Physics Notes: Linear and Circular Motion

Scalar Quantities: Physical quantities which have magnitude only and no direction are
called scalar quantities.
Example: Mass, speed, volume, work, time, power, energy etc.

Vector Quantities: Physical quantities which have magnitude and direction both and
which obey triangle law are called vector quantities.
Example: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, torque etc.

Electric current, though has a direction, is a scalar quantity because it does not obey
triangle law.
Moment of inertia, pressure, refractive index, stress are tensor quantities.

Distance: Distance is the actual path travelled by a body in a given period of time.

Displacement:

 Displacement is the shortest distance.

 The change in the position of the object in a given period of time
 Distance is a scalar quantity whereas displacement is a vector quantity both having the
same unit (metre)
 Displacement may be positive, negative or zero whereas distance is alwayspositive.

Speed:

 Distance travelled by the moving object in unit time interval is called speed i.e. speed =
Distance/ Time
 It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is meter/second (m/s).
 The speed of an object at any instant is called instantaneous speed.
 An object is said to be travelled with non-uniform speed if it covers the unequal distance
in equal interval of time.

Velocity:

 The velocity of a moving object is defined as the displacement of the object in unit time
interval i.e., velocity =
 It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is meter/second.
 If a body goes equal displacement in equal interval of time then it is called uniform
velocity.
 If a body undergoes unequal displacement in equal interval of time then it is called
variable velocity.
  Relative velocity
= V1 +V2 if two travels in oppositedirection
=V1-V2 if two travels in the samedirection

Acceleration:

 Acceleration of an object is defined as the rate of change of velocity of the object.

 It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is meter/second2 (m/s2)
 If velocity decreases with time then acceleration is negative and is called retardation.
 If acceleration does not change with time it is called constant acceleration.
 Some equation of acceleration;

V=u+at

S=ut+at2/2

V2= u2+2as

Here v=final velocity, u is initial velocity, t is a time interval, a is acceleration and s is the
distance travel.

Circular Motion:

 The motion of an object along a circular path it is called circular motion.

 If the object moves with uniform speed, its motion is uniform circular motion.
 Uniform circular motion is an accelerated motion because the direction of the velocity
changes continuously.

Angular Displacement and Velocity:

 The angle subtended at the center of a circle by a body moving along the circumference
of the circle is called angular displacement of the body.
 Its unit is radian.
 Angular displacement= length of arc/radius of the circle
 The time rate of change of angular displacement is called angular velocity.

It is generally denoted by ω and

Force:

 Force is that external cause which when acts on a body change or tries to change the
initial state of the body.
  Its SI unit is Newton(N).
 A body is said to be in equilibrium if the sum of all the forces acts on the body is Zero.
 The nuclear force is the strongest force.

Momentum:

 Momentum is the property of a moving body and is defined as the product of mass and
velocity of the body i.e.
 Momentum = mass x velocity.
 It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is kg-m/s.

Newton’s Law

Newton first law

If no external force acts on a body then it remains in the same state of rest or motion
that is in its present state.

The inertia of Rest:

 Inertia is the property of a body by virtue of which it opposes any change in its state of
rest or of uniform motion.
 When a bus or train at rest starts to move suddenly the passengers sitting in it feels a
jerk in backward direction due to the inertia of rest.
 Dust particle comes out of a carpet if we beat it with the stick.
 A passenger jumping out of a train is advised to jump in the direction of the bus and ran
for a short distance.

The inertia of Motion:

When a running bus or train stops suddenly, the passengers sitting in it jerk in the
forward direction due to the inertia of motion.

Newton's second law of motion:

 The rate of change in momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied force
on the body and takes place in the direction of the force.
If F = force applied, a = acceleration produced and m = mass of body
then F = ma.

Newton's Third Law of Motion: To every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.

Examples of third law –

  Recoil of a gun
 Motion of rocket
 While drawing water from the well, if the string breaks up the man drawing water falls
back.

Centripetal Force:

 When a body is in a circular motion, a force always acts on the body towards
the centre of the circular path, this force is called centripetal force.
 If a body of mass m is moving on a circular path of radius R with uniform speed v, then
the required centripetal force
F = mv 2 /r

Centrifugal Force:

 Centrifugal force is such a pseudo force.

 It is equal and opposite to centripetal force.

Application of centripetal and Centrifugal forces:

 Roads are banked at turns to provide required centripetal force for taking a turn.
 The cream is separated from milk when it is rotated in a vessel about the same axis.
 The gravitational force of attraction between earth and sun acts as centripetal force.
 Orbital motion of electrons around the nucleus
 Cyclist inclined itself from vertical to obtain required centripetal force.

The principle of conservation of linear momentum:

 If no external force acts on a system of bodies, the total linear momentum of the system
of bodies remains constant.
 As a consequence, the total momentum of bodies before and after collision remains the
same.
 As in case of the rocket, ejecting gas exerts a forward force which helps in accelerating
the rocket in the forward direction.

Impulse:

 When a large force acts on a body for a very small time, then force is called impulsive
force.
 Impulse is defined as the product of force and time.
 Impulse = force x time = change in momentum.
  It is a vector quantity and its direction is the direction of the force. Its SI unit is newton
second (Ns).

Friction:

It is the force which acts on a body when two bodies are in contact and one tries to
move over other.

Types of Friction:

Static Friction: The opposing force which acts on acts on a body when it tries to move
over the other but actual motion has yet not started.

Limiting friction: It is the force that comes to play when a body is on the verge of
moving over the other body.

Kinetic Friction: This is the opposing force that comes to play when one body actually
moves over the surface of another body is called kinetic friction. It is of two types which
are as follows:

Sliding Friction: When a body slides over the surface of other

Rolling Friction: When a body rolls over the surface of another body

 It is easier to roll a body than to slide because the sliding friction is greater than the
rolling friction.
 It is easy to drive a bicycle when its tyresare fully inflated because it decreases rolling
friction.

Application of Friction:

 A ball bearing is used to reduce the rotational friction.

 Friction is necessary for walking and to apply breaks in vehicles.
 When a pedal is applied to a bicycle, the force of friction on the rear wheel is in the
forward direction and on front wheel it is in the backward direction.
 Friction can be reduced by applying the polishing or applying any lubricants.
 The tyre is made up of synthetic rubber because its coefficient of friction with the road is
larger and stops sliding the bicycle.
 Physics Notes: Gravitational Force and Satellites
Gravitation:

Each and every massive body attracts each other by virtue of their masses. This
phenomenon is called gravitation.

Newton’s law of Gravitation

The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.

Gravitational force (F)=Gm1m2/ r 2

 Where G is the gravitational constant its value is 6.67×10-11 Nm2kg-2.

 m1, m2 is the mass of two bodies and r is the distance between them.
 Gravitational force is a central as well as conservative force.

Acceleration Due to Gravity of Earth:

 The acceleration produced in a body due to the gravitational pull of the earth is called
acceleration due to gravity.
g=GM/R2 where M is the mass of earth and R is the radius of the earth.
 The value of g changes slightly changes from place to place but its value near the
earth’s surface is 9.8ms-2.
 Gravitational force is the weakest force in nature.

The condition affecting the value of g:

 The shape of Earth: Earth shape also affect the value of acceleration due to gravity
that’s why g is maximum at poles and minimum at the equator.
 Rotation of Earth on its axis:
g decreases due to rotation of Earth
g decreases if angular speed of Earth increases and increases if angular speed of Earth
decreases.
 Effects of Altitude: The value of g decreases with the increase in height.
 Effects of depth: The value of g decreases with depth and become zero at the centre
earth.

Mass and Weight:

 The mass of a body is the quantity of matter contains in it and it is a scalar quantity and
its SI unit is Kg.
  Mass of a body does not change from place to place.
 The weight of the body is the force with which it is attracted towards the centre of the
earth and it is given by w=mg.
 Weight of the body is a vector quantity and its unit is Newton
 The centre of gravity of a body is that point at which whole weight of the body appears to
act.
 The weight of the body is a variablequantity and it changes from place to place.

The weight of a body in a lift:

 When the lift is at rest or in uniform motion then the apparent weight is equal to the real
weight of the body, w=mg.
 When the lift is accelerating upward then apparent weight is greater than the real weight
of the body i.e. w=m(g+a)
 When the lift is accelerating downward then the apparent weight of the body is less than
the real weight of the body i.e. w=m(g-a).
 When lift is falling freely under gravity the apparent weight of the body is zero i.e.
w=m(g-g) as a =g
w=0
 The weight of the body on the moon is lesser than the weight of the body on earth as
the acceleration due to gravity at the moon is less than the acceleration due to gravity on
earth.
Note- Acceleration due to gravity on Earth is 6 times than that of on the moon.

Planets:
 Planets are the heavenly bodies which revolve around the sun in a specific orbit or path.
 Our solar system contains eight planets as Pluto losses its planet status.

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion:

Kepler gives three laws which are as follows:

 All planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun at its one focus.
 The real speed of planet around the sun is constant.
 The square of the time period of revolution of a planet around the sun is directly
proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its elliptical orbit

Satellite:

 A heavenly body revolving around a planet in an orbit is called a satellite.

 Moon is the natural satellite of the earth.
There are two types of artificial satellites:

Geosynchronous Satellite:

 A geosynchronous satellite is a satellite in geosynchronous orbit, with an orbital period

the same as the Earth's rotation period.
 A special case of the geosynchronous satellite is the geostationary satellite, which has
a geostationary orbit – a circular geosynchronous orbit directly above the Earth's
equator.
 They revolve around the earth at the height of 36000 Km
 Their period of rotation is same as the earth’s time period of rotation around its own axis
i.e. 24 hours.
 These satellites appear to be stationary.
 The geostationary satellite is used to telecast TV programmes, weather forecasting, in
predictions of floods and droughts.

Polar Satellite:

 These satellites revolve around the earth in polar orbits at a height of around 800 km.
 The time period of rotation of these satellites is 84 minutes.

Period of Revolution of a satellite:

 Time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution in its orbit is called its period of
revolution.
 Period of revolution= Circumference of orbit/ orbital speed
 Period of revolution of a satellite depends upon the height of satellite from the surface of
the earth, greater its height from earth surface more will be its period of revolution.
 Period of revolution is independent of its mass.

Escape Velocity:

 The minimum velocity with which when an object is thrown vertically upwards from the
earth’s surface just crosses the earth’s gravitational field and never returns.
 Escape velocity=(2gr)1/2
 When orbital speed is increased by 41% i.e √2 times then it will escape from its orbit.
 Its value on earth surface is 11.2 km/sec
 Escape velocity at the Moon's surface is 2.4 km/s.
Physical Quantity: The quantities by means of which we describe the laws of physics
are called Physical Quantities. Measurement: The comparison of any physical quantity
with its standard unit is called measurement. Unit: The ‘Standard’ of measurement of a
physical quantity is called the unit. The magnitude of the physical quantity:

Magnitude = (Numerical value of the measure of the quantity) * (Unit of the

quantity)

Systems of Units: A system of units is the complete set of units, both fundamental and
derived, for all kinds of physical quantities.

 CGS System: In this system, the unit of length is centimetre, the unit of mass is gram
and the unit of time is second.
 FPS System: In this system, the unit of length is foot, the unit of mass is pound and the
unit of time is second.
 MKS System: In this system, the unit of length is metre, the unit of mass is kilogram and
the unit of time is second.
 SI System: This system contains seven fundamental units and two supplementary
fundamental units.

Fundamental Units: Those physical quantities which are independent of each other
are called fundamental quantities and their units are called fundamental units.
Fundamental quantities: length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, luminous
intensity, and

Fundamental quantities: length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, luminous

intensity, and amount of substance. Radian and steradian are two supplementary
fundamental units. It measures

Radian and steradian are two supplementary fundamental units. It measures the plane
angle and solid angle respectively. Derived Units: The units of other quantities which
are derived from mass, length and time are called derived units.

Derived Units: The units of other quantities which are derived from mass, length and
time are called derived units.

SI Units
SI prefixes

Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental quantities
must be raised to represent the given physical quantity.
In mechanics, all physical quantities can be expressed in terms of mass (M), length (L)
and time (T).

Homogeneity Principle: If the dimensions of the left-hand side of an equation are

equal to the dimensions of the right-hand side of the equation, then the equation is
dimensionally correct.

Applications of Dimensions:

 To check the accuracy of physical equations.

 To change a physical quantity from one system of units to another system of units.
 To obtain a relation between different physical quantities

Work & Energy Notes

Work Done by a Constant and Variable Force
Work done by a Constant Force

Work- The work done by a constant force is defined as the scalar product of force and
the magnitude of displacement under the influence of force.

 Work is a scalar quantity.

Work done by a Variable Force

Let us assume that a variable force act on a particle, the variation of the force and the
displacement due to the influence of force is shown below

The work done by the variable force is,

W = Area under the curve

Energy – Energy is a physical quantity which enables a system to do work. There are
many forms of energy in the universe but in case of mechanical energy have two forms.

Kinetic Energy- The kinetic energy of a body is the energy possessed by the body by
virtue of its motion.

Kinetic energy, , where v is the velocity of the body

 Since both mass m and are always positive so KE is always positive and does not
depend on the direction of motion of the body.

 The relation between kinetic energy and the momentum is, , where p is the
momentum.
 The graph between K and p is a parabola as shown below.

 The graph between and p is a straight line.

Potential Energy- The potential energy of a body is the energy possessed by the body
by virtue of its position relative to other.
Potential energy, , where h is the height of the of the position possessed by
the body relative to the ground.

Work-Energy Theorem

The work-energy theorem by a constant force

It states that the change in the kinetic energy of a particle is equal to the work done on it
by the net force.

Where Kf is the final kinetic energy and Ki is the initial kinetic energy.

The work-energy theorem by a variable force

Let us assume the variable force works from position xi to xf then according to the work-
energy theorem the change in the kinetic energy is equals to the work done on by the
variable force.

Power- The power is defined as the work done over a time period or rate of work done
is known as the power.
Potential Energy of a Spring- Let a block is attached with a spring, Initially the spring
its natural relaxed condition if we compressed the spring by a constant force F. Then
the work done by the force is stored in the spring as the potential energy.

The potential energy of the spring

The conservation Law of Mechanical Energy

It states that for conservative forces the sum of kinetic and potential energy at any point
remains constant throughout the motion. It doesn’t depend on time.

K1 + U1 = K2 + U2 = K3 + U3 = Constant

Conservation of Other Forms of Energy

Heat Energy- The total energy of an isolated system remains constant. So, the energy
can’t be created and can’t be destroyed.

Chemical Energy- The energy may change form but total energy in a chemical
reaction remains constant.

Electrical Energy – The total electric charge of a system remains constant. The charge
can’t be created or can’t be destroyed.

Nuclear Energy- In a nuclear reaction total mass of the reactants or starting materials
must be equal to the mass of the products. So, the mass can’t be created nor
destroyed.
 Collision

The collision is the phenomenon in which two or more bodies come in physical contact
with each other or it takes place when the path of one body is affected by the force
exerted due to the other.

Elastic collision- A collision in which both momentum and kinetic energy of the system
remains conserved. In this collision force involved in the interaction are of conservative
in nature.

Inelastic collision- A collision in which only the momentum of the system is conserved
but the kinetic energy is not conserved. In this collision, some or all of the forces
involved are non-conservative in nature.

Collision in one dimension

Elastic Collision in one dimension

Consider two balls A and B of masses mA and mB are collide elastically. Let us assume
that the velocity of the ball A and B before the collision is uA and uB and after the
collision is vA and vB.

The velocity of the ball A after a collision,

The velocity of the ball B after a collision,

Inelastic Collision in one dimension

Consider two balls A and B of masses mA and mB are collide elastically. Let us assume
that the velocity of the ball A and B before the collision is uA and uB (uB < uA) and after
collision both the balls have same common velocity v.

The velocity of both ball after the collision,

Collisions in two dimensions

Elastic Collision in two dimensions

Consider two balls A and B of masses ma and mb moving along X-axis with
velocities ua and ub respectively. When (ub < ua) the two bodies collide. After the
collision, body A moves with velocity va at an angle θ1 with X-axis and balls move with
velocity vb at an angle θb with X-axis as shown in the figure.

Since the collision is elastic, kinetic energy is conserved.

According to the conservation of momentum

Initial momentum along X-axis before collision = Final momentum along X-axis after the
collision
Initial momentum along Y-axis before collision = Final momentum along Y-axis after the

collision

The coefficient of restitution - The ratio of the relative velocity of separation (after

collision) to the relative velocity of collision (before collision).

For perfectly elastic collision, e = 1

For perfectly inelastic collision, e = 0

 A ball dropped from a height h and attaining height hn after n rebounds.

Then
 A ball dropped from height h and travelling a total distance S before coming to rest.

Then, where e is the coefficient of restitution.

Heat energy is generated when current flows through a conductor. The heating effect of
an electric current depends on below-given factors:

1. The resistance, R of the conductor= A higher resistance produces more heat.

2. The time, t for which current flows= The longer the time the larger the amount of heat
produced
3. The amount of current, I= Higher the current, larger the amount of heat generated.

Joule’s Equation of Electrical Heating

Hence the heating effect produced by an electric current, I through a conductor of

resistance, R for a time, t is given by H = I2Rt.This equation is called the Joule’s
equation of electrical heating.
Electrical energy and power

The work done in pushing a charge around an electrical circuit is given by Work= VIt

So that power, P = Work /t = VI

The electrical power consumed by an electrical appliance is given by P = VI = I2R =

V2/R

Numerical

1. An electrical bulb has 100W & 240V. Calculate -

a)The current through the filament

b)The resistance of the filament used in the bulb.

Solution

1. I = P/V = 100/240 = 0.4167 A

2. R = P/I2 = 100/ 0.41672 = 576.04 Ω or R = V2/P =2402/100 = 576 Ω

Numerical

Find the energy released in 5 minutes by an electric bulb with a filament of resistance of
500 Ω connected to a 240 V supply.

Solution

E = Pt = V2/R *t = (2402 *5*60)/500 = 34,560 J

Numerical

A 2.5 kW immersion heater is used to heat water. Calculate:

1. The operating voltage of the heater if its resistance is 24Ω

2. The electrical energy converted to heat energy in 2 hours.

Solution

1. P=VI=I2R

I = (2500/24)1/2 =10.2062A

V=IR= 10.2062 * 24 = 244.9488V

2. E = VIt = Pt = 2500*2*60*60 = 1.8 * 107J

OR E= VIt = 244.9488 * 10.2062 * 2 * 60 * 60 = 1.8 * 107J

Numerical

An electric bulb is labeled 100W, 240V. Calculate:

1. The current through the filament

2. The resistance of the filament used in the bulb.

Solution

P = VI I = P/V = 100/240 =0.4167A

From Ohm’s law, V =IR R=V/I =240/0.4167 = 575.95Ω

Applications of the heating effect of electric current

Almost all household electrical appliances convert electrical energy into heat by heating
effect.

Example- filament lamps, electric heater, electric iron, electric kettle, etc.

In lighting appliances

1. Filament lamps- It is made of a tungsten wire enclosed in a glass bulb from which air
has been removed. This is because air would oxidize the filament. The filament is
heated up to a high temperature and becomes white hot. Tungsten is used due to its
high melting point; 34000 The bulb is filled with an inactive gas e.g. argon or nitrogen at
low pressure which reduces evaporation of the tungsten wire. However, one
disadvantage of the inert gas is that it causes convection currents which cool the
filament. This problem is minimized by coiling the wire so that it occupies a smaller area
which reduces heat loss through convection.
2. Fluorescent lamps- these lamps are more efficient compared to filament lamps and last
much longer. They have mercury vapour in the glass tube which emits ultraviolet
radiation when switched on. This radiation causes the powder in the tube to glow
(fluoresce) i.e. emits visible light. Different powders produce different colours. Note that
fluorescent lamps are expensive to install but their running cost is much less.

In electrical heating

1. Electric Cookers- electric cookers turn red hot and the heat energy produced is
absorbed by the cooking pot through conduction.
2. Electric Heaters- radiant heaters turn red at about 9000C and the radiation emitted is
directed into the room by polished reflectors.
 3. Electric Kettles- the heating element is placed at the bottom of the kettle so that the
liquid being heated covers it. The heat is then absorbed by water and distributed
throughout the whole liquid by convection.
4. Electric Irons- when current flows through the heating element, the heat energy
developed is conducted to the heavy metal base raising its temperature. This energy is
then used to press clothes. The temperature of the electric iron can be controlled using a
thermostat (a bimetallic strip).

Electric Current (I)

Electric Current Density (J)

 For irregular shapes of cross-section

I, J and A are all scalar quantities.

Electromotive Force

Drift Velocity of Free Electrons in a Metallic Conductor

 E is the applies field, e is the charge of an electron, m is the mass of an electron and t is
the time interval between successive collisions (relaxation time)

Mobility

 The mobility μ of a charge carrier is defined as the drift velocity per unit electric field.
Ohm’s Law

 R = Resistance of conductor
 Unit of Resistance; Volt/ampere, (Ω ohm)

Resistance and Resistivity

 The inverse of resistance is called conductance G.

 S.I. unit Ω-1 is called Siemens (S)

 The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length l and inversely
proportional to the area of cross-section A.

 The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity σ.

 S.I. unit is Ω-1n-1 or Sm-1

Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

 RT = Resistance at temperature T
 R0 = Resistance at temperature T0
 α = Temperature coefficient of resistance.

Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity (ρ)

 For conductors
  For insulators

 K = Boltzman constant
 T = Absolute temperature

Combination of Resistances

 Resistance In Series

 Resistance in Parallel

Internal Resistance of a Cell and Terminal Voltage

Kirchhoff's Rule
 First Rule (Junction Rule)

 Second Rule (Loop Rule)(Based on law of conservation of energy)

o The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop must be zero.

 The metre bridge

Shunt Resistance Required to

Convert a Galvanometer into an Ammeter of Desired range
  Resistance of ammeter so obtained

Series Resistance Required to Convert a Galvanometer into a Voltmeter of Desired Range.

is desired range and

R is additional series resistance.Cell in Series and Parallel

Heating Effect of Current

 When a charge dq passes across a potential difference V, the work done dW is given by

dW = V dq

 The flow of charge dq in time dt is equivalent to current I.

 According to Ohm’s Law V = Ri

Power

 Resistance of a bulb or other electrical appliances:

 And maximum current that can be passed without the appliance getting fused.

 Ratio of powers consumed in two resistors in series:

 Ratio of powers consumed in two resistors in parallel.

Potentiometer
Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis
 First Law
o The mass of a substance deposited or liberated at an electrode is proportional to
the quantity of charge that passes through the electrolyte.

 Second Law
o If the same quantity of charge is passed through several electrolytes, then the
masses of various substances deposited at the respective electrodes are
proportional to their chemical equivalents.

 The constant F is called Faraday.

Two bodies even after being neutral (showing no electric interaction) may attract/repel
strongly if they have a special property. This property is known as magnetism. The force
with which they attract or repel is called magnetic force. Those bodies are called
magnets.

Pole strength magnetic dipole and magnetic dipole moment :

There are two poles in a magnet. North pole and South pole. In a magnet, the unlike charges
attract each other whereas the like charges repel each other.

When two magnets attract each other than action pair is formed.

These poles are represented n the basis of their respective “POLE STRENGTH” +m and -m
respectively. Pole strength is a scalar quantity which represents the strength of the pole.

A magnet can be treated as a dipole since it always has two opposite poles. This arrangement
of magnets is called as MAGNET DIPOLE and it has a MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT. It is
represented by . It is a vector quantity. Its direction is from -m to +m that means from ‘S’ to
‘N’)
M = m.lm here lm = magnetic length of the magnet. lm is slightly less than lg (it is the geometrical
length of the magnet = end to end distance).

Magnetic field and strength of the magnetic field :

Mathematically,

Here = magnetic force on the pole of pole strength m. m may e +ve or -ve and of any value.

S.I. unit of is Tesla or Weber/m2(abbreviated as T and Wb/m2).

(a) due to the various source

(i) Due to a single pole :

(similar to the case of a point charge in electrostatics)

in vector form

here m is with the sign and = position vector of the test point with respect to the source pole.

(ii) Due to a bar magnet :

(Same as the case of the electric dipole in electrostatics) Independent case never found. Always
‘N’ and ‘S’ exist together as a magnet.
at A (on the axis) for a << r

at B (on the equatorial) for a << r

At General point :

Magnetic lines of force of a bar magnet :

Magnet in an external uniform magnetic field :

(same as case of electric dipole)

Fers = 0 (for any angle)

*here is angle between in vector form

Magnetic effects of current (and moving charge)

due to a point charge :

; here angle between -

with sign

-and also -

Direction of will be found by using the rules of vector product.

Bio-savart’s law ( due to a wire)

here position vector of the test point w.r.t.

angle between and . The resultant

-due to a straight wire :

Due to a straight wire ‘PQ’ carrying a current ‘i’ the at A is given by the formula

At points ‘C’ and ‘D’ (think how).

For the case shown in figure

B at

B due to an infinitely long straight wire is

Magnetic lines of force by a current carrying straight wire are circular like shown in figure.

due to a circular loop

(a) At the centre :

N = No. of turns in the loop.

= length of the loop.

N can be fraction or integer.

N can be fraction or integer.

Semicircular and Quarter of a circle :

(b) On the axis of the loop :

N = No. of turns (integer)

magnetic lines of force due to the current in the ring are like shown in the figure.

The pattern of the magnetic field is comparable with the magnetic field produced by a bar
magnet.

The side ‘I’ (the side from which the emerges out)-of the loop acts as ‘NORTH POLE’ and

side II (the side in which the enters) acts as the ‘SOUTH POLE’.

Solenoid :
the magnetic field at any general point P is given by

where n : number of turns per unit length.

For ‘Ideal Solenoid’ : (l >> R or length is infinite)

The magnetic field inside the solenoid at mid point on its axis is given by

The magnetic field inside the solenoid can be considered same everywhere.

If the material of the solid cylinder has relative permeability then

At the ends

(v) Graph between B and x for ideal solenoid :

AMPERE’s circuital law :

The line integral on a closed curve of any shape is equal to (permeability of free
space) times the net current I through the area bounded by the curve.

Hollow current carrying infinitely log cylinder :

(I is uniformly distributed on the whole circumference)

(i) for r > R

(ii) r < R, Bin = 0

Graph :

Solid infinite current carrying cylinder :

Assume current is uniformly distributed on the whole cross-section area

current density

Case (I) : r < R

Case (II) : r > R

Magnetic force on moving charge :

When a charge q moves with velocity -in a magnetic field then the magnetic force
experienced by moving charge is given by following formula :

Put q with sign

Instantaneous velocity

Magnetic field at that point.

Note :
 and also

power due to magnetic force on a charged particle is zero. (use the

formula of power for its proof).

Since the so work done by magnetic force is zero in every part of the motion. The
magnetic force cannot increase or decrease the speed (or kinetic energy) of a charged particle.
Its can only change the direction of velocity.

If then also magnetic force on charged particle is zero. It moves along a straight line if
only magnetic field is acting.

Motion of charged particles under the effect of magnetic force

Particle released if v = 0 then FM = 0

particle will remain at rest

particle will move in a straight line with constant velocity

Initial velocity and = uniform

= constant

Now
The particle moves in a curved path whose radius of curvature is same everywhere, such curve
in a plane is only a circle.

path of the particle is circular.

here p = linear momentum;

k = kinetic energy

Now

Time period T =

frequency f =

Helical path :

If the velocity of the charge is not perpendicular to the magnetic field, the resultant path is a
helix.

Radius

and pitch =

Charged Particle in
When a charged particle moves with velocity -in an electric field and magnetic

field then. The net force experienced by it is given by the following equation.

Combined force is known as Lorentz force.

Case-I:

In the above situation, particle passes without deviating but its velocity will change due to the
electric field. Magnetic force on it = 0.

Case–II: and

and charge q is released at the origin.

then its path will be a cyclotron

its velocity in y-direction varies as

y coordinate at any time t is

and x coordinate can be given as

Magnetic force on a current carrying wire :

Suppose a conducting wire, carrying a current i, is placed in a magnetic field.

Magnetic force acting on the wire

Here vector length of the wire = vector connecting the endpoints of the
wire.

Note :

If a current loop of any shape is placed in a uniform then on it

The magnetic moment of a current carrying coil :

M = NiA

N is the number of turns

i is the current in the coil

A is the area of the coil.

Torque on a current loop :

When a current-carrying coil is placed in a uniform magnetic field the net force on it is always
zero.

Torque acting on a current carrying coil is

In vector form

where is the magnetic moment of current carrying coil.

is the magnetic field.

is the angle between

The magnetic force between two parallel current carrying straight wires

Where F is the force on per unit length of each wire.

If i1 and i2 are in same direction then fore is attracting and if in opposite direction then force is
repulsive.

Terrestrial Magnetism (Earth’s Magnetism) :

(a) Variation or Declination : At a given place the angle between the geographical meridian
and the magnetic meridian is called declination, i.e.
(b) Inclination or Angle of Dip: It is the angle which the direction of the resultant intensity of
earth’s magnetic field subtends with the horizontal line in magnetic meridian at the given place.

(c) Horizontal Component of Earth’s Magnetic Field BH : At a given place it is defined as the
component of earth’s magnetic field along the horizontal in the magnetic meridian. It is
represented by BH and is measured with the help of a vibration or deflection magnetometer.

If at a place the magnetic field of the earth is Biand angle of dip, then in accordance with the
figure(a).

and so that

and

Magnetic properties of matter :

Magnetic intensity (H): it is a quantity related to currents in coils and conductors.

 it is a vector quantity
 its dimension is L–1 A
 its SI unit is Am–1

Magnetisation (M) : It is equal to the magnetic moment per unit volume.

  it is a vector quantity
 its dimension is L–1 A
 its SI unit is Am–1

Magnetic susceptibility (x) : It is a measure of how a magnetic material responds to an

external field.

M=xH

 It is dimensionless quantity

Also,

Where, is called relative permeability and it is a dimensionless quality.

Also,

Where, is absolute permeability of free space.

Diamagnetism : The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) of a diamagnetic material do not
possess a permanent dipole moment of their own. (some diamagnetic materials are Bi, Cu, Pb,
Si, nitrogen (at STP), H2O, NaCl)

Paramagnetism : The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) of a diamagnetic material posses
a permanent dipole moment of their own. (some paramagnetic materials are Al, Na, Ca, oxygen
(at STP), CuCl2).

Ferromagnetism : The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) of a diamagnetic material

posses a dipole moment of their own. (some ferromagnetic materials are Fe, Co, Ni, Ga)

In terms of susceptibility x, a material is diamagnetic if x is negative. Paramagnetic if x is

positive and small and ferromagnetic if x is large and positive.
Hysteresis : The curve between B and H in ferromagnetic materials is complex. It is often not
linear and depends on the magnetic history of the sample.

This phenomenon is called hysteresis.

Magnetic hysteresis loops between the intensity of magnetization (I) and H for hard
ferromagnetic materials and soft ferromagnetic materials are shown below :

Area of the hysteresis loop is proportional to the thermal energy developed per unit of the
volume of the material.

Plane Motion: When all parts of the body move in parallel planes then a rigid body is
said to be in plane motion.

 The motion of a rigid body is said to be in translation if every line in the body remains
parallel to its original position at all times.
 In translation motion, all the particles forming a rigid body move along parallel paths.
 If all particles forming a rigid body move along the parallel straight line, it is known as
rectilinear translation.
 If all particles forming a rigid body does not move along a parallel straight line but they
move along a curved path, then it is known as curvilinear translation.

Straight Line Motion: It defines the three equations with the relationship between
velocity, acceleration, time and distance travelled by the body. In straight line motion,
acceleration is constant.
where, u = initial velocity,

v = final velocity,

a = acceleration of body,

t = time,

and s = distance travelled by body.

Distance travelled in nth second:

Projectile Motion: Projectile motion defines that motion in which velocity has two
components, one in the horizontal direction and another one in the vertical direction.
The horizontalal component of velocity is constant during the flight of the body as no
acceleration in the horizontal direction. Let the block of mass is projected at angle θ

from a horizontal direction.

Maximum height

Time of flight

Range Where, u = initial velocity.

 At maximum height vertical component of velocity becomes zero.

  When a rigid body move in a circular path centered on the same fixed axis, then the
particle located on the axis of rotation have zero velocity and zero acceleration.
 Projectile motion describes the motion of a body, when the air resistance is negligible.

Rotational Motion with Uniform Acceleration:Uniform acceleration occurs when the

speed of an object changes at a constant rate. The acceleration is the same over time.
So, the rotation motion with uniform acceleration can be defined as the motion of a body
with the same acceleration over time.

Let the rod of block rotation about a point in a horizontal plane with angular velocity.

Angular velocity (change in angular displacement per

unit time)

Angular acceleration Where θ = angle between displacement.

In the case of angular velocity, the various equations with the relationships between
velocity, displacement, and acceleration are as follows.

where ω0 = initial angular velocity, ω = final angular velocity, α = angular acceleration,

and θ = angular displacement.

Angular displacement in nth second:

Relation between Linear and Angular Quantities There are following relations
between linear and angular quantities in rotational motion.
er and et are a radial and tangential unit vector.

Linear velocity

Linear acceleration (Net)

Tangential acceleration (rate of change of speed)

Centripetal acceleration

Net acceleration,

Where ar = centripetal acceleration,

at = tangential acceleration

Centre of Mass of Continuous Body: Centre of mass of a continuous body can be

defined as

 Centre of mass about

 Centre of mass about

  Centre of mass about

 CM of uniform rectangular, square or circular plate lies at its centre.

 CM of the semicircular ring

 CM of semicircular disc

 CM of hemispherical shell

 CM of solid hemisphere

Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum

The product of mass and velocity of a particle is defined as its linear momentum (p).
Where,K = kinetic energy of the particle

F = net external force applied to a body

P = momentum

Rocket Propulsion

Let m0 be the mass of the rocket at time t = 0, m its mass at any time t and v its velocity
at that moment. Initially, let us suppose that the velocity of the rocket

is u.

 Thrust force on the rocket

where, rate at which mass is ejecting

vr = relative velocity of ejecting mass (exhaust velocity)

 Weight of the rocket w = mg

 Net force on the rocket

 Net acceleration of the rocket
Where, m0 = mass of rocket at time t = 0

m = mass of rocket at time t

Solar Energy
The Sun has been radiating an enormous amount of energy at the
present rate for nearly 5 billion years and will continue radiating at
that rate for about 5 million years more. Solar radiation reaches the
Earth's upper atmosphere at a rate of 1366 watts per square meter
(W/m2). While traveling through the atmosphere 6% of the
incoming solar radiation is reflected and 16% is absorbed resulting
in peak irradiance at the equator of 1,020 W/m². Average
atmospheric conditions (clouds, dust, pollutants) further reduce
insolation by 20% through reflection and 3% through absorption.
Atmospheric conditions not only reduce the quantity of insolation
reaching the Earth's surface but also affect the quality of insolation
by diffusing incoming light and altering its spectrum.

Solar Photovoltaic Technology is employed for directly converting

solar energy to electrical energy by using "solar silicon cell". The
electricity generated can be utilized for different applications directly
or through battery storage system. Solar Photovoltaic has found
wide application in rural areas for various important activities
besides rural home lighting. Remote villages deprived of grid power
can be easily powered using the Solar Photovoltaic technology. The
economics of rural electrification can be attractive considering the
high cost of power transmission and erratic power supply in the
rural areas. A typical cell develops a voltage of 0.5 - 1 V.

Nuclear Reactions
The process by which the identity of a nucleus is changed when it is
bombarded by an energetic particle is called nuclear reaction. The
general expression for the nuclear reaction is as follows.

Here X and a are known as reactants and Yand b are known as

products. This reaction is known as (a, b) reaction and can be
represented as X(a, b) y
Q value or energy of nuclear reaction The energy absorbed or
released during nuclear reaction is known as Q-value of nuclear
reaction.
Q-value = (Mass of reactants – Mass of products)c2 Joules
= (Mass of reactants – Mass of products) amu
If Q < 0, The nuclear reaction is known as endothermic. (the energy
is absorbed in the reaction).
If Q > 0, The nuclear reaction is known as exothermic (the energy
is released in the reaction).

Law of conservation in nuclear reactions

 Conservation of mass number and charge number : In the
following nuclear reaction

Mass
Before the After the
number
reaction reaction
(A)→
17 + 1 =
4 +14 = 18
18
Charge
number 2+7=9 8+1=9
(Z) →

 Conservation of momentum: Linear momentum/angular

momentum of particles before the reaction is equal to the
linear/angular momentum of the particles after the reaction,
that is ∑p = 0.
 Conservation of energy: Total energy before the reaction is
equal to total energy after the reaction. Term Q is added to
balance the total energy of the reaction.

Common nuclear reactions

The nuclear reactions lead to artificial transmutation of nuclei.
Rutherford was the first to carry out artificial transmutation of
nitrogen to oxygen in the year 1919.
It is called (α, p) reaction. Some other nuclear reactions are given
as follows.

(p, n) reaction ⇒

(p, α) reaction ⇒

(p, γ) reaction ⇒

(n, p) reaction ⇒

(γ, n) reaction ⇒

Nuclear Fission
The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei of
comparable masses (after bombardment with a energetic particle)
with liberation of energy is called nuclear fission.
 The phenomenon of nuclear fission was discovered by scientist
Ottohann and F. Strassman and was explained by N. Bohr and
J.A. Wheeler on the basis of liquid drop model of nucleus.
 Fig. 5

Fission reaction of U235

 The energy released in U235 fission is about 200 MeV or 0.8

MeV per nucleon.
 By fission of 92U235, on an average 2.5 neutrons are liberated.
These neutrons are called fast neutrons and their energy is
about 2 MeV (for each). These fast neutrons can escape from
the reaction so as to proceed the chain reaction they are need
to slow down.
 Fission of U235 occurs by slow neutrons only (of energy about 1
eV) or even by thermal neutrons (of energy about 0.025 eV).
 50 kg of U235 on fission will release ≈ 4 × 1015 J of energy.
This is equivalence to 20,000 tons of TNT explosion. The
nuclear bomb dropped at Hiroshima had this much explosion
power.
 The mass of the compound nucleus must be greater than the
sum of masses of fission products.
 The (binding energy/A) of a compound nucleus must be less
than that of the fission products.
 It may be pointed out that it is not necessary that in each
fission of uranium, the two fragments 56Ba and 36Kr are formed
but they may be any stable isotopes of middle weight atoms.
 Some other U235 fission reactions are:
 → Many more
 The neutrons released during the fission process are called
prompt neutrons.
 Most of the energy released appears in the form of kinetic
energy of fission fragments.

Fig. 6

Chain Reaction
In nuclear fission, three neutrons are produced along with the
release of large energy (Fig. 7). Under favorable conditions, these
neutrons can cause further fission of other nuclei, producing large
number of neutrons. Thus, a chain of nuclear fissions is established
which continues until the whole of the uranium is consumed.
 Fig. 7

In the chain reaction, the number of nuclei undergoing fission

increases very fast. So, the energy produced takes a tremendous
magnitude very soon.

Difficulties in chain reaction

In a chain reaction, following difficulties are observed:

Absorption of neutrons by U238 The major part in natural

uranium is the isotope U238 (99.3%); the isotope U235 is very little
(0.7%). It is found that U238 is fissionable with fast neutrons,
whereas U235 is fissionable with slow neutrons. Due to the large
percentage of U238there is more possibility of collision of neutrons
with U238. It is found that the neutrons get slowed on coliding with
U238. As a result of it further fission of U238 is not possible (because
they are slow and they are absorbed by U238). This stops the chain
reaction.

Removal To sustain chain reaction 92U235 is separated from the

ordinary uranium. Uranium so obtained 92U235 is known as enriched
uranium, which is fissionable with the fast and slow neutrons and
hence chain reaction can be sustained.

If neutrons are slowed down by any method to an energy of about

0.3 eV, then the probability of their absorption by U238 becomes
very low, while the probability of their fissioning U235becomes high.
This job is done by moderators, which reduce the speed of neutron
rapidly. Graphite and heavy water are the example of moderators.
 Fig. 8
Critical size The neutrons emitted during fission are very fast and
they travel a large distance before being slowed down. If the size of
the fissionable material is small, the neutrons emitted will escape
the fissionable material before they are slowed down. Hence, chain
reaction cannot be sustained.

Removal The size of the fissionable material should be larger than

a critical size.
The chain reaction once started will remain steady, accelerate or
retard depending upon a factor called neutron reproduction factor
(k). It is defined as follows:

If k = 1, the chain reaction will be steady. The size of the fissionable

material used is said to be the critical size and its mass, the critical
mass.
If k > 1, the chain reaction accelerates, resulting in an explosion.
The size of the material in this case is super critical (atom bomb).
If k < 1, the chain reaction gradually comes to a halt. The size of
the material used is said to be sub-critical.
Table 1: Types of Chain Reactions

Uncontrolled
Controlled chain
chain
reaction
reaction

No control
over this
Controlled by artificial
type of
method.
nuclear
reaction.

More than
one neutron
All neurons are
takes part
absorbed except one.
into
reaction.

Its rate is slow. Fast rate.

Reproduction Reproduction
factor k= 1. factor k> 1.

A large
Energy liberated in amount of
this type of reaction energy is
is always less than liberated in
explosive energy. this type of
reaction.

Uncontrolled
chain
Chain reaction is the
reaction is
principle of nuclear
the principle
reactors.
of atom
bomb.
Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission can be carried
out through a sustained and a controlled chain reaction. It is also
called an atomic pile. It is thus a source of controlled energy which
is utilized for many useful purposes.
Fissionable material (Fuel) The fissionable material used in the
reactor is called the fuel of the reactor. Uranium isotope (U235)
Thorium isotope (Th232) and Plutonium isotopes (Pu239, Pu240, and
Pu241) are the most commonly used fuels in the reactor.
Moderator Moderator is used to slow down the fast moving
neutrons. Most commonly used moderators are graphite and heavy
water (D2O).
Control Material Control material is used to control the chain
reaction and to maintain a stable rate of reaction. This material
controls the number of neutrons available for the fission. For
example, cadmium rods are inserted into the core of the reactor
because they can absorb the neutrons. The neutrons available for
fission are controlled by moving the cadmium rods in or out of the
core of the reactor.
Coolant Coolant is a cooling material which removes the heat
generated due to fission in the reactor. Commonly used coolants are
water, CO2, nitrogen, etc.
Protective shield A protective shield in the form a concrete thick
wall surrounds the core of the reactor to save the persons working
around the reactor from the hazardous radiations.

Uses of nuclear reactor

 In electric power generation.
 To produce radioactive isotopes for their use in medical
science, agriculture and industry.
 In manufacturing of Pu239 which is used in atom bomb.
  They are used to produce neutron beam of high intensity
which is used in the treatment of cancer and nuclear research.

Fig. 9
Nuclear Fusion
In nuclear fusion, two or more than two lighter nuclei combine to
form a single heavy nucleus. The mass of single nucleus so formed
is less than the sum of the masses of parent nuclei. This difference
in mass results in the release of tremendous amount of energy.
 For fusion, high pressure (≈106 atm) and high temperature (of
the order of 107 K to 108 K) is required and so the reaction is
called thermonuclear reaction.
 Here are three examples of energy-liberating fusion reactions,
written in terms of the neutral atoms. Together the reactions
make up the process called the proton-proton chain.

 The proton-proton chain takes place in the interior of the sun

and other stars. Each gram of the sun’s mass contains about
 4.5 × 1023 protons. If all of these protons were fused into
helium, the energy released would be about 130,000 kWh. If
the sun were to continue to radiate at its present rate, it would
take about 75 × 109 years to exhaust its supply of protons.
 For the same mass of the fuel, the energy released in fusion is
much larger than in fission.
Plasma The temperature of the order of 108 K required for
thermonuclear reactions leads to the complete ionization of the
atom of light elements. The combination of base nuclei and electron
cloud is called plasma. The enormous gravitational field of the sun
confines the plasma in the interior of the sun.

The main problem to carry out nuclear fusion in the laboratory is to

contain the plasma at a temperature of 108K. No solid container can
tolerate this much temperature. If this problem of containing
plasma is solved, then the large quantity of deuterium present in
sea water would be able to serve as in-exhaustible source of
energy.

Radioactivity
The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiations by heavy
elements is called radioactivity. The elements which shows this
phenomenon are called radioactive elements.
 Radioactivity was discovered by Henery Becquerel in uranium
salt in the year 1896.
 After the discovery of radioactivity in uranium, Piere Curie and
Madame Curie discovered a new radioactive element called
radium (which is 106 times more radioactive than uranium)
 Some examples of radio active substances are: uranium,
radium, thorium, polonium, neptunium, etc.
  Radioactivity of a sample cannot be controlled by any physical
(pressure, temperature, electric or magnetic field) or chemical
changes.
 All the elements with atomic number (Z) > 82 are naturally
radioactive.
 The conversion of lighter elements into radioactive elements
by the bombardment of fast moving particles is called artificial
or induced radioactivity.
 Radioactivity is a nuclear event and not atomic. Hence
electronic configuration of atom don’t have any relationship
with radioactivity.

Nuclear Radiations
According to Rutherford’s experiment, a sample of radioactive
substance is put in a lead box and is allowed to emit radiation
through a small hole only. When the radiation enters into the
external electric field, it splits into three parts: α-rays, β-rays,
and γ-rays.

α-decay
Nearly 90% of the 2500 known nuclides are radioactive; they are
not stable but decay into other nuclides
 When unstable nuclides decay into different nuclides, they
usually emit alpha (α) or beta (β) particles.
 Alpha emission occurs principally with nuclei that are too large
to be stable. When a nucleus emits an alpha particle,
its N and Z values each decrease by two and A decreases by
four.
 Alpha decay is possible whenever the mass of the original
neutral atom is greater than the sum of the masses of the final
neutral atom and the neutral helium-atom.
β-decay
There are different simple type of β-decay: β –, β+, and electron
capture.
 A beta minus particle (β+) is an electron. The emission
of β – involves transformation of a neutron into a proton, an
electron, and a third particle called an antineutrino (v).
 β – decay usually occurs with nuclides for which the neutron to
proton ratio (N/Zratio) is too large for stability.
 In β – decay, N decreases by one, Zincreases by one
and A does not change.
 β – decay can occur whenever the neutral atomic mass of the
original atom is larger than that of the final atom.
 Nuclides for which N/Z is too small for stability can emit a
positron, the electron’s antiparticle, which is identical to the
electron but with positive charge. The basic process called beta
plus β+decay.

p → n + β+ + v (ν = neutrino)
 β+ decay can occur whenever the neutral atomic mass of the
original atom is at least two electron masses larger than that
of the final atom
 The mass of v and v is zero. The spin of both is 1/2 in units
of h/2π. The charge on both is zero. The spin of neutrino is
antiparallel to its momentum while that of antineutrino is
parallel to its momentum.
 There are a few nuclides for which β+emission is not
energetically possible but in which an orbital electron (usually
in the k-shell) can combine with a proton in the nucleus to
form a neutron and a neutrino. The neutron remains in the
nucleus and the neutrino is emitted.

p + β+ → n + v
γ-decay
The energy of internal motion of a nucleus is quantized. A typical
nucleus has a set of allowed energy levels, including a ground
state(state of lowest energy) and several excited states. Because of
the great strength of nuclear interactions, excitation energies of
nuclei are typically of the order of 1 MeV, compared with a few eV
for atomic energy levels. In ordinary physical and chemical
transformations the nucleus always remains in its ground state.
When a nucleus is placed in an excited state, either by
bombardment with high-energy particles or by a radioactive
transformation, it can decay to the ground state by emission of one
or more photons called gamma rays or gamma-ray photons, with
typical energies of 10 keV to 5 MeV. This process is called gamma
(γ) decay.

All the known conservation laws are obeyed in γ-decay. The

intensity of γ-decay after passing through x thickness of a material
is given by I = I0e–μx (μ = absorption co-efficient).

Radioactive Disintegration
Law of radioactive disintegration According to Rutherford and
Soddy, law for radioactive decay is as follows: at any instant the
rate of decay of radioactive atoms is proportional to the number of
atoms present at that instant, i.e.,

It can be proved that N = N0e–λt

In terms of mass, M = M0e–λt, where N = number of atoms remains
undecayed after time t, N0 = number of atoms present initially (i.e.,
at t = 0), M = mass of radioactive nuclei at time t, M0 = mass of
radioactive nuclei at time t = 0, N0 – N = number of disintegrated
nucleus in time t, dN/dt = rate of decay, λ = decay constant or
disintegration constant or radioactivity constant or Rutherford
Soddy’s constant or the probability of decay per unit time of a
nucleus.

Activity It is defined as the rate of disintegration (or count rate) of

the substance (or the number of atoms of any material decaying per
second), i.e.,

where A0 = activity of t = 0 and A = activity after time t.

Units of activity (radioactivity)

The units of radioactivity are Becqueral (Bq), Curie (Ci) and
Rutherford (Rd).

1 Becquerel = 1 disintegration/s,
1 Rutherford = 106 dis/s, 1 Curie = 3.7 × 1011 dis/s

Half life (T1/2) Time interval in which the mass of a radioactive

substance or the number of it’s atom reduces to half of it’s initial
value is called the half life of the substance, i.e., if N = N0/2,
then t = T1/2.

Fig. 10

Hence, from ,

Mean (or average) life (τ) The time for which a radioactive
material remains active is defined as mean (average) life of that
material.

or

It is defined as the sum of lives of all atoms divided by the total

number of atoms, i.e.,
 Fig. 11

 From = slope of the line shown in the

graph, i.e., the magnitude of inverse of slope

of curve is known as mean life (τ).

 From N = N0e–λt, if t = 1/λ = τ

⇒ of N0.

i.e., mean life is the time interval in which number of

undecayed atoms (N) becomes 1/e times or 0.37 times or
37% of original number of atoms.

or
 It is the time in which number of decayed atoms (N0 – N)
becomes (1 – 1/e) times or 0.63 times or 63% of original
number of atoms.

 From

i.e., mean life is about 44% more than that of half life, which
gives us τ > T(1/2)