
To the authors’ knowledge, no experimental investigations of the impact behaviour of small spherical and
irregular ice particles with diameters of less than 6 mm are known where the impact velocity is varied within a wide
range and where a sequence of several pictures, which show the impact process in detail, is obtained. However,
natural ice particles, which can be ingested by jet engines and impact on engine parts, have diameters ranging from
some microns up to few millimetres and can have various impact velocities.
In order to expand the knowledge of the impact behaviour of small ice particles, including the
bouncing – fragmentation threshold, the laboratory and theoretical study described in this paper was undertaken.
III. Experimental Method
A. Experimental Apparatus
The impact tests are conducted within the Icing and Contamination Research Facility (iCORE) 16 at Airbus Group
Innovations in Munich, Germany (Fig. 2). iCORE allows the control of the ambient temperature within the test
section during the impact tests and can be equipped with an ejection module to accelerate particles. Amongst others,
studies of the impact behaviour of fruit flies have been done in iCORE in the past17.
Figure 2. The icing and contamination research facility (iCORE) at Airbus Group Innovations, Munich, Germany
In Fig. 3, an overall view of the experimental impact apparatus is shown. The apparatus mainly consists of an
ejection module placed in front of the test section of iCORE, a high-speed camera system next to its transparent test
section, a Dedocool cold light source, a total air temperature (TAT) probe, and an impact zone.
4
The ejection module (Fig. 4) uses cold compressed air to accelerate the ice particles in a tube. The tube’s exit
ends approx. 20 mm upstream of the impact zone. The air pressure in the ejection module is controlled by a pressure
regulator to set the impact velocity continuously between few m/s and up to 90 m/s. The valve of the ejection device
can be opened via a push button. The impact zone consists of a polished aluminium surface (2.0 mm x 1.4 mm).
A heating mat is located underneath the aluminium which can be used to heat up the impact surface. The surface
temperature can be obtained from a thermocouple which is in thermal contact with it. A Navitar 12X Zoom
objective is mounted to a Phantom v611 high-speed camera allowing a side view of the impact zone. Opposite to the
camera, a Dedocool cold light source is used for illumination. The TAT probe measures the ambient temperature
within the test section. The impact surface can be tilted to control the impact angle.
Figure 3. Overall view of the experimental apparatus including the ejection module, the high-speed camera,
the cold light source, the total air temperature (TAT) probe, and the impact zone
5
Figure 4. The ejection module
B. Test Procedure and Conditions
The impact zone is tilted to control the impact angle of the ice particles. The fan of iCORE is set at idle, which
corresponds to a flow velocity of approx. 5 m/s, and the power of the heat exchanger is controlled. This is how the
temperature within iCORE is set. Grinded ice particles with irregular shape and grown on a chest freezer’s wall at an
ambient temperature of approx. -25 °C are placed in the ejection module. The air pressure in the ejection module is
set depending on the intended impact velocity. The push button is pressed and the high-speed video recording is
started simultaneously. The expanding compressed air accelerates the particles and their impact on the surface can
be recorded and analysed.
Ice spheres, which are used alternatively to irregular particles, are made on a superhydrophobic metal plate.
First, irregular ice particles of different sizes are dispersed on the superhydrophobic plate at room temperature. Upon
melting of the ice particles, small water droplets with an almost spherical shape form on the surface. At last, the
plate with the droplets is placed in a chest freezer and after several minutes the frozen droplets can be collected from
the plate with a cold brush.
In the experiments presented in this paper, the ambient temperature and the surface temperature were between
-10 and -20°C. Impacts of irregular and spherical particles were investigated. Impact velocities ranging from
1 up to 74 m/s were observed. The impact angle was set to either 30° or 90°. The uncertainty of the maximum
velocity was ± 2 %. The resolution of the pictures varied between 5.9 and 16.7 µm/pixel. The uncertainty of the
maximum dimension ranged from ± 2 up to ± 7 pixels.
C. Observations of Particle Impacts
In total, 238 impact events were analysed. In more than 80 % of the impact events, no significant particle
rotation was observed before impact (vtangential/vtranslation << 1). On impact, if the particle was either irregular or
showed major or catastrophic fragmentation, at least part of the fragments started to rotate significantly. In case of
the spheres, which showed no or minor fragmentation, the particles or fragments showed rotational movements after
impact in 3 out of 4 cases. In between 30 and 40 % of the cases where fragmentation was present, small ice
fragments stuck to the surface after impact. It was estimated that the volume of these leftovers was at most few
percent of the total volume of the original ice particles.
Based on the observations, four different fragmentation cases are defined:
- No fragmentation
- Minor fragmentation
- Major fragmentation
- Catastrophic fragmentation.
In the latter three cases, small fragments can stick to the surface. Examples for the four different cases are given
in the following.
6
No Fragmentation
The “no fragmentation” case represents bouncing where no fragments (including fragments sticking to the
surface) are observed. Figure 5 shows two sequences of particle bouncing. The upper six pictures (Fig. 5a) show an
irregular particle with a maximum dimension of approx. 200 µm and an impact velocity of 6.9 m/s. Significant
particle rotation takes place after the impact. Figure 5b shows a spherical particle with a diameter of approx.
1200 µm and an impact velocity of 1.3 m/s. No post-impact rotation takes place.
(a)
(b)
Figure 5. “No fragmentation” case impacts of an irregular (top sequence) and spherical particle (bottom sequence).
Time step between single pictures of top sequence: 59.6 µs (bottom sequence: 119.2 µs).
Minor Fragmentation
In case of “minor fragmentation”, small fragments are observed. Up to 20 volume per cent of the original
particle are shattered into fragments. Figure 6a shows the impact of an irregular ice particle with a maximum
dimension of approx. 300 µm and an impact velocity of 26 m/s. A small ice leftover, stemming from the original
particle, can be observed on the surface after impact. The sphere in Fig. 6b has a diameter of approx. 1134 µm and a
velocity of 5.1 m/s. Significant particle rotation is observed in both cases after impact.
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. “Minor fragmentation” case impacts of an irregular (top sequence) and spherical particle (bottom sequence).
Time step between single pictures of top sequence: 14.9 µs (bottom sequence: 75 µs).
7
Major Fragmentation
“Major fragmentation” occurs if between 20 and 50 volume percent of the original particle are lost due to
fragmentation. In Fig. 7a, the maximum dimension is approx. 284 µm and the impact velocity is 36 m/s. A small
leftover on the surface can be observed. In Fig. 7b, an almost spherical particle is shown which is nearly split in half
upon impact. Particle diameter is approx. 436 µm and impact velocity is 11 m/s. In both cases, significant post-
impact particle rotation takes place.
(a)
(b)
Figure 7. “Major fragmentation” case impacts of an irregular (top sequence) and spherical particle (bottom sequence).
The particle of interest is marked with a red dot in the top sequence. Time step between single pictures of top and
bottom sequence: 14.9 µs.
Catastrophic Fragmentation
In case of “catastrophic fragmentation”, more than half of the volume of the original particle is lost by
fragmentation and several fragments are generated. In the extreme case, the particle shatters into many small
fragments (e.g. compare with Guégan et al.7). In Fig. 8a, an irregular particle with a maximum dimension of approx.
362 µm and an impact velocity of 48 m/s fragments into several small particles. A small leftover sticks to the
surface at the impact location. In Fig. 8b, a spherical particle with a diameter of approx. 956 µm impacts at a
velocity of 36 m/s.
(a)
(b)
Figure 8. “Catastrophic fragmentation” case impacts of an irregular (top sequence) and spherical particle (bottom
sequence). Time step between single pictures of top and bottom sequence: 14.9 µs.
8
Due to the limited resolution and magnification as well as shadowing by other ice particles, and the fact that there
is only one view of the impact process available, the classification of the impacts is not always clearly attributable to
one of the four fragmentation classes.
IV. Theoretical Model of Particle Collision and Fragmentation
A. Initial Moment of Particle Collision
A particle impacts with the velocity onto a dry solid stationary substrate. Collision generates compression
waves in the particle and the wall regions propagating with the speed of sound of the material. The pressures and
at the initial moment in the compressed regions, respectively of the particle and wall, are obtained using the
simplified Rankine-Hugoniot jump conditions, valid for impact velocities much smaller than the speed of sound in
the media:
( ) (1)
where and c denote the density and the speed of sound, respectively, subscript is related to the particle and to
the wall. denotes the interface velocity. The interface velocity can be found from the condition of equality of the
pressures and :
. (2)
The instantaneous pressure in the compressed regions of the particle and the wall is:
. (3)
Therefore, the first critical velocity of particle breakup can be estimated by equating to the yield stress of the
particle material:
. (4)
In case of a perfectly rigid wall:

. (5)
Table 1: Material properties of ice and other relevant materials
Material property of ice Value Source

Young’s modulus: E 9.38 GPa
Poisson’s ratio:  0.33
Tippmann et al.18
Density 917 kg/m3
Quasi-static yield strength, hail 5.2 MPa
Fracture toughness Liu and Miller19
Speed of sound, 0°C 3838 m/s Vogt et al.20
Speed of sound glass 5300 m/s http://www.classltd.com
Density glass 2400–2800 kg/m3 http://hypertextbook.com/
Speed of sound aluminium 6380 m/s http://www.elcometer.com
Density aluminium 2700 kg/m³ http://periodictable.com/
In the case of an ice particle impacting onto a glass target, as in the experiments of Guégan et al.4, the critical
velocity (Eq. (4)), using the material properties listed in Table 1, is m/s. As shown in Fig. 9, this velocity
agrees well with the critical velocity of failure of relatively large spherical hail particles.
9
10
Guégan et al. (2011)
AGARD (1995)
8
Vfailure, m/s
4 Ytheory = 10 MPa
2
Ytheory = 5.2 MPa
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Diameter, mm
Fig. 9. Failure velocity for relatively large spherical ice particles. Experimental data from AGARD5 and Guégan et
al.4 in comparison with the yielding velocity (Eq. (4)).
It should be noted that an impact velocity higher than the yielding velocity, defined in Eq. (4), is only the
necessary condition for plastic deformation of ice, but is not a sufficient condition for breakup of the ice particle.
Our experiments show that the critical velocities for breakup of sub millimeter particles is usually much higher than
the yielding velocity. In order to model the fragmentation of such small particles, the mechanism of plastic
deformation of ice and the propagation of cracks have to be considered.
Moreover, it is known that the properties of small particles can vary with time. In our experiments, we estimate
the yield stress of the ice particles from the minimum velocity at which particle attrition was observed.
20 30
25
15
20
U0, m/s
Y, MPa
10 15
10
5
Lower bound for
the velocity of attrition 5 Estimation using Eq. (4)
Data from Tippmann et al. (2013)
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
.
D0, m , s
-1
Fig. 10. Estimation of the lower bound for the velocity of attrition from the particle impact experiments (left) and
evaluation of the yield stress as a function of the strain rate ̇ (right).
In Fig. 10, the values of the yield stress are estimated from the lower bound for the velocity of particle
attrition. is the impact velocity component vertical to the surface and is the diameter of an equivalent sphere
which has the same projected cross section area as the observed particle. The rate of strain is estimated as
̇ . Comparison with the experimental data from Tippmann et al.18 shows good agreement within our
experimental accuracy.
B. Deformation of a Rigid-Plastic Particle Impacting onto a Perfectly Rigid Wall
Consider an impact with a velocity of a particle of radius onto a perfectly rigid wall. Impact of a particle
onto a rigid wall is analogous to an impact of a long plastic rod, as discussed in Taylor21, who described the rod
deformation by a propagating plastic wave where the pressure is equal to the yield stress . The rod consists of a
rear part, which moves as rigid body, and a stationary plastic region near the wall. The rod deformation occurs at the
wave front.
10
Such type of model for the description of a spherical particle is applied. The theory21 can be significantly
simplified for small impact velocities (much smaller than √ , which is 75 - 160 m/s for ice). In this case, the
thickness of the plastic region is much smaller than the particle diameter and the velocity of its expansion is much
smaller than the particle impact velocity. The shape of the deforming particle can be approximated by a truncated
sphere.
( ) ( ) is the distance of the particle centre from the wall and ( ) is its instantaneous velocity.
( ) is the dimensionless displacement of the particle centre after the first instant of impact, scaled by the initial
particle radius. For small deformations, the radius of the impression and the volume of the rear solid part of the
particle can be approximated as:
√ √ , ( ). (6)
The equation of motion of the particle is determined by the axial particle momentum:
, (7)
which has to be solved with the initial conditions:
, at (8)
The solution of the equation:
( ) √ , (9)
is obtained by the use of Eq. (6). The maximum centre displacement corresponding to ( ) is:
√ √ . (10)
Therefore, the expressions for the residual maximum impression radius after collision and the total duration of
impact with the help of Eqs. (6), (9) and (10) yield:
√
√ ( ) , . (11)
√
The impression radius and the material properties of the particle determine the fracture of the ice particle caused by
the crack development. The mechanism of the formation of the lateral cracks in the ice particle will be considered in
the next subsection.
C. Development of the Lateral Cracks in the Ice Particle
The deformation of the particle in the plastic zone can also lead to damage in the rear part of the particle. It is
known that the ice particle impact causes a development of an expanding cracked zone ahead of the plastic
wave18,22. This phenomenon leads to particle attrition23.
Assuming that the ice behaves like semi-brittle material during the impact load, the propagation of radial and
lateral cracks in the particle can be described by results from Evans and Wilshaw24 and Ghadiri and Zhang25. The
length of the lateral crack is estimated as:
, (12)
11
where is the radius of impression and is the fracture toughness. We can predict the length of the lateral cracks
after particle impact using the expression for the maximum radius of impression in Eq. (12) determined in Eq. (11).
This yields:
. (13)
For the breakup criterion, we can take the condition at which the crack length is of the value comparable with the
initial particle diameter, which, with the help of Eq. (13), yields the expression for the particle breakup velocity
:
⁄
(14)
We can also estimate the relative volume of the fragmented part25 of the particle , assuming its
thickness to be proportional to the impression radius and the length to be equal to the crack length. In
combination with Eqs. 11 and 13 this yields:
(15)
where is the dimensionless attrition propensity parameter derived by Ghadiri and Zhang25.
V. Results and Discussion

Equation (14) for the critical velocity of the ice particle cracking yields , where is determined
only by the material properties of the particle. The level of the particle damage is determined by the dimensionless
attrition propensity parameter . The impact velocity typical for a definite level of the ice particle damage is thus
, where is another material parameter. In the present analysis, both and parameters are
assumed constant.
In Fig. 11, the maps of ice particle breakup are shown, based on the present experiments. The maps allow to
estimate two characteristic velocities for ice particles:
 The maximum velocity at which no particle breakup is possible: with .
 The maximum velocity at which only minor breakup is observed: with .
It should be noted that particle breakup is a statistical process and it can happen at velocities below and
, as shown in Fig. 11. Moreoever, it is interesting, that the estimated velocity agrees well with the
experimental results of Guégan et al.4 on the critical breakup velocity of large ice spheres of much larger diameters
between 12.9 and 42 mm.
12
25 70
Experiments, no breakup Experiments
D0
- 2/3
60 No breakup
20 Minor breakup
 D0
-1/2
50
15
U0, m/s
U0, m/s
40
 = 0.45 m /s
3/2
 = 0.046 m /s
5/3
10 30
20
5
10
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
D0, m D0, m
Fig. 11. Maps of ice particle breakup. Estimation of the maximum velocity of no-breakup (left) and maximum velocity of
minor breakup (right).
IV. Conclusions
A test apparatus was presented which allows the investigation of the impact of spherical and irregular ice
particles on a tiltable aluminium surface. Impact tests with impact velocities ranging from 1 m/s up to 74 m/s were
conducted using an ejection module within the Icing and Contamination Research Facility (iCORE). Maximum ice
particle dimension varied between several microns up to 1.6 mm. Based on the observations of over 200 particle
impacts, four different fragmentation cases were defined, namely no, minor, major, and catastrophic fragmentation.
The yield stress of ice was estimated from the lower bound for the velocity of particle attrition and the results
showed good agreement with other experimental data. A model allowing the calculation of the critical velocity for
ice particle cracking and of the impact velocity typical for a definite level of ice particle damage
was presented, where α and β are material parameters. Based on the experiments, α was determined
as , defining the maximum velocity at which no particle fragmentation occurs. Also, β was
determined as , defining the maximum velocity at which minor fragmentation occurs. It was
observed that ice particle fragmentation can also occur below due to the fact that ice particle fragmentation is
a statistical process which strongly depends on the structure of ice and also on the history of how ice was formed.
Acknowledgments
The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union's Seventh Framework
Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement n° ACP2-GA-2012-314314.
References
1
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2
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Jet Engines Using a Rig Test,” Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, vol. 133, Apr., 2011, p.
041201.
3
Heymsfield, A. J., Bansemer, A., Field, P. R., Durden, S. L., Stith, J. L., Dye, J. E., Hall, W., and Grainger, C. A.,
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4
Guégan, P., Othman, R., Lebreton, D., Pasco, F., Villedieu, P., Meyssonnier, J., and Wintenberger, S., “Critical
impact velocity for ice fragmentation,” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of
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AIAA 2014-3046

Investigation of the Impact Behaviour of Ice Particles

Ilia Roisman† and Cameron Tropea‡

a = radius of the impression

II. Literature Review

A. Shapes of Ice Particles in Deep Convective Clouds

Data about ice particles in deep convective clouds have been

Experiment (LBA) in Brazil, the Cirrus Regional Study of

Figure 1 (right). Examples of particles vs. altitude (km) and

B. Studies on Ice Particle Impact in the Past

III. Experimental Method

Figure 4. The ejection module

B. Test Procedure and Conditions

C. Observations of Particle Impacts

IV. Theoretical Model of Particle Collision and Fragmentation

A. Initial Moment of Particle Collision

In case of a perfectly rigid wall:

Table 1: Material properties of ice and other relevant materials

Material property of ice Value Source

B. Deformation of a Rigid-Plastic Particle Impacting onto a Perfectly Rigid Wall

which has to be solved with the initial conditions:

The solution of the equation:

C. Development of the Lateral Cracks in the Ice Particle

V. Results and Discussion

Engineering, vol. 38, Oct. 2011, pp. 786–795.

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