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When it comes to accelerating, expanding and controlling the gases produced as a result
of burning the propellants in the combustion chamber a mechanically propelling device
which is used is known as Rocket engine nozzle. The exhaust gas exits the nozzle at a very
high velocity. This high velocity ejection of gas at the exit is called as thrust which is
produced by the expense of pressure and internal energy of the incoming fluid which helps
the rocket to move in the desired direction.
Jet velocity
The fact of the matter is that a nozzle is a device that converts propellants with high
pressure & high temperature into high jet velocity. Thermodynamic relations of the
processes inside a rocket nozzle and chamber outfit the mathematical tools expected to
calculate the performance and determine a few of the key design parameters of rocket
propulsion frameworks. These thermodynamic relations, which are principal and essential
in investigation and plan of rocket units, are presented and clarified in this chapter. The
usage of these conditions should give the reader a fundamental understanding of the
thermodynamic processes required in rocket gas conduct and expansion.
One of the essential reasons to use ideal rocket propulsion in the relevant thermodynamic
principles is the luxury it provides as expressed in simple mathematical relationships.
In case of converging- diverging nozzle a substantial part of the thermal energy of the gasses
in the chamber is changed over into kinetic energy. As will be clarified, the gas pressure
and temperature drop significantly and the gas speed can achieve values in more than two
miles for every second. A process with no heat transfer is known as adiabatic process & if
it is a reversible process, it becomes isentropic.
For an isentropic flow the assumptions that are valid in ideal rocket propulsion include the
condition that the perfect gas law is obeyed by the working substance and there has to be
adiabatic flow across the rocket walls. The propellant flow should be steady and constant.
It should also be kept in mind that an axial directed velocity is possessed by all exhaust
gases leaving the rocket.
Mentioned below is the significant & useful mathematical relation which has been derived
keeping in view the above mentioned ideal gas assumptions for the rocket nozzle and is
directed to produce the thrust which is desired:
Convergent-Divergent Nozzle
To get high jet velocity, it is essential to Rocket Nozzle That there should be a convergent
section followed by both a throat and a divergent section.
In case of subsonic flows, the smaller the area, the higher the velocity is. Due to this inverse
relationship between velocity & area for subsonic flows, converging nozzle is required.
As soon as the velocity of the fluid enters the throat it reaches sonic flows, where area
remains constant
For supersonic flows, the velocity of fluid enters the area which is expanding due to the
fact the nozzle required needs to be a diverging nozzle. Point to be noted here is that
divergent nozzles do not find their own uses but when they are attached to the convergent
section of the nozzle they help in producing supersonic flows as shown in the figure given
below.
Contrary to the positive change in the velocity of flows & Mach number, the density &
velocity of sound decrease in the movement from the converging nozzle’s inlet to
diverging nozzle’s outlet as the flow proceeds.
On the other hand, the differences are many between the two. In case of diffuser unlike nozzle,
the flow is supersonic at the inlet and subsonic at the outlet which causes decreased velocity in
the direction of the flow while there occurs an increase in the pressure. Therefore, when it
comes to deaccelerating and compressing the gases produced as a result of burning the
propellants in the combustion chamber diffuser is used
Choked flow
The velocity of sound is equivalent to the propagation speed of elastic pressure wave inside
the medium, sound being an infinitesimal pressure wave. Assuming, accordingly, sonic
velocity is approached to anytime within a steady flow system, it is inconceivable for a
pressure disturbance to go past the area of sonic or supersonic flow. Therefore, any
fractional disturbance or unsettling influence of the flow downstream of the nozzle throat
with sonic flow has no impact on the throat or upstream of it, gave that the disturbance
does not raise the downstream pressure over its critical value. It is unrealistic to expand the
throat velocity or the flow rate in the nozzle by further bringing down the exit pressure or
even evacuating the exhaust section. This significant condition is frequently explained as
choking the flow. It is constantly settled at the throat and not the nozzle exit plane.
The nozzle expansion area ratio is basically the ratio between nozzle exit area A2 to the throat
area At which is denoted by the Greek letter 𝜖. It is an important nozzle design parameter.
Mathematically
𝐴2
𝜖 =
𝐴𝑡
The area of chamber is not considered because convergent chamber is decoupled by sonic
throat from the downstream portion
Under-expansion Nozzle
In case of under-expansion nozzle, the pressure at the exit is greater that the pressure in the
ambience. The expansion of the gas inside the nozzle is incomplete owing to the fact that
the exit area is too small for an optimum area ratio. As a result the values of thrust
coefficient and specific impulse will be less than optimum expansion.
Over-Expansion Nozzle
In case of under-expansion nozzle, the pressure at the exit is greater that the pressure in
the ambience. The flow is forced back inwards and separated from the walls of the nozzle.
As a result the efficiency of the flow reduces. Like under-expansion the values of thrust
coefficient and specific impulse will be lower than optimum expansion. If the higher
external pressure is desired, separation of the flow will be inside the divergent portion. The
separation taking place will be axially symmetric. At the exit the flow is supersonic which
is surrounded by the annular shaped section with subsonic flow. Due to the flaws in the
separation location, the thrust is reduced. In case of over-expansion, shock waves exist
outside the nozzle.
Thrust
A rocket propulsion system while acting upon a vehicle produces a force which is known as the
thrust. In simple words, when the matter ejects at high velocity thrust is the reaction encountered
by its structure. The phenomenon of the thrust is same as that of making gun recoil. The product
of mass and velocity that has the definite direction is called momentum. At the cost of the
momentum of the water or air masses which are moved closer to the rear, forward push of all
ship propellers and oars is generated. The relative magnitude of accelerated masses and velocity
is what makes rocket propulsion different from other devices. The masses involved in rocket
propulsion are relatively small and are within the vehicle and emitted at high velocities due to
change in momentum, the thrust thus produced is given below.
𝐹 = 𝑚̇𝑣2
Mentioned above is the total propulsion force which is produced when the pressure emitted by
the nozzle is equal to the pressure in the ambience. The thrust is influenced by the second
contribution raised by the pressure of the surrounding fluid. In figure below it is shown that
there is uniformity in the pressure on the outer surface of a rocket chamber and the gas pressures
which are exerted inside of a typical thermal rocket engine.
In order to determine the axial thrust, all the pressures need to be integrated acting on the areas
that can be estimated normal to the nozzle axis on a plane. Owing to the fact that a rocket is an
axially symmetric chamber, the forces don’t contribute to the axial thrust. At the same time the
forces are radially outward & this is appreciable. The conditions are essentially stagnation
before entering the nozzle.
An imbalance of the external environment or atmospheric pressure p3 and the local pressure p2
of the hot gas jet at the exit can be resulted because of the changes in ambient pressure due to
the variation in altitude and fixed nozzle geometry. Therefore, the total thrust, for steadily
operating rocket propulsion, which is moving through a homogenous atmosphere will be equal
to
F = 𝑚̇ 𝑉2 + (p2 – p3) A2
The exhaust velocity & the propellant mass flow rate represent the first term which is
momentum thrust. While the second term is represented by the pressure thrust which consists
of the product of the cross-sectional area at the nozzle exit shown as A2
Characteristic Velocity
For the equation mentioned above the expression for jet velocity has already been derived. To
ferret out the value of 𝑚̇, mass flow rate through the nozzle is considered. Thus the equation
which is formed is given as under:
Γ
𝑚̇ = 𝑝1 𝐴𝑡
√𝑅 𝑇1
√𝑅 𝑇1
Since the unit of 𝑐∗ = Γ
is m/s which is the unit of velocity as well, the expression
denotes characteristic velocity which represents the function of combustion chamber design
and propellant characteristics. Owing to the fact in the comparison between combustion
chamber designs and propellant combinations, it can be used as a figure of merit.
Thrust coefficient
The values of 𝑚̇ and 𝑉2 are put in the thrust equation mentioned above.
F= 𝐶𝐹 𝑝1 𝐴𝑡
The equation can be solved in order to determine the coefficient of thrust with the help of the
values of throat Diameter, thrust & chamber pressure. Despite the fact that the function of
chamber pressure is a thrust coefficient, it can be evident that it is not in simple proportion with
p1. On the other hand, the thrust coefficient and throat area are directly proportional to each
other. The amplification of thrust due to the expansion of gas in the supersonic nozzle can be
thought of to be denoted by the thrust coefficient in contrast with the thrust that would be
produced, if the chamber pressure exerted only on the throat area
The values of the thrust coefficient range from 0.8-1.9. To observe the effects of pressure in the
chamber, or variation in altitude in a given nozzle configuration, or for correcting sea levels for
flight altitude conditions, thrust coefficient is a suitable parameter.
There is a difference between fluid pressure in the ambience & the exhaust gas pressure at the
exit. If the pressure at the exit is less that the ambient pressure, the pressure thrust thus produced
will be negative. In the mentioned condition, low thrust is given which is undesirable. Normally,
to produce better results, the rocket nozzle is designed keeping in view the fact that the exhaust
has to be at least equal or slightly higher than the fluid pressure in the ambience.
When the exhaust pressure at the exit is equal to the fluid pressure in the ambience, pressure
term will become zero